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international foundation for development alternatives

fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un outre dkveloppement

IFDA DOSSIER 20 , NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1980

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

BUILDING BLOCKS / M A T ~ R I A U X Pages

. The winds o f change - f rom an i n f o r m a t i o n embargo t o a n a t i o n a l 3 survey o f i n f o r m a t i o n needs and resources i n Egypt (Ossama A. E l - K h o l y )

. Science and technology i n I n d i a : An a l t e r n a t e p e r s p e c t i v e (K. Seetharam, V. Shiva and J. Bandyopadhyay)

. Q u e l l e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n pour l e T i e r s Monde? ( A b d e l l a t i f Benachenhou)

. Consequences s o c i a l e s de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n dans l e s pays du T i e r s Monde ( P i e r r e J u d e t )

. I n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g and development coopera t ion i n t h e Nether lands (Ben Evers)

. R e o r i e n t i n g j u t e p o l i c y i n Bangladesh ( Q a z i K. Ahmad)

. S t r a t e g i e s f o r the f u t u r e o f A f r i c a

. Human r i g h t s : Bases f o r a new system o f safeguard ( A l v a r o Buns te r )

I N T E R A C T I O N S

, Vers un developpement p a r t i c i p e en m i l i e u u r b a i n (Ben Mahdi C isse) . Le mouvement de base (Jac de Bruyn e t Roger Jacobs) . Les f e m e s c i v i l i s a t r i c e s (Diana Senghor) . Les femmes e t l e s jeunes f i l l e s de M'Harza ( T u n i s i e c e n t r a l e ) f a c e

au changement (A. Ben Choura) . Pugwash and t h e t h i r d system (Kwee Swan-Liat ) . The va lue o f energy dec is ions ( L a s z l o Bodnar) . P e s t i c i d e dumping progress r e p o r t . A i d t h a t d o e s n ' t (Frances Moore Lappe, Joseph C o l l i n s

and David K i n l e y ) . The lesson from OPEC . A l e t t e r f rom t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of work coopera t i ves o f New South

Wales ( A u s t r a l i a ) . I n t e r n a t i o n a l eng ineer ing e t h i c s p r o j e c t . Mgdi terranee: V i s i o n , drame, e s p o i r (Mahdi Elmandjra) '

M A T E R I A L S R E C E I V E D

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS executive committee ismail-sabn obdalla. ohmed ben salah (co-chairman), gamani coreo, mahbub ul hoq, enrlque iglesios,

a mener (co-chairman), marc nerfin (president). justinion 1 rweyemomu. ignocy sochs. p a n somovia. maurlce f . strong. inga thorsson

secretarlot 2, place du morcne, ch - 1260 nyon, switzerland; telephone 41 (22) 61 8 2 6 2 , telex 28840 ifdo ch . cable fipad, genevo

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

"In the monetdry history of this decade ... Arusha, a small and pleasant Tan- zanidn t&-n . . . niiiy well prove to have played a major role."

So %rites p.1~1 Fa!>r.: o f Le Monde in the October 7 1980 edition of Europa, the ninthly supple'.':tf:i,. published jointly by Le Monde, La Stampa, The Times and Die Welt. F.i'r'r.ils speculation was inspired by two recent events in Arusha: first. the .-ffi1.'11^1 reci.'i;nition of the PLO by the Group of 77, whose repercus- sions veri; s:r~'~.;;:y felt -it this year's Annual Meetings of the IMF and the "Korl: 5.1:-.;<"; se<.':-.i. tile Arusha Initiative, launched last July by a South- North L\":-.iei't".:i;t' ..:-. tbi? Inteinational Monetary System and the NI0 which Fabra attended , . - c -* >.-ssier 19. pp. 91-100).

9 , - ihe Arusilz I:.i:ia:ive .ittr~cted wide media coverage", Fabra continues . .. w ~ t h.ds : u s e..- . :,-: sin-cessful in achieving its intended purpose, which was

to orchest.r.itt? a V.;?^. political, diplomatic and intellectual movement with no less an ai-. tkdr. tc' instigate a fundamental overhaul of the running of the international fixncidl institutions, where Western and especially American i n  luence is i^~iipresent."

lie are encaurag?c by such a positive assessment of the impact of the Arusha Initiative. It leaas us to believe that Dossier readers may be interested in sharing osr inf?r-.dtion about the follow-up of the Initiative:

- The Arusna Initiative was tabled by the delegation of Tanzania as an UNCTAD document, for consideration by a group of experts on the evolution of the international aonetary system (Geneva, July/Au~ust), and by the delegations of Jamaica and Tanzania as a document of the special session on development of the US General Assembly (New York, August/September).

- Development Dialogue 1980:Z (Dag ~amrnarskjold Foundation, Uppsala), con- taining the Initiative together with other papers of the South-North Con- ference, was circulated to participants in the General assembly session and in the non-governmental events oganized alongside it, as well as to all delega- tions in the Fund/Bank Annual Meetings (Washington D.C., SeptemberIOctober).

- A mission consisting of three South-North Conference participants (Ahmed Ben Salah, Evelyn Herfkens and Marc Nerfin) and IFDA Council member Joseph Ki-Zerbo went to Jamaica in September to present the Arusha Initiative to Prime Minister Michael Manley. This mission was mounted as a response to the resolution on Solidarity with Jamaica adopted by the Conference (see Dossier 19, p. 101). It was widely reported in the Jamaican media and vas timed to - precede the "IMF general elections" scheduled to be held in Jamaica late in October.

(cont. on page 12).

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

THE WINDS OF CHANGE - FROM AN INFORMATIOf i EFEARGO TO A N A T I O N A L SURVEY OF INFORMATION NEEDS AND RESOURCES I i , EGYPT

by Ossama A. El-Kholy z' 13. rue No. 265 New Maadi Cairo, Egypt

Original Language: English

Lostract : This paper i s an attempt a t revieuing and analysing the 'development- knoutedge' rhesus i n Egypt during the l a s t quarter o f a century, during uhich a rcuher d r m a t i c change o f a t t i t u d e concerning znforrnation, knodedge and development took place. I t a l so attempts t o expla in what happened. I t f i n a l l y points out some fu ture trends i n the bui ld ing of a nat ional i n t e l l i g e n c e capa- b i l i t y -in E g y p t .

LE VENT DU CHANGEMENT - D'UN EMBARGO SUR L'INFORNATIOM A UNE ENQUETE N A T I O N A L E DES B E S O I N S E T DES RESSOURCES Er! EGYPTE

R6sume: Cet a r t i c l e cons t i t ue une t e n t a t i v e d'examen e t d 'analyse du comptexe 'd6~eloppement-connaissanee' en Egypte au cours du deim-ier quart de s i s o l e ,

marque par un changement d ' a t t i t u d e radical en ce pi coneerne l ' i n f c rma t ion , La connaissanee e t Le develovpement. C ' e s t aus s i une t e n t a t i v e d ' exp l i ca t i on . IT, envisage e n f i n quelques tendances duns l a mise sur pied d 'une cwpaeite nat ionale d' information en Egypte.

A I R E S D E CAMBIO - DE UNA P R O H I B I C I O N A UNA I N V E S T I G A C I O N N A C I O N A L SOBRE LOS S E R V I C I O S Y RECURSOS EN E G I P T O

Formen: Ecte informe intents un examen y anaZisis de l co@eJo 'desarrol lo- conocim-ierto' en Egipto &ante e l u l t imo cuarto de s ig to , epoca caracter-i- i.& pop un cambio de ac t i t ud rad i ca l en cuanto a la -infomacion, e l conoci- miento y e l desurrot to . Tambzen s e 'Lntenta i na ex f l i eac ion de e s t o s accweci - . mientos, y se senalan algunas tendeneias en e l estublecimiento de una c a p a c i d a ~ national de informaci& en Egipto.

*/ Paper presented to the meeting on "The knowledge Industry and the Process of - development", held at the OECD Development Centre, Paris, 9-12 June, 1980. Dr. Ossama A. El-Kholy (Egypt) was the Assistant Director General for Science and Technology of the Arab League Educational, Cultural & Scientific Organisation.

Ossama A. E l - K h o l y

THE WINDS OF CHANGE - FROM AN INFORMATION EMBARGO TO A NATIONAL

SURVEY OF INFORMATION NEEDS AND RESOURCES I N EGYPT

INTRODUCTION

A movement s t a r t e d i n Egypt towards t h e end o f t h e f i f t i e s , combining t h e we1 l- e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t e s t a t i s t i c a l organs w i t h t h e " m o b i l i s a t i o n committees" formed a f t e r t h e 1956 Suez War (commonly known i n t h e Egypt as t h e " T r i p a r t i t e Agres- s i o n " ) . T h i s cu lminated i n 1964 i n a p r e s i d e n t i a l decree e s t a b l i s h i n g a C e n t r a l Agency f o r P u b l i c M o b i l i s a t i o n and S t a t i s t i c s " (CAPMAS), and t h e appointment o f an army general as i t s head. The f o l l o w i n g a c i t i v i t i e s became p u n i s h a b l e o f fences : 1 ) t h e pub1 i c a t i o n o f any s t a t i s t i c a l da ta n o t based on CAPMAS o u t p u t s ; 2) t h e use, h i r e , o r purchase o f " s t a t i s t i c a l " machinery r a n g i n g f rom desk c a l c u l a t o r s t o computers, w i t h o u t a u t h o r i s a t i o n f rom CAPMAS; and 3 ) t h e implementat ion o f market surveys o r p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l s w i t h o u t i t s approva l , n o r the use o r r e l e a s e o f the r e s u l t s w i t h o u t i t s c learance. The embargos were s t r i c t l y en fo rced a l l t h e way f rom U n i v e r s i t y research s tuden ts and s t a f f i n the phys ica l sc iences, t o " n a t i o n a l " r e p o r t s prepared f o r U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n i s a t i o n s , t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f commercial c o n s u l t i n g f i rms . The manager o f a n a t i o n a l c o n s u l t i n g f i r m was j a i l e d f o r f a i l i n g t o seek permiss ion t o c o l l e c t da ta on impor ts o f tomatopaste canning machines. The i n f o r m a t i o n was s a i d t o l e a d t o f a i r l y accura te es t imates o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e armed f o r c e s . The f a c t t h a t i t was a v a i l a b l e abroad d i d n o t seem t o be r e l e v a n t .

F i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , t h e "Academy o f S c i e n t i f i c Research and Technology" ( A b K I ) embarked - under a b i l a t e r a l a i d agreement - on an amb i t ious p r o j e c t f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n a t i o n a l sc ient i f ic - technoloqica l i n f o r m a t i o n network. The p r i n c i p a l goal i s " t o ensure maximum a v a i l a b i l i t y and optimum u t i l i s a t i o n of accumulated know1 edge i n science, technology, and u l t i m a t e l y s o c i a l sc iences i n ~ u r s u i t o f n a t i o n a l develooment o b i e c t i v e s " fmv u n d e r l i n i n q L Phase I of t h e p r o j e c t i s t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e f i r s t na t ionw ide survey o f 6 x i s t i n q i n f o r m a t i o n resources and t h e i r u t i l i s a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e c u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n needs as revea led by an e l a b o r a t e , mu1 t i - t i e r e d e f f o r t i n c l u d i n g e x h a u s t i v e f i e l d work. The survey has s t a r t e d and i t s f i n d i n g s w i l l l e a d t o t h e des ign o f t h e n a t i o n a l network envisaged i n t h e p r o j e c t document.

T h i s note i s an a t t e m p t a t r e v i e w i n g and a n a l y s i n g t h e "development-knowledge" nexus i n Egypt d u r i n g t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f a cen tu ry , t h a t has l e d t o t h i s r a t h e r dramat ic change i n a t t i t u d e concern ing i n f o r m a t i o n , knowledge and develop- ment and, h o p e f u l l y , a t e x p l a i n i n g how these two events came about. I t may a l s o p o i n t o u t some f u t u r e t r e n d s i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f a n a t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e capa- b i l i ty i n Egypt.

I wou ld l i k e , a t t h e o u t s e t , t o s t a t e c l e a r l y t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s a t tempt . F i r s t , t h e r e has n o t been - t o my knowledge a t l e a s t - any p rev ious a t t e m p t a t t a c k l i n g t h i s problem. Th is n o t e i s w r i t t e n w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f e m p i r i c a l ev idence from t h e ongoing survey. Th is would have been a more r e l i a b l e source t h a n t h e personal exper iences and h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e

w r i t e r - even though he has been i n v o l v e d i n t h i s f i e l d i n one way o r ano ther f o r most o f t h e p e r i o d under rev iew. F i n a l l y , t h i s r e p o r t i s n o t s t r i c t l y based on a s p e c i f i c and e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l framework o r r e f e r e n c e model i n mind. I n f a c t , I had o r i g i n a l l y hoped t o l i m i t m y s e l f t o t h e c o n f i n e s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l development. I t soon became apparent t h a t I must v e n t u r e i n t o more complex and a b s t r a c t f i e l d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the dec is ion -mak ing process and s o c i a l o rgan isa - t i o n - f i e l d s i n which I - as an e n g i n e e r by p r o f e s s i o n - con fess ignorance . However, I use t h i s n a r r a t i v e as a framework f o r h i g h l i g h t i n g some o f the main p o i n t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f s o c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i n a T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r y l i k e Egypt . I f u l l y r e a l i s e t h a t none o f these i ssues i s p a r t i c u l a r t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . I n f a c t r e a d i n g t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e problems o f i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s g i v e s me t h e impress ion o f " d e j a vu" . However, t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t , t h e l o c a l complexion o f these problems i n a T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r y and, hence, t h e p o s s i b l e remedies a r e - I b e l i e v e - r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . A l though t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l systems, as w e l l as t h e h i s t o r i c a l antecedents and s tages o f p r o d u c t i v i t y , va ry c o n s i d e r a b l y i n the Arab r e g i o n , Egyp t ian e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e l a s t few decades seems t o me t o r e l a t e s t r o n g l y t o t h e s i t u a - t i o n s i n many Arab c o u n t r i e s . Perhaps t h e o n l y sav ing g race f o r t h i s c o n t r i b u - t i o n i s t h a t i t may p rove o f some r e l e v a n c e - as a case s tudy .

THE USE AND MANAGEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE I N A THIRD WORLD COUNTRY

The 1952 R e v o l u t i o n i n Egypt i s s t i l l cons ide red as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a remark- a b l e development e f f o r t mark ing a c l e a r , i f n o t c lean , b r e a k away f rom an u n d e s i r a b l e p a s t i n an e f f o r t t h a t has been s u s t a i n e d up t i l l now i n s p i t e o f many se tbacks . I t soon became c l e a r t h a t i t s two main t h r u s t s were a l a n d - r e f o r m programme and i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n . We shou ld remember h e r e t h a t t h i s was a j o u r n e y i n t o t h e unknown and t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e , i f any, p r e v i o u s expe- r i e n c e o f a c o u n t r y of t h i s s i z e and background t o draw upon. The leaders were a sma l l group o f ded ica ted army o f f i c e r s - headed by a s t a f f c o l l e g e i n s t r u c t o r - who had no p r o f e s s i o n a l exper ience o f socio-economic problems and who r e l i e d m a i n l y on t h e e x p e r t i s e o f i nd igenous bureaucra ts , businessmen and academics, on t h e one hand, and f o r e i g n t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and e x p e r t i s e (e .g . P o i n t I V and A r t h u r D. L i t t l e ) on t h e o t h e r . W i t h i n a few years , t h e concep t o f n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g emerged. Th is b r o u g h t i n i t s wake t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e need f o r s y s t e m a t i c d a t a - g a t h e r i n g and a n a l y s i s . The nucleus o f an ind igenous c a p a b i l i t y i n t h e s y s t e m a t i c c o m p i l a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s based on c a r e f u l l y formu- l a t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , and i n t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f s e c t o r a l and n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g was e s t a b l i s h e d and has been t h e seed f rom which a11 l a t e r achieve- ments have grown.

However, f o r v a r i o u s reasons - i n t e r e s t i n g i n themselves b u t n o t v e r y r e l e v a n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n h e r e - achievement f e l l s h o r t o f e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e leader - s h i p was soon p r e s s i n g f o r a n a t i o n a l development p l a n . The s p e c i a l i s t s s p l i t i n t o two f a c t i o n s . One group i n s i s t e d t h a t d r a f t i n g such a p l a n i s no mean t a s k and c a l l s f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e and e f f o r t , i f t h e p l a n was n o t t o boomerang and cause y e t more d i sappo in tmen t th rough f a i l u r e i n imp lementa t ion . The o t h e r d i s m i s s e d t h i s a t t i t u d e as b e i n g p e d a n t i c and a c t u a l l y produced t h e f i r s t p l a n f o r i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n i n a few weeks - bas ing i t s e l f on t h e s i m p l e l o g i c t h a t t h e needs a r e so obv ious t h a t you c o u l d n o t go wrong a t t h i s s tage . Th is was a deba te between t h e technocra ts . By then, t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e bus iness community had dropped o u t o f t h e race. The m a j o r i t y c o u l d n o t move f rom t h e m i c r o

( p r o j e c t ) s c a l e t o t h e macro ( n a t i o n a l ) l e v e l , w h i l e t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e was n o t i n v o l v e d - o r even c o n s c i o u s l y in formed. The r e s u l t was a genera l l o s s o f c r e - d i b i l i t y o f t h e t e c h n o c r a t s on b o t h s i d e s and a d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h t h e i r m a g i c powers.

Poin t 1: Whom does the p d i t i e a i l eadersh ip foZZou uher. the s p e c i a l i s e s d i f f e r ?

The " T r i p a r t i t e Aggress ion" (Suez War) c r e a t e d an e n t i r e l y new s i t u a t i o n i n wh ich m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s t a r e d us i n t h e face , o n l y a few months a f t e r t h e end o f seventy f o u r y e e r s o f m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n by B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y f o r c e s . Egyp t had t o m o b i l i s e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n i t s modern h i s t o r y and i t became p a i n f u l l y c l e a r t h a t we had no r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e resources t o be mobi- l i s e d . ( I remember b e i n g commissioned t o t a k e o v e r an es tab l i shment , o n l y t o f i n d o u t t h a t i t had been l i q u i d a t e d severa l y e a r s b e f o r e ) . Fur thermore, t h e s e q u e s t r a t i o n o f B r i t i s h , French and B e l g i a n p r o p e r t y ( m a i n l y i n banking, i nsu rance , t r a d e and some i n d u s t r y ) l e d a lmos t a c c i d e n t a l l y t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a " p u b l i c s e c t o r " which was o u r f i r s t exper ience o f s t a t e management o f such r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e s . Fo r t h e f i r s t t ime, t h e r e was a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d "enemy" f rom w i t h o u t , who had known l i n k a g e s w i t h a l l i e s w i t h i n . The d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e " t r u s t w o r t h y " (and presumably i l l - i n f o r m e d ) and t h e "knowledgeable" (and presumably u n t r u s t w o r t h y ) became t h e s u b j e c t o f a p u b l i c deba te which raged i n t h e mass media f o r s e v e r a l years .

Point 2: Sou does t h e p o l i t i c a l l eadersh ip d i f f e r e n t i a t e be tueen t h e "~'or.asf' and the "Judas"?

Furthermore, a number o f f a c t o r s combined t o g e t h e r t o underscore t h e need f o r more c a r e f u l h a n d l i n g and/or suppress ion o f i n f o r m a t i o n so f a r f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n the government system and e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e p r o p e r e x e c u t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f d r a f t i n g o f p l a n s f o r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n s and t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f n a t i o n a l e f f o r t . F i r s t , t h e r e was t h e need n o t t o r e v e a l t h e f u l l e x t e n t of t h e b u i l d - u p o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e and t h e a m b i t i o u s m o d e r n i s a t i o n programme o f t h e armed fo rces . By t h a t t ime, Egypt was a l s o commit ted t o t h e a c t i v e s u p p o r t of n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements i n a number o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . More r e l e - v a n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n he re was t h e g row ing r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e need t o b o l s t e r up p u b l i c mora le i n what came t o be commonly known as t h e "development b a t t l e " (echoes o f D e d i j e r ' s me thodo log ica l ana logy "Development i s War" ! ) . Success s t o r i e s and achievements had t o be emphasised and perhaps s l i g h t l y b lown up, w h i l e f a i l u r e s had t o be g lossed over o r even r e f u t e d . The "hang ing o u t o f d i r t y l i n e n " was - and s t i l l i s - s o c i a l l y condemned and c o n s i d e r e d d e s t r u c t i v e and d e f e a t i s t ( i n f a c t , t h i s r e p o r t q u a l i f i e s f u l l y f o r such condemnat ion) . The need f o r secrecy, i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sense, was exaggera ted beyond reason- a b l e l i m i t s and extended even t o i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o f o r e i g n i n p u t s which was, by d e f i n i t i o n , f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e abroad. The a b s u r d i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n had been d r a m a t i c a l l y demonstrated on many occasions t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p . The f a c t s t i l l remained, however, t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , i f n o t t h e ou t - s i d e w o r l d , was k e p t unaware o f t h e p r o t e c t e d o r " u n p a l a t a b l e " i n f o r m a t i o n .

A g a i n s t t h i s , one shou ld u n d e r l i n e t h e f a c t t h a t w h i l e t h e r e was g row ing r e a l i - s a t i o n t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e s k i l f u l hands o f t h e enemy c o u l d become "know- ledge" dangerous t o n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , no s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t - o t h e r than

m i l i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e - was exer ted t o c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l l i t y i n the s e r v i c e o f development.

i n t e l l i g e n c e capabi-

7. _ . .- ,. . h'ho de ternines 'nou secre t are the "secre ts" o f a T h i r d u o r k i country? k'cu and uhy does he do 'it? now can ' h i s be reconciled with t h e deue loprent of s o c i ~ l inteL2igerce.c

As more and more o f t h e " t r u s t w o r t h y " took over t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f heading t h e f a s t deve lop ing and p r o l i f e r a t i n g government departments and p u b l i c e n t e r - p r i s e s , t h e s o c i a l norm o f " d o c t o r i n g " i n f o r m a t i o n became widespread. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t served t o h i d e mis takes and f a i l u r e s and t o b e l i t t l e problems and d i f f i c u l t i e s and, hence, t h e r o l e o f t h e "exper ienced", b u t suspect , e l e- ments i n overcoming them. There were some remarkable excep t ions o f i n d i v i d u a l s who had t h e access t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p and t h e guts t o warn i t o f impending d i s a s t e r . Genera l l y , however, t h e r e grew a s i l e n t and i n t i m i d a t e d m i n o r i t y which was w e l l - i n f o r m e d and h i g h l y c r i t i c a l o f what was happening. What i s most i n t e r e s t i n g , and hope fu l , he re i s t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p which was n o t unaware o f t h i s dangerous t rend . One cou ld d i s c e r n a general p a t t e r n i n which a l e a d e r , be he a head o f s t a t e o r a c a b i n e t m i n i s t e r , had h i s own i n t e l l i g e n c e a d v i s e r s " who served h im beh ind t h e scene, c o l l e c t i n g data, ana- l y s i n g i t, making f o r e c a s t s and r e p o r t i n g t o the leader . Yet, t h i s , was an unhea l thy s i t u a t i o n i n which t h e c o n f l i c t s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s were n o t e n t i r e l y o b j e c t i v e , n o r were they rece ived w i t h i n an open framework o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n s and d iscuss ions . I n f a c t , t h i s was more i n t h e n a t u r e o f c o m p i l i n g "con f iden- t i a l " f i l e s on i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s , r a t h e r than o f a d e l i b e r a t e and conscious e f f o r t t o remedy f a u l t s . It i s perhaps a l s o f a i r t o say t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n was aggravated by t h e absence o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s t h a t m igh t have per formed t h e r o l e of c r i t i c s f rom w i t h i n a recogn ised and open power s t r u c t u r e .

Dur ing t h e p e r i o d , momentous d e c i s i o n s were taken a lmos t on t h e spur of t h e moment, e.g. u n i t y w i t h S y r i a o r m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n Yemen. I n n e i t h e r of these cases was t h e r e a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e d e c i s i o n , n o r t h e a b i l i t y t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h i t s l o g i c a l and fo reseen consequences l/, n o r was t h e r e - i n a11 f a i r n e s s - much t i m e t o ponder over t h e i ssues i n v o l v e d b e f o r e t a k i n g a dec is ion .

I n an atmosphere o f "decis ion-making by i n t u i t i o n " r e s u l t i n g f rom a m o n o l i t h i c power s t r u c t u r e , t h e downgrading o f e x p e r t i s e r e l a t i n g t o t h e conscious d e s i r e f o r b reak ing away f rom t h e pas t , and t h e r e l i a n c e on m o b i l i s a t i o n o f t h e peop le t o b r i n g abou t g r e a t achievements, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t knowledge i s n o t h e l d i n h i g h esteem by t h e l e a d e r s o f change ( i . e . development) i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s - a t l e a s t i n t h e e a r l y stages.

I/ It is reputed that when Syria broke away from the union a short while later, - the decision to intervene by force to restore the union was rescinded after one military adviser expounded the full geopolitical implications of that decision.

The day o f reckon ing came i n t h e m i d - s i x t i e s when cheap i m p o r t s o f wheat f rom a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y - a co rners tone i n the development p l a n - were a b r u p t l y h a l t e d . A new c a b i n e t admi t ted , f o r t h e f i r s t t ime , t h a t a11 was n o t w e l l and t h a t a process o f n a t i o n a l s t o c k - t a k i n g was c a l l e d f o r . Th is was f o l l o w e d w i t h i n a y e a r o r so by t h e t r a u m a t i c exper ience o f t h e "Relapse" ( S i x Day War). The n a t i o n a l ego was b r u t a l l y d e f l a t e d and heads r o l l e d .

A new phase had s t a r t e d and i t cu lm ina ted i n t h e October War, s i x y e a r s l a t e r . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , and i n s p i t e o f even more p r e s s i n g s e c u r i t y needs and a lmost con t inuous m i l i t a r y harassment caus ing s u b s t a n t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n , i t was p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n a v i a b l e economic system t h a t c o n t i n u e d t h e development e f f o r t , t o r e b u i l d an e f f i c i e n t and modern war machine, t o m o b i l i s e i n a lmos t t o t a l secrecy f o r what i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as an o r i g i n a l m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n i n wh ich new and ind igenous techno logy made i t p o s s i b l e t o over run what most f o r e i g n e x p e r t s cons ide red an unsurmountable b a r r i e r .

F E C H N O L O G I C A L D E V E L O P M E N T I N MODERN EGYPT

Nex t , we focus on t h e s p e c i f i c f i e l d o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l development - which i s a l m o s t synonymous i n t h i s p e r i o d w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g o f a n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l base w i t h i n the framework o f a s t r a t e g y o f i m p o r t s u b s t i t u t i o n m a i n l y f o r con- sumer goods - l a t e r expanding i n t o b a s i c heavy i n d u s t r y . The te rm " techno logy t r a n s f e r " i s u s u a l l y used i n such c o n t e x t s , y e t what was i n f a c t b e i n g t r a n s - f e r r e d was n o t techno logy (know how), b u t t h e p roduc ts o f techno logy ( p l a n t and equipment) . The d i s t i n c t i o n i s c r u c i a l t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . Fo r example, such t r a n s a c t i o n s r u l e o u t by d e f i - n i t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n - a t l e a s t i n t h e i n i t i a l phase o f t h e e x e r c i s e - and tend t o focus a t t e n t i o n on t h e r o l e o f i n t e l l i - gence i n t h e n e g o t i a t i n g process. Even here, t h e emphasis i s on economic, r a t h e r t h a n t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , on i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e s u p p l i e r , r a t h e r than on t h e techno logy i t s e l f .

Technology t r a n s f e r , i n t h e p roper sense o f t h e word, i s a " n a t u r a l " and two- way process when i t occurs between i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . The i m p o r t e d k n o w l e d g e " can be e f f e c t i v e l y and q u i c k l y t rans fo rmed i n t o an economic advan- tage exceeding t h e c o s t o f t r a n s f e r . The i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n a T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r y a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y more complex. I n f a c t , such a c o u n t r y i s a c t u a l l y d o i n g s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s a t t h e same t i m e : -

- I t i s c r e a t i n g a n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n base ( p l a n t , equipment, raw m a t e r i a l s , s e m i - f i n i s h e d p roduc ts , processes, management systems, q u a l i f i e d and t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l ) m a i n l y th rough massive i m p o r t a t i o n s f rom abroad;

- T h i s has t o be i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e e x i s t i n g "body economic" and reasonab ly smooth work ing r e l a t i o n s w i t h o l d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d . Th is has, more o f t e n than n o t been a p a i n f u l and d i s o r d e r l y process;

- The p h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s acqu i red f i n d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e a c q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n t o a p roduc t o r s e r v i c e a c h i e v i n g an eco- nomic advantage;

- More o f t e n than n o t , t h e r e s u l t i n g p r o d u c t o r s e r v i c e has t o be adapted t o t h e l o c a l p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l envi ronment . The source o f the technology i s n o t always w i l l i n g o r capable o f f u l f i l l i n g t h i s task , no r c o u l d t h e embry- o n i c ind igenous e x p e r t i s e be expected t o do so. I t i s obvious t h a t the f i r s t two tasks a r e b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . They r e p r e s e n t an e x t r a burden i n techno logy t r a n s f e r t o a T h i r d World coun t ry .

W i t h i n one decade, t h e r e e x i s t e d i n Egypt a group o f f a r i l y we l l - i n fo rmed and s k i l f u l n e g o t i a t o r s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . The c e n t r a l i s e d s t r u c t u r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1957, t h e "General O r g a n i s a t i o n f o r I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n " (GOFI), p e r m i t t e d f a i r l y r a p i d accumulat ion o f knowledge and s k i l l s . There i s no doubt t h a t a good p r i c e , i n t h e fo rm o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e choices, u n f a i r c o n t r a c t s and wrong procedures was pa id , b u t g e n e r a l l y one can d i s c e r n a l e a r n i n g p ro - cess. A sys temat i c a n a l y s i s o f t h i s exper ience i s y e t t o be made. P e r f u n c t o r y e n q u i r i e s have y i e l d e d some impressions.

I n t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h Western f r e e market e n t e r p r i s e s , one o f the common s t r a - tagems seems t o have been t h e p l a y i n g o f one c o m p e t i t o r a g a i n s t the o t h e r as a means o f g l e a n i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e . A t a l a t e r s t a t e , when dea l ings w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s t b l o c became more prominent , Egyp t ian n e g o t i a t o r s armed themselves w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e o f f e r s f rom t h e West. Unpackaging inc reased w i t h t i m e and l o c a l resources and c a p a b i l i t i e s became more i n v o l v e d i n p r o j e c t imp lementa t ion . E s t a b l i s h e d procedures were fo rmu la ted f o r c a l l s f o r b i d s , t h e i r a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n . Fur thermore, t h e r e does n o t seem t o have been s izeab le c o r r u p t i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t most dea ls were w i t h i n t h e p u b l i c sec to r . Even t h e goss ip w i t h i n t h e smal l s o c i a l group o f main a c t o r s does n o t h i n t a t widespread c o r r u p t i o n - a t l e a s t i n comparison w i t h a l a t e r p e r i o d when prominent persona- l i t i e s a r e on p u b l i c t r i a l f o r a l l e g e d c o r r u p t i o n .

The f a c t s t i l l remains, however, t h a t n o t enough a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f "know how" r a t h e r than i t s products o r t o m o b i l i s i n g human and m a t e r i a l resources s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h i s purpose. T h i s c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d m a i n l y t o t h e d e s i r e o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p t o move r a p i d l y and show t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s w i t h o u t pay ing t h e p r i c e i n t i m e and e f f o r t needed f o r r e a l t r a n s f e r o f technology. One cannot h e l p f e e l i n g a l s o t h a t t h i s was n o t r e s i s t e d by t h e technocra ts who concen t ra ted on "managing" t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e f o r e i g n sources o f "know how" r a t h e r than t a c k l i n g t h e more c h a l l e n g i n g tasks o f n a t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n design and development o f p l a n t and equipment. The one remarkable e x c e p t i o n i s t h e p r o j e c t f o r the design and development o f m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t , j e t engines and m i s s i l e s , where a whole g e n e r a t i o n o f engineers was a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e d w i t h a reasonable degree o f success i n these p r o j e c t s . One o f t h e more remarkable achievements a t t h i s t ime was t h e copy ing and ba tch-p roduc t ion o f a smal l j e t eng ine o f unconven- t i o n a l design and i t s u t i l i s a t i o n by t h e A i r Force.

Concen t ra t ion on t h e war e f f o r t i n t h e l a t e s i x t i e s and e a r l y seven t ies r e s u l - t e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s i n k i n g t o a dangerously l o w l e v e l and i n f a i l u r e t o keep up w i t h and t o i n t r o d u c e c u r r e n t developments i n many f i e l d s o f

t echno logy . I t was n a t u r a l t o t r y a f t e r t h e October War t o r e - o r i e n t t h e n a t i o n a l e f f o r t . The e ra o f t h e s o - c a l l e d "open door" p o l i c y s t a r t e d . P a r t i - c u l a r impor tance was a t tached t o t h e r o l e o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n r e v i t a l i s i n g t h e economy. It was c la imed t h a t i t c o u l d p l a y a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n i n t r o d u c i n g new t e c h n o l o g i e s . The " j o i n t v e n t u r e company" became t h e magic fo rmu la f o r ' c a t c h i n g u p ' . Egypt w i tnessed an unprecedented i n f l u x o f f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s who e x p l o r e d t h e way f o r f o r e i g n inves tmen t and new a i d programmes m a i n l y from t h e West.

The "open ing up" e v e n t u a l l y i n v o l v e d i n f o r m a t i o n on Egypt. F o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s had t o have access t o such i n f o r m a t i o n . I t t u r n e d o u t t h a t they came a l r e a d y armed w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n and t h a t they c o u l d f e r r e t o u t more f rom w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h r e l a t i v e ease. C a l l i n g i n f o r e i g n c o n s u l t a n t s became t h e o r d e r o f t h e day and extended t o cover f i e l d s where n a t i o n a l e x p e r t i s e has so f a r been cons ide red competent and adequate. I t looked - a t l e a s t t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p i n many wa lks o f l i f e - as i f a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e " t r u s t w o r t h y " and t h e "exper ienced" has a t l a s t been ach ieved i n t h e person o f t h e f o r e i g n e x p e r t . O ld h a b i t s and a t t i t u d e s concern ing t h e s a n c t i l y o f i n f o r m a t i o n were b e g i n n i n g t o change. What used t o be cons ide red as s e n s i t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y a few years b e f o r e , now c i r c u l a t e d more f r e e l y .

The ease w i t h wh ich f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s produced i n t e l l i g e n c e on o u r own a c t i v i - t i e s came as a m i l d shock t o many. The v a l u e o f i n f o r m a t i o n as a v a l u a b l e resource and t h e new atmosphere o f freedom s e t t h e f a s h i o n f o r t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n c e n t r e s , banks, networks and exchange systems. The f a s h i o n i s becoming t h e h a l l m a r k o f modern i t y . It would be t r u e t o say, however, t h a t a p a r t f rom t h e b a n k i n g system, t h e r e i s l i t t l e ev idence t h a t t h e new i n f o r m a t i o n u n i t s a r e p l a y i n g any u s e f u l r o l e o r t h a t t h i s w i l l do so i n t h e near f u t u r e . I n t e r v i e w s w i t h t o p pe rsonne l i n t h i r t y l e a d i n g p r o j e c t s i n t h e new f i v e - y e a r p lan , c o v e r i n g a l l s e c t o r s o f t h e economy,have l e d t o some p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i - f i c a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s : -

- There i s no c l e a r comprehension o f t h e r o l e expected f r o m an o r g a n i s e d i n f o r - ma t ion system i n dec is ion-making;

- There i s a genera l f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n needed i s i n e x i s t e n c e somewhere w i t h i n t h e system, b u t t h a t i t i s n o t a c c e s s i b l e . Nor c o u l d a g a t e k e e p e r " be i d e n t i f i e d i n many cases;

- There i s a s t r a n g e m isconcep t ion as t o who shou ld seek and use i n f o r m a t i o n i n j o i n t v e n t u r e companies. I n many cases, i t was f e l t t h a t t h i s was t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e f o r e i g n p a r t n e r !

CONCLUDING REMARK

I t i s now c l e a r t h a t taboos and r e s t r i c t i o n s on i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l d i sappear . I t i s perhaps a l s o t r u e t o say t h a t t h e r e i s an overwhelming f l o o d o f i n f o r m a t i o n f rom abroad and enough i n t e r n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n e x i s t e n c e somewhere w i t h i n t h e system. It i s reasonab le t o expec t i n t h e l i g h t o f c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t f a i r l y adequate and w e l l o r g a n i s e d i n f o r m a t i o n systems w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be e s t a b l i s h e d . The b i g q u e s t i o n t h a t w i l l s t i l l remain w i l l be t h e use made o f

t h i s w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e a b i l i t y t o t u r n i t i n t o knowledge i n t h e s e r v i c e o f n a t i o n a l development.

My persona l v iew i s t h a t i t i s t h e n a t i o n a l bus iness community t h a t w i l l most p r o b a b l y be t h e f i r s t t o ach ieve t h i s b reak th rough . A r e a c t i o n i s s l o w l y b u i l d i n g up a g a i n s t t h e swamping o f t h e economy by f o r e i g n inves tmen ts t h a t have been m o s t l y s h o r t - t e r m , non-p roduc t i ve and o f t h e " h i t and r u n " t y p e e n t i c e d by t h e remarkab ly generous concessions by t h e "open-door" p o l i c y . A new c l a s s o f E g y p t i a n e n t r e p r e n e u r who has se rved h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r i n the s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s and who i s knowledgeable and soph is - t i c a t e d i s emerging and i s seek ing an a c t i v e r o l e i n t h e new atmosphere i n which t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i s expanding r a p i d l y . It a p p r e c i a t e s t h e r o l e of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e i n exposing c u r r e n t abuses o f t h e "open-door" p o l i c y , and i n t h e c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f i t s new a c t i v i t i e s . I t s h o u l d have no g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n f o s t e r i n g t h e s k i l l s needed f o r t h i s t a s k . There i s reason t o b e l i v e t h a t i t w i l l e x p l o i t i t s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and p r e s t i g e i n r e d r e s s i n g the ba lance i n f a v o u r o f t h e l o c a l en t rep reneur and t h a t l i f e w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t f o r ephemeral f o r e i g n inves tmen t . There have a l r e a d y been two "scanda ls " i n v o l v i n g such inves tmen t and i n b o t h cases e f f e c - t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e has f o r c e d t h e government t o t a k e d r a s t i c a c t i o n , l e a d i n g t o t h e t o t a l a b o l i t i o n o f one ma jo r concession a t l e a s t .

Yet t h e d e c i s i v e r o l e i n f o s t e r i n g an i n t e l l i g e n c e c a p a b i l i t y i n t h e s e r v i c e o f development w i l l s t i l l be p l a y e d by an e n l i g h t e n e d , courageous, d e d i c a t e d and i n c o r r u p t i b l e l e a d e r s h i p . Such l e a d e r s h i p c o u l d n o t emerge o u t o f a backward i l l i t e r a t e and suppressed s o c i e t y . S o c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i n v o l v e s , i f n o t a whole s o c i e t y , then a t l e a s t s u b s t a n t i a l s e c t i o n s o f i t s e l i t e bu reaucra ts , t e c h n o c r a t s , academics and businessmen.

(cont. from page 2)

- Attendance at the South-North Conference by three communicators (Fabra, Mohamed Mashmoushi, Chakravarthi Raghavan), together with coverage by the Tanzanian national news agency Shihata and by Inter Press Service, resulted in several press articles devoted to the Arusha Initiative or referring to it. Other articles picked up Raghavan's story about a leaked IMP staff memorandum exposing the political motivations of the IMF staff dealing with Jamaica. A list of those articles which we have received is given on p. 26 ; no doubt there are more which we have not seen.

- Finally, it may not be irrelevant to quote an article in the Financial Times (London, 4.10.80), commenting on the Fund/Bank meetings, which found Tanzanian Finance Minister Amir Jamal (who presided over the meetings) and his Jamaican counterpart Hugh Small to be the "most impressive" exponents of the view that the conventional remedies of the IIF are inappropriate for dealing with the financial problems of most Third World countries. This view is one of the main themes of the Arusha Initiative; both Jamal and Small participated active- ly in the Arusha Conference.

This political and diplomatic momentum must be maintained by pressure from the Third System. For, despite the several intergovernmental discussions on inter- national monetary issues since the Arusha Initiative was launched, the much criticized monetary non-system remains basically unchanged. The UNCTAD expert group was boycotted by all but one (Norway) of the Western industrialized countries, at the instigation of the IMF "big five" (USA, UK, FRG, France, Japan). The UN General Assembly negotiations on procedures for negotiations ended in a stalemate, essentially because of the refusal of the USA, backed by UK and FRG, to tolerate negotiations on monetary matters elsewhere than in the IMP, where they wield veto power. And the Third World came away from the Fund/Bank meetings with a few concessions on the volume of IMF finance and with declarations of intent on the softening of conditionality. Their main demands (including that for a greater share of voting power) were remitted for study.

What can the Third System do? Given the propensity of North-South negotiating rounds to skirt the big issues, we must ensure that next year's "global round" does not forget the Arusha call for a United Nations Conference on Internatio- nal Money and Finance, to provide "a universal, democratic and legitimate forum for the negotiation of a new monetary system - one, moreover, which can be open to public scrutiny". Given the likelihood that the Jamaica/IMF dis- pute will not be the last of its kind, we must continue to press for "the establishment of a mechanism of appeal and international arbitration, inde- pendent of the Fund", to deal with disputes between the IMF and its member countries. And, in addition to exerting pressure in these areas indicated by the Arusha Initiative, the Third System has the responsibility of showing the way to governments, of demonstrating how a new monetary systcni .-md a mechanism for making the IMF accountable could work in practice.

The Arusha Conference sponsors will continue to be on tin' look mit I r r oppor- tunities to move toward these goals. We urge other supporters of the Arusha Initiative to do the same and to let us know about their p 1 . i ~ ~ ;ind ~hfir actions.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY I N I N D I A ; AN ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVE * / by K . Seetharam, V . Shiva and J. Bandyopadhyay -

I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Management 33 Langfo rd Road dangalore 560 027, I n d i a

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: India has the t h i rd larges t s c i e n t i f i c manpower i n the uor td , y e t or^ observes some o f the c r u e l e s t poverty and stagnation o f social. r e la t i on - sh ips , i n t h i s country. Signs of a ser ious scyl-ztirg o f the pre-suppositions o f the r e la t i onsh ip o f sc ience , tec'hnoloqg and development have been apparent. i n the minds o f a large n m b e ~ o f s c i e n v i s t s and technologis ts throughout I n d i ~ but no concrete views haoe emerged as an a l t e r n a t i v e . In the present ' ~ zder s tay~d ing , a b l i nd fo l louing o f whateoer goes i n t he name o f science and technotogy i n t h e i ndus t r ia l i z ed countr ies , seems to be the only leg i t imate a c t i v i t y t o be pursued in India . What i s not y e t c l ear l y exposed i s the frequent use o f t h i s area o f science agains t the i n t e r e s t s o f the people i r . generat . I n t h i s paper, some o f the f a i l u re s o f the present day i n t s r - reZations1:ip between sc ience , technoLogy and development in Ind ia are iden- t i f i e d , and an attempt i s made t o arr ive a t an a l t e rna t i ve approach uhzch w ~ Z ' L be more meaningful t o the Indian people.

SCIENCE ET TECHNIQUES EN I N D E ; UNE AUTRE PERSPECTIVE

Fi6smk: La canvnunaut6 s c i e n t i f i q u e indienne - l a trois-ieme du mode par scn e f f e c t i f - w i t au m i l i eu de Za ~auvre t . 4 l a plus cmsHe et de v iqpor ts sociaux stagnants. E'ile ne peut que s l i n t e r roger S U P s e s raisons d l S t r e . Les signes d ' un re-exmen des hypotht5ses eourantes quant 2 la r e l a t i o n m2eaniste e w e la scicnce, l e s techniques e t Is d6veZoppement sont appams ches m grand nombre ae s e t - ' ~ t i f i q u e s e t de t e e h n i c i e ~ s duns t o u t Le pays, mais mcune a l t e rna t i ve concrete n l e s t encore apparue.

Tout se passe encore c o m e s i 22 reproduction mimdtique des modules en v-igueur duns Zes pays indus tr iaZis6s e t a i t l a m u l e a c t i v i t 6 22gitime G. p r s u i v ~ e en Inde. Ce que l ' on n ' a pas encore clairement expose, 2 c e t @g&, est Z'usage frequent de La science e t des techniques 6 Z'encontre des i n t6 rP t s des masses.

Cet a r t i c l e - 6 c r i t sur Za base des travaux P u n sbminuire tenu c e t t e annbe 2 BangaZore - s ' e f f o r e e de montrer l a r e l a t i o n entre les ;chess e t une v i s i o n (cont. 2 la page 1 3 ( 2 5 ) .

* / Paper written on the basis of the proceedings of the Workshop on An Alter- - nate Approach to the Management of Research, Development and Education in Science and Technology.

K. Seetharam, V . Shiva and J . Bandyopadhyay

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY I N I N D I A : AN ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVE

1. INTRODUCTION

Workshops o r Conferences on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between sc ience, techno logy and development a r e q u i t e common i n t h e I n d i a n academic c i r c l e s these days. A t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a l s o h e l d a mas- s i v e Conference on sc ience and techno logy f o r development i n August 1979 i n Vienna. So much o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l and n a t i o n a l concern over t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n u t i l i z i n g s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l know1 edge towards t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a more j u s t and humane s o c i e t y , f r e e f rom hunger, unemployment and a b j e c t pover ty , however, has seen l i t t l e success i n e v o l v i n g an a l t e r n a t e framework f o r t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f sc ience and techno logy i n de- velopment. T h i s i s because t h e b a s i c approach, l i n k i n g sc ience , techno logy and development i n a m e c h a n i s t i c f a s h i o n , i n t h e l i n e o f t h e wes te rn model o f development, has been g o i n g unchal lenged. I n I n d i a , t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t s c i e n - t i f i c manpower i n t h e wor ld , s i t t i n g amids t t h e most c r u e l p o v e r t y and s tag - n a t i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , has been f e e l i n g s t r o n g l y about t h e a b s u r d i t y o f i t s own e x i s t e n c e . S igns o f a s e r i o u s s c r u t i n y o f t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f t h e m e c h a n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sc ience , technology and development have been apparen t i n t h e minds o f a l a r g e number o f s c i e n t i s t s and t e c h n o l o g i s t s th roughou t I n d i a b u t no c o n c r e t e views, however, have y e t emeraed as an a l t e r n a t i v e . l/

I n t h e p r e s e n t unders tand ing o f sc ience and techno logy , a b l i n d f o l l o w i n g of whatever goes i n t h e name o f sc ience and techno logy i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , seems t o be t h e o n l y l e g i t i m a t e a c t i v i t y t o be pursued i n I n d i a . T h i s v iew has p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i c p o l i c y g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t day s c i e n c e and techno logy o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h e coun t ry . The marg i - n a l i t y o f t h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n t o t h e g rowth o f t h e I n d i a n economy a f t e r 30 y e a r s of independence i s an a lmos t accepted f a c t . What i s n o t y e t c l e a r l y exposed i s t h e f r e q u e n t use o f sc ience and techno logy a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e peop le i n genera l . These shor t -comings a r e u s u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o v a r i o u s m i n o r and p e r i p h e r a l f a c t o r s . I n t h i s paper these f a i l u r e s a r e a t tempted t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a t o t a l l y i n c o r r e c t v iew o f t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p of sc ience , techno logy and development i n I n d i a , and t o a r r i v e a t an a l t e r n a t e approach which w i l l be more meaningfu l t o t h e I n d i a n peop le . Th is paper i s a commentary-cum-report on t h e proceedings o f a Workshop on 'An A l t e r n a t e Approach t o t h e rllanagement o f Research, Development and Educa t ion i n Sc ience and Technology ' r e c e n t l y h e l d i n Bangalore. It was t h o u g h t t h a t a l l t h e peop le i n t h e c o u n t r y who a r e seek ing a1 t e r n a t i v e s p a r t i c u l a r l y those f r o m r u r a l based o r g a n i s a t i o n s and those i n fo rma l i n s t i t u t i o n s t r y i n g t o c r e a t e an a l t e r n a t e approach t o educa t ion and research i n sc ience and techno logy s h o u l d meet t o go deeper i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e s e n t approach and i n t o q u e s t i o n s o f f o r m i n g t h e a l t e r n a t e , encompassing h i s t o r i c a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , p01 i t i c a l and economic d imensions o f t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d .

A broad a n a l y s i s o f t h e a l t e r n a t e development s t r a t e g y f o r t h e T h i r d Wor ld was made by K o t h a r i i n t h e inaugura l address t o t h e Workshop. 21 S t r e s s i n g t h e need f o r o u t l i n i n g t h e a l t e r n a t e approach t o development K o t h a r i dep lo red t h e p r e s e n t p o l i c i e s on Science and Technology which must be d i v e r t e d f rom i t s p r e s e n t b i a s towards m i l i t a r y research and a t tuned t o t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l m a t r i x o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . I f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s f a i l t o do so, and c o n t i n u e t o f o l l o w t h e western model o f development, i t w i l l n o t be p o s s i b l e f o r these c o u n t r i e s t o be f r e e f rom t h e dominat ion o f t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s and e s t a b l i s h a more j u s t human s o c i e t y .

F o l l o w i n g t h e inaugura l address t h e Workshop s t a r t e d w i t h papers on H i s t o r y o f Science and Technology i n I n d i a , f o l l o w e d by papers on P o l i t i c a l Economy o f Science and Technology. Reports f rom p r a c t i c a l exper iences i n u s i n g a l t e r - n a t i v e approaches i n sc ience educa t ion , technology development and h e a l t h c a r e were presented and d iscussed i n d e t a i l . F i n a l l y t h e Workshop ended w i t h t h e development o f c l e a r g u i d e l i n e s on an a l t e r n a t e approach, and some d e f i n i t e r e s o l u t i o n s on t h e r o l e o f sc ience and technology i n development i n I n d i a were taken.

2. HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Any i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e h i s t o r y o f sc ience and technology i n t h e I n d i a n c o n t e x t must g i v e an account o f t h e p resen t day d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n sc ience and techno logy between c o u n t r i e s l i k e I n d i a and those i n t h e west. Two accounts f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l were p u t fo rward i n t h e Workshop. One view was t h a t b e f o r e t h e s c i e n t i f i c and i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n i n Europe t h e economy and l i f e s t y l e was more o r l e s s u n i f o r m a l l over t h e w o r l d th roughou t t h e a n c i e n t and medieval t imes. Though d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s had d i f f e r e n t sc ience and technology systems t h e r e had been c o n s t a n t i n t e r a c t i o n and adop t ion o f sc ien- t i f i c i deas across d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s . There a r e many examples o f Chinese and I n d i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n i n Europe. China and I n d i a however were stopped f rom a n a t u r a l adop t ion o f modern techno log ies because o f m i l i t a r y and economic r e s t r i c t i o n s assoc ia ted w i t h c o l o n i s a t i o n . 3/ The o t h e r view, i n c o n t r a s t , presupposed t h a t t h e t r a d i t o n a l I n d i a n s i t u a t i o n d e p i c t e d t h e ' a s i a t i c mode o f p r o d u c t i o n ' which was very d i f f e r e n t f r o m . t h e t r a d i t i o n a l European s i t u a t i o n because o f t h e way c r a f t o r t r a d i t i o n a l tech- no logy was b lended w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e . Hence i t i s t h i s p e c u l a r i t y t h a t accoun- t e d f o r t h e e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n sc ience and technology i n I n d i a and t h e west. !/

The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f above two theses shared two methodo log ica l s l i p s . The f i r s t was based on con fus ing t h e i s s u e o f t h e e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n sc ience and technology, w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f why t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n d i d n o t occur i n I n d i a . T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f development o f a s o c i e t y w i t h sc ience and technology d e p i c t s t h e erroneous v iew o f a mechan is t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sc ience, technology and development. 5/ The second methodo log ica l e r r o r was based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e combined use o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and observa- t i o n i n sc ience was unique t o t h e sc ience t h a t emerged i n Europe d u r i n g t h e 1 6 t h and 1 7 t h cen tu ry . Th is comb ina t ion i s u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as t h e ' s c i e n - t i f i c method' . Through a somewhat d i s t o r t e d unders tand ing o f h i s t o r y we tend t o i d e n t i f y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e ' s c i e n t i f i c method' i n I n d i a w i t h t h e advent o f t h e B r i t i s h r u l e . I n f a c t , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f q u i t e a developed

s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l knowledge i n I n d i a goes back t o t h e e a r l i e s t r e c o r d s o f h i s t o r y . A l i t t l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e h i s t o r y o f p r e c o l o n i a l s c i e n c e i n I n d i a , would r e v e a l t h a t t h e r e was no d e r t h o f r e l i a n c e on e x p e r i - m e n t a t i o n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n i n sc ience . A ryabha t ta , Bhaskara, Charaka a l l used s o p h i s t i c a t e d techn iques o f mathemat ica l and exper imen ta l procedures i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 6 / The assumpt ion t h a t t h e s c i e n - t i f i c method g o t c r e a t e d w i t h modern sc ience i n Europe i s a myth t h a t has s t a r t e d t o g e t eroded w i t h s e r i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s . 7 1 Neverheless, o v e r c e n t u r i e s t h i s myth has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e l e g i t i m i s a ~ i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge and t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g i e s by a s s i g n i n g t o them an i r r a t i o n a l and m y s t i c a l s t a t u s . The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e sess ion he lped t o i n d i c a t e t h a t o u r t r a d i t i o n a l systems have been r i c h r e s o u r c e o f a p p r o p r i a t e s c i e n c e and techno logy and i t i s an u r g e n t research t a s k i n t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e and techno logy t o c o l l e c t as much i n f o r m a t i o n as p o s s i b l e abou t t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f these systems b e f o r e t h e y a r e f u r t h e r l o s t . - 8/

3, P O L I T I C A L ECONOMY O F S C I E N C E AND TECHNOLOGY

The p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t emerged i n t h e Workshop f rom t h e h i s t o r y o f sc ience ses- s i o n a l s o l e d t o s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e e x i s t i n g views wh ich p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p r e s e n t day sc ience and techno logy es tab l i shments . The c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w p o i n t sees t h e p r e s e n t day I n d i a n s c i e n c e and techno logy as i n e f f e c t i v e because o f f a c t o r s l i k e inadequa te budge t a l l o c a t i o n , l a c k o f p r o p e r management and t h e absence o f an a p p r o p r i a t e system t o i n c u l c a t e m o t i v a t i o n and s c i e n t i f i c va lues among I n d i a n s c i e n t i s t s . 9/ The d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e Workshop, however suggested t h a t t h e problem i n I n d i a n s c i e n c e i s n o t j u s t one o f i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s a r i s i n g from f a c t o r s e x t e r n a l t o s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y b u t I n d i a n s c i e n c e and techno logy i s c r i s i s r i d d e n due t o t h e v e r y c o n t e n t o f t h e a c t i v i t y . I n d i a n s c i e n t i s t s and t e c h n o l o g i s t s a r e i n p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n an a c t i v i t y t h a t i s r o o t e d and s u s t a i n e d i n a l i e n c u l t u r e s , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e s u b s c r i b i n g t o t h e myth o f t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f sc ience and techno logy . The f a c t t h a t most s c i e n t i s t s and t e c h n o l o g i s t s a l l ove r t h e w o r l d a r e p r a c t i c i n g wes te rn s c i e n c e and techno logy i s i n no way a c o n f i r m a t i o n o f i t s uniqueness and u n i v e r s a l i t y a t t h e l e v e l o f r a t i o n a l i t y . Ra ther , i t i s an express ion o f t h e c u l t u r a l domina t ion o f t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s over t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . S c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y i s b a s i c a l l y a s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y and s c i e n t i f i c knowledge which i s a p r o d u c t o f t h i s a c t i v i t y i s b a s i c a l l y a c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t . The s o c i a l produc- t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge c r e a t e s va lues , c r i t e r i a and commi tments of s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y i n s p e c i f i c s o c i a l c o n t e x t s . These c r i t e r i a and s tandards s p e c i f y w h i c h problems w i l l be cons ide red as l e g i t i m a t e s c i e n t i f i c problems, wh ich methods and techniques o f s o l u t i o n s w i l l be cons ide red as s c i e n t i f i c a l l y adequate. I t i s i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f sc ience and tech - n o l o g y i s denied. Na ive c r i t i c s o f t h e above v iew i n t h e i r a t t e m p t t o c o u n t e r i t o f t e n r a i s e c e r t a i n i r r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n s l i k e 'Do n o t Newton 's Laws h o l d good i n I n d i a ? ' o r 'Does t h e e a r t h r o t a t e o n l y i n Europe, s i n c e Copernicus was a European?'. By pos ing such q u e s t i o n s , t h e c r i t i c s presuppose t h a t t h e u n i - v e r s a l i t y r e f e r r e d t o above p e r t a i n s t o t h e v a l i d a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge a t t h e g l o b a l l e v e l . However, t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y i s b e i n g ques t ioned o n l y a t t h e l e v e l o f l e g i t i m i z a t i o n and acceptance o f t h e v a r i o u s knowledge systems as s c i e n t i f i c . U n i v e r s a l v a l i d i t y i s t h e common p r o p e r t y o f a l l knowledge sys- tems. Thus, w h i l e a f a l l i n g a p p l e i n China o r I n d i a w i l l be gu ided by Newton 's -

laws, a B r i t i s h e r can a l s o be cured by Acupuncture o r Ayurveda. However, Newtonian mechanics o r Acupuncture o r Ayurveda were developed i n comp le te ly i s o l a t e d c u l t u r a l con tex ts and had t h e i r own r e s p e c t i v e c r i t e r i a o f l e g i t i - m i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e p r a c t i c i n g communit ies. I t i s t h i s element o f sc ience and techno logy which i s n o t u n i v e r s a l .

The c r i t e r i a o f l e g i t i m i z a t i o n and s c i e n t i f i c s tandards a r e shared t a c i t l y by members o f a p a r t i c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c community and t h e e x i s t e n c e o f community s t r u c t u r e i s fundamental t o t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o d u c t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. Wh i le s c i e n t i s t s i n I n d i a , through v a r i o u s s o c i a l processes, g e t channe l i sed i n t o s c i e n t i f i c t r a d i t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e absence o f a sc ien- t i f i c community i n I n d i a undermines t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f these s c i e n t i s t s - i n terms o f t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h a t sc ience o r t h e i r techno lo - g i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e needs o f t h e I n d i a n s o c i e t y . E/

Dur ing t h e t h r e e decades o f p lanned s c i e n t i f i c research i n I n d i a t h e r e has n o t been any success i n deve lop ing a t r a d i t i o n o f research programmes p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e s p e c i a l i t i e s o f t h e I n d i a n con tex t . Whether such programmes o f research a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f sc ience and tech- nology i s a q u e s t i o n y e t t o be answered. I n any case, s i g n i f i c a n t autonomy i n t h e c r i t e r i a o f s c i e n t i f i c i t y has t o be evo lved i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e such research programmes.

I n t h i s perspec t i ve , b r e a k i n g t h e myth o f a unique, va lue f r e e and u n i v e r s a l sc ience becomes t h e f i r s t s t e p i n c r e a t i n g autonomy i n s c i e n t i f i c research. I n d i a n as w e l l as o t h e r T h i r d World s c i e n t i s t s need t o recogn ise t h a t they a r e e n t i t l e d t o c r e a t e knowledge i n terms o f models, metaphors and methodologies t h a t make sense i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s and a l l o w research t o be d i r e c t e d t o t h e needs o f t h e i r s o c i e t i e s and s t i l l be c a l l e d s c i e n t i s t s . The p a t t e r n s o f r e c o g n i t i o n and reward systems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h western sc ience and techno logy a r e o n l y one among many p o s s i b i l i t i e s . There i s no l o g i c a l o r r a t i o n a l argument which n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e u n i v e r s a l s u b s c r i p t i o n t o t h e system o f t h e west. An a l t e r n a t e approach t o sc ience and technology r e l e v a n t t o t h e needs o f o u r people has t o f i r s t address i t s e l f t o t h e t a s k of opposing t h e o v e r a l l f o r e i g n domina t ion o f o u r s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l research - a t t h e l e v e l o f o r g a n i s a t i o n and even more so - a t t h e l e v e l o f i deo logy . c/ A t t h e l e v e l o f s c i e n t i f i c research, i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s has l e d t o a mediocre though l a r g e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s m e n t i n I n d i a and t o a 'loss o f l a r g e amounts o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge t h a t was a v a i l a b l e h i s t o r i c a l l y among o u r people. A t t h e l e v e l of t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n p u t s i n t o development programmes, these i n f l u e n c e s have been a major f a c t o r i n t h e f u r t h e r impoverishment o f t h e I n d i a n peop le and t h e m i s u t i l i z a t i o n and d e p l e t i o n of o u r human and n a t u r a l resources. Use o f techno logy has r e s u l t e d i n general s o c i a l , economic and c u l t u r a l impover ishment of o u r people by r e p l i c a t i n g , a t l e a s t a t t h e m ic ro - l e v e l , t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t y p i c a l o f wes te rn s o c i e t i e s . I n t h i s sense t h e impor ted t e c h n o l o g i e s have n e i t h e r been s o c i a l l y n e u t r a l n o r were t h e i r use i n e v i tab1 e and o n l y c h o i c e f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l development. F o r i n s t a n c e t h e technology o f t h e green r e v o l u t i o n i s o n l y one cho ice o u t of an e n t i r e range o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s and has g i v e n r i s e t o new h y b r i d seeds t h a t g i v e h i g h y i e l d s under s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s . The p a r t i c u l a r green r e v o l u t i o n

t echno logy 'was a c h o i c e not t o s t a r t by deve lop ing seeds b e t t e r a b l e t o w i t h - s t a n d d r o u g h t o r pes ts . I t was a c h o i c e n o t t o c o n c e n t r a t e f i r s t on i m p r o v i n g t r a d i t i o n a l methods o f i n c r e a s i n g y i e l d s , such as mixed c r o p p i n g . It was a c h o i c e E t o develop techno logy t h a t was p r o d u c t i v e , l a b o u r i n t e n s i v e , and independent o f f o r e i g n i n p u t supp ly . It was a c h o i c e c t o c o n c e n t r a t e on r e i n f o r c i n g t h e balanced t r a d i t i o n a l d i e t s o f g r a i n s p l u s legumes' . g/

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f wes te rn t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t h e I n d i a n c o n t e x t i s thus b i a s e d a g a i n s t t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f I n d i a n people. I n an a l r e a d y p o l a r i s e d s i t u a t i o n even those t e c h n o l o g i e s which have had a s o c i a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e r o l e e lsewhere ( f o r example, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e powerloom d u r i n g t h e i n d u s t r i a l revo - l u t i o n i n Europe) have t h e danger o f becoming agents f o r f u r t h e r p o l a r i s a t i o n . E / Th is has v e r y c l e a r l y happened i n t h e case o f handloom techno logy , f i s h i n g techno logy and f o r e s t techno logy i n I n d i a .

Development programmes which a r e c la imed t o be f o r t h e u p l i f t m e n t o f t h e peop le have s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , t h rough t h e use o f a l i e n techno log ies l e d t o f u r t h e r impover ishment o f t h e r u r a l poor . Thus t h e r e c e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f mechanised f i s h i n g wh ich was done i n t h e name o f improv ing t h e s t a t u s o f 6.5 m i l l i o n peop le o f t h e f i s h i n g communit ies i n I n d i a , has t u r n e d o u t t o be a ve ry s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e . 'Development ' o f t h e f i s h e r i e s s e c t o r t h r o u g h t e c h n o l o g i c a l change has i n no way meant t h e development o f f ishermen.

The t r a d i t i o n a l ( a r t i s a n a l ) f i she rmen o f I n d i a who c o n s t i t u t e a community o f 6.5 m i l l i o n peop le f i s h i n g w i t h 192,000 coun t ry -boa ts and catamarans 2.7 m i l l i o n gear and t a c k l e c o n t r i b u t i n g 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l f i s h c a t c h a r e today f a c i n g a c u t e economic d i s t r e s s due t o t h e r e c k l e s s and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e f i s h i n g a c t i v i t y o f 16,500 mechanised f i s h i n g t r a w l e r s and p u r s e i n e r s i n s h a l l o w i n s h o r e wa te rs , owned by 8,000 persons employ ing d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c - t l y 165,000 persons and c o n t r i b u t i n g around 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l f i s h o u t - p u t . I r o n i c a l l y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f mechanised t r a w l e r s and p u r s e i n e r s i n I n d i a n Ocean th rough ' j o i n t v e n t u r e s ' and ' c o o p e r a t i v e f i s h i n g v e n t u r e s ' c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e mar ine resources o f t h e wes te rn c o u n t r i e s and t h e banning, i n t h e i r own seas, o f techn iques such as p u r s e i n i n g which a r e s t u n n i n g l y o v e r e f f i c i e n t b u t h i g h l y d e p l e t i v e , d e s t r o y i n g mar ine l i f e and a q u a t i c eco logy . 141 S i m i l a r l y , good aspec ts o f s t r i c t e c o l o g i c a l l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t t h e wes te rn c o u n t r i e s a p p l y t o t h e i r own f o r e s t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y bypassed by t h e f o r e s t p o l i c y makers o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . The f o r e s t p o l i c i e s i n I n d i a a r e s t i l l r o o t e d i n t h e c o l o n i a l approach t o o u r f o r e s t resources which e v a l u a t e s and u t i l i s e s these resources p u r e l y i n terms o f i t s commercial va lue. F o r e s t s however have a much w i d e r and fundamental r o l e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t i e s . They a r e t h e source o f food, f u e l , f odder and f e r t i l i z e r . They a r e a l s o t h e most e f f e c t i v e means f o r s o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n . These aspects o f f o r e s t s have n e i t h e r been s i g n i f i c a n t l y researched by f o r e s t e r y s c i e n t i s t s i n I n d i a n o r have t h e y been k e p t i n mind when t e c h n o c r a t s and bureaucra ts o f t h e f o r e s t depar tments make d e c i s i o n s abou t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f o r e s t resources . Though on papers o f t h e work ing p lans these f a c t o r s a r e g i v e n l i p - s e r v i c e , t h e a c t u a l s t a t e o f t h e f o r e s t s a r e no s e c r e t . F o r e s t r y sc ience and techno logy has l e d t o widespread monocu l tu re o f those spec ies t h a t a r e commerc ia l l y

v a l u a b l e (e.g. p i n e and euca lyp tus wh ich p r o v i d e raw m a t e r i a l s f o r paper , rayon and pharmaceu t i ca l i n d u s t r i e s ) and the b road leaved spec ies which p ro - v i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r i s t s w i t h t h e i r b a s i c n e c e s s i t i e s have a lmos t d isappeared. Because o f t h e i r s o i l b u i l d i n g c a p a c i t y and s o i l and w a t e r con- s e r v a t i o n c a p a c i t i e s t h e disappearance o f these species have l e d t o the e r o s i o n o f t o p s o i l , f l o o d s d u r i n g t h e monsoons and d r o u g h t d u r i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e y e a r . T h i s has r e s u l t e d i n severe economic and e c o l o g i c a l c r i s e s th roughou t t h e c o u n t r y . ]5/

These o b s e r v a t i o n s c o u l d be extended t o o t h e r spheres o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. Everywhere i t can be seen t h a t t h e impor ted techno logy t h a t was adopted was o n l y one among a wide range o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t c o u l d be developed. I t was i n t r o d u c e d n o t i n favour of b u t a t t h e c o s t o f t r a d i t i o n a l technology, and had l e d t o t h e v e r y b a s i c q u e s t i o n o f s u r v i v a l f o r a l a r g e number o f I n d i a n s .

4, TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN A L T E R N A T I V E

The above d i s c u s s i o n l a i d down t h e p e r s p e c t i v e f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e sc ience and techno logy s t r u c t u r e and i n d i c a t e d some d e s t r u c t i v e i n g r e d i e n t s t h a t e x i s t i n t h e p r e s e n t day e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s c i e n c e and technology. The subsequent d i s - cuss ions i n t h e Workshop focussed on wha t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e means i n a c t u a l p r a c t i s e o f e v o l v i n g a l t e r n a t e sc ience and technology i n d i f f e r e n t spheres o f s o c i a l , c u t u r a l and economic l i f e wh ich a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by v a r i o u s i n s t i t u - t i o n a l and v o l u n t a r y a t tempts across t h e coun t ry . These a t t e m p t s have been m a i n l y i n t h e spheres o f communication o f sc ience and techno logy , techno logy development i n r u r a l areas and a l t e r n a t i v e s i n p e o p l e ' s h e a l t h care.

5. COMMUNICAT ION OF S C I E N C E AND TECHNOLOGY

A c c e p t i n g t h a t most s c i e n c e and techno logy p o l i c i e s a t p r e s e n t a r e n o t s a t i s - f y i n g t h e needs o f t h e peop le t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s , who i n i t i a t e s t h e change i n such d e s t r u c t i v e p o l i c i e s . The o n l y p r o m i s i n g source f o r a p ressure t o change i s t h e o r g a n i s e d movements b u i l t up among t h e people, because i t i s they who have t o g a i n f rom an a l t e r n a t e approach. I n t h i s r e s p e c t one o f t h e main r e s - p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f s c i e n t i s t s who t h i n k o f an a l t e r n a t e approach, i s t o demys t i f y sc ience , t o make t h e common man f e e l t h a t he t o o can command sc ience and what- e v e r goes i n t h e name o f ' s c i e n c e ' needs n o t be accepted w i t h o u t ques t ion . S c i e n t i s t s i n t h e fo rma l i n s t i t u t i o n s need t o be conv inced abou t t h e i r d u t y o f b r e a k i n g t h e w a l l around t h e I I T s , I I S c , I I M s e t c . 16/ I t was c l e a r f rom t h i s s e s s i o n t h a t an e f f e c t i v e communication o f s c i e n t i f i c i deas w i l l be p o s s i b l e o n l y when t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e media, t h e f o l k media i s used i n t h e r u r a l a reas . The f a i l u r e o f t h e r a d i o - TV network method o f communication o r o t h e r formal a t tempts i s n o t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t peop le do n o t l i k e ' s c i e n c e ' b u t these media a r e use less and i n v o l v e s one way communication. An a l t e r n a t e approach based on t h e p a r t i c i p a t o r y and f o l k methods w i l l s u r e l y make sc ience more a t t r a c t i v e and more popu la r . I n t h i s s e s s i o n r e p o r t s o f t h r e e v e r y successfu l p o p u l a r i z a t i o n movements were presented. E/ References were a l s o made t o o t h e r movements l e d by a number o f v o l u n t a r y agencies. E/ The p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f a s c i e n c e movement i s n o t b e i n g l e d w i t h t h e end o f making peop le knowledge- a b l e o n l y . I t forms a v e r y i m p o r t a n t base o f e v o l v i n g a democra t i c and broad- based i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e a l t e r n a t e approach towards cho ice o f techno logy and i t s m o n i t o r i n g . I n K e r a l a these have a l r e a d y been m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e p o l l u t i o n

c o n t r o l i n t h e C h a l i y a r r i v e r and on the q u e s t i o n o f t h e S i l e n t V a l l e y P r o j e c t . Over and above, p o p u l a r i z a t i o n movements w i l l p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t e use o f sc ience which i s o f paramount need i n the p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l scene where l i n g u i s - t i c , communal and castebased p a r o c h i a l i s m i s hav ing a v e r y undue and d e s t r u c - t i v e l y dominant r o l e t o p l a y .

Wh i le t h e p e o p l e ' s sc ience movements can r e s i s t t h e expansion o f environmen- t a l l y harmfu l and s o c - a l l y and economica l l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e t e c h n o l o g i e s ; the t a s k o f b u i l d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y and economica l l y sound t e c h n o l o g i e s was accep- t e d as a ma jo r t a s k t o be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y under taken by groups i n s i d e o r o u t s i d e formal research o r g a n i s a t i o n , who want t o develop t h e a l t e r n a t e approach. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s area o f t h e a l t e r n a t e approach c o n s i s t s o f a g r e a t amount o f u n c e r t a i n t y and con fus ion . Wi thou t a much deeper c l a r i t y abou t t h e a l t e r - n a t e - a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l e v e l - t h e r e i s eve ry p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g approach, wh ich has c o n s i d e r a b l y e r roded i t s v i a b i l i t y , may g e t a new l e a s e o f l i f e by a t t a c h i n g t h e ' R u r a l ' t a g w i t h i t s f u n c t i o n s . The c u r r e n t f l i p o f a l l r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e fo rma l i n s t i t u t i o n s towards ' R u r a l ' p r o j e c t s i n no way p o i n t s t o a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e e x i s t i n g approach. Whether i t i s a t t h e U n i t e d Na t ions l e v e l o r a t t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l , t h e ' R u r a l ' t a g i s an assurance f o r easy a v a i l a b i l i t y o f funds and n o t an assurance o f a s e r i o u s search f o r an a l t e r n a t e . Thus, th roughou t I n d i a w h i l e a l a r g e number o f c e n t r e s f o r such ' R u r a l ' s t u d i e s and research i s f u n c t i o n i n g and a l a r g e number i s on t h e i n c u b a t i o n , t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n i n r e a l terms t o t h e technology development f o r r u r a l areas remain e q u a l l y m a r g i n a l . T h i s m a r g i n a l i t y has l e d many c r i t i c s o f t h e a l t e r n a t e approach t o c l a i m t h e uniqueness o f t h e e x i s t i n g approach and argue t h a t no a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e wes te rn concep t o f 'modern isa- t i o n ' can work. Moreover, c o n f u s i o n has a l s o been c r e a t e d around t h e i s s u e of i d e n t i f y i n g a11 a t tempts t o fo rm an a l t e r n a t e approach as a manoeuver on t h e p a r t o f t h e wes t t o keep t h e T h i r d World ' backward ' . It need h a r d l y be s t r e s - sed t h a t genu ine a l t e r n a t i v e s cannot be developed so e a s i l y by mere ly adding a ' R u r a l ' t a g on t h e e x i s t i n g approach; genuine a l t e r n a t e s w i l l o n l y be those wh ich have e v o l v e d h i s t o r i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y i n t h e l o c a l c o n t e x t and g e t t h e i r sustenance f rom t h e u rge f o r s e l f - r e l i a n c e o f t h e T h i r d World. The a t tempts t o m a n i p u l a t e such a l t e r n a t i v e s w i l l n o t f i n d easy success because t h e y a r e based on h i s t o r i c a l awareness, p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t and p01 i- t i c a l consc iousness about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sc ience , techno logy and develop- ment.

I n I n d i a among t h e fo rma l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e r e a r e i n s t a n c e s o f s e r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o develop t h e a l t e r n a t i v e . P u b l i c a t i o n s have s t a r t e d appear ing t o t a l l y nega- t i n g t h e r e c o g n i t i o n c r i t e r i a o f wes te rn s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a - d i t i o n and thus c r e a t i n g an autonomous base f o r an a l t e r n a t e . g/ Reddy has d e l i n e a t e d c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a f o r t h e development o f a l t e r n a t e s i n techno logy f o r r u r a l areas. 20/ Success fu l t r a n s f e r o f techno logy developed i n formal i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e s t a r t e d t a k i n g p l a c e , though i n a v e r y l i m i t e d s c a l e , t o some r u r a l areas. 21/ The t e c h n o l o g i c a l v i a b i l i t y and appropr ia teness o f s e v e r a l s m a l l t e c h n o l o g i e s can be p roved i n t h e o r y b u t t h e i r p r a c t i c a b i l i t y as a l o n g te rm a l t e r n a t i v e i n r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n depends on v a r i o u s complex f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e b i g i n d u s t r i e s . Exper iences o f groups exper imen t ing w i t h a l t e r n a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s i n r u r a l areas go t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s on t e c h n o l o g i c a l cont inuum presen ted e a r - l i e r . Very o f t e n , however, r u r a l communit ies have r e j e c t e d c e r t a i n techno lo - g i e s assumed t o be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r them by the e l i t e t e c h n o l o g i s t s . The v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c t t h a t such new t e c h n o l o g i e s were e i t h e r useless o r d e s t r u c t i v e f rom t h e p o i n t o f v iew o f t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge system a r e i g n o r e d under such c i r cumstances . 231

The p r e s e n t b u r e a u c r a t i c manner o f l o o k i n g a t sc ience and techno logy have com- p l e t e l y i g n o r e d t h e v i t a l l i n k s between sc ience and techno logy on one hand and p e o p l e ' s h e a l t h ca re on t h e o t h e r . The a l t e r n a t e approach must b r i d g e t h i s gap and o r i e n t a l t e r n a t e sc ience and techno logy towards p e o p l e ' s h e a l t h . Thus, beyond t h e t y p i c a l c u r a t i v e aspects , i n an a1 t e r n a t e approach, t h e p r e v e n t i v e aspects a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a l t e r n a t e t e c h n o l o g i c a l developments i n food p r o d u c t i o n and p rocess ing , wa te r t r e a t m e n t , and envi ronmenta l p r o t e c t i o n e t c . I n a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i c a l developments may l e a d t o new h e a l t h hazards as has been e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e d i sease ' E n t e r o e r g o t i s m ' i n GuJarat , Maharashtra and Ra jas than which was a r e s u l t o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h y i e l d i n g v a r i e t i e s o f b a j r a . S i m i l a r l y the endemic ' f a m i l i a l a r t h r i t i s ' o f Kalnad r e g i o n has been l i n k e d w i t h t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e use o f p e s t i c i d e s . 241 A l t e r n a t e approaches t o sc ience and technology, hence, must i n c l u d e t h e assessment o f t e c h n o l o g i e s on t h e b a s i s o f i t s p o s s i b l e impacts on h e a l t h .

The p r e s e n t h e a l t h ca re system i n I n d i a has f a i l e d t o focus on t h e p r o m o t i v e aspec ts o f h e a l t h . I t has f u n c t i o n e d m a i n l y as a c r i s i s response system wh ich encourages dehumanisat ion o f h e a l t h c a r e and unnecessary dependence on wes te rn techno logy and medic ine. T h i s system was i n t r o d u c e d and l e g i t i m i z e d i n I n d i a by t h e B r i t i s h r u l e r s th rough s t a t e pat ronage. Sys temat i c discouragement o f t r a d i t i o n a l and ind igenous h e a l t h ca re systems has eroded t h e base o f an approach where peop le would l a r g e l y t a k e c a r e o f t h e i r own h e a l t h th rough 10- c a l l y a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s and s k i l l s . H e a l t h systems i n an a l t e r n a t e approach s h o u l d be h e a l t h genera t ing , s i t u a t i o n s p e c i f i c , c u l t u r a l l y coheren t and de- pendent on p a r t i c i p a n t t e c h n o l o g i e s . 25 / I n t h i s r e s p e c t q u i t e a few m i c r o - l e v e l exper iments have s t a r t e d and a r F g i v i n g p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s i n terms o f t r a i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e h e a l t h personnel who a r e p a r t and p a r c e l o f t h e community and d e v e l o p i n g l o c a l resources f o r food and medic ine. 26/ Fo r i ns tance , t r a - d i t i o n a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o m e n t e d food can be used i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g t h e p r o t e i n d e p l e t e d c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t depending on baby foods made by t h e t r a n s n a t i o - n a f s . E/

The q u e s t i o n o f deve lop ing an a l t e r n a t e p e r s p e c t i v e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a c l e a r e r unders tand ing o f t h e p l a c e o f sc ience and techno logy i n s o c i a l change and development. ' M o d e r n i s a t i o n ' which s tands f o r f o l l o w i n g t h e western p a t t e r n o f development i n t h e T h i r d k o r l d c o u n t r i e s , has he lped t o produce deep c r i s e s i n these s o c i e t i e s . The a l t e r n a t e p e r s p e c t i v e as developed i n t h e Workshop p r e s c r i b e s a c l o s e r h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f the s o c i e t i e s i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . Very r e l e v a n t s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l knowledge has been a v a i l a b l e t o t r a d i t i o n a l communi t ies. ' M o d e r n i s a t i o n ' has however i gnored

t h e s e as i n e f f i c i e n t o r i r r a t i o n a l . H i s t o r i c a l case s t u d i e s p e r t a i n i n f l o t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s however b r i n g o u t t h a t these t r a d i t i o n a l systems i n these c o u n t r i e s d i d no.t l a c k r a t i o n a l i t y and they d i d n o t d i e a n a t u r a l d e a t h b u t were suppressed o r k i l l e d by e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s . A r e c o g n i t i o n o f the r a t i o n a l i t y o f these t r a d i t i o n a l systems o f knowledge i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e used as a resource f o r a l t e r n a t e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l development. S c i e n t i s t s i n I n d i a and o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s need t o develop an inde- penden t a l t e r n a t e method o f r e c o g n i z i n g what i s s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h f o r t h e i r s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and c u l t u r a l env i ronments. The b l i n d second r a t e copy o f s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n advanced c o u n t r i e s has n e i t h e r l e d t o c r e a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y n o r has i t p l a y e d p o s i t i v e r o l e i n n a t i o n a l development. On t h e c o n t r a r y , such i n d i s c r i m i n a t e use o f w e s t e r n techno logy has des t royed t h e e c o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , and human resources and c a p a b i l i t i e s t h a t were a v a i l a b l e . The a l t e r n a t e p e r s p e c t i v e l a i d o u t above i s n o t a p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r go ing back i n h i s t o r y . The impor tance of a deeper h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f sc ience and t e c h n o l o g i c a l systems l i e s i n i t s f r u i t f u l - ness t o c r e a t e a w i d e r range o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r g rowth and development i n t h e s e s o c i e t i e s .

FOOTNOTES

l/ A few meetings which showed signs of such awareness are: - i) National Conference of Students and Youth on 'Education in India and

the People', IIT Kanpur, September 1974.

ii) National Conference on 'Peoples Science Movements' at Trivandrum in December 1978. Organised by Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad.

iii) Seminar on 'Appropriate Science and Technology' organised by West Bengal Committee on Science and Technology, Calcutta, February 1979.

iv) National Seminar on 'Management of Indian Science and Technology for Self-Reliance' organised by Society of Young Scientists at AIIMS, New Delhi, February 1980.

21 For more details refer to:

i) Rajni Kothari, Towards a Just World. World Order Models Project Working Paper No. 11, Institute for World Order (1980).

ii) Rajni Kothari, IFDA Dossier No. 12, October 1979, pp. 95-106.

iii) ~ a j n i ~othari, Alternatives V, 1979-80, pp. 397-426

31 S.N. Sen in 'Lesson from the History of Traditonal Science and Technology' - paper read at Workshop. See also his 'Vigyaner Ithihas' Indian Association of the Cultivation of Science, Calcutta, 1955.

41 S. Gupta in 'Historical Perspectives of the Roots of Science and Technology - in India' paper read at Workshop. See also his 'Potential of Industrial Revolution in Pre-British India' Economic and Political Weekly, 1st March 1980.

51 Claude Alvares, Comment in Workshop. His proposal for an Alternate Methodology of History of Science and Technology is exemplifiedin his recent book 'Homo Faber; Technology and Culture in India, China and the

p-

West 1500 - 1972', Allied Publishers, New Delhi 1979.

61 M.D. Srinivas, Comment in Workshop. -

7/ These studies also indicate that dependence on observation and quantifi- - cation is not tantamount to a Scientific method.

'I. Kuhn, 'The Structure of Scientific Revolutions', University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962.

J.Agassi, 'Science in Flux' Reidel, N.Y., 1975.

81 A few isolated examples of such research do exist. Such exceptions are:

Dharampal (ed) Indian Science and Technology in the 18th Century, Impex India, Delhi, 1971.

Surajit Sinha (ed) Science, Technology and Culture, India International Centre, New Delhi, 1970.

C. Alvares, op.cit

A. Rahman in his various contributions to History of Moghul Science.

91 M. Moravosik, 'Towards a Creative Science and Technology', paper read at Workshop. It represented the conventional view.

S. Arunachalam made a slight departure from the conventional view in his paper, 'creating New Communication Channels for Indian Scientists'.

101 V. Shiva, K. Seetharam, J. Bandyopadhyay, 'Scientists in India: A W

Community Still Born', paper read at the Workshop.

111 J. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas,'~ppropriate Science in the Third World', - paper read at the Workshop.

121 S. Goonatilake, 'Technology as a 'Social Gene', Examples from the Indus- - trial and Agricultural Systems', paper read at the Workshop.

See also Harry Braverman, 'Labour and Monopoly Capital1 Monthly Review Press, N.Y., 1974.

131 J. Bandyopadhyay and V. Shiva, 'Towards a ~echnological Continuum: Cases - in Technological Improvement and Choicef,paper read at the Workshop.

141 Christopher Fonseca, 'Traditonal Fishermen of India Demand Appropriate W

Technology in the Indian Fisheries Sector', paper read at the Workshop.

151 Sunderlal Bahuguna, 'Impact of Technological Inputs on the People of Hill - Areas: Outlines of an Alternate Approach', paper read at the Workshop.

M. Gadgil, 'Deforestation in the Sahyadris of Maharashtra', paper read at the Workshop.

161 M.P. Parameswaran, 'Science is a !<capon in the Hands of the People', paper read at the Workshop.

171 A. Achutan, 'Recent Experiences in the Communication of Modern Scientific - Ideas in Rural Areas', paper read at the Workshop. See also KSSP Publi- . .

cation The Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project: a technoeconomic and socio-political assessment, Trivandrum (1979).

A. ~onterio, 'A Report on the Lok L'idyan Jatra from Lok Vidyan Sangathana', paper read by U. Gore at the Workshop.

S. Ghosh, '~x~erience of Science-Technology Museums in taking Science to the Villages', paper read at the Workshop.

These include Kishore Bharati, Vigyan Shiksha Kendra etc.

Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Science Section C: Engineering Sciences, September and December 1979.

Amulya Reddy in 'Science, Technology and Development' ed. K.D. Sharma and - M.A. Qureshi, Sterling, New Delhi, 1978.

K.S. Jagadish, 'ASTRA: A Case Study in the Generation and Micro-diffusion of Appropriate Technology', paper read at the Workshop.

S.R. Hiremath, 'Rural Artisan Improvement Programme', paper read at the Workshop.

Bharatendu Prakash, 'Cement from Rice Husk: An appropriate Rural Tech- nology', Report presented at the Workshop.

R. Kaplinsky, 'International Technical Assistance or Appropriate Techno- logy', paper read at the Workshop.

E. Opoti - Remarks at the Workshop R. Roy - Remarks at the Workshop Rural Development: Whose knowledge counts? IDS Bulletin, January, 1979.

R.V. Bhat and K.A.V.R. Krishnamachari, 'Research Management of Food Toxic Diseases: Recent Experiences in Rural and Tribal Areas*, paper read at the Workshop.

Binayak Sen - Comments made in the Workshop.

R.M. Verma, Chairperson's Comments in the session on 'Alternates in People's Health Care'.

N.N. Mehrotra, 'Medical Establishment Versus Rural Health Care - Critical Appraisal for an Alternative', paper read at the Workshop.

Ravi Narayan, 'Alternatives in Health Care and Medical Education - The Indian Experience, paper read at the Workshop.

2 6 1 Ronald Seaton, 'Appropriate People in an Appropriate Health System - - India's need1, paper read at the Workshop.

V. Kalyan Ram, 'Need to introduce Management skills in Medical Education and Health System to Benefit People at the Grass Roots in India', papers read at the Workshop.

2.71 V. ~amprasad, 'The Technology of Traditional Foods and Their role in Nutrition Rehabilitation', paper read at the Workshop.

See also S. George, 'How the Other Half Dies, (1976) and Feeding the Few: - Corporate Control of Food, Institute for Policy Studies, 1978.

Resume: ( s u i t e de la page 15).

erronce aes r e ta t i ons entre la scicrc-P, t e s t e c h i q u e s e t Le de'Je'loppement e t d 'esquisser une autre approche qui s o i t davacagc au serv ice du pcuple h d i e n .

C I E N C I A Y TECNOLOGIA EN L A I N D I A : UNA PERSPECTIVA A L T E R N A T I V A

Resumen: La India, con su importante m a n e de cbra c i e w t f i u a que -a c l t e r m puesto en l a escala d i a l , e s s i n embargo un pazc en que ss encuentra l a miser ia y e l estancamiento soc ia l en sus fomas mas extremas.

Aunque un &ero importantc de cient-if&os y teenclogos lzan l levado acabo un examen s e r i o aeerca de las premisas que gobiernun las re lac- imes entre l u c iencia , l a teenologLa y e t desarrol lo en e s t e pais, no s e ha logrado concre- t i z a r un proqrcma a l t e rna t i ve .

Actualmente l a Gnica ac t iv idad leoibima I'ievada acabo en la India parece ser una imitaci6" ciega de no omporta que ideas , siempre que sear. aquellas que prevalecen en cuanto a c ieneia y teenologLa en los paises indus tr ia l i z .ados . Lo que no se expone elarumente es e t uso frecuente de c i ev to s aspectos c'ien- t i f i c o s en contra de 20s i n t e re se s de l pueblo en general.

En e s t e i.nfome,basado sobre trabajos presentados en un servinario que t w o lugar e s t e ano en Bangalore se 2 e n t i f i c a n u l g m o s de 20s fracasor 2 se muestra la reZacion entre e s t o s y una v i s i o n erronea entre ia eisizcia, l a tecnoZgfa y e t desarrol lo , y se i n t e n t a explorar un enfoque mas s i g m f i e u t i v o para e l pueblo de l a India.

T h E ARUSHA I N T I A T I V E - DISSEf ' l INATION

(see pp. 2 & 12)

The Arusha I n i t i a t i v e has been p u b l i s h e d i n : p---

- IFDA Doss ie r 19, September/October 1980 (9,200 c o p i e s )

- - Development D ia logue 1980:2, Dag Hammarskjold Foundat ion, Uppsala, Sweden (20,000 c o p i e s ) , which a l s o reproduced t h e f u l l t e x t o f t h e Conference papers by I s m a i l - S a b r i A b d a l l a , Norman Girvan, J u s t i n i a n F. Rweyemamu.

- UNCTAD document TD/B/AC.32/L.3 ) i n c l u d i n g t r a n s -

- U n i t e d N a t i o n s General Assembly document A/S-11/AC. 1/2 ) lations jntO Arab ic . Chinese.

) ~ r e n c h a n d Russian.

Analyses of/Commentaries on t h e Arusha I n i t i a t i v e have appeared i n --pp-

- A s - S a f i r A r a b i c P o l i t i c a l D a i l y , B e i r u t , 10 and 12.7.80

- Le Monde, P a r i s , 15.7.80

- The Guard ian, London, 10.9.80 - -- Europa, i n Le Monde, P a r i s ; La Stampa, T o r i n o ; The Times, London; D i e Wel t , --

Essen, 7 . 1 0 . 8 0 - P-

Other a r t i c l e s r e f e r r i n g t o o r a r i s i n g f r o m t h e Arusha South-Nor th Conference have smeared as f a r as we can a s c e r t a i n and a t l e a s t i n : D a i l y News. Dar-es- . . Salaam; E l Moudjahid, A l g i e r s , 7.7.80; Jaay doo le b i , Dakar, 6.8.80; m- n a t i o n a l H e r a l d Tr ibune, P a r i s , 1.7.80, 14.8.80, 9.9.80; Neue Zi i rcher Ze i tung , Z u r i c h , 19/20.7.80; T r ibune de Geneve, Geneve, 21.7.80; The Guardian, Manchester, 5.7.80; Le Monde 5.7.80, l .9.80, and Le Monde D ip lomat ique , P a r i s , 10.80; Sunday Telegraph, London, 27.7.80; M u l t i n a t i o n a l M o n i t o r , Washington, 6.80, 7.80; D a i l y News, 9.9.80 and The Gleaner , K ingston; E l Dia, Mexico C i t y , 12.7.80; Cor reo Economico, Mexico C i t y ; D i a r i o de Caracas, Caracas, 23.7.80; Mainstream, New D e l h i , 26.7.80; J o u r n a l o f Commerce, New York, 24.7.80; New York Times, New York, 4.9.80; I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n v e s t o r , (USA), 9.80; and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade & Investment , Washington DC, 3.10.80.

The f u l l t e x t o f t h e Arusha I n i t i a t i v e was p u b l i s h e d i n Development Forum 18.8.80 (Business e d i t i o n ) and excerp ts i n September 1980 ( r e g u l a r e d i t i o n ) .

Foo tno te : I n many o f t h e a r t i c l e s , t h e Arusha South-Nor th Conference was m i s t a k e n l y s t y l e d a "Nor th-South" Conference: an example o f unconscious acceptance t h a t t h e N o r t h always comes f i r s t .

QUELLE INDUSTRIALISATION POUR LE TIERS MONDE? */ p a r A b d e l l a t i f Benachenhou -

CREA 20, r u e Chahid Kha le f Mustapha DZ-Ben Aknoun A l g e r , A l g e r i e

Langue o r i g i n a l e : F ranca is

Resume: MSme s i e l l e n ' e s t plus eombattue duns son prineipe, 1 ' industr-ialisa-- t i o n du T i e r s Monde e s t fortement c r i t i qube , de d i ve r s eS t e s , 2m.s s w oraien- tatio??, s e s rnoyens, s e s r4sul ta^s . Pour prenofe ascendant une 2 ~ s t e mesure dcs choses, il convient de se demander que l l e e s t l 'an~pleur e t q u e l l m s o m Zes carae t e r i s t i ques p i n c i p a l e s de Z ' i ndus t r ia l i sa t i on du T i e r s l¥londe que l l e s sent l e s probabi t i tes de son dheloppemcnt au p r o f i t des peup2ec. C ' e s t ee que s ' c f f o r c e de f a i r e Abde l la t i f Benachenhou duns Le t e x t e qui suit, qu'-il a present.^ au premier Congrss de L'Association mondiale de prospective soc ia l e .

WHAT I N D U S T R I A L I S A T I O N FOR THE THIRD WORLD

Abstract: Even i f i t i s no longer opposed i n pr inc ip le , Third W o r l d indus tr i - - a l i s a t i o n i s s t i l l s t rongly c r i t i c i z e d i n vavious quarters on account of i t s o r i en ta t i on , its methods and its r e s u l t s . However, i n order t o a r r i ve at a proper appreciation o f these i s s u e s , one should ask what are t he scale and the pr inc ipal charac t e r i s t i e s of Third World i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n , uhat are the prcspeets o f i t s b e n e f i t t i n q Third World peoples. These are the ques t ions uhich Abde l la t i f Benachenhou seekr t o pose in t he follou-inq t e x t , h i c k 77e presented t o the f i r s t congress of t}ie World Socia l Pros-peets Study Association.

Resumen: Aunque ya no se opone a1 pr ine ip io mismo de la industr~zalir .aei6n de l Tercer Mundo, se e r i t i c a par todas var i e s su orientation, sus medics, m conte- nido, di-reecion y sus resul tados . Para apreciar justamente l a si tuaeioii , f a l t a preguntarse eua l e s e l aZeanee g c d e s son las caraeter'Csticas principals.$ de l a industrializa.ci.6n de l Tereer Mundo, y adem6r , c u d es l a probabilidud de que e s t e prooesc desarrol le a2 bene f i c io dsl pueblo. En e s t e informe, que present6 su autor a t primer eonqreso de l a Asociac'i6n mundial de pcpspectiva soc ia l , se examinan e s t o s aspeeto-s de la indz4strializacio'n en e l Tereer i^w-do.

* / Etude p r e s e n t e e au premier CongrSs d e 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n mondiale de p r o s p e c t i v e - s o c i a l e , Dakar, j a n v i e r 1980.

Abdel l a t i f Benachenhou I /

Dans l e c l i m a t p o l i t i q u e e t i n t e l l e c t u e l tree p a r l a c r i s e de l ' e c o n o m i e mon- d i a l e , l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du Tiers-Monde e s t rangee parmi l e s causes s inon de l a c r i s e , du moins de son aggrava t ion . 2/ Les p r a t i q u e s p r o t e c t i o n n i s t e s e t l e s p r e s s i o n s exercees s u r c e r t a i n s pays pour r e d u i r e v o l o n t a i rement l e u r s e x p o r t a t i o n s , l e s p o s i t i o n s p r i s e s dans c e r t a i n s m i l i e u x syndicaux soucieux, 2 j u s t e t i t r e , des deplacements d ' a c t i v i t e e t du dumping s o c i a l 2 l ' e c h e l l e mondia le, r e n f o r c e n t l ' i d e e que l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du Tiers-Monde e s t exces- s i v e on ma1 o r i e n t e e . C e t t e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t auss i c r i t i q u e e au nom des beso ins e s s e n t i e l s de l a p o p u l a t i o n e t on e c r i t , dans c e r t a i n e s o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s , q u ' e l l e s ' e s t f a i t e au d e t r i m e n t du developpement a g r i c o l e , n ' a pas a c c r u s u b s t a n t i e l l e m e n t l ' e m p l o i e t a f a v o r i s e l a c o n c e n t r a t i o n des revenus. C e t t e meme these e s t p a r t i e l l e m e n t r e p r i s e p a r l e s c r i t i q u e s du developpement dependant pour l e s q u e l s l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a h a t e l ' u r b a n i s a t i o n e t d e f a v o r i s e un developpement r u r a l a u t h e n t i q u e . Ces mouvements d ' o p i n i o n , d i v e r s i f i e s an p l a n i d e o l o g i q u e , s o n t r e n f o r c e s p a r l e developpement de l a dependance a l i m e n t a i r e du Tiers-Monde q u i r e v e l e l ' a b s e n c e ou l ' i n s u f f i s a n c e d 1 i n t 6 r 6 t accord6 dans ces pays a 1a p o l i t i q u e a g r a i r e e t p l u s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t a l a c r o i s s a n c e des c u l t u r e s v i v r i e r e s . Au t o t a l , s i l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du Tiers-Monde n ' e s t p l u s combattue au p l a n des p r i n c i p e s (chaque pays a l e d r o i t de s ' i n d u s t r i a l i s e r ) l e mouvement d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t f o r t e m e n t c r i t i q u e dans son o r i e n t a t i o n , ses moyens, ses r e s u l t a t s .

Pour p rendre une j u s t e mesure des choses, i 1 c o n v i e n t de se demander q u e l l e e s t 1 ' amp leur e t que l l e s s o n t l e s c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s p r i n c i p a l e s de 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a - t i o n a c t u e l l e du Tiers-Monde, q u e l l e s d e v r a i e n t G t r e ses o r i e n t a t i o n s e t q u e l l e s s o n t l e s p r o b a b i l i t e s de son developpement au p r o f i t des peup les .

I/ Abdellatif Benachenhou, professeur agr6gG de sciences Gconomiques, est secrgtaire general de 1'Association des 6conomistes du Tiers Monde et directeur du Centre de recherches en 6conomie appliqu6e. I1 a 6tG pr6si- dent de la commission des affaires 6conomiques et sociales du parti du Front de liberation nationale en 1978-79. I1 vient de publier un important ouvrage, Planification et d6veloppement en Alg6rie 1962-1989. I1 a dGj2 collabor6 au Dossier IFDA (No. 16, Th6orie du d6veloppement et nouvel ordre 6conomique international).

21 La part des exportations du Tiers-Monde est de 7,6% des exportations glo- - bales de produits manufactur6s. Opendant ces exportations constituent 14% des exportations globales des pays du Tiers-Monde et 28% des exporta- tions non Gnergetiques. Les exportations des pays du Tiers-Monde ne comptent que pour 10% des exportations totales de produits manufactures par les pays industrialis6s 2 Gconomie de march6 et pour 27o seulement de leur consommation de ces produits. De plus, ces importations portent sur un nombre limit6 de produits (textiles, calculatrices, recepteurs, articles de voyage, chaussures, transistors, tubes 6lectroniques).

L'industrialisation actuelle dans Ie Tiers-Monde est une industrialisation limitee, commercialement instab'le, financierement fragile et technologiquement dependante. La part des pays du Tiers-Monde dans la production industrielle mondiale est de 7%. I/ On ne peut denombrer que 10 pays du Tiers-Monde (sur 123) dans lesquels I'acti- vite manufacturi6re realise plus de 20% du produit interieur brut et plus de 20% des exportations globales: ce sont 1e Bresil, llArgentine, le Mexique et la Colombie, l'Egypte, la Coree du Sud, Taiwan, Hone Kong, Singapour et les Philippines. On ne peut denombrer que 17 autres pays dans lesquels cette activite manufacturiere occupe entre 15% et 20% du PIB. Un nombre tres reduit de pays exporte l'essentiel des produits industriels en provenance du Tiers- Monde: ce sont le Bresil, le Mexique, Hong Kong, la Coree du Sud, Ta'iwan, Singapour et 1 ' Inde.

Pour la tres grande majorite des pays du Tiers-blonde, l'industrialisation reste un phenomena tr6s marginal: en Afrique Noire, par exemple, on ne peut citer que 4 pays (le Kenya, la Tanzania, la Cote d'lvoire et Ie Nigeria) dans lesquels le processus d'industrial isation a une relative importance.

Dans Ie Tiers-Monde, I'industrie alimentaire, les textiles et la confection, les boissons et les tabacs constituent souvent la majeure partie des produc- tions industrielles. Dans un faible nombre de pays, la structure industrielle est effectivement diversifiee et inclut la production de biens intermediaires et ce11e de biens d16quipement.

Cette industrialisation, limitee dans son ampleur, est fragile au plan de ses debouches. Nous sommes en presence de deux types d'industrialisation meme si l'un est ne de la crise de l'autre: les industries tournees vers l'exportation, celles de substitution aux importations. Les industrialisations tournees vers l'exportation ont effectivement connu des taux de croissance substantiels au cours des quinze dernieres annees. Mais leur fragilite commerciale a 6te revelee par la veritable crise des debouch6s qu'elles subissent, a des degres variables, du fait de la stagnation des economies capitalistes d6velopptes et du protectionnisme qui en r6sulte. Le rapport de la Banque Mondiale pour 1979 met clairement en evidence ce fait puisqu'on y lit "11 y a un danger a voir les pays semi-industrialises se rabattre sur des politiques de substitution aux importations pour maintenir leur croissance industrielle face a la plus faible croissance de l'econornie mondiale". Un deuxieme aspect de la fragilite de ce type d'industrialisation reside dans le fait que les firmes transnationales jouent un role actif dans la conduite du processus d'industrialisation.

Trois faits principaux meritent d'etre rappeles ici:

a) Les firmes transnationales investissent de preference dans 1es pays forte- ment exportateurs: la part des investissernents etrangers qui se dirigent vers ces pays est croissante: elle passe de 36,5 a 40,6% du total des investisse-

l/ L'objectif de Lima (25%) est actuellement revise en baisse dSs lors que, - dans les conditions actuelles du commerce international, cet objectif

entrainerait des tensions insupportables (30% du commerce des produits manufactures reviendrait au Tiers-Monde pour atteindre cet objectif).

ments. C e l l e qu i se d i r i g e vers 1es p a r a d i s f i s c a u x passe de 7 a 13; e n t r e 1967 a 1975.

h ) Les f i rmes t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s i n v e s t i s s e n t de p r e f e r e n c e dans i s s i n d u s t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r i e r e s : on c o n s t a t e que 1 ' i n d u s t r i e m a n u f a c t u r i e r e a t t i r e une p a r t c r o i s s a n t e de 1 ' i n v e s t i s s e m e n t e t r a n g e r s u r t o u t en A s i e e t en Amerique L a t i n e . Le Japon, l a RFA, 1e Royaume Uni e t l e s E t a t s - U n i s consacren t respac t i vement 50,8%, 60,4%, 47,6% e t 39,1YÃ de l e u r s inves t i ssements dans l e s pays du T i e r s - vlonde au s e c t e u r m a n u f a c u t r i e r . La p a r t des sec teu rs i n d u s t r i e l s dans l e s inves t i ssements s t r a n g e r s en 1975-1976 e s t de 100% a Hong Kong, 92id en Inde, l J % en Coree du Sud, 77% au Mexique e t au B r e s i l , 65% en A r g e n t i n e e t 60% a Singapour .

c ) Inves t i ssement dans l e s sec teu rs e x p o r t a t e u r s : on c o n s t a t e a i n s i q u ' e n 1974, 1a p a r t des f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s dans l e s e x p o r t a t i o n s i n d u s t r i e l l e s e s t de 31,4% e t 90% pour l e s machines e t 1 ' a p p a r e i l l a g e e l e c t r i q u e e t 1es composants S l e c t r o n i q u e s . En consequence: l e n iveau, ] ' o r i e n t a t i o n e t l a v a l o r i s a t i o n de l a p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e dependent de l a strategic commerc ia le g1 obale des f i rmes e t non des p o t e n t i a l i t e s e t des beso ins du pays d ' a c c u e i l . Mais 1a f r a g i l i t y commerciale des i n d u s t r i e s de s u b s t i t u t i o n aux i m p o r t a t i o n s e s t a u s s i n e t t e : dans des c o n d i t i o n s v a r i a n t evidemment avec l a t a i l l e du pays, e l l e s se h e u r t e n t en d e r n i e r l i e u 2 l ' e t r o i t e s s e des marches u r b a i n s deterrninse par une c r o i s s a n c e i r r e g u l i @ r e des revenus e t de l a consommation des menages ( y compr is ceux des c lasses moyennes) e t des su rco f i t s i n d u s t r i e l s l i e s 2 des c h o i x techno- l o g i q u e s e t des performances p r o d u c t i v e s l i m i t e e s , mais a u s s i a l ' e t r o i t e s s e des marches r u r a u x en r a i s o n de l a f a i b l e s s e des revenus de l a m a j o r i t e des r u r a u x l i e au c o n t r 6 l e i n e g a l i t a i r e de l a t e r r e e t i o u au f a i b l e n'iveau de l a p r o d u c t i v i t e de 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e .

~ n A r i q u e N o i r e p a r exemple, 1 'acces a l a consommation des p r o d u i t s i n d u s t r i e l s l ocaux ( i n d u s t r i e a l i m e n t a i r e , c o n f e c t i o n , t e x t i l e s , bo issons , tabacs ) e s t r e s e r v e a une couche t r e s f a i b l e de 1a p o p u l a t i o n u r b a i n e de f o n c i i o n n a i r e s e t d 'employes ou o u v r i e r s q u a l i f i e s . Le revenu moneta i r e de 1 'immense ma j o r i t 6 de 1a p o p u l a t i o n e s t i n s u f f i s a n t pour 1 u i pe r rne t t re d 'acceder aux p r o d u t i s l a i t i e r s , aux medicaments, aux t e x t i l e s , e t c . . . e t l a p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e e s t orga- n i s e e pour s a t i s f a i r e l e s beso ins de l a f r a n g e s u p e r i e u r e des f o n c c i o n n a i r e s , aes employes, des o u v r i e r s . C e t t e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t I e r e s u l t a t de 1a dynamique du developpement s o c i a l p o s t c o l o n i a l e t des r a p p o r t s p r i v i l e g i e s e n t r e l e s c l a s s e s moyennes e t 1 ' E t a t .

La dependance techno log ique des i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n s du T ie rs -Non i t ; e s i connue: - e l l e e s t fond6e s u r ] ' i m p o r t a t i o n r e p e t i t i v e des connaissances, aes competences, e t des equipments. En 1977, 1es pays du Tiers-Monde o n t i m p o r t e 14 f o i s p l u s oe p r o d u i t s mecaniques e t e l e c t r i q u e s q u ' i l s n ' e n o n t e x p o r t c s , e t s i o n e x c l u t q u a t r e gros e x p o r t a t e u r s (Singapour , Coree du Sud, Hong Kong, B r e s i l ) de ce t ype de b i e n s , ce r a p p o r t s ' e l e v e a 200. I/ Ces pays o n t , en v a l e u r i m p o r t 6

La p a r t d e s pays du Tiers-Monde dans l e s e x p o r t a t i o n s g l o b a l e s d e p r o d u i t s mgcaniques e t g l e c t r i q u e s e s t passee d e 0 , 6 2 2 ,2% e n t r e 1963 e t 1 9 7 7 . E n t r e c e s deux d a t e s , l e u r s i m p o r t a t i o n s en provenance d e s pays 5 economie d e march6 p a s s e n t d e 80,77 5 922% de l e u r s impor ta t ions g l o o o l e s de c e s p r o d u i t s . Notons a u s s i que l e s performances e x p o r t a t r i c e s en b i e n s rneca- n iques e t G l e c t r i q u e s e s t souvent l i 6 e 2 l a p resence d e s f i r m e s t - ransnat io- n a l e s dans c e s b ranches .

p l u s de machines t e x t i l e s q u ' i l s n ' o n t e x p o r t e de t e x t i l e s vers 1es pays du Nord. C e r t a i n s pays s o n t e x p o r t a t e u r s de b iens d 'equ ipment apres a v o i r r e a l i s e une p o l i t i q u e de s u b s t i t u t i o n p a r t i e l l e aux i m p o r t a t i o n s de b i e n s d 'equ ipement : c ' e s t l e cas du B r e s i l , Singapour, Ta'i'wan, A rgen t ine , Mexique, Inde . La dependance techno log ique e s t d ' a u t a n t p l u s a i g l i e que souvent , 1a c i r c u l a t i o n des equipements, des connaissances, des competences se f a i t a l ' i n t e r i e u r des f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s l o r s q u ' e l l e s condu isen t l e mouvement d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n . L ' o p a c i t e du marche techno log ique e s t dans ce cas q u a s i - t o t a l e : equipements e t p r o d u i t s i n t e r m e d i a i r e s p r o v i e n n e n t l e p l u s souvent du pays d ' o r i g i n e s i n o n des f i l i a l e s de 1a f i r m e t r a n s n a t i o n a l e : l e commerce c a p t i f developpe l a p r a t i q u e des p r i x de t r a n s f e r t .

Au p l a n f i n a n c i e r e n f i n , 11 n ' e s t pas c e r t a i n que l e s pays du Tiers-blonde l e s p l u s i n d u s t r i a l i s e s a i e n t t r o u v e l a v o i e de l ' i n d e p e n d a n c e f i n a n c i e r e : parmi l e s pays du Tiers-Nonde 1es p l u s ende t tes f i g u r e n t en bonne p l a c e l e B r 6 s i 1 , l e Mexique, 1 ' A r g e n t i n e e t l a Coree du Sud. La d e t t e e x t e r i e u r e du B r e s i l e t du Mex iq re c o n s t i t u e 25% de l a d e t t e g l o b a l des pays du Tiers-blonde en 1977. 11 s ' a g i t 12, s e l o n l e s e x p e r t s de 1a Banque Mondia le, d ' u n o b s t a c l e ma jeur au developpement de l e u r i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n . l/ Les r a i s o n s de c e t endet tement c u m u l a t i f s o n t connues:

- 1a d e t e r i o r a t i o n des termes de l ' echange ;

- l e mecanisme de f inancement des inves t i ssements s t r a n g e r s : on n o t e qu 'une p a r t c r o i s s a n t e de ces i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s e s t f i n a n c e s p a r l e r e i n v e s t i s s e m e n t des p r o f i t s ou l e recours aux marches locaux . En consequence, l e s en t rees n e t t e s de c a p i t a u x s o n t f a i b l e s l o r s q u ' o n prend en c o n s i d e r a t i o n l e s acha ts e f f e c t u e s p a r l e s f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s a l ' e t r a n g e r . On admet genera lement que 1e b i l a n dev ises du fonc t ionnement des t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s dans l e Tiers-Monde e s t n e g a t i f en r a i s o n du f inancement l o c a l des inves t i ssements , de l ' e x p o r t a t i o n des p r o f i t s e t des p r i x de t r a n s f e r t .

- l a dspendance techno log ique des a p p a r e i l s de p r o d u c t i o n .

Cet endet tement e x c e s s i f a eu des e f f e t s n e g a t i f s s u r l ' o r i e n t a t i o n de l a p r o - d u c t i o n a g r i c o l e pu isque des p r o d u c t i o n s e x p o r t a b l e s s o n t devenus n6cessa i res pour f i n a n c e r l a p o u r s u i t e du developpement i n d u s t r i e l dependant. Le c o h t s o c i a l de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t e x c e s s i f : on admet g6neralement que l a c r o i s - sance de l ' e m p l o i i n d u s t r i e l a e t 6 moins que p r o p o r t i o n n e l l e que c e l l e de l a p r o d u c t i o n aans l e s pays q u i o n t connu une c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e soutenue. A i n s i , meme pour ce " t y p e i d e a l " q u ' e s t 1a Coree du Sud, l a c r o i s s a n c e indus - t r i e l l e e s t de 17% e t 1a c r o i s s a n c e de l ' e m p l o i n ' e s t que de 11%. Dans l e cas de l l I n d e , l a c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e e n t r e 1951 e t 1975 a e t @ de 292% t a n d i s que ce11e de l ' e m p l o i i n d u s t r i e l n ' a 6 t e que de 78%. Les p o l i t i q u e s techno lo - g iques des f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s o n t a c c r u 1e b i a i s " c a p i t a l u s i n g " des

I/ Parmi les impasses de ce type d'industrialisation, on trouve le r5le con- - tradictoire que l'agriculture doit jouer: exporter pour procurer des devises et produire pour le marche intgrieur pour permettre une alimenta- tion et un revenu plus d6cents pour la majorit6 de la population et a i n s i glargir le march6 intgrieur.

i nves t i ssements , ces formes t e n t a n t de cornprimer l e s coUts u n i t a i r e s s a l a r i a u x avec un equipement i d e n t i q u e a c e l u i u t i l i s e dans l e s pays developpes.

Les n i veaux de s a l a i r e s o n t r e s t e s f a i b l e s pour des p r o d u c t i v i t e s du t r a v a i l souvent cornparables a c e l l e s des pays developpes. l/ Dans 1e cas de l ' I n d e , on a a s s i s t 6 a une b a i s s e s i g n i f i c a t i v e des s a l a i r e s r e e l s dans l ' i n d u s t r i e m a n u f a c t u r i e r e e n t r e 1961 e t 1975. Le fameux " e f f e t p e r c o l a t e u r " ( t r i c k l e down e f f e c t ) n ' a pas j o u e p le inement t a n t o n t e t @ r e s i s t a n t e s l e s b a r r i e r e s s o c i a l e s au p rogres : apres 15 ans de c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e r a p i d e , des f r a c - t i o n s i m p o r t a n t e s de l a p o p u l a t i o n r e s t e n t pauvres s i n o n m ise rab les au B r e s i l , au Mexique e t en Coree du Sud. Les taux de c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e extr6mement r a p i d e s q u ' o n t connu c e r t a i n s pays n ' o n t pas e t 6 s u i v i s p a r une d i f f u s i o n du p r o g r e s a I ' e c h e l l e n a t i o n a l e : on admet que l a r e p a r t i t i o n des revenus e s t p i r e a c t u e l l e m e n t q u ' i l y a 15 ans au B r e s i l e t au Mexique.

Au t o t a l , n i l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n de s u b s t i t u t i o n aux i m p o r t a t i o n s , n i c e l l e o r i e n t e e ve rs 1es marches e x t e r i e u r s ne peuvent resoudre de maniere d u r a b l e e t p o u r l ' e n s e m b l e de 1a p o p u l a t i o n l a q u e s t i o n de l ' e m p l o i e t du revenu, t e s t a d i r e l a q u e s t i o n de l a s o c i a l i s a t i o n du developpement.

L ' e x p e r i e n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e des pays du Tiers-Monde r e v e l e 1a v a n i t e de l a concep- t i o n a b s t r a i t e e t t r i n i t a i r e d e s economis tesqu i a f f i r m e n t que l e developpement i n d u s t r i e l n e c e s s i t e des marches, de l a t e c h n o l o g i e e t des c a p i t a u x sans s p e c i - f i e r I e dynamisme e t l a s t a b i l i t e des marches, l e c o n t r b l e de l a t e c h n o l o g i e ou l a source des c a p i t a u x . C ' e s t p rec isement une ana lyse c o n c r e t e des c o n d i t i o n s de marche, des c o n d i t i o n s techno log iques e t des c o n d i t i o n s f i n a n c i e r e s de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n q u ' i l f a u t t e n t e r en vue de de te rm iner 1es c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s d ' u n e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n au p r o f i t des peoples.

En p r e m i e r l i e u , l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n d o i t 6 t r e o r i e n t e e p r i n c i p a l e m e n t ve rs l e s marches i n t e r i e u r s . Le dynamisme d u r a b l e de l a demande i n t e r n e e s t l i e e t r o i t e - ment a l a c r o i s s a n c e des revenus de l a m a j o r i t e de 1a p o p u l a t i o n c o n s t i t u e e p a r des r u r a u x . De ce f a i t , l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n d o i t c o n t r i b u e r a l a c r o i s s a n c e de l a p r o d u c t i v i t e de l ' a g r i c u l t u r e en adap tan t ses p r o d u i t s e t ses techn iques dans ce sens, a c o n d i t i o n que 1 'acc ro isse rnen t de p r o d u c t i v i t 6 ne s o i t pas con- f i s q u e du f a i t d ' u n c o n t r b l e i n e g a l i t a i r e de l a t e r r e ou d ' u n e p o l i t i q u e inade- qua te des p r i x e t de l a d i s t r i b u t i o n . L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n c o n d u i t n6cessair-e- ment a l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n des s t r u c t u r e s a g r a i r e s au p r o f i t des paysans pauvres e t sans t e r r e . X/ La c r o i s s a n c e des marches e s t auss i l i e e a l a demande u r b a i n e d o n t l a s t r u c t u r e a c t u e l l e , f o r t e m e n t i n f l u e n c e e p a r 1es c lasses moyennes r i s q u e d ' i n d u i r e des p o l i t i q u e s d ' i m p o r t a t i o n p u i s de p r o d u c t i o n l o c a l e

l/ Voir sur ce problsme l'gtude bien documentge de Folker ~ r o b e l , Jiirgen Heinrichs, Otto Kreye, The new international division of labour. Structu- ral unemployment in industrialized countries and industrialization in developing countries. Reinbek bei Hamburg, September 1977.

2 1 Les experts de la Banque Mondiale reconnaissent explicitement que l'alter- - native rgelle 2 la croissance industrielle d'exportation est constitute par la transformation des structures agraires.

contraires a une industrialisation populaire mais soumises a l'extension du modele occidental de consommation centre sur les biens durables de consommation. Enfin, le dynamisme de la demande interne dependra beaucoup de la maitrise des co~Its de l'industrialisation dont les effets sur les prix et 1a demande sont actuellement negatifs. Mais alors se pose la question de la technologie. Les probl6mes technologiques du Tiers-Honde se posent en termes de cout et de repro- duction. Sur la base d'une technologie irnportee en permanence, le cout de l'industrialisation ne peut etre qu'excessif. De ce fait, l'ampleur des actions de developpement possibles ne peut Ctre que limitee et si modernisation i 1 y a, elle se fera pour une fraction de la population et non pour sa totalite. l/ Mais au dela de 1a question du coit de 1a technologie, celle de sa reproduction est essentielle: la formation de capacites nationales d'ingenierie, le develop- pement de la recherche industrielle, 1a mise en place progressive d'une indus- trie de biens d'equipement constituent les elements minimaux d'une politique technologique pour contrecarrer l'abonnement a 1'obsolescence. 11 y a un @cart considerable entre les sommes depensees par les pays du Tiers-Monde pour acheter des connaissances, des competences, des equipements et celles qu'ils consacrent a la recherche industrielle interne, 2 l'industrie des equipements, etc . . . Ce triomphe de la vision instrumentale de la technologie que symbolise 1a notion de "transfert de technologie" constitue 1e danger essentiel qui guette les industrialisations du Tiers-Monde, fussent-e11es orientees essentiellement vers les marches interieurs et juridiquement controlees par 1es Etats. Une demarche technologique coherente consistera alors a controler et a coordonner les achats de technologies 2 l'etranqer et 2 promouvoir une formation technicienne large dans les pays. Cette demarche est malheureusement impossible pour ceux des pays dans lesquels l'industrialisation est menee et controlee par les firmes transnationales puisque celles-ci ont une loqique propre de production, de circulation et de consommation des techniques.

La question des ressources financieres pour l'industrialisation est, elle aussi, importante. 2/ Elle se pose differemment pour 1es pays disposant de ressources naturelles importantes et pour ceux n'en disposant pas. Pour les premiers, le

l/ C'est le noyau rationnel de la thgorie des technologies intermgdiaires qui - insiste beaucoup sur Ie cost en capital d'un emploi cr66 mais neglige I'essentiel, c'est 5 dire la reproduction des technologies. De meme, elle prend pour donnge naturelle ia raret6 du capital dans les pays du Tiers- Monde alors que cette raretg est historique c o m e Ie prouve I'experience recente des pays de 1'OPEP. I1 taut marquer ici la difference essentielle qu'il y a entre une theorie de I'autonomie technologique et la thgorie des technologies intermgdiaires.

2 / Mais elle n'est pas la seule. On est frappe par Ie fait que 1'ONUDI axe - principalement son effort de reflexion, 2 propos de l'industrialisation du Tiers-Monde, sur les capacites financigres 5 rgunir pour permettre cette industrialisation alors que l'hi~toire~rouveque l'aisance financiere est une condition necessaire mais non suffisante du d6veloppement industriel.

moyen l e p l u s s a i n pour l e f inancement de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t l e c o n t r 6 l e e t 1a v a l o r i s a t i o n des ressources n a t u r e l l e s don t i l s d i sposen t , s e l o n des ry thmes rendus necessa i res p a r l e developpement i n t e r n e e t non pas s e l o n l e ry thme i n c o n t r o l 6 de l a demande mondia le. L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du Tiers-Monde n e c e s s i t e l a f i n du p i l l a g e du Tiers-Monde. Pour l e s a u t r e s , i l s d e v r o n t comp- t e r s u r une p o l i t i q u e a g r a i r e dynamique e t l ' a i d e p u b l i q u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e t p l u s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t c e l l e du Tiers-Monde mais i 1 c o n v i e n t de ne pas exagere r c e t t e n e c e s s i t e de l ' a i d e e x t e r i e u r e des l o r s que 1e processus d ' i n d u s t r i a - l i s a t i o n b i e n men6 genere l e s ressources necessa i res a sa p o u r s u i t e , dans des c o n d i t i o n s r a t i o n n e l l e s de c h o i x de s e c t e u r s e t de techniques.

L 'enonce sommaire de ces c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s d ' u n e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n p o p u l a i r e e t autonome i n d i q u e t o u t c e q u i l a separe d ' u n e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n i n s e r e e dans une d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e i n e g a l e du t r a v a i l . Les l u t t e s a c t u e l l e s pour 1e con- t r 6 l e de l ' a c c u m u l a t i o n du c a p i t a l dans l e s d i f f e r e n t e s branches de l ' e c o n o m i e rnondia le ( c o n t r o l e des d i f f e r e n t e s f i l i s r e s e t techno log ies des b ranches) n ' e x c l u e n t pas l a p o s s i b i l i t e de c ro i ssances i n d u s t r i e l l e s dans l e Tiers-Monde, c o n d u i t e s p a r l e s f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s a l a recherche de f a i b l e s touts de p r o d u c t i o n e t / o u de marches p ro teges ou p a r des b o u r g e o i s i e s l o c a l e s ; on p e u t admet t re l a p o s s i b i l i t e d ' u n e n o u v e l l e d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e du t r a v a i l i ndus - t r i e l c o n t r o l e d i r e c t e m e n t ou i n d i r e c t e m e n t p a r l e s f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s . Mais ces c ro i ssances i n d u s t r i e l l e s tournees v e r s l ' e x p o r t a t i o n ou de s u b s t i t u - t i o n aux i m p o r t a t i o n s ne p e r m e t t e n t pas un developpement s o c i a l r e e l . De p l u s l e s p remie res ne s o n t guere p o s s i b l e s que pour un f a i b l e nombre de pays: l ' e n s e m b l e des marches des pays i n d u s t r i e l s p e u t p a r a i t r e i n s u f f i s a n t s i on l e compare a 1a demande q u i s e r a i t necessa i re pour de te rm iner une c r o i s s a n c e s u b s t a n t i e l l e de I ' e m p l o i e t du revenu dans l e s pays du Tiers-Monde. De p l u s , c e t t e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n du modsle Coree du Sud c o n d u i r a i t 2 une concurrence p a r l e s p r i x e t done p a r 1es s a l a i r e s soc ia lement i n t o l e r a b l e au d e t r i m e n t de tous l e s t r a v a i l I e u r s du Tiers-Monde.

De c e f a i t , l e danger d 'une a l l i a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e , q u i n ' e x c l u t pas des con- f l i t s , e n t r e l e s f i r m e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s , l e s b o u r g e o i s i e s e t l e s e l i t e s l o c a l e s i n d u s t r i a l i s t e s e s t r e e l , c e l l e s - c i ayan t pour l e s r a i s o n s evoquees un r61e necessai rement subordonne.

Des l o r s , on a s s i s t e r a a une t r a n s f o r m a t i o n de l a geographic i n d u s t r i e l l e du monde rnais non pas a un developpement i n d u s t r i e l du Tiers-Monde. Les "moder- n i s a t i o n ~ i n d u s t r i e l l e s " q u i a u r o n t l i e u e x c l u r o n t p a r essence de l a r g e s f r a c - t i o n s de l a p o p u l a t i o n dans l e s campagnes, mais a u s s i dans l e s v i l l e s , de l ' a c c e s au b i e n e t r e . La r e g u l a t i o n p o l i t i q u e e t s o c i a l e rendue necessa i re p a r c e t t e e x c l u s i o n a p p e l l e r a l ' a u t o r i t a r i s m e cornme c ' e s t d e j a l e cas dans des pays d f o r t e c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e . 2 /

I/ I1 est curieux de noter que les rsdacteurs du rapport de la Banque Mondiale pour 1979 admettent implicitement l'impossibilite de cette generalisation mais Gcrivent des paragraphes entiers pour la souhaiter.

2 / Voir 2 titre d'exemple, l'ouvrage recent "Human Rights in the Republic of - Korea", COE, GenSve, 1979. Les 6vGnements d'lran apparaissent comme une illustration de ce processus modernisation autoritarisme.

L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n p o p u l a i r e e t autonome, q u i n ' e s t pas au s e r v i c e des r e l a - t i o n s economiques e x t e r i e u r e s mais met c e l l e s - c i a son s e r v i c e , n e c e s s i t e , dans chaque pays, des con jonc tu res p o l i t i q u e s p a r t i c u l i @ r e s . Un r o l e p o l i t i q u e p l u s a c t i f de l a paysanner ie pauvre, sans t e r r e e t souvent sans t r a v a i l , e s t neces- s a i r e pour que l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n s o i t m i s e au s e r v i c e de l ' a g r i c u l t u r e , economiquement e t spa t ia lement . Line emergence p o l i t i q u e p l u s f o r t e des couches p o p u l a i r e s u r b a i n e s e s t necessa i re p o u r que l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n ne s o i t pas con f i squee p a r l e s c l a s s e s doyennes e n t r e t e n u e s p a r l l E t a t , au-dessus des peuples. C ' e s t en d e f i n i t i v e dans 1es r a p p o r t s e n t r e 1 ' E t a t e t l a s o c i e t e c i v i l e p o p u l a i r e que se joue l ' a v e n i r de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du Tiers-Monde, y compr is dans sa d imension i n t e r n a t i o n a l e . On d o i t , dans c e cadre, examiner avec beaucoup de p r e c a u t i o n l a these s e l o n l a q u e l l e l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n dans *

l e Tiers-Monde, p u b l i q u e ou p r i v e e , p r o d u i t necessai rement 1es f o r c e s neces- s a i r e s a sa t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e t a son o r i e n t a t i o n au p r o f i t des peuples. C e t t e concep t ion l i n e a i r e du developpement h i s t o r i q u e e s t c o n t r e d i t e p a r l e s f a i t s . Dans beaucoup de cas, l e developpement i n d u s t r i e l , du f a i t des c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e t des d i f f i c u l t e s q u ' i l a engendrees a c o n d u i t a p l u s d ' a u t o r i t a r i s m e p o l i - t i q u e pour a s s u r e r l a d o c i l i t e des t r a v a i l l e u r s . La democratic n ' e s t pas un p r o d u i t i n e v i t a b l e de l ' u s i n e .

C O N S E Q U E N C E S S O C I A L E S D E L ' I N D U S T R I A L I S A T I G N DAMS LES PAYS DU T I E R S MONDE

par P i e r r e Judet Centre de Recherche s u r l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e t 1e developpernent U n i v e r s i t e des Sciences Soc ia les de Grenoble B.P. 47 X Centre de tr i 38040 Grenoble, France

Langue o r i g i n a l e : F ranca is

R6sume: L ' i ndus t r ia l i sa t i on n ' e s t pas une methode de production m6cani-que, mais un processus de r e s t ruc tu ra t ion bconomique e t sociate., Perpie cornme un symbole de La 'Liberation du pacte colonia l , la premiere vague d ' i n d u s t r i a l i - sa t i on du T i e r s Monde a e t& accompagnbe d'une g r a d e tolerance pour l e s erreurs ' i n6v i t abZes1 fondke sur La croyance que 1.es erreurs se cor~r igeraient chemin f a i san t . En par t i cu l i e r , on l r a souvent vue c o m e un processus l i nka i re repondant 2 des nur7rrius invar'iables (par exenrple l e s 6conomies d r e c h e W . Les e f f e t s n6ga t i f s d 'une t e l l e approche, en termes de db- s t ruc tu ra t ion soc ia le e t de f ru s t ra t i ons , sont dbsormais h i d e n t s - e t pas seulement dans l e T i e r s Mode. L ' i s sue 2 Z' i~ ipasse implique d l a u t r e s tech- niques, e t sur tout une reponse prealable 2 'La question: i ndus t r ia1 t sa t i on pour qui? L r i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n d o i t S t r e axee sur l a s a t i s f a c t i o n des besoins matbr ie ls e t non-mathie ls f o n d m e n t a u , determines nationalement e t demo- cratiquernent.

SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF I N D U S T R I A L I Z A T I O N I N THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES

Abstract: I ndus t r ia l i za t i on must be understood, no t merely as a mechanical method o f production, but as a process o f economic and soc ia l res truc tur ing . Seen a s a symbol o f economic Liberation from the colonia l pact, t he f i r s t wave of Third World i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n has been carried out w i th great tolerance f o r ' i n e v i t a b l e ' mis takes , -in the b e l i e f t h a t i t uas a se l f -generat ing and s e l f - correc t ing process, proceeding along a l inear path according t o invar iable norms (eg. economies o f s c a l e ) . The negative e f f e c t s o f this approach, i n terms o f soc ia l de s t ruc t i on ar.d f ru s t ra t i on , are nou ev ident - and not only i n the Third World. The uay ou t o f t he impasse i s being sought through a l t e m a - t i v e technologies and above alt by addressing t he question: i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n for uhom? Indus t r ia l i za z io i must be geared t o t he simultaneous s a t i s f a c t i o n o f bas i c material a& in.n.a^i.'rid needs, nat ional ly and democraticalLy de t e r - n i ind .

(Resumen espanol en la pagina L I ( 4 7 )

P i e r r e Jude t

CONSEQUENCES SOCIALES DE L'INDUSTRIALISATION DANS LES P A Y S DU

T I E R S MONDE

L'examen des consequences s o c i a l e s de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n , q u ' i l s ' a g i s s e d ' i m p l a n t a t i o n s ponc tu i? l l e s ou d 'envergure , du r e s u l t a t de 1 ' i n v e s t i s s e m e n t e t r a n g e r ou d ' i n i t i a t i v e s n a t i o n a l e s systemat iques, a p p e l l e , pour une m e i l l e u r e comprehension, l ' e v o c a t i o n du c o n t e x t e dans l e q u e l s ' e s t de rou le au cours de l ' a p r e s guer re l e processus d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n des pays du T i e r s Monde: un c o n t e x t e pass ionne l f f ' a f f r o n t e m e n t e t de l u t t e .

J u s q u ' a une epoque f o r t recen te , l ' i n d u s t r i e a c o n s t i t u e en e f f e t une a c t i v i t e p ra t iquement i n t e r d i t e dans l e s espaces d e s t i n e s a s e r v i r de debauches aux p r o d u i t s i n d u s t r i e l s des met ropo les o c c i d e n t a l e s : depu is l a d e s t r u c t i o n de l ' i n d u s t r i e t e x t i l e i n d i e n n e n a i s s a n t e j u s q u ' a l a t e n t a t i v e d ' e t o u f f e m e n t du p r o j e t de s i d e r u r g i e au moment ou i 1 f u t r e l a n c e p a r ] ' â ‚ ¬ t a l g e r i e n indepen- d a n t .

Les schemas du p a c t c o l o n i a l : echange de m a t i e r e s premieres e t de p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s c e n t r e b i e n manufactures, e t a i e n t suf f isamment en rac ines pour q u ' o n p u i s s e encore c o n c l u r e en 1955 au c a r a c t e r e s u r i n d u s t r i a l i s e d ' u n pays comptant moins de 50,000 t r a v a i l l e u r s i n d u s t r i e l s s u r une p o p u l a t i o n de t r o i s m i l l i o n s d ' h a b i t a n t s . l/ Dans l e s annees 60, un grand nombre d ' e x p e r t s c o n t i u a i e n t a p a r l e r de l a " v o c a t i o n a g r i c o l e " , de l a T u n i s i e , du Maroc, de l l A f r i q u e , e t , p l u s genera lement de l a p l u p a r t des pays du T i e r s Monde. La t h e o r i e des i n d u s t r i e s i n d u s t r i a l i s a n t e s " d6veloppee au cours des annees 60, L/ s ' o p p o s a i t de f a c e a c e t t e a f f i r m a t i o n ; e l l e p r o p o s a i t au c o n t r a i r e de mon t re r avec r i - gueur non seulement que l ' e n t r e p r i s e d ' i n d u s t r i a l s i a t i o n e t a i t a c c e s s i b l e aux pays du T i e r s Monde rnais q u ' e l l e e t a i t l a c o n d i t i o n d 'une r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n harmonieuse de ces economies.

Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s , on comprend que l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a i t e t e menee a l a maniere d o n t on r e l e v e un d e f i ou d o n t on c o n d u i t une b a t a i l l e : dans l a f o u l e e des independances p o l i t i q u e s , l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t devenue une a f f a i r e d l E t a t , symbole de l i b e r a t i o n economique. Ce c a r a c t e r e d 'u rgence m i l i t a n t e e t presque m i l i t a i r e , s ' e s t t r a d u i t p a r une quasi i m p o s s i b i l i t e de s 1 i n t 6 r e s s e r au d e t a i l en meme temps que p a r une grande t o l e r a n c e p a r r a p p o r t aux bavures f a c i l e m e n t q u a l i f i e e s d ' i n e v i t a b l e s auxque l les on a u r a i t t o u t l e temps e n s u i t e

l/ Succession d'articles de J. Vibert dans le Bulletin Economique et Social de la Tunisie.

2 / Par G. de Bernis dans deux articles d' "Economie AppliquGe" en 1966 -

de remed ie r . l/- Cela e x p l i q u e q u ' a 1a f i n des annees 1970, on p u i s s e f a i r e l a c o n s t a t a t i o n s u i v a n t e : a l o r s que l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n des pays du T i e r s Monde demeure dans de nombreux cas un phenomene ponc tue l e t non de te rm inan t ( l e s o b j e c t i f s f i x e s a Lima pour l ' a n 2000 - e t j uges amb i t i eux - son t r e v e l a t e u r s du l o n g chemin q u i r e s t e a p a r c o u r i r ) 2/ l e s r e t e n t i s s e m e n t s soc iaux de l ' i r r u p t i o n de l ' i n d u s t r i e , sous forme d 'ensembles techn iques p l u s ou moins complexes, dans des s o c i e t e s a dominante r u r a l e s o n t en t r a i n de f a i r e j a i l l i r des q u e s t i o n s don t l ' a c u i t e s ' impose a t r a v e r s 1e monde.

L ' I r a n a donne recemment l ' e x e m p l e d ' u n phenomene de r e j e t d ' u n processus d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n devenu e t o u f f a n t e t i n s u p p o r t a b l e pour l a m a j o r i t 6 de 1a p o p u l a t i o n : c e l a s ' e s t t r a d u i t p a r I e r e t a r d , I e ge l mais a u s s i l ' a n n u l a t i o n massive de p r o j e t s i n d u s t r i e l s .

En Amerique L a t i n e , l e s r a t e s de ce q u ' o n a appele l e m i r a c l e b r e s i l i e n s o n t s i g n i f i c a t i f s de l a montee des i n e g a l i t e s de revenu, de l ' a p p r o f o n d i s s e m e n t des d i s t o r s i o n s r e g i o n a l e s ou s e c t o r i e l l e s e t , p l u s fondamentalement, de t o u t e s l e s t e n s i o n s du t i s s u s o c i a l .

En Med i te r ranee , 1e grand e s p o i r p l a c e dans l a dynamique des p o l e s i n d u s t r i e l s a f a i t p l a c e au desenchantement e t a l a decep t ion : q u ' i l s ' a g i s s e de l a s i d e - r u r g i e de Fos en France ou des ensembles s i d e r u r g i q u e s e t ch imiques en I t a l i e du Sud, ces r e a l i s a t i o n s n ' o n t pas tenu l e u r s promesses; e l l e s n ' o n t pas r e u s s i 2 f a i r e l a preuve de l e u r c a p a c i t e dynamique de r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n economique e t s o c i a l e . Le mouvement n 'epargne pas 1 ' A l g e r i e q u i , e n t r e 1967 e t 1977 a pour - t a n t consacre l ' e q u i v a l e n t de 25 m i l l i a r d s de US d o l l a r s a l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de p l u s de 300 grands p r o j e t s i n d u s t r i e l s ; depu is 1977, 1 ' A l g e r i e marque une pause q u i se p r o l o n g e e t q u i donne l ' o c c a s i o n de d e b a l l e r - courageusement - au grand j o u r l e s problemes soc iaux non r e s o l u s , ou aggraves par un ry thme d ' i n d u s t r i - a l i s a t i o n d ' u n e i n t e n s i t e rarement a t t e i n t e .

L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n des pays du T i e r s Monde e s t a i n s i l ' o b j e t d ' u n e doub le m ise en q u e s t i o n dans 1a mesure ou, d ' u n e p a r t , son dynamisme e s t i n s u f f i s a n t pour mordre s u r des zones de p a u v r e t e q u i ne c e s s e n t de s ' e t e n d r e a t r a v e r s l l A s i e , l l A f r i q u e , 1 'Amer ique L a t i n e e t ou d ' a u t r e p a r t son impact , 1a 00 il s ' e x e r c e , e s t genera teu r d ' i n s a t i s f a c t i o n s s o c i a l e s p a r f o i s exp los ives . C ' e s t une i n v i - t a t i o n 2 r e l i r e l a d e f i n i t i o n souvent c i t e e de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n comme p r o - cessus "de r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n economique e t s o c i a l e sous l ' e f f e t d ' u n ensemble coheren t de machines". 3/ C e r t a i n s p r e f e r e n t m e t t r e l ' a c c e n t s u r " l ' e n s e m b l e

l / I I faut reconnaltre que sur ce point l'ardeur des responsables locaux a - souvent et6 mise 2 profit par les agents extgrieurs: investisseurs et, plus encore, fournisseurs de machines et de services.

2 / 25% de la production industrielle mondiale en 1'an 2000.

31 Definition donnge par Fr. Perroux. -

coherent de machines" e t done s u r t o u t e s l e s consequences nega t i ves (pour un pays, ses t r a v a i l l e u r s e t ses h a b i t a n t s ) de ] 'absence de coherence h a b i t u e l l e - ment cons ta tee dans l e s systemes de machines implantees. Cela correspond en v e r i t e a l a d i s t o r s i o n i n t r o d u i t e p a r l e s i n t e r e t s des grandes f i rmes e t des economies dominantes ... La p o u r s u i t e de l ' i n v e s t i g a t i o n d o i t pe rmet t re de dece le r une amb igu i te p lus systemat ique q u i a marque h i s t o r i q u e m e n t l e pheno- mene de I ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n dans l a mesure 00 son dynamisme conquerant e t s t r u c t u r a n t precede d 'abord h a b i t u e l l e m e n t par d e s t r u c t u r a t i o n ... De Manchester aux p l a i n e s de 1 ' Inde ; des P o u i l l e s 2 Sao Paulo, l e s retombees l e s p l u s l a r g e - ment percues - j u s q u ' 2 maintenant - o n t e t 6 a u t r e f o i s m e u r t r i e r e s ; a u j o u r d ' h u i encore for tement nega t i ves e t f r u s t r a n t e s .

Certes, l e s ensembles i n d u s t r i e l s nouveaux c r e e n t emplo is e t revenus, s ' i n s e r e n t dans des v i l l e s e t des c i r c u i t s modernes, donnent l ' o c c a s i o n de promouvoir des i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s p l u s denses de sante, d 'educa t ion , de c u l t u r e ; mais on s a l t a u j o u r d ' h u i l ' a m p l e u r des besoins nouveaux non s a t i s f a i t s ou a i g u i s e s de loge- ment, de t r a n s p o r t s , de l o i s i r s , a i n s i que l a c a p a c i t e d i s s o l v a n t e de l ' i m p a c t de l ' i n d u s t r i e s u r l ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t s u r l e s p o p u l a t i o n s r u r a l e s . Certes, 1es ensembles i n d u s t r i e l s nouveaux c o n s t i t u e n t a u t a n t de promesses de m a i t r i s e techn ique e t de q u a l i f i c a t i o n s e l a r g i e s ; on e s t en t r a i n de s ' a p e r c e v o i r t o u t e - f o i s qu 'un b i l a n d o i t e t r e dress6 dans ce domaine des a c q u i s i t i o n s e t des per - tes , chaque f o i s que des a r t i s a n a t s d i s p a r a i s s e n t , chaque f o i s p a r exemple qu 'on impor te mate r iaux , p lans e t t e c h n i c i e n s parce qu 'on ne s a l t pas c o n s t r u i r e en u t i l i s a n t l e s p o t e n t i e l s locaux de mater iaux, de macons, de modeles d ' a r c h i - t e c t u r e ... Besoins anciens a i g u i s e s , besoins nouveaux non s a t i s f a i t s ; fo rce de d e s t r u c t u r a t i o n m u l t i f o r m e s don t l e s i n t e r e s s e s o n t l ' i m p r e s s i o n q u ' e l l e s ten - d e n t 2 l e s submerger, t o u t c e l a c o n f l u e e t s 'expr ime en vas te sen t iment de f r u s t r a t i o n . Cela c o n d u i t a s ' i n t e r r o g e r s u r 1a l i a i s o n q u i e x i s t e e n t r e "ensemble de machines" e t " r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n economique e t s o c i a l e " e t 2 se sou- v e n i r que I ' a u t e u r de c e t t e d e f i n i t i o n a i n s i s t s a maintes r e p r i s e s s u r I e c a r a c t e r e absolument pas automat ique de l a r e l a t i o n q u i s ' e t a b l i t e n t r e ces deux termes. F. Perroux r a p p e l l e en e f f e t que " l e s e f f e t s d 'en t ra inement " co- e x i s t e n t avec "des e f f e t s de stoppage" I/ mais auss i que "1a c ro issance e s t desequi l i b r e . . . que 1 ' i m p l a n t a t i o n d 1 u n p 6 1 e de developpement s u s c i t e une s u i t e de d e s e q u i l i b r e s iiconomiques e t soc iaux ... q u ' i l deplace des mains-d 'oeuvre e t 1es separe de l e u r s u n i t e s o r i g i n a i r e s sans l e u r p r o c u r e r necessai rement un nouvel encadrement s o c i a l , q u ' i l concen t re cumulativement, en un l i e u e t dans une b ranche, l ' i nves t i ssement , l e t r a f i c , l ' i n n o v a t i o n techn ique e t economique sans en p r o c u r e r n6cessai rement l ' a v a n t a g e 2 d ' a u t r e s l i e u x don t l a c ro issance e t I e developpement peuvent e t r e , au c o n t r a i r e , r e t a r d e s ... l1. 2/ La conse- quence e s t que 1 ' i m p a c t dynamique des machines depend f i n a l e m e i t de "1 'amenage- ment du m i l i e u dans sa t o t a l i t e " , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e "de l a mise en r e l a t i o n dyna- mique des t a l e n t s e t des capac i tes " , 3/ dans l a recherche de l a c o m p a t i b i l i t e

I / I n L'Economic du XXSme s i g c l e , ( P a r i s : PUF, 2 e d i t i o n augmentge, 1964). -

21 Fr . Perroux, L ' ~ c o n o m i e du XXSme s i e c l e , O p . c i t . , p.169. -

3 1 i b . pp. 251 e t 274 -

e n t r e l e s p r o j e t s des groupes sociaux, c a r "1 '6 tab l i ssement des reseaux de l i a i s o n m a t e r i e l l e e n t r e eux ne s u f f i t pas a rendre une s o c i e t e economique p rogress ive . I 1 y f a u t encore une t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a c t i v e des hommes p a r 1es hommes, c ' e s t - Z i - d i r e 1 ' 6 t a b l i s s e m e n t de formes de l a communication adaptees aux s u j e t s t e l s q u a i l s son t " . l/ Chaque f o i s qu 'on se con ten te " d ' o r g a n i s e r l a complementar i te des choses, l e r i s q u e e s t grand de promouvoir "une economie m e u r t r i 6 r e " dans l a mesure 00 e l l e se preoccupe davantage d'enchainements techniques que de p o t e n t i e l s humains a promouvoir e t done de besoins profonds a s a t i s f a i r e . 2/

Les p r e c a u t i o n s soigneusement p r i s e s p a r Perroux non seulement pour e q u i l i b r e r un propos mais pour se demarquer de t o u t automatisme n ' o n t probablement pas r e t e n u suf f isamment l ' a t t e n t i o n de ceux q u i o n t u t i l i s e ses concepts e t ses d e f i n i t i o n s e t q u i o n t d e r i v e dans b i e n des cas vers des u t i l i s a t i o n s mecani- c i s t e s e t r e d u c t r i c e s . Les " e f f e t s d 'en t ra inement " s o n t devenus un l i e u commun des p r a t i q u e s de d6veloppement mais on a souvent o u b l i e l e s " e f f e t s de stoppage" auss i b i e n que l e s c o n d i t i o n s enonc6es pour que ces e f f e t s appara issen t e t c o n t r i b u e n t "sans d e s t r u c t i o n s massives d'hommes e t d ' a v e n i r s humains a l ' ame- nagement du m i l i e u humain lui-meme".

L ' a c t i v i s m e de l ' o f f r e " procede du meme mouvement d ' a f f i r m a t i o n du c a r a c t e r e necessa i re e t nova teur d ' u n co rps de p r o j e t s coherents p r o j e t e s dans l ' a v e n i r a f i n de b r i s e r avec 1e f a t a l i s m e de l a demande. L ' a c t i v i s m e de l ' o f f r e i n t e g r e l a dynamique des e f f e t s d 'en t ra inement ; i 1 u t i l i s e , en reprenan t 1a t h e o r i e des chainons conducteurs, des sequences techniques q u i s ' a r t i c u l e n t d 'une t r a n s f o r - mat ion a l ' a u t r e , d'une branche vers une a u t r e branche, depuis l ' a m o n t j u s q u ' a l ' a v a l . Les choses s o n t faussees chaque f o i s que l ' a c t i v i s m e de l ' o f f r e - q u i oppose sa g e n e r o s i t e aux e t r o i t e s s e s e t a v a r i c e s du march6 - tend a deven i r s imp le systgme o r i e n t 6 d'enchainement techniques q u i , p a r un e f f e t de vocabu- l a i r e , p rend des a l l u r e s 6conomiques e t - s o c i o - p 0 1 i t i q u e s : a l o r s , l e s ensembles de machines engendrent des s t r u c t u r a t i o n s economiques e t soc ia les , t a n d i s que l ' i n d u s t r i e se met a "declencher de pu issan tes p u l s i o n s en d i r e c t i o n de I ' e n - semble 6conomique e t s o c i a l e " .

A i n s i e s t mis en r o u t e une m6canique de d ~ s t r u c t u r a t i o n / s t r u c t u r a t i o n dans l a mesure oCi 1es d e s e q u i l i b r e s provoquee p a r l a lame de f o n d se t ransforment a l e u r t o u r en une p u i s s a n t e pouss6e q u i se met a e n t r a i n e r l a t o t a l i t e des sec- t e u r s de l ' economie e t de l a s o c i e t e . L ' i n d u s t r i e a c q u i e r t de ce f a i t une

l / Fr. Perroux, L'Economie du XXSme siscle, o p . c i t . , pp. 251 et 274 -

2 1 On se rappellera 5 c e propos l'analyse du Capital en termes d e relations sociales.

v o c a t i o n u n i v e r s e l l e : comme methode du developpement harmonieux. l/ Les conse- quences en d e c o u l e n t normalement.

a ) De par l e u r s e u l e e x i s t e n c e e t , en p a r t i c u l i e r , p a r l e s bouleversements q u ' e l l e s i m p l i q u e n t , c e r t a i n e s a c t i v i t e s - des i n d u s t r i e s de base p a r exemple - s o n t repu tees se developper p a r l e u r p r o p r e po ids t o u t en a s s u r a n t l ' i n t e - o r a t i o n d ' u n monde i n d u s t r i e l q u ' e l l e s c o n t r a i g n e n t 2 s u r g i r .

b ) La r o u t e e s t o u v e r t e vers ce q u ' o n a appele "1a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n de l ' e c o n o - m i e e n t i e r e en un mecanisme un ique fonc t ionnement automatiquement" en a t t e n d a n t que "se r e a l i s e l a r e u n i o n de p l u s en p l u s complete des u s i n e s g igantesques en une s e u l e cha ine de p r o d u c t i o n . . . " . 2/

c ) L ' i n d u s t r i e s ' a f f i r m e des l o r s comme l a source de t o u t e r e a n i m a t i o n / r e h a b i - l i t a t i o n en p a r t i c u l i e r pour 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e q u i c o n s t i t u e p a r c o n t r a s t e l e l i e u de t o u t e s l e s a r r i e r a t i o n s e t pesanteurs. "Sans l ' hegemon ie de l ' i n d u s - t r i e , i 1 e s t i m p o s s i b l e de v e n i r a b o u t du c a r a c t e r e a r r i e r e b a r b a r e e t m ise rab le du v i l l a g e " . 3/ La s o l u t i o n e s t en marche chaque f o i s que " l e s colonnes de t r a c t e u r s , ces t r o u p e s combat tantes de l a R e v o l u t i o n techn ique s 'avancen t dans l e s con t rees l e s p l u s recu lees e t v ra imen t ba rbares de n o t r e Union. . . " . 3/ L ' i n d u s t r i e - l u m i e r e e c l a i r a n t une a g r i c u l t u r e tenebreuse - r e l e v e d ' u n e t r a d i t i o n b i e n en rac inee q u i c o n t i n u e a impregner des formu- l a t i o n s m u l t i p l e s : q u ' i l s ' a g i s s e de v a r i a t i o n s s u r l e theme de l a l o u r d e chape de f a t a l i s m e q u i pese s u r 1es comportements paysans ou de l a denon- c i a t i o n de l ' e s p r i t " g o u r b i - p a r c e l l e de t e r r a i n f r e i n a n t ] 'emergence d ' u n homme nouveau". 4/ Les paysans s o n t l e s c o n s t i t u a n t s de aeuxieme zone d ' u n systeme q u i ne p e u t a s s u r e r l e u r p romot ion q u ' a c o n d i t i o n q u ' i l s cessen t d ' e t r e a g r i c u l t e u r s . . .

d ) L ' i n d u s t r i e s ' impose dans son donn6 m a s s i f ; l a r i g u e u r de ses enchainements e s t t e l l e q u ' e l l e ne p e u t e t r e que normat i ve e t i n d i s c u t a b l e ; aucune q u a l i - f i c a t i o n n ' e s t done acqu ise en dehors d ' u n e a d a p t a t i o n - e t d ' u n e adapata- t i o n permanente - aux ex igences derou lees p a r l e s e v o l u t i o n s i m p e r a t i v e s de l a t e c h n o l o g i e .

De l ' a c t i v i s m e de l ' o f f r e q u i t e n t a i t de rompre avec l e carcan du march6 j u s - q u ' a l a prosopopee de l a r e v o l u t i o n technique, l e changenent de r e g i s t r e e s t r a d i c a l e t l e b i a i s m y s t i f i c a t e u r . Les choses d o i v e n t e t r e remises 2 l e u r p l a c e en p rocgdan t pas a pas: en cornmencant p a r m e t t r e en cause l a l i n e a r i t 6 s i m p l i f i c a t r i c e du processus.

I/ Cf. 5 propos certaines formulations de la Charte Nationale de la Republique - Alggrienne Dgmocratique et Populaire. (Alger: Editions du FLN, 1976).

2/ Cf. L. Trotsky, "Verslecapitalisme ou vers le socialisme", in La question - paysanne en URSS, (Paris: Maspgro, 1973).

3/ N. Boukharine, "Au debut d'une nouvelle annge &conomique", in La question paysanne en URSS, op.cit., p. 216

4 / Alggrie Actualitg, No. 696, 22-28 fsvrier 1979.

L ' e n t r e p r i s e e s t d ' a c t u a l i t e en un temps 00 l a c r i s e f a i t a p p a r a i t r e b i e n des f a i l l e s dans 1es c e r t i t u d e s s o l i d e s e t l e s enchainements apparemment l e s p l u s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e s . 11 s e m b l a i t c l a i r p a r exemple que dans l e domaine energe t ique on e t a i t passe h i s t o r i q u e m e n t de ] 'e t -e des energ ies douces (de l ' e a u , du vent , du b o i s ) 8 l ' e r e du charbon, p u i s de l ' e r e du charbon i ] ' @ r e du p e t r o l e ; e n f i n , de 1 ' e r e du p e t r o l e 2 l ' e r e n u c l e a i r e , j u s q u ' a ce q u ' o n s ' a p e r c o i v e que l e n u c l e a i r e r i s q u e de condu i re a des impasses. On decouvre a l o r s r e t r o s p e c - t i vement l ' a m p l e u r des i n t e r s t s des compagnies p e t r o l i 6 r e s engages dans l e passage du charbon au p e t r o l e , on c o n s t a t e que l e f i 1 de 1a conquete i n i n t e r - rompue e s t coupe e t que l e s "E'' d i s p a r a i s s e n t : E n u c l @ a i r e , p e t r o l e , Tout e l e c t r i q u e : on se met done 2 reb rousser chemin a l a recherche du charbon, - du b o i s , de l ' e a u , du vent , des p e t i t s gisements e t des p e t i t e s chutes d 'eau, e t c . . .

Dans tous 1es domaines, l a l i n e a r i t 6 de l ' a v a n c e e technique f a i t p l a c e i des processus en grappe ou p1 u r i l i n e a i res ; deux exemples c h o i s i s parmi d ' a u t r e s i l l u s t r e n t c e t t e e v o l u t i o n :

- "dans l a s i d e r u r g i e , d ' u n e p a r t , 00 on a c o n s t a t e une e v o l u t i o n acce le ree vers des i n s t a l l a t i o n s de t r e s grandes d imensions: hauts fourneaux, conver- t i s s e u r s e t l a m i n o i r s geants; t e l e t a i t 1e modele japona is de re fe rence . L ' u t i l i s a t i o n du f o u r e l e c t r i q u e e t a i t reservee a l a p r o d u c t i o n des a c i e r s de q u a l i t e ; quan t au h a u t fourneau du charbon de b o i s , i 1 ne s u b s i s t a i t p l u s q u ' a t i t r e d 'o rgane temoin d 'une epoque revo lue . J u s q u ' i l ' a p p a r i t i o n d 'une f i l i e r e n o u v e l l e q u i s'accommode des p e t i t e s t a i l l e s ( m i n i s i d e r u r g i e ) a base de r e d u c t i o n d i r e c t e l i e e au f o u r e l e c t r i q u e ... j u s q u ' a ce q u ' o n rev ienne recemment au B r e s i l , en M a l a i s i e (aux P h i l i p p i n e s ) aux hauts fourneaux a charbon de b o i s ... En s i d e r u r g i e , ce q u i s e m b l a i t depass6 ou meme r e l e v e r du f o l k l o r e e s t en t r a i n de s ' i n t e g r e r ou de se r e i n t e g r e r dans l a p a n o p l i e des procedes modernes;

- de 1 ' i n d u s t r i e a 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e , p a r a i l l e u r s , l e s e f f e t s de l ' e t r o i t e sou- m i s s i o n de 1a seconde 2 l a p remie re ne s o n t pas auss i b r i l l a n t s que prevu. Le modele de t r a c t o r i s a t i o n l o u r d e p r6con ise a a u t a n t d e t r u i t que feconde; l a c h i m i s a t i o n n ' a pas empsche i c i e t 1a l e s rendements de s tagner e t pa r - f o i s de s ' e f f o n d r e r : c a r on s ' a p e r c o i t a u j o u r d ' h u i que t o u t ne se r e g l e pas dans l ' a g r i c u l t u r e a coup de t r a c t e u r s , d ' e n g r a i s e t de p l a s t i q u e s ; on s ' a p e r c o i t egalement que l ' a n a l p h a b e t i s m e des paysanne ne l e s empeche pas d ' a v o i r l e sens d ' e q u i l i b r e s complexes q u i r e l e v e n t de 1a b i o l o g i e , de l ' e c o l o g i e , a u t a n t e t p a r f o i s p l u s que de l a c h i m i e e t de l a mecanique. Les paysans, quand i 1 en r e s t e , von t p e u t - S t r e commencer 2 compter dans l e developpement de 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e . '

Du h a u t fourneau au t r a c t e u r ou a l ' u n i t e d'ammoniac de 1500 t/ j ., l e mot d ' o r d r e g e n e r a l i s e e t a i t aux economies d ' e c h e l l e . Des exemples de p l u s en p l u s nombreux i n d i q u e n t p o u r t a n t que l a " l o i " des economies d ' e c h e l l e ne joue pas ou ne j o u e p l u s . Les m i n i s i d e r u r g i s t e s i t a l i e n s o n t c o n t r a i n t i l a de fens ive s i n o n a l a fe rmetu re p l u s i e u r s u n i t e s europeennes de grandes dimensions; l e

probleme e s t pose dans d ' a u t r e s a c t i v i t e s : pape te r ie , ch imie, r a f f i n e r i e , suc- r e r i e , e t c . On s a i t a u j o u r d ' h u i que l e s economies d ' e c h e l l e d i s p a r a i s s e n t l o r s q u e l e taux de marche d iminue sensib lement ou lo rsque 1es r e t a r d s s 'accu- mu len t au temps de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n ou de l a montee en p roduc t ion . 11 conv ien t de s ' i n t e r r o g e r s u r ce que d e v i e n t dans ces c o n d i t i o n s l a "norme i n t e r n a t i o n a l e " dans l a mesure OCI un des s e c r e t s de l a puissance des economies l e s p l u s avan- cees, du Japon, de 1 'Al lemagne e t des E ta ts -Un is semble r e s i d e r de p l u s en p l u s dans l e u r c a p a c i t e 2 j o u e r s u r une l a r g e gamme ae techniques e t de t a l l i e s . Maxi, mais auss i m i n i - s i d e r u r g i e , f a b r i c a t i o n du v e r r e p l a t pour l ' e x p o r t a t i o n s u r t e c h n o l o g i e de p o i n t e mais auss i f a b r i c a t i o n du v e r r e p l u s o r d i n a i r e s u r techn ique ancienne, e t c ... La f i n du "dogme" des hconomies d ' e c h e l l e e t de l a norme techn ique i n t e r n a t i o n a l e unique e s t un heureux coup p o r t 6 2 une pu issan te b a r r i e r e a l ' e n t r e e ; c ' e s t egalement l a p o s s i b i l i t e ouver te 2 des cheminements pedagogiques q u i pe rmet ten t a des c o l l e c t i f s de t r a v a i l en f o r m a t i o n de m a i t r i - s e r progressivement des ensemble complexes, a p a r t i r d ' i n s t r u m e n t s moins d i s - p r o p o r t i o n n e s 2 l e u r inexper ience . Dans ce domaine, i 1 deviendra en t o u t cas p l u s d i f f i c i l e pour l e s i n g 6 n i e r i e s e t l e s vendeurs de m a t e r i e l s de c o n t i n u e r a fonder l e u r s arguments de vente s u r " l e s grandes l o i s de l ' economie" .

11 e s t bon que ces tendances nouve l les m e t t e n t en cause l ' a v a n c e s o i - d i s a n t i n e x o r a b l e - sans de tour n i r e t o u r - de l a r e v o l u t i o n technique; i 1 e s t bon que ces dogmes, normes e t "grandes l o i s " pe rden t l e u r c a r a c t e r e i n t a n g i b l e e t presque "sac r6" ; c ' e s t l a c o n d i t i o n pour que des processus d i a l e c t i q u e s se renouent e n t r e 1a modern isa t ion de I ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t 1es paysans, e n t r e des sys- temes de machines e t des ensembles de t r a v a i l l e u r s , e n t r e 1e mouvement des tech- n iques e t de l ' i n d u s t r i e e t l a s a t i s f a c t i o n des besoins soc iaux .

5. Tie I ' impo~/)tance de l a csnsonnnation e t dc la deirande: r even i r aus' besoins fondamen taux

On c o n n a l t l e s c r i t e r e s h a b i t u e l l e m e n t avances pour @ v a l u e r 1a r e u s s i t e d ' u n processus d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n : 1a r a p i d i t e de 1a c o n s t r u c t i o n d'ensembles indus- t r i e l s , I ' e f f i c a c i t e de l e u r fonct ionnement . Dans t e l ou t e l pays de 1 ' A s i e du Sud-Est a s i a t i q u e , l e s us ines s ' e d i f i e n t en un temps r e c o r d e t s o r t e n t des p r o - d u i t s conformes aux normes i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s : on d i t que l e u r i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n p rogresse s u r un ry thme r a p i d e : p rodu i re, p rodu i r e v i t e , p rodu i r e eff icacement, p r o d u i r e en c o n f o r m i t e , mais p r o d u i r e quo i e t p r o d u i r e pour q u i ? On ne s ' a t - t a r d e guere en general a un examen de 1a s t r u c t u r e e t de l ' u t i l i s a t i o n (de l ' u t i l i t e ! ) de l a p roduc t ion ; on f a i t probablement l ' h y p o t h e s e que ces prob- lemes se r e g l e r o n t d 'eux -mhes . 11 e s t v r a i que ces problemes se r e g l e n t mais de maniere p a r t i e l l e e t p a r t i a l e , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e au p r o f i t de c e r t a i n e s catego- r i e s s o c i a l e s e t au d e t r i m e n t d ' a u t r e s c a t e g o r i e s , p a r exemple:

. on p r o d u i t des t r a c t e u r s e t des machines t r a c t e e s "modernes", mais on se souc i r e l a t i v e m e n t peu de f a b r i q u e r o u t i l s a main ame l io res e t machines s imp les pour l e s a g r i c u l t u r e s d i t e s t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s ;

. on p r o d u i t des chaussures de t y p e u rba in , i n s p i r e e s d ' u n e mode p a r i s i e n n e ou m i l a n a i s e ; mais on p r o d u i t rarement d'emblee des chaussures de t r a v a i l e t de s e c u r i t 6 p ro tegean t paysans e t o u v r i e r s d ' u n environnement h o s t i l e ;

. on p r o d u i t cosmetique e t p a p i e r s d i t s "k leenex" beaucoup p l u s que p r o d u i t s d ' h y g i e n e de base, pour 1e f i l t r a g e de l ' e a u e t pour l a p r o t e c t i o n des a l i - m e n t ~ ;

. on p r o d u i t v i l l a s , t a p i s de s o l s , a p p a r e i l s electro-menagers avant de p ro - d u i r e maisons p o p u l a i r e s , h a b i t a t r u r a l renove, e t c . . .

Ces d i s t o r s i o n s , t r e s frequemment constatees t r a d u i s e n t l a f o r c e de l ' i m p a c t des "mod@lesl' q u i p r e v a l e n t dans l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s e t q u i correspondent aux s t r a t e g i e s de marche des grands groupes i n d u s t r i e l s e t commerciaux. Ces d i s t o r s i o n s t r a d u i s e n t egalement l a d is tance , longue a p a r c o u r i r , e n t r e 1e lancement des i n d u s t r i e s de base e t 1e developpement des a c t i v i t e s ava l p l u s l i e e s a 1a consommation du grand nombre: chaque f o i s que p a r exemple l a p r i - o r i t e accordee aux ba t iments i n d u s t r i e l s r e n v o i e a d i x ou a v i n g t ans p l u s t a r d l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de logements.

De t o u t e facon, il e s t c l a i r qu 'une grande p r i o r i t e accordee a 1a p r o d u c t i o n ( e t a 1 ' a c t i v i s m e de 1 ' o f f r e ) ne s u f f i t jamais a r 6 g l e r l e s problemes de l a consommation, de l a demande e t de 1a s a t i s f a c t i o n des besoins. I 1 e s t a ce propos c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e de c o n s t a t e r qu 'un c e r t a i n nombre de t r a v a u x a c t u e l l e - ment menes s u r l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n des pays du T i e r s Monde l/ f o n t a p p a r a i t r e 1e c a r a c t e r e p a r t i a l d ' i ns t ruments p o u r t a n t repu tes hab i t u e i l e m e n t comme s t r i c - tement techn iques e t neu t res , t e l s que l i s t e s s t a t i s t i q u e s , nomenclatures d ' a c t i v i t e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s con fec t ionnees p a r e t pour des economies aux indus- t r i e s d e j a s t r u c t u r e e s . Ces ins t ruments s t a t i s t i q u e s s o n t en general beaucoup p l u s d i f f i c i l e m e n t u t i l i s a b l e s pour 1es economies q u i dec iden t de c o n s t r u i r e une i n d u s t r i e s u r t o u t l o r s q u e p r i o r i t e e s t donnee a 1a s a t i s f a c t i o n des besoins locaux p a r r a p p o r t a l a r e p r o d u c t i o n d ' u n modele simplement impor t@. Les r e f - l e x i o n s lancees depuis quelques annees sur l e s "besoins fondamentaux" 2/ o n t l e m e r i t e d ' a t t i r e r l ' a t t e n t i o n s u r I e domaine en general peu e t u d i e de l a demande, de l a consommation ... e t des besoins. 3/ l ine etude r e c e n t e d ' u n economiste e g y p t i e n 4/ s o u l i g n e a ce propos que l ' a n a l y s e des besoins fonda- mentaux r e v e l e t r o i s elements majeurs:

l/ En particulier dans Ie cadre de 1'ONUDI - 21 Depuis, notamment, la conference du BIT, Gensve 1976 -

31 La theorie des besoins fondamentaux fait l'objet de nombreuses critiques, ces critiques sont fondges dans la mesure 013 il s'agirait en effet de mettre en place une solution "mis6rabiliste" reserves aux plus pauvres base de mesures d'urgence et de techniques obsol~tes. La thgorie des besoins fondamentaux devient par centre tr5s intgressante lorsqu'elle prend valeur universelle, dans la mesure oii elle rejoint les reflexions menges dans les pays industrialises sur les besoins, la manisre de les sastisfaire, etc.. .

41 Isma'il-Sabri Abdalla, "Arab industrialisation strategy based on self-reli- - ante and satisfaction of basic needs", IFDA Dossier 16, ~arch/A~ril 1980, pp. 3-14.

a ) Les beso ins fondamentaux c o n t r a i r e m e n t 2 ce que l a t h e o r i e c l a s s i q u e a f f i r m e , ne s o n t n i innombrables n i i l l i m i t e s ( a 1a d i f f e r e n c e des b iens s u b s t i t u a - b l e s e n t r e eux s u s c e p t i b l e s de 1es s a t i s f a i r e ) ;

b ) Ces beso ins comprennent a l a f o i s des besoins m a t e r i e l s e t des besoins i m m a t e r i e l s ; l/

c ) Ces besoms s o n t tous fondamentaux, c ' e s t - $ - d i r e q u ' i l s d o i v e n t e t r e tous s a t i s f a i t s , sans qu 'aucune s u b s t i t u t i o n ou p r i o r i t 6 p u i s s e i n t e r v e n i r sous p e i n e de m ise en cause du b i e n - e t r e de l'homme. 2/

N o u r r i t u r e , vetement, h a b i t a t , san te ,educa t ion , auto-accompl issement e t p a r t i - c i p a t i o n 3/ c o n v i v i a l i t e : 4/ ces beso ins r e n v o i e n t exactement aux i n s a t i s f a c - t i o n s e t f r u s t r a t i o n s engendrees p a r l e s exper iences d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n evo- quees p l u s hau t . Les q u e s t i o n s posees s o n t l e s s u i v a n t e s : que l e s t en cons$- quence 1e ( l e s ) processus d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n q u i corresponde e f f e c t i v e m e n t a une l o g i q u e de s a t i s f a c t i o n de besoins de base? Dans une te11e p e r s p e c t i v e , que l l e gamme de p r o d u i t s f a b r i q u e r , s u i v a n t que l l e s techn iques e t quel l e s me- thodes, pour q u e l usage? Les reponses a ces d e r n i e r e s ques t ions son t en gene- r a l f o u r n i e s dans l e cadre de programmes, de p r o j e t s e t d ' e t u d e s p r e l i m i n a i r e s ; ces p r o j e t s e t e tudes p r e l i m i n a i r e s s o n t souvent c o n f i e s des e x p e r t s ou a des bureaux d ' e t u d e e t d ' i n g e n i e r i e s t r a n g e r s , a l o r s q u ' i l s ' a g i t d ' u n e tache d ' i m p o r t a n c e s t r a t e g i q u e , 2 r e s e r v e r absolument a ] ' i n i t i a t i v e n a t i o n a l e . Encore f a u t - i l s ' i n t e r r o g e r s u r l a c o n s i s t a n c e de l ' a u t o n o m i e de c e t t e i n i t i a - t i v e n a t i o n a l e c a r des c h o i x de t y p e b u r e a u c r a t i q u e r i s q u e n t de s ' i n s p i r e r davantage de rnodeles e x t e r i e u r s que des beso ins r e e l s de 1 'ensemble d ' u n e popu- l a t i o n . Une chose e s t c l a i r e en t o u t cas: aucune s t ruc tu ra t ion / r e s t ruc tu ra t ion s o c i a l e s a t i s f a i s a n t e n ' e s t a a t t e n d r e de l ' i m p a c t d ' u n ensemble de machines a u s s i longtemps que I 'agencement e t 1a coherence de ce systeme ne s e r o n t pas d e f i n i s , o r i e n t e s e t m a i t r i s e s p a r l e s express ions l e s p l u s d i r e c t s poss i b l e s de l a democra t i c l a p l u s l a r g e . On se souv iendra , en e f f e t , que l a " p a r t i c i p a - t i o n " aux d e c i s i o n s e t aux c h o i x f a i t p a r t i e des beso ins fondamentaux. La b o u c l e e s t a i n s i bouclee, l o r s q u ' i 1 a p p a r a i t q u ' i n s a t i s f a c t i o n e t f r u s t r a t i o n s i n d u i t e s p a r l ' i r r u p t i o n de l ' i n d u s t r i e r e s u l t e n t p rec isement de l ' e x c l u s i o n de 1a masse des i n s a t i s f a i t s e t des f r u s t r e s de t o u t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n aux d i s c u s - s ions , aux c h o i x e t aux d e c i s i o n s i n t e r e s s a n t I e processus d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n .

l/ ~sma'il-~abri Abdalla, "Arab industrialisation strategy based on self-reli- - ante and satisfaction of basic needs", IFDA Dossier 16, ~ a r c h / A p r i l 1980, pp. 3-14.

2 / Des besoins materiels 2 savoir: nourriture correcte, vgtement adapt6, habi- - tat convenable, mobilite, education, sante et des besoins immateriels 2 savoir: auto-accomplissement (self-fulfilment), convivialit6 (togetner- ness).

3/ Traduction de self-fulfilment.

4/ Traduction d e togetherness.

11 fut un temps oC lancer l'industrialisation constituait une rupture - diffi- cile - avec 1'6conomie meurtriere du pacte colonial, pilleur de richesses na- turelles et destructeur de capacites humaines . . . On sait aujourd'hui d'expe- rience qu'industrialiser risque de decevoir si 1'on ne rompt pas avec les methodes et les dynamiques qui dispensent de referer le processus industriel au seul objectif susceptible de le rendre socialement operant: satisfaire les besoins fondamentaux de la population. Chaque fois que les paysans ne sont plus consideres comme des arrieres alourdis par le fatalisme ou que 1es talents des travailleurs industriels, lettres ou illetres, dipl6mGs ou non diplomes, sont systematiquement integres et promus, i 1 s'agit d'un test significatif de la bonne orientation de l'entreprise etant don@ que participation et plein accomp- lissement l/ font partie des besoins fondamentaux 2. satisfaire.

I/ ~smayl-Sabri Abdalla, op.cit.

Travaux recents de Pierre Judet:

. Quelques problemes d'industrialisation et de planification en republique de -- .- -. Guinee-Bissau, minieog., 49 pp. Dec. 1978

. Satisfaction des besoins fondamentaux et production de biens de capital dans -.

les pays en voie de developpement, Note de recherche, mimeog., 34pp. Fev. 19C0 . A propos du traitement des matieres premieres: economies d'gchelle et reduc -

tion de taille, Communication au seminaire organise par Ie Centre de develop-- pement de I'OCDE, Janvier 1980, mimeog., 36 pp.

. Paradoxes et enjeux de la 'semi-industrialisation', Le Monde Diplomatique, Decembre 1979 L'evolution de l'industrie siderurgique mondiale. Une image 1985: elements pour une analyse critique, mimeog., 58 pp. + annexes.

CONSECUENCIAS SOCIALES Dâ LA INDUSTRIALIZACION EN LOS PAISES D E L TERCER MUNDO

&sumer,: La i rd z - .~ t v iaL i zac i ^n no X &uc. m e c & i m de produce'io%, s ino rr.ds bier w prozeso de reeshr-t t.~r,:d'ori eco'nom~ca y soc ia l . Entendzdo como s-i'mbdo cte La. l:.beracior; aft p n c w w l o r i a t . l a +.em oi.eada de ' industrializacicm d e l Terser /Aina'o y'he saoinpviada dc kna @wi tc'iefa,'oia para 'Los errores " ine%itable~" . . . . - 3a,:2czc 27. /i ~ : ~ c ~ n ~ : : , 2 : de .7.,c ? P F J P ~ T : S~, :JI-I-~:LJ:,~X, ci Lc largo ZeL ccniw.

THIS IS OUR LAND

i this was a forest - uninhabitable. we came in search for food. We foundit clean. today i t feeds the t h i d of my generations. but a rich man had come. the government said the man owns the food. including our land.

ii from his ground, a son wished vengeance, from another we hear anguish unanswered. why did the go vernmen t help the rich man to kil l us to get our land?

iii i am old, the rule had been simple for me, live honestly, in peace, in the sweat of the brow. i wish to leave this legacy to one more son. but the rich man his law is made of steel and powder i t kills. my sons tell me the struggle 'tis the deal.

iv i could see the fim in the east a-borning. the sunset shall come. my wenyance will be my sons'. my anxiety their peace. for in truth and freedom our justice we are taking back this our LAND!

by - Bugm Sa. Kaumahan (the other son)

Source: Asian Action - Newsletter of the Asian Cultural Forum on Development No. 23.

BUILDING BLOCKS

INDUSTRIAL RESTRUCTURING AND DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION I N THE NETHERLANDS

by Ben Evers Development Research I n s t i t u t e Hogeschool laan 225 T i l b u r g , The Nether lands

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract : The international, d i v i s i on o f labour between indus t r ia l i z ed and Third World countr ies i s subjec t t o a process o f acce lerated change. This i s espe- &Lly t rue for manufactured products. I t cannot a p r io r i be assumed t h a t these s h i f t s i n the s t ruc tu re o f internationaZ trade and production u H l produce only b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s i n both i ndus t r ia l i z ed and Third World countr ies . On the contrary , there are a l so negative e f f e c t s associa ted u i t h t h i s change.

I n 1976 the Development Research I n s t i t u t e o f the T-ilburg Univers i ty has s t a r t ed a research projec t i n t h i s f i e l d . This project became feas ib le thanks t o a subs tan t ia l f inancia l contr ibut ion of the Dutch Minis ter o f Development Co- operat ion . This research aims a t providing pot icy makers u i t h addi t ional asses- ment elements for formulating a more adequate an t i c ipa tory re-adjustment pol iey , uhich takes i n t o account the i n t e r e s t s o f both i ndus t r ia l i z ed f i n par t icu lar t he Netherlands! and Third Wortd countr ies .

I n v ieu o f the importance and t o p i c a l i t g o f t he subjec t , the I n s t i t u t e aims a t making access ib le the research r e s u l t s a l s o to a broader public, mainly by uay o f pubtishing progress repor ts , a r t i c l e s , e t c . The r e s u l t s , however, are not only r e Levant for the Dutch audience. Especiazzy 'in Third World countr ies there i s a growing need for information on developments i n and p o l i c i e s o f i ndus t r ia l i z e d coun t r i e s .

Other papers i n t h i s s e r i e s o f 9ccasionaZ papers are:

. Kees K l i j s , e o , Evaluation o f a re-adjustment s&sidx

. Wil ly Wagmans , Hong Kong, Development and perspective o f a c lo th ing co lony

. Job de Haan, The fu ture o f the Dutch c lo th ing i ndus t r y

. Gerard de Groat, Export indus trg i n Tunisia, e f f e c t s o f a dependent development

. Caret de Beer, Toon van de Ven, The e f f i c i e n c y o f production systems i n developing countr ies , a case-sbudy i n Peruvian metal-uorking indus try

These papers are avai lable from the Development Research I n s t i t u t e , Tilb'urg Un iver s i t y , Postbox 90133, 1V 5000 LE Ti lburq , The Netherlands Leczure de l ivered a t the Norsk U tenr i k spo l i t i s k I n s t i t u t , Oslo, May 1379.

Ben Evers

I N D U S T R I A L RESTRUCTURING AND DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION I N THE

NETHERLANDS

The d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r economic s t r u c t u r e s , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e ex- pans ion of p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t o f manufactures, forms an i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t i v e o f t h e development s t r a t e g y o f most T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . T h i r d World p res - s u r e on i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e access o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o - d u c t s t o t h e l a t t e r s ' markets i s o f l o n g s tand ing . I n t h i s r e g a r d demands f o r t h e l o w e r i n g o f i m p o r t b a r r i e r s , b o t h o f a t a r i f f and n o n - t a r i f f n a t u r e , and f o r i n t r o d u c i n g s p e c i a l n o n - r e c i p r o c a l p re fe rences f o r T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ' i n d u s t r i a l p roduc ts (GSP) s p r i n g t o mind.

More r e c e n t l y , i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s have been asked t o t a k e s p e c i a l s teps t o " a s s i s t t h e a d a p t i o n and ad jus tmen t o f i n d u s t r i e s and workers i n s i t u a t i o n s where they a r e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d o r may be th rea tened t o be adverse ry a f f e c - ted , by inc reased i m p o r t s o f manufactures and semi-manufactures f rom deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s " . l/ The r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d u s t r i a l and t r a d e problems o f T h i r d Wor ld coun- t r i e s and t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o l i c i e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s has been d i s c u s - sed o f l e n g t h i n t h e debate on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Eco- nomic Order ( b o t h a t t h e U.N. General Assembly and t h e S p e c i a l i z e d Agencies, i n p a r t i c u l a r a t UNIDO-level ) .

A t t h e 7 t h S p e c i a l Session o f t h e U.N. General Assembly i t was agreed t h a t ' d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s shou ld f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f new p o l i c i e s and s t r e n g t h e n e x i s t i n g p o l i c i e s , i n c l u d i n g l a b o u r marke t p o l i c i e s , wh ich would encourage t h e re-deployment o f t h e i r i n d u s t r i e s wh ich a r e l e s s c o m p e t i t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y t o deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s , thus l e a d i n g t o s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t - ments i n t h e former and a h i g h e r degree o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and human resources i n t h e l a t t e r . Such p o l i c i e s may t a k e i n t o accoun t t h e economic s t r u c t u r e , and t h e economic, s o c i a l , and s e c u r i t y o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e developed c o u n t r i e s concerned and t h e need f o r such i n d u s t r i e s t o move i n t o more v i a b l e l i n e s o f p r o d u c t i o n o r i n t o o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy". 2/

T h i s r e s o l u t i o n recogn izes t h e f a c t t h a t t h e development o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld i s n o t o n l y a m a t t e r o f changing economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and o f changing t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , b u t i s a l s o a m a t t e r o f s t r u c t u r a l change i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s .

I / U . N . R e s o l u t i o n 2626 (XXV), p a r . 25-27 and 32-35.

2 / U.N: ~ e s o l u t i o n 3362 (S5.VII), S e c t i o n I V . -

The development c o o p e r a t i o n p o l i c y o f the Ne ther lands i s indeed based on these premises. It i s recogn ized t h a t T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s r e q u i r e more than j u s t an a i d programme; t h e i r p rob lem i s a s t r u c t u r a l one, r o o t e d i n t h e manner i n which i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l and economic r e l a t i o n s a r e organized. Hence, t h e need f o r an i n t e g r a t e d approach t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f funds, t rade , raw ma- t e r i a l s , i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l development, t h e monetary system, deb ts and inves tmen ts . l/ I n t h e debate on t h e NIEO, t h e Nether lands have, compared t o most o t h e r i ndus - t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , p l a y e d a r e l a t i v e l y prominent and p r o g r e s s i v e r o l e . So, i t i s no s u r p r i s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t as e a r l y as December 1974 t h e Dutch Govern- ment s u b m i t t e d a "Memorandum on the R e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e Nether lands Economy and Development Cooperat ion" t o the P a r l i a m e n t . Th is new p o l i c y con ta ined t h r e e main components. I t proposed: f i r s t l y t o widen t r a d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ; secondly a s s i s t a n c e t o i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ; t h i r d l y t o r e s t r u c t u r e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Ne ther lands w i t h emphasis on s u p p o r t i n g Dutch i n d u s t r y i n a d j u s t i n g t o t h e newly emerging t r a d e and development p a t t e r n s .

I n November 1975 a Supplementary Memorandum was s u b m i t t e d i n which more spe- c i f i c c r i t e r i a f o r t h e g r a n t i n g o f s u b s i d i e s f rom t h e development coopera t ion budge t t o Dutch f i r m s engaged i n a process o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g , were fo rmu la ted .

T h i s p o l i c y c o u l d be regarded as one o f t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s e f f o r t s by an indus - t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r y t o e s t a b l i s h a d i r e c t and conc re te l i n k between domest ic r e s t r u c t u r i n g and t h e i n t e r e s t s o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . As such i t became w i d e l y known and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y apprec ia ted . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , w o r t h w h i l e t o ana lyse whether o r n o t t h i s p o l i c y d i d r e a l i s e i t s a s p i r a t i o n s . Such an a n a l y s i s can have many d i f f e r e n t aspects . T h i s paper w i l l r e s t r i c t i t s e l f t o t h e imp lementa t ion aspect. However b e f o r e p roceed ing i t i s necessary t o shor - t l y d e s c r i b e i t s p o l i c y con tex t , t h a t i s d e f i n e t h e i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y o f t h e Nether1 ands.

S, Industrial restructuring p o l i c y in t h e Netherlands

Al though t h e d i r e c t l i n k between i n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g and development c o o p e r a t i o n c e r t a i n l y d i d g i v e t h e new p01 c h a r a c t e r , i t shou ld a t t h e same t i m e be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t ment as such was n o t a nove l concept t o Dutch po l i cymakers .

i n t h e Ne ther lands i c y an i n n o v a t i v e i n d u s t r i a l a d j u s t -

As e a r l y as 1970 a change i n i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y had a l r e a d y taken p lace , a l l o w i n g t h e Government somewhat more d i r e c t i nvo lvement w i t h separa te i n d u s - t r i a l s e c t o r s . Up t o then, i n d u s t r i a l p01 i c y had m a i n l y c o n s i s t e d of c r e a t i n g t h e u tmos t f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t e f o r s t i m u l a t i n g and a t t r a c t i n g domest ic and f o r e i g n inves tmen ts , i n o r d e r t o r e a l i z e t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f employment, g rowth and ba lance o f payments.

I/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Budget 1977. Explanatory Memorandum, Develop- - merit Cooperation, (The Hague: 1976).

However, t h e a c c e l e r a t e d change i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e expansion process o f c a p i t a l i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the EEC, ( though a l s o i n t h e USA and Japan) and i t s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d impact on the s e c t o r a l development o f Dutch i n d u s t r y had c a l l e d f o r a change i n p o l i c y .

I n a p e r i o d o f a c c e l e r a t e d s t r u c t u r a l changes, t h e marke t mechanism proved t o be i n s u f f i c i e n t t o guarantee t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p01 i c y o b j e c t i v e s . Some s e c t o r s d i d b e n e f i t f rom t h e inc reased i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f i n v e s t - ments and t rade , o t h e r s were f o r c e d i n t o c o n t r a c t i n g . I n d u s t r i e s such as t e x t i l e , s h i p b u i l d i n g . l e a t h e r and footwear , c l o t h i n g and t h e l i k e r a n i n t o severe d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t th rea tened t o a l s o a f f e c t v i a b l e a c t i v i t i e s . More- over t h e r e g i o n a l impacts of expansion and c o n t r a c t i o n were q u i t e unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d . F i n a l l y , the n e g a t i v e impact d i d h i t s p e c i f i c groups o f t h e work ing p o p u l a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y ha rd .

Thus, t h e Government proceeded t o develop a more s p e c i f i c and p o i n t e d indus - t r i a l p o l i c y .

One c o u l d speak o f a change i n ph i losophy : f rom "ad jus tmen t th rough g rowth" i t e v o l v e d t o "g rowth th rough ad jus tmen t " . l/

. I t shou ld be made c l e a r a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h i s change i n p o l i c y was d e f i n i t e l y n o t b rough t about by t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t i t i o n f rom T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' i n d u s t r i a l expor ts . To t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e e f f e c t s t h e r e o f were - r i g n t l y o r wrong ly - s t i l l cons ide red t o be o f a lmos t n e g l i g i b l e impor tance, compared t o t h e e f f e c t s o f changes i n c o m p e t i t i v e power among i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s .

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s new i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y can be summarized as f o l l o w s : 11

- removal o f o b s t a c l e s which o b s t r u c t the g rowth o f i n d u s t r y i n genera l o r o f c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s i n p a r t i c u l a r ;

- p romot ion o f t h e development and m a r k e t i n g o f new p r o d u c t s and of t h e development o f new p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s ;

- s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e c o m p e t i t i v e power o f e x i s t i n g companies by means o f s t r u c t u r a l re -ad jus tmen t o f f i r m s a c t i v e i n a c e r t a i n s e c t o r , by which t h e s e c t o r o r branch concerned may be r e - v i t a l i s e d ;

- p romot ion o f r e g i o n a l sp read ing o f i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n such a manner t h a t a more ba lanced geograph ica l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s emerges.

l / Ben E v e r s : " I n d u s t r i a l Ad jus tmen t i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w i t h S p e c i a l Empha- s i s on t11e C l o t h i n g I n d u s t r y " , i n : O . E . C . D . , Ad jus tmen t f o r T rade ; S t u d i e s on I n d u s t r i a l Ad jus tmen t , Problems and P o l i t i c s " , ( P a r i s : 1975) pp.139-179.

2 / Ib idem. -

Thus, t h e Government would promote t h e expans ion o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y v i a b l e i n d u s t r i e s , s u p e r v i s e t h e ad jus tmen t o f p rob lem i n d u s t r i e s and a s s i s t a t t h e phas ing -ou t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y n o n - v i a b l e i n d u s t r i e s . The Government d i d n o t q u e s t i o n t h e fundamental causes o f problems i n c e r t a i n s e c t o r s . The p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e remained t h a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l marke t i s t h e d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n Dutch i n d u s t r i a l development.

From then onwards a more s p e c i f i c i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r - p o l i c y s t a r t s t o g a i n i n impor tance. The o b j e c t i v e i s t h e op t ima l development o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i n d u s - t r i a l sec to rs and branches, " o p t i m a l " t o be unders tood as i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e and p r i v a t e l y p r o f i t a b l e .

Th is s e c t o r - p o l i c y i s based p r i m a r i l y on p rob lem-or ien ted s e c t o r - o r b ranch- a n a l y s i s . The main purpose o f these i s t o deepen the i n s i g h t o f i n d u s t r y i t s e l f i n i t s own problems and t o g e t a c l e a r e r view on f u t u r e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l developments, i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e b o t t l e n e c k s i n t i m e and e f f e c t a l ong- te rm s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p a r t i c u l a r sec to rs . However: " s t a r t i n g p o i n t must be, t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y concerned t a k e s t h e neces- s a r y measures commensurate w i t h s t r u c t u r a l ad justment . Only i n cases where t h i s f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s and where c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f p u b l i c i n t e r e s t - e.g. f o r reasons o f genera l i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e o r ( r e - g i o n a l ) employment - j u s t i f y ass is tance , can ass is tance be cons ide red . I n such cases a i d i s t i e d t o e x p l i c i t c o n d i t i o n s , t o w i t :

- t h e a s s i s t a n c e s h a l l be o f a temporary n a t u r e ;

- w i t h r e g a r d t o f i r m s o r branches i n d i f f i c u l t i e s , p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r r e - covery o f p r o f i t a b i l i t y w i t h i n a reasonable t i m e shou ld be p resen t . Moreover a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be p a i d n o t o n l y t o marke t p o t e n t i a l b u t a l s o t o q u a l i t y o f management;

- t h e g r a n t i n g o f a s s i s t a n c e s h a l l depend on t h e submiss ion o f a p l a n f o r s t r u c t u r a l re -ad jus tmen t w i t h match ing f i n a n c i a l scheme, because expe- r i e n c e has t a u g h t t h a t w i t h o u t these, governmental a s s i s t a n c e i s o f l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t " . l/

I n o r d e r t o improve c o n d i t i o n s f o r a s u c c e s f u l f o l l o w - u p o f t h e recommen- d a t i o n s , a s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n has been founded i n 1972: t h e Ne ther lands R e s t r u c t u r i n g Company: NEHEM. Government, employers o r g a n i z a t i o n s and ( t i 11 r e c e n t l y ) t r a d e un ions p a r t i c i p a t e i n NEHEM.

I n 1974 (and 1975) a new e lement was i n t r o d u c e d i n i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y : l i n k i n g t h e re -ad jus tmen t se t -up t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , i n p a r t i - c u l a r i n terms o f i n d u s t r i a l e x p o r t s o f t h e l a t t e r . The d e t a i l s o f t h i s p o l i c y w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e n e x t paragraph, b u t i t can be s a i d - b e a r i n g i n m ind t h e p h r a s i n g o f t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r g r a n t i n g p u b l i c f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t t o r e s t r u c t u r i n g e f f o r t s by p r i v a t e f i r m s - t h a t f rom now on t h e i n t e r e s t s o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s have been accep ted as a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n domest ic i n d u s t r i a l po l i cymak ing .

I / I b i d e m .

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o observe t h a t t h i s change - a l t h o u g h r e s u l t i n g f rom a more s t r u c t u r a l and p r o g r e s s i v e approach i n development c o o p e r a t i o n p o l i c y - was n o t i ncons is . ten t w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l "open-door" p o l i c y as f o l l o w e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f Economic A f f a i r s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t b o t h t h e M i n i s t e r s o f Development Coopera t ion and o f Economic A f f a i r s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s change i n p o l i c y . Even the t rade-un ions , a l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g l y aware o f the s t r u c t u r a l l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g employment s i t u a t i o n i n t h e Ne ther lands , f u l l y endorsed t h i s p01 i c y and the u n d e r l y i n g ph i losophy o f a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r .

ft

I n 1976, Dutch i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y was r e v i s e d and a p o l i c y o f s o - c a l l e d se lec - t i v e growth was in t roduced . Th is new p o l i c y was n o t so much a replacement o f t h e o l d one as a re f inement . I t was based on t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t t h e s t r u c - t u r a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e Dutch economy had d e t e r i o r a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y as regards employment and growth d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t i e s . I t c o u l d n o t be expected t h a t t h i s t r e n d would change f o r t h e b e t t e r o f i t s own accord . The problems were o f a s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r .

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s new p o l i c y were t w o f o l d . F i r s t l y , t h e i n c r e a s e o f employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I t was dec ided t h a t p r o v i d i n g i n c e n t i v e s t o p r i v a t e inves tmen ts would be t h e most e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t i n terms o f j o b c r e a t i o n , more e f f e c t i v e than f o r example s u b s i d i z i n g wage c o s t s , r e d u c i n g taxes o r i n c r e a s i n g government e x p e n d i t u r e . The second o b j e c t i v e was t h e p r o v i s i o n o f some o r i e n t a t i o n as t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f these inves tmen ts , i n o r d e r t o comply w i t h o t h e r s o c i e t a l t a r g e t s . These t a r g e t s c o u l d n o t be reached w i t h o u t some governmental i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e market-mechanism. The t a r g e t s were r e f e r r e d t o as f a c e t s o r aspects o f the i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y , hence, t h e t e r m s e l e c t i v e growth. I n a d d i t i o n t o such aspec ts as env i ronmenta l c o n s e r v a t i o n , r e g i o n a l development, management o f raw m a t e r i a l s and energy, s p e c i a l men t ion was made o f t h e improvement o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

To conclude t h i s p a r t : Dutch i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y r e l i e d , and con t inues t o r e l y , p r i m a r i l y on d e c e n t r a l i z e d d e c i s i o n making, t h a t i s d e c i s i o n a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e p r i v a t e f i r m . On t h e o t h e r hand i t i s g r a d u a l l y conceded t h a t these d e c i - s i o n s shou ld be made w i t h i n t h e framework o f an o r i e n t a t i o n p r o v i d e d by t h e Government. T h i s o r i e n t a t i o n i s d e r i v e d from a spectrum o f s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . The t a r g e t s o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s have f o r m a l l y been accepted as an i n t e r n a l o b j e c t i v e i n Dutch po l i cymak ing .

. I ' r i ^ . - t ~ ' i a t ~ectrwturinq and development cooperation

The i n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g and development c o o p e r a t i o n p o l i c y as p resen ted i n t h e two Memoranda a l r e a d y mentioned, i s i n t e n d e d as an answer t o t h e ques- t i o n o f "how a p o l i c y f o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e Dutch economy c o u l d be made t o i n c l u d e the T h i r d World development f a c t o r and i n how f a r i t would be r i g h t t o use funds f rom t h e development c o o p e r a t i o n budge t t o h e l p f i nance t h i s r e s t r u c t u r i n g " . l/

I / Memorandum on the Restructuring of the Netherlands Economy and Development - Cooperation, (The Hague: 1974).

According t o t h e o f f i c i a l view t h i s can be done by an a c t i v e and fo rward l o o k i n g r e s t r u c t u r i n g p o l i c y , aimed a t running-down i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n which T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s have a comparat ive advantage, complemented by measures t o promote i n d u s t r y i n and e x p o r t s from T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n t h e same f i e l d s . Whereas t h e l a t t e r p a r t belongs t o t h e a rea o f t r a d e p o l i c y , and t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l ass is tance , t h e fo rmer i s t h e c r u x o f a n t i c i p a t o r y domestic re -ad jus tment .

Two i n s t i t u t i o n s were s i n g l e d - o u t as hav ing t o p l a y a c r u c i a l p a r t i n t h e imp lementa t ion o f t h i s p o l i c y . As f a r as t h e domestic s i d e i s concerend, t h e a l ready mentioned NEHEM was considered as e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r drawing up r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans and e n s u r i n g t h e i r implementat ion. I n as f a r as these p lans m i g h t be o f i n t e r e s t t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , NEHEM was expected t o pass on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e Dutch F inanc ing Company f o r Developing Count r ies (F.M.O.), an i n s t i t u t i o n judged t o be "eminen t l y s u i t e d t o pass t h e i n f o r m a t i o n on t o t h e deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s " . The FM0 was r e s t r u c t u r e d ; i n s t e a d o f pr ima- r i l y s e r v i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s o f Dutch f i r m s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , i t i s now supposed t o p r i m a r i l y se rve t h e i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e s t s o f T h i r d World coun- t r i e s .

Thus t h e imp lementa t ion depended on t h e degree t o which NEHEM, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s o c i a l p a r t n e r s f rom t h e sec to rs concerned, would be w i l l i n g t o e x p l i c i t l y take i n t o account t h e a c t u a l and p o t e n t i a l c o m p e t i t i v e power o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h e e x t e n t t o which NEHEM and FM0 would succeed i n e s t a b l i s h i n g e f f e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n channels and t h e degree t o which FM0 would succeed i n e f f e c t i v e l y pass ing on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o i n t e r e s t e d T h i r d World i n v e s t o r s .

I n o r d e r t o q u a l i f y f o r a d d i t i o n a l s u b s i d i e s f rom t h e development c o o p e r a t i o n budget, t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n s w i l l have t o c o n s i s t o f t h r e e components:

a) abandonment o f p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Nether lands;

b ) m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e i n t h e Nether lands;

c ) r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g - u p o f p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

Subs id ies can o n l y be g ran ted f o r t h e domest ic p a r t o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n s t h a t i s f o r components 1 and 2. However, t h e t h i r d component i s cons idered t o be a c o n d i t i o s i n e qua non. Expendi tures r e l a t e d t o t h i s p a r t should how- ever be f i n a n c e d f rom o t h e r budget i tems (e.g. t h e FM0 budget f o r t h e promo- t i o n o f i n d u s t r y i n and e x p o r t s f rom T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ) .

These t h r e e components have been d e f i n e d more f u l l y by t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of 10 r a t h e r s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a . l/

l/ Supplementary Memorandum on the Restructuring of the Netherlands Economy - and Development Cooperation, (The Hague: 1975).

General --

l ) Restructuring projects should be in l i ne with t he policy pursued by the Ministry of Economic Affa i rs f o r the s ec to r concerned and with any s t ruc - t u re plans which have already been formulated in respect of t h i s s ec to r . Concrete evidence must be ava i l ab l e of the re la t ionship between subsidy and the development f ac to r .

Abdandonment of production i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s

2) The abandonment of production should o f f e r the Third World countries im- mediate o r potent ia l comparative cos t advantages o r o ther oppor tuni t ies f o r p ro f i t ab l e production.

3 ) The abandonment should, in genera l , coincide with o r an t i c ipa t e s h i f t s in the in ternat ional d iv is ion of labour.

4 ) The more a projec t an t i c ipa t e s fu tu re s h i f t s in production to Third World countr ies , the g rea t e r the development f ac to r wi l l be, the higher the subsidy provided.

Modification of the production s t r u c t u r e in the Nether-

5 ) An e s sen t i a l condition f o r t he abandonment of production capacity in the Netherlands i s , t h a t i t must be accompanied by a modification of the domes- t i c production s t ruc tu re .

6 ) Employment 'levels should be maintained as f a r as poss ib le , by subs t i t u t ing threatened jobs by a l t e r n a t i v e secure jobs. In case employment l eve l s cannot be maintained, the budget may cover cos ts of r e t r a in ing and o the r cos ts involved in the t r a n s f e r of employees.

7 ) Subs t i t u t e a c t i v i t i e s should take place in l i n e with the assumed compara- t i v e advantage of the Netherlands v is -a-vis Third World countr ies .

Construction of production capacity in Third World countr ies

8) Effor ts should be made to demonstrate how production capacity in Third World countr ies w i l l be crea ted .

9 ) I f t he re i s concrete evidence of production capacity being build-up in Third World countr ies , the development value of the pa r t i cu l a r projec t w i l l be taken i n t o account in granting the subsidy.

10) Where there i s competition from both indus t r i a l i zed and Third World coun- t r i e s , t h i s wi l l be taken in to account, s ince the danger e x i s t s t h a t the vacuum created by abandonment of production in the Netherlands wi l l be f i l l e d by f i rms from indus t r i a l i zed countr ies .

4. Dece Iopment co-operation and restruc-Lurin~: pro:'e:'ts

Turn ing now t o t h e q u e s t i o n what t h i s p o l i c y d i d amount t o i n p r a c t i c e , one ought t o undertake a r a t h e r d e t a i l e d e v a l u a t i o n i n o r d e r t o do j u s t i c e t o i t . Obv ious ly t h i s f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f t h i s paper. However, a c l o s e r l o o k a t some i n f o r m a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r on t h e s i z e and approach o f the programme and on some concre te re-adjustment p r o j e c t s shou ld enable us t o come t o a general , a1 b e i t p r o v i s i o n a l , assessment.

The budget a l l o c a t e d t o t h e re-adjustment-cum-development coopera t ion programme was f i x e d a t H f l 35 m i l l i o n a year . l/ By way o f comparison, t h i s amounts t o about 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l development coopera t ion budget. Now, one m i g h t argue t h a t t h e va lue and m e r i t s o f such a programme shou ld n o t , f o r v a r i o u s reasons, be e x c l u s i v e l y o r even p r i m a r i l y judged on t h e b a s i s o f t h e amount o f money i n v o l v e d . F i r s t l y , t h i s programme had a more o r l e s s exper imenta l c h a r a c t e r , secondly i t was in tended t o a l s o have a k i n d o f exemplary impac t on o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s and t h i r d l y , i f t h e programme had produced a d d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n and t r a d e o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e l a t t e r would have m u l t i p l i e d t h e p u r e l y budgetary impact .

However, i t seems t h a t a d d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was h a r d l y o r n o t a t a l l r e a l i z e d , a t l e a s t n o t i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h i s programme; a change i n t r a d e p o l i c i e s was o u t s i d e t h e scope o f t h e programme i t s e l f , s i n c e t h i s i s essen- t i a l l y an EEC m a t t e r ; and t h e programme c o u l d b a r e l y r e a l i z e i t s a s p i r a t i o n o f be ing a n t i c i p a t o r y .

Anyway, t h e r e i s no p o i n t i n c r i t i s i z i n g t h e programme for i t s i n s i g n i f i c a n c e i n terms o f budget, because an i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon ocur red : even t h i s sma l l budget proved imposs ib le t o spend. T o t a l disbursements d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n (1975-1977) amounted t o about H f l 20 m i l l i o n o f t h e Hf1 105 m i l l i o n a v a i l a b l e .

Disbursements w i l l always l a g beh ind due t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e delays and t h e t i m e i t takes t o c a r r y o u t t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f an i n d u s t r y . Bu t then, commitments a l s o - b e i n g a more r e l e v a n t i n d i c a t o r - f e l l s e r i o u s l y s h o r t o f t h e t a r g e t . These amounted t o o n l y 7 m i l l i o n i n 1975, o n l y 16 i n 1976 and about 15 m i l l i o n i n 1977 ( t h e p r o v i s i o n a l f i g u r e s f o r 1978 show no improvement). Only 36 per - cen t o f t h e a v a i l a b l e budget was e f f e c t i v e l y committed. Thus, shor tage o f funds can h a r d l y be blamed f o r t h e problems connected w i t h t h i s programme.

On t h e o t h e r hand, a comparison o f these f i g u r e s w i t h t h e amount spent i n t h e same years on what m i g h t be c a l l e d "employment a s s i s t a n c e t o i n d u s t r y " , a t l e a s t H f l 1,600 m i l l i o n , p rov ides an a d d i t i o n a l i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e a l p o l i - t i c a l p r i o r i t y o f t h e programme.

I/ The f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r e t a k e n f rom t h e N a t i o n a l Budget, - u n l e s s otherwise i n d i c a t e d .

I f we now l o o k a t t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e programme, one can observe t h a t - i n accordance w i t h t h e genera l i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y , i t i s s e c t o r o r i e n t e d a l s o .

Of t h e t o t a l commitments about 65 p e r c e n t can be c l a s s i f i e d as d i r e c t s e c t o r s u p p o r t ( t o w i t : c o t t o n , rayon, l i n e n i n d u s t r y ; c l o t h i n g i n d u s t r y ; s p i n n i n g i n d u s t r y ) a g a i n s t about 35 p e r c e n t as s u p p o r t d i r e c t l y a t t h e l e v e l o f i n d i - v i d u a l f i r m s .

The s e c t o r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , however, i s b iased . About 70 p e r c e n t went t o t h e t e x t i l e and c l o t h i n g i n d u s t r y a g a i n s t abou t 2 5 p e r c e n t t o t h e (p1y)wood and o n l y about 5 p e r c e n t t o o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s ( te lecommun ica t ions b e i n g t h e b i g g e s t r e c e i v e r among t h e l a s t ment ioned c a t e g o r y ) . T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t v e r y r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n terms o f e x p o r t per formance o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and p ro - v i d e s grounds f o r q u e s t i o n i n g t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h e programme a t t h e l e v e l o f imp lementa t ion .

T h i s impress ion i s con f i rmed when we examine some o f t h e s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s o f t h e programme.

I n t h e t e x t i l e s e c t o r , t h e c o t t o n , rayon and l i n e n i n d u s t r y r e c e i v e d a ma jo r share o f t h e read jus tmen t a s s i s t a n c e f rom t h e development c o o p e r a t i o n budge t . Th is i n d u s t r y was indeed i n s e r i o u s t r o u b l e . Impor ts from T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s have inc reased r a p i d l y , b u t so have impor ts f rom EEC, and Eas te rn European coun- t r i e s . Whereas t h e EEC as a whole was l o s i n g c o m p e t i t i v e power v i s - a - v i s T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , the Dutch C.R.L. i n d u s t r y was a t a d isadvantage v i s - a - v i s EEC s u p p l i e r s . The M i n i s t r y o f Economic A f f a i r s , employers and t rade-Unions had a l r e a d y agreed upon a p l a n t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h i s i n d u s t r y which i n c l u d e d an i n v e s t - ment programme aimed a t t h e purchase o f open- end s p i n n i n g machines, energy and env i ronmenta l s a v i n g inves tmen ts and f a c i l i t i e s t o measure and c o n t r o l t h e dye ing on p r i n t i n g machines. T h i s programme was a l s o presented t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f Development Cooperat ion, which, a f t e r some h e s i t a t i o n , accepted i t . However, i t i s n o t easy t o f i n d an argument f o r j u s t i f y i n g t h i s subs idy . E i t h e r t h e M i n i s t r y was h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f i n d i n g s u i t a b l e p r o j e c t s o r t h e M i n i s t r y was s u b s i d i z i n g i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t an i n c r e a s e i n t h e p ressure f o r more p ro - t e c t i o n a g a i n s t T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' i m p o r t s . There i s no ev idence t h a t t h e purchase o f open-end s p i n n i n g machines inc reases T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' e x p o r t s . To encourage Dutch sp inners t o move up-market, away f rom t r a d i t i o n a l p roduc ts was necessary i n v iew o f t h e changes i n c o m p e t i t i v e r e l a t i o n s among i n d u s t r i a - l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The b e n e f i t f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s c o u l d a t b e s t o n l y b e assumed. Moreover, t h e M i n i s t r y had no d i r e c t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e funds, s i n c e these were a l l o c a t e d t o p r o j e c t s concern ing t h e s e c t o r as a whole; t h e r e f o r e i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s were h a r d l y aware -o f t h e f a c t t h a t p a r t s f t h e subs idy came f rom t h e development c o o p e r a t i o n budge t and thus, d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a1 low f o r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . F i n a l l y , t h i s subs idy had much more a r e t r o s p e c t i v e than an a n t i c i p a t o r y c h a r a c t e r , i n v iew o f t h e changes wh ich had a l r e a d y taken p l a c e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r .

An analogous s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s concern ing t h e s u b s i d i e s t o t h e c l o t h i n g indus - t r y . Here a g a i n a r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n had a l r e a d y been agreed upon i n v iew o f t h e moun t ing problems o f t h i s i n d u s t r y . As Dutch f i r m s were unab le t o con- t i n u e c o m p e t i t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f c o s t - p r i c e , a marke t s t r a t e g y had been

designed. Again, t h e development coopera t ion suppor t was p r o v i d e d t o t h e s e c t o r as a whole, on t h e assumption t h a t upgrading would p r o v i d e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o inc rease t h e e x p o r t o f s tandard ized products. As i n t h e case mentioned above i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s were n o t r e q u i r e d t o demons- t r a t e t h e development dimension o f t h e i r r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans . As an i r o n i c a l foo tno te , p a r t o f t h e c o m p e t i t i o n by T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' p roduc ts on t h e Dutch market had been caused by Dutch t r a d i n g houses engaged i n sub-contrac- t i n g a c t i v i t i e s and by Dutch i n d u s t r i a l f i r m s which had t r a n s f e r r e d p a r t o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s f o r t h e express purpose o f e x p o r t i n g t o t h e home market.

I f we now s c r u t i n i z e some s u b s i d i e s g ran ted t o i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s , a s i m i l a r p e s s i m i s t i c p i c t u r e u n f o l d s .

V l i s c o i s a ma jo r p roducer and e x p o r t e r o f p r i n t e d f a b r i c s . Due t o t h e estab- l i s h m e n t o f an ind igenous t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i n A f r i c a , i t s e x p o r t p o s i t i o n had d e t e r i o r a t e d . It was decided t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e Dutch f a c t o r y i n o r d e r t o improve V l i s c o ' s c o m p e t i t i v e power i n t h e markets o f high-income c o u n t r i e s . Dur ing t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e new re-adjustment-cum-development programme V l i s c o a p p l i e d f o r and was g ran ted a subsidy i n v iew o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a n pupor ted a s h i f t i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r i n f a v o u r o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , l e a v i n g t h e A f r i c a n market t o A f r i c a n producers, and a s h i f t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e Nether lands t o more advanced p r o d u c t i o n methods, more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e European market . Leaving as ide t h e f a c t t h a t V l i s c o d i d p r o v i d e t h e M i n i s t r y w i t h ve ry p a r t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n , and t h a t t h e M i n i s t r y e x h i b i t e d a c e r t a i n r e l a x i t y i n examining t h e p l a n and i t s a c t u a l implementat ion, t h e upshot was t h a t V l i s c o ( w i t h t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l U n i l e v e r as a l a r g e shareho lder ) - through t h e U n i t e d A f r i c a n Company - acqu i red an i m p o r t a n t s t a k e i n t h e expansion o f t h e A f r i c a n t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , and - even more i m p o r t a n t - th rough t h e new p r i n t i n g process managed t o recap- t u r e p a r t o f i t s A f r i c a n market . Thus, t h i s subs idy s t reng thened t h e p o s i t i o n o f a Dutch f i r m ( t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t p a r t o f a t r a n s n a t i o n a l company) on t h e market o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a t t h e expense o f ind igenous producers. l/ P h i l i p s , n o t e x a c t l y a m inor among t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l s , has a l s o r e c e i v e d a re -ad jus tment subsidy. P h i l i p s i s embarking on a s t r a t e g y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p l a n t s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f te lecommunicat ion p roduc ts i n some T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i t h an a t t r a c t i v e domestic market, n o t a b l y B r a z i l and Mexico and p o s s i b l y I n d i a , Indones ia and Colombia. Compet i t i on among t h e r e l a t i v e l y few s u p p l i e r s i n t h i s h i g h l y research - and deve lopment - in tens ive i n d u s t r y i s i n t e n s e . I n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o suppor t t h e R & D expenses P h i l i p s i s t r y i n g t o inc rease i t s market share, by way o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p l a n t s i n c o u n t r i e s t h a t can o f f e r government c o n t r a c t s . Expansion o f t h e Mexican p l a n t (60% o f t h e shares a r e under Mexican c o n t r o l ) would l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n o f employment i n t h e Nether lands. P h i l i p s a p p l i e d f o r and was g ran ted a subs idy towards t h e

I/ B. Evers, G. de Groot, K. Klijs , W. Wagenmans: Vlisco; Evaluation of a - Re-adjustment Subsidy (Tilburg: Development Research Institute, Report 7, June 1977).

r e t r a i n i n g c o s t s o f t h e 70 t o 80 employees d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d . T h i s was j u s t i - f i e d by t h e p o s i t i v e development impact on t h e Mexican economy.

An e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t m e n t o f a l l conc re te p lans f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f t h i s paper. S t i l l , t hese examples a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o enab le us t o draw some conc lus ions .

5 . Some lessons from t h e Dutch exper iencz~

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g i t s shor tcomings, a l r e a d y b r i e f l y i n d i c a t e d above, t h e Dutch a n t i c i p a t o r y restructuring-cum-development p o l i c y cannot be d i sca rded as mere ly a good p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s e x e r c i c e . There a r e no reasons t o doubt t h e good i n - t e n t i o n s o f t h e programme. T h i s , however, makes i t a l l t h e more necessary t o l e a r n some lessons f rom i t s r a t h e r u n f o r t u n a t e s t a r t .

As regards t h e s e c t o r approach o f t h e programme, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t none o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n s o f t h e s e c t o r s suppor ted w i t h development funds was g e n u i n e l y a n t i c i p a t i n g s h i f t s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . (On t h e o t h e r hand, one cannot imagine t h a t development c o o p e r a t i o n funds - even when t h e y a r e o f a non-ODA n a t u r e - would be used f o r C O - f i n a n c i n g t h e expan- s i o n o f technology- , c a p i t a l - , and knowledge i n t e n s i v e i n d u s t r i e s i n i n d u s t r i - a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , a c t i v i t i e s i n which t h e l a t t e r a r e assumed t o have compara- t i v e advantages a l r e a d y ) . The s e c t o r approach, a t l e a s t as f a r as t h e develop- ment c o o p e r a t i o n aspec t i s concerned, a lmos t i n e v i t a b l y suggests a r e a c t i o n t o changes i n compara t i ve advantages wh ich a r e a l r e a d y r e v e a l e d by s h i f t s i n t r a d e p a t t e r n s between i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s .

However, t h e s t r u c t u r a l problems o f s p e c i f i c i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s a r e seldom e x c l u s i v e l y o r even p redominan t l y caused by i m p o r t s f rom T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . ( T h i s was n o t even t h e case i n such a c l a s s i c a l problem i n d u s t r y as c l o t h i n g ) . Inc reased i m p o r t s f rom low-wage c o u n t r i e s o n l y r e p r e s e n t one aspec t o f t h e problem. One cannot t h e r e f o r e expec t t h e s e c t o r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n s t o be p redominan t l y "development o r i e n t e d " . Nonetheless, one m i g h t s t a t e t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s were r a t h e r c o i n c i d e n t a l i n t h e Dutch exper ience . T h i s i s n o t o n l y suggested by t h e c i rcumstances t h a t t h e Develop- ment Coopera t ion M i n i s t r y became i n v o l v e d i n r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans a f t e r t h e y had been agreed upon, b u t even more so by t h e con ten ts o f these p lans .

T h e i r genera l d r i f t can i n s h o r t be d e s c r i b e d as "moving up-market". T h i s m i g h t be a sound s t r a t e g y f o r t h e Dutch f i r m s i n t h e s e c t o r concerned, b u t i t does n o t i n i t s e l f guarantee t h a t T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s w i l l b e n e f i t ; t h i s has o n l y been assumed. Moreover one shou ld t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t such a "commerc ia l " s t r a t e g y i s aimed as r e c a p t u r i n g o r sa feguard ing , f o r Dutch producers, p a r t o f t h e marke t t h a t i s l o s t o r t h r e a t e n s t o be l o s t t o s u p p l i e r s o f cheap s t a n d a r d i z e d p roduc ts , and even when t h a t p a r t o f t h e market i s a c t u a l l y abandoned t h e r e i s no guaran tee t h a t T h i r d Wor ld and n o t compet ing i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s w i l l f i l l t h e gap. I n t h e Dutch p lans , no d i r e c t p r o v i s i o n s were made f o r t h e expansion o f p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t c a p a c i t i e s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s as a r e s u l t o f t h e abandonment o f p roduc ts by Dutch producers ( t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s were n o t even r e q u i r e d t o demonstrate t h e development a s p e c t ) .

As regards t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i r m support , t h e r e i s c l e a r l y a d i s p a r i t y between i n t e n t i o n s and r e a l i z a t i o n s i n t h e Dutch programme. I n t h e f i r s t p lace add i - t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g has been p rov ided f o r p r o j e c t s t h a t were n o t v i a b l e a t a l l e . g . s i s a l ) ; secondly, f i n a n c i n g was p rov ided f o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans t h a t i n t h e end were aimed a t l i m i t i n g t h e c o m p e t i t i v e advantages o f T h i r d World p ro - ducers (e.g. k n i t t i n g / h o s i e r y , p r i n t e d f a b r i c s ) , t h i r d l y f i n a n c i n g has been g ran ted t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s ( P h i l i p s , Wessanen, and - i n a c e r t a i n sense - U n i l e v e r ) .

Besides, when i n t e r v i e w i n g en t repreneurs one ge ts t h e impression t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans w i t h development coopera t ion money has had n e g l i g i b l e o r no e f f e c t a t a l l on f i n a l d e c i s i o n s ; compared t o t h e importance o f i nves tment d e c i s i o n s , t h e amount o f t h e subsidy has been t o o smal l t o e x e r c i c e a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e . T h i s i s t r u e n o t o n l y f o r T.N.C.'s b u t a l s o f o r t h e s m a l l e r f i r m s b e n e f i t t i n g f rom t h i s programme.

The f o l l o w i n g sugges t ion can be made. I f t h e development o f t h e T h i r d World i s accepted as an i n t e r n a l o b j e c t i v e o f economic p o l i c y i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d coun- t r i e s , t h e Development Cooperat ion M i n i s t r y shou ld g e t acqua in ted w i t h s e c t o r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans a t a ve ry e a r l y stage; n o t a f t e r an agreement has been reached. It shou ld be a p a r t n e r i n t h e d iscuss ions and n e g o t i a t i o n s f rom t h e s t a r t . Secondly, C O - f i n a n c i n g o f s e c t o r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans should n o t take p l a c e on t h e b a s i s of assumed b u t o n l y on t h e bas is o f proven b e n e f i t s t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . One p o s s i b i l i t y , n e x t t o i n f l u e n c i n g t h e general d r i f t o f t h e s e c t o r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans m i g h t be t o i n t r o d u c e a d i r e c t l i n k between t h e amount o f subs idy drawn f rom t h e development coopera t ion budget and c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d l e v e l s o f impor ts f rom T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ( t h i s c r i t e r i u m can be f u r t h e r r e f i n e d ) .

Such a general c i t e r i u r n o b v i o u s l y cannot be a p p l i e d a t t h e l e v e l o f i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e l a t i o n between r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n t h e Nether- l ands and concre te ev idence o f p r o d u c t i v e - and e x p o r t c a p a c i t i e s be ing b u i l t - up i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i s e a s i e r t o c o n t r o l a t t h i s l e v e l . I t shou ld t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e much g r e a t e r emphasis. T h i s i s n o t a p l e a t o CO- f inance f rom development coopera t ion funds, Dutch i n d u s t r i a l investments i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . To t h e c o n t r a r y i n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h a t development coopera t ion funds a r e used t o CO- f inance t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f Dutch p r o d u c t i v e c a p i t a l , one shou ld t i e t h e amount o f t h e subs idy t o t h e f i r m t o some s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a . To w i t : a ) p r o d u c t i v e and/or e x p o r t c a p a c i t y shou ld be e s t a b l i s h e d o r expanded i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ; b ) t h i s c a p a c i t y shou ld f i t i n t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l s t r a t e g y o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r y concerned; c ) i t shou ld be l o c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d ; d) t h e Dutch f i r m shou ld e f f e c t i v e l y engage i n t r a n s f e r of technology; e ) t h e Dutch f i r m should cooperate i n f a c i l i t a t i n g access t o t h e Dutch market f o r t h e f i r m ( i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r y ) which w i l l e x p o r t p ro - duc ts abandoned by t h e former.

I n C O - f i n a n c i n g r e s t r u c t u r i n g p lans i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , M i n i s t r i e s f o r Development Cooperat ion shou ld make c e r t a i n t h a t a d d i t i o n a l funds produce a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and n o t o n l y se rve as an a d d i t i o - n a l bonus f o r "good behav iour " . Leaving a s i d e t h e c i rumstance t h a t TNCs a r e n o t t h e most r e p r e s e n t i v e agents f o r t h e N I E O as envisaged by t h e T h i r d World,

t h e f a c t remains t h a t TNCs can be assumed t o make inves tmen t d e c i s i o n s inde- penden t l y f rom t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g some a d d i t i o n a l subs idy . There- f o r e , p r i o r i t y shou ld be g i v e n t o s m a l l e r and medium s i z e d companies.

We have n o t touched on t h e more fundamental q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o - gramme shou ld be abandoned comp le te l y . The r a t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s paper does n o t a l l o w f o r such a wide r a n g i n g c o n c l u s i o n . S t i l l economic c o n d i t i o n s have c l e a r l y changed r a t h e r p r o f o u n d l y s i n c e t h e days when t h i s p o l i c y was designed. Up t o the l a t e s i x t i e s t h e r e was s u f f i c i e n t ev idence o f t h e f a c t t h a t , s t r u c t u r a l l y , i n d u s t r i a l e x p o r t s f rom T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s lagged behind. However, d u r i n g t h e seven t ies , c o n d i t i o n s changed d r a s t i c a l l y . Nowadays, a ma jo r problem f o r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i s how t o cope w i t h r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g i n d u s t r i a l impor ts f rom T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n a p e r i o d o f s e r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l unemployment. From t r a d e p romot ing t h e mood has changed i n f a v o u r o f t r a d e p r o t e c t i o n . The i m p o r t s concerned a r e o r i g i n a t i n g f rom a r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d number o f r a p i d l y i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , w h i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y o p e r a t i n g wes te rn p r o d u c t i v e and/or t r a d i n g companies have a ma jo r s t a k e i n t h i s t rade .

I t would be w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g t o suppose t h a t t h e inc reased p r e s s u r e f o r p ro - t e c t i o n i s m can be a r r e s t e d by a d d i t i o n a l re -ad jus tmen t a s s i s t a n c e f rom t h e development c o o p e r a t i o n budget , because i m p o r t s f rom T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s c o n s t i t u t e one e lement o n l y o f t h e a c t u a l and f u t u r e unemployment problems o f i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . I c o u l d go a s t e p f u r t h e r . Under a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s a re-adjustment-cuni-development p o l i c y as implemented by t h e Dutch Government i s doomed t o l o s s o f c r e d i b i l i t y .

However, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i s s t i l l f a c i n g t h e same k i n d o f problems i n terms o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , technology, access t o f o r e i g n markets , e t c . , t h a t gave cause t o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a r e s t r u c t u r i n g cum develop- ment p o l i c y i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . Hence, we propose a r a t h e r d r a s t i c change i n emphasis w i t h i n t h i s p o l i c y .

I n s t e a d o f p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t i n g on r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n s o f i n d u s t r y i n i ndus - t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s and then l o o k i n g f o r t h e development dimension, t h e M i n i s t r y f o r Development Coopera t ion shou ld p r i m a r i l y endorse i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n - cum-export i n i t i a t i v e s by f i r m s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ( t h e F.M.O. b e i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n i n g p r i o r i t i e s between T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , p r i o r i t i e s can a l s o be dec ided upon sec to rw ise . Through an i n s t i t u t i o n l i k e NEHEM and th rough t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t o r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , Dutch f i r m s who want t o coopera te d i r e c t l y i n the expansion o f p r o d u c t i v e and e x p o r t c a p a c t i t i e s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s can be approached. T h i s w i l l p r o - b a b l y i n v o l v e r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e r e s p e c t i v e Dutch f i r m s as w e l l . S ince t h e b e n e f i t o f t h i s r e s t r u c t u r i n g d i r e c t l y accrues t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h e Development Coopera t ion M i n i s t r y can a l s o CO- f inance t h e Dutch r e s t r u c t u r i n g art.

To p r e s e n t worked-out d e t a i l s i n t h i s paper would be go ing t o o f a r . I am con- v inced however t h a t such a change i n emphasis m i g h t a l s o be more accep tab le p o l i t i c a l l y p a r t i c u l a r l y v i s - a - v i s t h e t r a d e unions.

B U I L D I NG BLOCKS

REORIENTING JUTE P O L I C Y I iV BANGLADESH

by Q a z i K . Ahmad Bangladesh I n s t i t u t e o f Development S t u d i e s Adamjee Cour t , M o t i j h e e l CIA Dacca 2, Bangladesh

O r g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: Ju te i s qrowri mfiLions of farmers ati over Bangladesh. I t i s the primer + c i u . s ~ ~ ~ o f the country, employing more than hal f o f t he labour force. J'ute manufactures 5ogether account for about three quarters o f the total- fore ig?~ exahaqg~ earnings o f the country. 'Both 'Ju t t tVat ion and manu- f a c f i i ~ i n g of ju te and its products i n Bangladesh s u f f e r from lovi p roduc t i v i t y . T h e importCince 'f 'improving product iv i ty by removing the sources of i n e f - fi.ciency cannot be over emphasised. Various de f i c i enc i e s i n technical., f inan- c i a l , managerial and policy a re i s have now been i d e n t i f i e d u i t h i n the e x i s t i n g policy approach based on an essew.iuZ(/y aependent c a p i t a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . I n rhe author ' s uieu the f i r s t pre-requisi te for so lv ing these and other pro- b l e w t h a t beset the jute sec tor o f Bangladesh ' is t o have the bas i c policy ri.Jht. The purpose o f t h i s paper i s there fore t o ra i s e some fundamental -. munes c p i n the jute p o t i q vihieh need reso'Lving ¥i an e f f e c t i v e and purposeful pol icy i s t o be evolved.

POUR UNE REORIENTATION DE LA P O L I T I Q U E DU JUTE AU BANGLADESH

Resumi': Le ju te e s t cu I z i ve par des n-.ilZion: de paysans au Bangladesh. II fourni t l a base de La principale M u s t r i e dll pays. I 2 occupe plus de La mot t le de l a main d'oeuvre du pays, e t l e s produizs qui en d b i v e n t r epwsen ten t environ Les t r o t s quarts des r e c e t t e s en devises du Bangladesh.

Sa c u l t t ~ r e e t sa transformation indus tr ie ' i le sou f f r en t d'une basse product iv i te , e t on ne sanr&t t rop i n s i s t e r sur Pimportance d 'un aecro-issement de La pro- d u s t i v i t e . Les causes d f i n e f f i c a c i t 4 , o m , ' tb i d e n t i f i k e s dans l e s domaines des techniques e t des finances c o m e en c-e pi eoneerne l a ge s t i on e c I 'or ien- t a t i o n g&&rale, mais dans Zes Zimites de la t r a d i t i o n du capitalisme dependant. La condi t ion prealable 6 t ou t e am&Zioration r & Z e e s t , se'Lon l 'auzeur , Za formulation d'wie po l i t i que du j u t e corree te . Cet a r t i c l e souleve quelques-uns des p r o b l h e s fondamentaux q d i l imports de rksoudre 2 s e t e f f e t .

Q a z i Kholiquzzaman Ahmad

REORIENTING JUTE POLICY IN BANGLADESH

I . INTRODUCTION

That b o t h c u l t i v a t i o n o f j u t e and manufac tu r ing o f j u t e p roduc ts i n Bangladesh s u f f e r f rom low p r o d u c t i v i t y i s w e l l known. And t h e importance o f improv ing p r o d u c t i v i t y by removing t h e sources o f i n e f f i c i e n c y cannot be overemphasized. And i t may be no ted t h a t va r ious d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t e c h n i c a l , f i n a n c i a l , manage- r i a l and p o l i c y areas have now been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i c y approach based on an e s s e n t i a l l y dependent c a p i t a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . B u t i n my v iew t h e f i r s t p r e - r e q u i s i t e f o r s o l v i n g t h i s and o t h e r problems t h a t b e s e t t h e j u t e s e c t o r o f Bangladesh i s t o have t h e b a s i c j u t e p o l i c y r i g h t . And my pur - pose i n t h i s paper i s t o r a i s e some fundamental i ssues i n h e r j u t e p o l i c y which need r e s o l u t i o n i f an e f f e c t i v e and purpose fu l j u t e p o l i c y i s t o be evolved.

1 1 , DISTRIBUTION OF GAINS FROM JUTE TRADE

The c r u c i a l theme i n t h e j u t e p o l i c y i s , i n my view, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ga ins f rom j u t e t rade , which has b o t h n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l aspects. l/ J u t e i s a s o - c a l l e d cash crop. I t earns cash f o r i t s growers and f o r e i g n exchange f o r t h e coun t ry . V i r t u a l l y t h e whole o f t h e c rop i s marketed by t h e growers; and a l l b u t a smal l p r o p o r t i o n o f i t i s expor ted t o f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s i n e i t h e r raw o r manufactured form. B u t t h e r e i s a l o n g c h a i n o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , l o c a l and f o r e i g n , through whose hands j u t e has t o pass b e f o r e i t can reach t h e f i n a l con- sumers. Two c r u c i a l f o c a l p o i n t s i n o u r j u t e p o l i c y a r e t h e r e f o r e t h e p ropor - t i o n o f t h e p r i c e p a i d by t h e f i n a l consumer i n t h e i m p o r t i n g c o u n t r y t h a t accrues t o Bangladesh and t h e p r o p o r t i o n t h a t accrues t o t h e j u t e grower. The fo rmer has i m p l i c a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o e q u i t y i n t h e e x t e r n a l t r a d e o f Bangladesh i n j u t e , and t h e l a t t e r w i l l show t h e p l i g h t o f t h e j u t e grower, w i t h o u t whose t o i l and sweat t h e r e can be no j u t e t o t rade , i n t h e game o f b e n e f i t d i s t r i b u - t i o n .

Export Prices

We c o n c e n t r a t e on Bangladesh's t r a d e w i t h i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . N o t o n l y t h a t t h e b u l k o f h e r j u t e e x p o r t s go t o these c o u n t r i e s , b u t h e r t r a d e w i t h these c o u n t r i e s i s a l s o i n e q u i t o u s .

l/ It may be noted that jute is grown by millions of farmers all over Bangla- desh, jute manufacturing is the premier industry of the country employing more than half of the labour force engaged in the large scale industrial enterprises and exports of raw jute and jute manufactures together account for about three quarters of the total foreign exchange earnings of the country; and that exports from Bangladesh account for virtually all the world raw jute exports and about one third of the total world export of jute manufactures.

I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f i n a l consumer p r i c e i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s i s s i m p l y n o t a v a i l a b l e . One r e c e n t s t u d y I/ has shown t h a t , i n r e c e n t years , t h e c . i . f . (London) p r i c e o f raw j u t e has been 14-20 p e r c e n t h i g h e r than t h e f .o .b . (Bangladesh) p r i c e and t h a t t h e (New York) s p o t p r i c e o f p r i m a r y b a c k i n g has been some 32 p e r c e n t h i g h e r than i t s f .o .b. (Bangladesh) p r i c e . S ince b o t h raw j u t e and j u t e manufactures a r e m o s t l y t r a n s p o r t e d by f o r e i g n s h i p p i n g l i n e r s , these marg ins a r e l a r g e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d by t h e f o r e i g n i n t e r m e d i a r i e s . The f i n a l consumer p r i c e s a re s u r e l y much h i g h e r because o f the f u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g i n v o l - ved i n t h e consuming c o u n t r i e s n o t o n l y i n t h e case o f raw j u t e b u t a l s o i n the case o f j u t e manufactures; and o f course t h e r e a re , i n a d d i t i o n , t r a d e and d i s t r i b u t i o n margins. Hence, i t can be argued t h a t t h e f i n a l consumer p r i c e s a r e h i g h e r than t h e e x p o r t p r i c e s r e c e i v e d by Bangladesh by huge marg ins . Again, t h e same s tudy has shown t h a t t h e terms o f t r a d e o f raw j u t e e x p o r t s f rom Bangla- desh t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o i m p o r t s f rom these c o u n t r i e s has been s e c u l a r l y d e c l i n i n g - r a t h e r s h a r p l y i n r e c e n t y e a r s , and t h a t o f j u t e manufactures has been d e c l i n i n g s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1970 's . A l l t h i s shows t h a t Bangladesh r e c e i v e s an u n f a i r and d e c l i n i n g share o f t h e r e a l ga ins f rom t h e j u t e t r a d e .

Now what about t h e j u t e grower who i s u s u a l l y a s m a l l o r m a r g i n a l fa rmer? O f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s 2/ suggest t h a t , i n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e j u t e growers have r e c e i v e d on an average abou t 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e e x p o r t p r i c e s o f raw j u t e and abou t 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e e x p o r t p r i c e s o f j u t e manufactures. B u t t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , on which these c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e based, a r e l i k e l y t o o v e r s t a t e t h e p r i c e s r e c e i v e d by t h e growers, p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y r e c e i v e l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d p r i c e s , because t h e p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e exped ienc ies t e n d t o p r e v e n t v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d p r i c e s g e t t i n g o f f i c i a l l y r e p o r t e d . Moreover, e x p l o i t a t i o n i s a l s o p e r p e t r a t e d on t h e growers by t h e i n t e r m e d i a r i e s th rough supp ly o f c r e d i t t o them t o be r e p a i d i n terms o f j u t e a t p rede te rm ined l o w r a t e s and payment o f l e s s than t h e f a c e va lues shown i n r e c e i p t s wh ich a r e made o u t t o r e f l e c t t h e s t a t u t o r y minimum p r i c e s . The s m a l l j u t e growers, who have v e r y l i t t l e h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y and need cash b a d l y t o t i d e over bad days o r t o meet some unavo idab le s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n such as t h e m a r r i a g e o f a son o r a daugh te r , cannot b u t a l l o w themselves t o be s u b j e c t e d t o such e x p l o i t a t i o n . T h e i r r e c e i p t s as pe rcen tage o f t h e r e a l i s e d e x p o r t p r i c e s o f raw j u t e o r j u t e manu fac tu res w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be i n r e a l i t y s m a l l e r than t h e above f i g u r e s . And, o f t h e f i n a l consumer p r i c e s , i t i s a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e .

I/ Ahmad, Q.K. et. al., World Trade inaprimary commodity: The case of Jute, (Nyon: Third World F O G , 1979); occasional paper No. 7 ; available from IFDA.

21 See, for instance, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Government of Bangladesh, Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh, 1979.

1 1 1 . LESSONS FROM P O L I C I E S PURSUED

Indeed, b o t h t h e g r o w e r ' s p r i c e and e x p o r t p r i c e s o f raw j u t e and j u t e manufac- t u r e s have always f e a t u r e d i n p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n i n one fo rm o r ano ther .

I n so f a r as t h e g r o w e r ' s p r i c e i s concerned, t h e p r a c t i c e o f f i x i n g s t a t u t o r y minimum p r i c e o f j u t e every y e a r a t t h e g r o w e r ' s l e v e l i n o r d e r t o ensure an o f f i c i a l l y p e r c e i v e d f a i r p r i c e f o r t h e grower was i n t r o d u c e d i n 1949, and i t has g e n e r a l l y remained i n f o r c e ever s i n c e . I n t h e o r y , t h i s i s f i x e d on t h e b a s i s o f e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e demand and supp ly c o n d i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e o t h e r exped ienc ies i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u s u a l l y f a v o u r i n g ves ted i n t e r e s t p ressure groups a t t h e expense o f t h e sma l l unorga- n i z e d and power less j u t e growers s c a t t e r e d a l l ove r t h e coun t ry , a r e known t o have worked more p r o m i n e n t l y a t t imes . I n any case, t h e f i x a t i o n o f t h e m i n i - mum p r i c e i s c a r r i e d o u t i n an e s s e n t i a l l y ad hoc manner i n t h e absence o f an a p p r o p r i a t e a n a l y t i c a l framework and d e t a i l e d da ta . But , more i m p o r t a n t t h i n g t o n o t e i s t h a t t h e imp lementa t ion o f these p r i c e s have never been success fu l because o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e government t o i n s t i t u t e an e f f e c t i v e m o n i t o r i n g system and t o c r e a t e a d e q u a t e f a c i l i t i e s f o r buy ing up excess s u p p l i e s f o r t h - coming a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d p r i c e s . As a r e s u l t t h e p r i c e s r e c e i v e d by t h e growers have always depended e s s e n t i a l l y on t h e p r e v a i l i n g marke t c o n d i t i o n s d e s p i t e t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s t a t u t o r y minimum p r i c e s . One may n o t e i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t the growers a r e known t o have r e c e i v e d as low a p r i c e as Taka 50 o r so p e r maund o f j u t e i n 1979, i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t u t o r y minimum p r i c e was Taka 115 p e r maund.

Regard ing e x p o r t o f raw j u t e , Bangladesh has a v i r t u a l monopoly i n i t ; and a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e raw j u t e e x p o r t t r a d e i s i n p r i v a t e hands. The government o f Bangladesh t r i e s t o r e g u l a t e t h e e x p o r t p r i c e s by f i x i n g a minimum p r i c e (MEP) and r e q u i r i n g t h a t sh ipment can t a k e p l a c e o n l y a f t e r s a l e s have been r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e Bangladesh Bank and t h e Banks 's approva l secured. B u t t h e MEP i s n o t f i x e d by t h e government u n i l a t e r a l l y . I t i s based i n p a r t on t h e I n d i c a t i v e P r i c e ( I P ) suggested by t h e FAO In te r -governmenta l Group on J u t e , Kenaf and A l l i e d F i b r e s . The group has r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f rom p roduc ing ( i n c l u d i n g Bangla- desh) and consuming c o u n t r i e s ; and t h e f a c t o r s t h a t a r e taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n f i x i n g t h e I P i n c l u d e a j u s t r e t u r n t o t h e e x p o r t e r s , f a i r p r i c e s t o t h e consumers, compet i t i veness o f j u t e w i t h s y n t h e t i c s and p r i c e s t a b i l i t y . But , i n s p i t e o f these n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t tempts a t e n s u r i n g j u s t r e t u r n t o Bangladesh f r o m raw j u t e e x p o r t t h e terms o f t h e t r a d e o f raw j u t e f rom Bangladesh t o i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , as no ted e a r l i e r , has been s e c u l a r l y d e c l i n i n g and r a t h e r s t e e p l y i n r e c e n t y e a r s .

Regard ing e x p o r t o f j u t e manufactures, t h e s p e c t r e o f t h r e a t f rom s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s has s i n c e m id -1960 's k e p t any p o s s i b l e v i g o r o u s a t t e m p t a t s e c u r i n g b e t t e r terms under c louded c o n d i t i o n s a t b e s t . Endeavours have been concen t ra - t e d on n e g o t i a t i n g r e d u c t i o n o f t a r i f f and n o n - t a r i f f b a r r i e r s . Regard ing t a r i f f , s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n , even complete w i t h d r a w a l , has been secured.

B u t v e r y l i t t l e success has been ach ieved on n o n - t a r i f f f r o n t ; and such b a r r i e r s i n t h e forms o f quotas, p r o d u c t r e s t r i c t i o n s , c o n t r o l o f s h i p p i n g space, t h e process o f t r a d e i t s e l f e t c . have con t inued t o pose f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s so t h a t n o t o n l y t h a t e x p o r t o f j u t e manufactures t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s has

n o t expanded b u t a l s o these e x p o r t s have been becoming w o r t h l e s s i n terms o f command over impor ts f rom these c o u n t r i e s .

Where does i t a l l l eave us? The conven t iona l wisdom i s t h a t a p r i m a r y commodity i s v u l n e r a b l e s i n c e i t s income e l a s t i c i t y o f demand i s l ower compared t o manu- f a c t u r e d goods. I n t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n , i t i s t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l t h a t raw j u t e shou ld f a c e a s e c u l a r d e c l i n e i n i t s terms o f t r a d e i n r e l a t i o n t o manufactured i m p o r t s f rom i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . Bu t what about j u t e manufactures? Why shou ld j u t e manufactures f a c e v u l n e r a b i l i t y ? The e x p l a n a t i o n has t o be sought e s s e n t i a l l y i n the i n e q u i t o u s w o r l d t r a d e and economic power s t r u c t u r e . Indus- t r i a l c o u n t r i e s have con t inued t o s u p p o r t t h e i r j u t e m i l l s s u f f e r i n g from s e r i o u s c o s t d isadvantages v i s - a - v i s i m p o r t s f rom T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s and a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e growth o f s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s by r e s o r t i n g t o b a r r i e r s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s t o i m p o r t s o f j u t e manufactures f rom t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . I t i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t p rocess ing o f j u t e a long t r a d i t i o n a l l i n e s f o r e x p o r t canno t p r o v i d e t h e escape f rom t h e economic v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f j u t e i n w o r l d marke t i n t h e p r e s e n t i n e q u i t o u s t r a d i n g arrangement.

I V . SUGGESTED REORIENTATION OF POLICY

I t t h e r e f o r e seems t o emerge c l e a r l y t h a t Bangladesh's j u t e p o l i c y needs funda- mental r e a d j u s t m e n t i n o r d e r t h a t n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s a r e b e s t se rved . The s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n i s t o recogn ize t h a t j u t e cannot be looked a t , as has h i t h e r t o been done, i n i s o l a t i o n f rom o t h e r s e c t o r s , s i m p l y as a f o r e i g n exchange earner . F o r e i g n exchange has an i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y i n development; b u t t h e p rocess o f a c q u i r i n g i t has c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t ; and t h e b e n e f i t o f f o r e i g n exchange i n terms o f c o n t r i b u t i o n t o n a t i o n a l development can be p r o - p e r l y assessed o n l y i f these c o s t s a r e c o r r e c t l y eva lua ted . And t h a t can b e done o n l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a s e l f - r e l i a n t development s t r a t e g y .

One i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s approach i s t h a t t h e j u t e s e c t o r has t o be seen as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy hav ing l i n k a g e s w i t h o t h e r s e c t o r s so t h a t t h e per formance o f t h e s e c t o r s h o u l d be judged and i t s f u t u r e p lanned n o t o n l y i n terms o f i t s f o r e i g n exchange earn ings b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , a l s o i n terms o f t h e employment t h a t i t generates and t h e impac t on t h e n a t i o n a l development t h a t i t has d i r e c t l y and th rough l i n k a g e s w i t h o t h e r s e c t o r s . When t h e t o t a l i t y i s thus taken i n t o account , i t may be found t h a t a r u t h l e s s p u r s u i t o f f o r e i g n exchange earn ings f rom e x p o r t o f j u t e , raw o r manufactured, need n o t be t h e o n l y , even t h e main, focus o f t h e j u t e p o l i c y . A c l e a r v iew w i l l a l s o emerge as t o t h e l e v e l o f p r o d u c t i o n t h a t can be m e a n i n g f u l l y s u s t a i n e d i n t h e s e c t o r .

I t i s however recogn ised , i n v iew o f t h e p r e s e n t low base, t h a t consumpt ion o f j u t e goods i n Bangladesh cannot expand s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . Hence, t h e s e c t o r w i l l have t o c o n t i n u e t o be focused on i n t e r n a t i o n a l markets . Bu t a s e l f - r e l i a n t s t r a t e g y w i l l i m p l y t h a t v igo rous a t tempts a r e made t o develop new p roduc ts and t h a t e f f o r t s a r e i n t e n s i f i e d t o secure b e t t e r terms o f exchange. These a r e l i k e l y t o be more s u c c e s s f u l th rough c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s o f j u t e p r o - duc ing c o u n t r i e s . Indeed, c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e among p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i s a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f a s e l f - r e l i a n t approach t o development. E f f o r t s i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g l y advocated.

I n a s e l f - r e l i a n t approach i t i s c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t a l l groups o f a c t o r s g e t t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e shares o f t h e gains. I n t h i s con tex t , e f f o r t s shou ld be i n t e n s i f i e d towar-ds e n s u r i n g f a i r r e t u r n s t o t h e j u t e growers, t a k i n g guidance f rom c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f why at tempts i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n have n o t met w i t h much success i n t h e pas t . Bu t i t should be recogn ized t h a t w h i l e i t may be p o s s i b l e t o do b i t s through some f i s c a l o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e means o r t h e o t h e r , i t seems t h a t un less t h e j u t e growers a r e themselves o rgan ized f o r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n t h e y may c o n t i n u e t o remain depr i ved o f t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e r e t u r n s i n t h e p r e s e n t unequal s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i n t h e coun t ry . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by a s e l f - r e l i a n t approach t 3 development.

I t shou ld be noted t h a t o n l y t h e broad o u t l i n e s o f t h e suggested approach have been g i v e n above. But once t h e b a s i c cho ice i s made, d e t a i l s can be worked o u t f a i r l y e a s i l y .

V . KNOWLEDGE G A P S : A P O S T - S C R I P T

I t shou ld be no ted t h a t j u t e p o l i c y making i s s e r i o u s l y handicapped because o f c e r t a i n knowledge gaps r e l a t i n g t o p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f j u t e and j u t e goods as w e l l as o f s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s . Some o f them a r e i n t e r n a l i n Bangla- desh which i n c l u d e i n t e r n a l marke t ing o f j u t e , s h a r i n g o f b e n e f i t s by va r ious i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , socio-economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l l i n k a g e s between j u t e and o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy. Others a r e i n i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , which i n c l u d e d i s - t r i b u t i o n mechanism and f i n a l consumer p r i c e s o f j u t e goods and t h e i r d i saggre - g a t i o n i n those c o u n t r i e s , and o p e r a t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s - m a k i n g p e t r o - chemical complexes and t h e i r marke t ing and commercial l i n k a g e s . S tud ies should be undertaken t o f i l l these gaps t o f a c i l i t a t e e f f e c t i v e p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n .

I t may a l s o be mentioned here t h a t m iss ions f rom i n t e r n a t i o n a l agencies and c o n s u l t a n t s engaged b y b i - l a t e r a l donors have been r e g u l a r l y coming t o Bangla- desh t o s t u d y t h e j u t e s e c t o r . Many r e p o r t s have been produced by such miss ions and c o n s u l t a n t s c o v e r i n g ve ry much the same ground, u s i n g very much t h e same data, and making v e r y much t h e same s o r t s o f recommendations. I n many cases such r e p o r t s a r e o f l i t t l e re levance except t h a t perhaps y e t ano ther dose o f f o r e i g n a i d comes as a r e s u l t o f y e t another r e p o r t , the reby f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o u n t r y ' s f o r e i g n dependence. And t h e j u t e s e c t o r has con t inued i t s down- ward s l i d e nonetheless.

I would l i k e t o suggest t h a t i f t h e donors a r e genu ine ly i n t e r e s t e d t o h e l p t h e j u t e s e c t o r t h e i r research e f f o r t s s h o u l d i n s t e a d c o n c e n t r a t e on ( a ) how non- t a r i f f b a r r i e r s have been p r e v e n t i n g expansion o f e x p o r t o f j u t e goods t o i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , how t h e l o n g r u n i n t e r e s t s o f t h e w o r l d j u t e economy a r e damaged i n t h e process, and how such b a r r i e r s can be removed as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e ; ( b ) d i s t r i b u t i o n mechanism and f i n a l consumer p r i c e s o f j u t e goods and t h e i r d i saggrega t ion i n t h e consuming i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s so t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f i n e q u i t y i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ga ins f rom j u t e t r a d e i s known and can be used i n n e g o t i a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a d e r e s t r u c t u r i n g ; ( c ) a l l aspects of p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s so as t o generate a s o l i d b a s i s f o r j u t e p o l i c y making v i s - a - v i s s y n t h e t i c compet i t i on ; e t c .

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

STRATEGIES FOR THE FUTURE OF AFRICA A r e s e a r c h programme d i r e c t e d by Samir Amin CODESRIA 8 . P . 3304 Dakar, Senegal

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: An ~ x t l i ~ ~ of the r m c ~ q t w ' i frai~euork ar.d modal i t ies o.f a progranme if research and r e f l e c t i o n on a l t e r ~ a t ~ ~ v e developme~t s t r a t q i e s f o r A"rica. The research u i l l analyse tke pi-spent c r i s i s of t he uorld s y s t m , e m l i n e d i f f e r e n t mani fes ta t ions cf that e'm'ic in Africa, assess p r o c r e ~ t f - for indus- LriaZ-Lzation and mining -in Africa., uork ou t an approach t o a people-Â¥'base agr i cu l tu ra l s t ra tegy , formulate / , r , i?;c i~) les "or c o l l e c t i v e Afr ican (mu Afro- Arab) s e l f - r e l i ance , and svudg the r w i r e d po i z t i a a l rnechani~sn!s.

Hksum6: Esquisse du cadre conceptuel e i des modalities d'un prcpramne de recherche e t de r e f l e x ion pour un mitre a&veloppement en Afriquc. La recherche se propose d 'analyser L cr'iee ou s2st2me m o n d i a l , d'examiner l ' impact de La c r i s e sur l rA f r ique , drSvuluer l e s perspectives de l ' i n d u s t r ~ i a l i s a t i o n du cont inent , de d g f i n i r une s t r a t ' q i e de d6veloppement agr i eo l e ba.&e sur l e s besoins des masses, de formuler l e s principes de l ' app l i ca t i on dc Z'autonomie c o t l e c t i v e a f r i ca ine e t afro-arabe, e t d16 tud i e r l e s m&anismes pol-itiques n i ce s sa i r e s . (Le t e x t e frangais de c e t t e note peut S t r e obtenu e-n bcr ivant 2 S m i r Amin, CODESRIA, B.P. 2304, Dakar, S h i g a l j .

ESTRATEGIAS PARA E L FUTURO DE AFRICA

Reswnen: El informe e s un esboso de l marco conceptual y de l a s irodalidades de un programa de investigccio'n y de reflection sobre o t ro desarro2Zo en Af-pica. La i nves t i gae ion propone un a n a l i s i s de La c r i s i s d e l sistema murdial y e l impacto de La c r i s i s en Afr ica . Proporc'iona una evaluaci6n de las perspeetivas de l a i ndus t r ia l i zac ioh d e l cont inents , l a definition de una es tra tegia de desarrol lo agr&ola b a d a en las necesidades de l a s inasas, una formulaeion de 20s pr ine ip ios de apl icacion de l a autonon& co l ec t i va a f f i eana y ofro-arabe, y un es tudio de Los rnecanismosfot'i.ticosneeescwios para su realization. (Se puede obtener e t informe entero en franc6s d e l Sr. Sam-ip Amin, CODESRIA, B. P. 3.304, Dakar, Senegal) .

STRATEGIES FOR THE FUTURE OF AFRICA

This programme of research and reflection, which finds its place within the general framework of the UNITAR studies on the future (directed by Philippe de Seynes) was begun on June 1, 1980 at the programme headquarters at CODESRIA (Council for the Development of Economic and Social Research in Africa) in Dakar .

The programme is seekirg to stimulate systematic reflection on alternative choices of development strategies for Africa. To this end, it hopes to use the services of African researchers in the member Institutes and Centres of CODES- RIA, along with those of individuals involved in development activities. It is the job of t'-\e Dakar team to organize participation, encounters, symposia and

- . exchanges o r views, and to make a synthesis of the results which will later be published and disseminated.

1. Our present era is marked by a global structural crisis of the world system w'nicn is calling into question the modalities of both the international divi- sion 'JI labour and the national developments which have taken place within that context. 'The crisis, triggered in the late '60s by the international monetary crisis, continued to spread throughout the '70s, characterized by stagflation, ur,enployxent and dwindling growth. It will probablypersist through the '80s at least; it tnus :riarks the end of a period which, between 1945 and 1970, was characterized b y a considerable global upswing generated primarily by the atter'pts of Japan and Europe to "catch up" with the United States, thus bringing about a coriplexentary growth in the South, which was supplying the raw materials for this a6velop:aent (energy, in particular). This complementary growth in the South, unequal on both the national and global levels, was the basis for the model of import substitution industrialisation.

The impact of the crisis on the three continents has varied from one region and one country to another, but it has always been telling. Asia and Africa - even more than Latin America - where capitalist development has not taken the course of an endoaenous and self-reliant national economic construction and where the outward-looking, dependent and disarticulated nature of the economy was rein- forced by the post-war boom, thus appear in the crisis as weak partners. This undoubtedly explains why the solution which they proposed of adopting a New International Economic Order as of 1974 was never brought into effect. This crisis will undoubtedly continue to spread to the detriment of the Third World, which contains the weakest links in the chain of the world system, particularly in Africa. Its evolution will be determined by the principal power relations between Japan and Europe on the one hand, and the United States on the other, as they have been modified over the last 30 years. The Soviet bloc countries, whatever their chronic economic problems may be, have

achieved a military par with the West and China - which itself has overcome its historical backwardness to assert itself as an autonomous nation. Even if they wished to become partially re-integrated into the international division of labour, they would be able to negotiate the terms and limit the possible negative consequences cf their re-entry. This, Africa cannot do.

The shifting of the growing burden of the crisis onto the shoulders of the Third World thus necessitates a search for alternative strategies. The current ~olitical impasses and popular revolt will undoubtedly make these alternatives a burning, practical issue.

2. The crisis in the economic system has naturally shaken the foundations of the "development theory".

As recently as fifteen years ago, some people imagined that they knew the "recipe" for a "modernisation-development" strategy. This belief, which today strikes us as na'ive, in the virtues of modern technology in industry and agri- culture, was then very widespread. The forms of administrative organisation and output techniques, the "patterns of living" (urbanisation) and consumption, the content and forms of education and training shared by capitalist and socia- list industrialized countries alike appeared, by this very fact, to be univer- sal. The arguments were conducted within a predetermined common problematic. Some advocated a more open policy towards the rest of the world (call on foreign capital), others wanted more systematic state intervention. None challenged the validity of participating in a wider international division of labour.

The economic crisis in the industrialized West has, during the seventies, Cast some doubts on the relevance of the proposed model with all its variants. At the same time, the economic, social and political situation was deteriorating in the countries of the South : a marked increase in unemployment, poverty, famine etc ..., "waste" by privileged elites, regional and local inequalities in development, chaotic ideological and political environment (local wars, bloodthirsty regimes, populist revolts etc...). The World Bank Report on the outlook for the eighties paints a very gloomy picture of the Third World gene- rally and of Africa in particular : impoverishment of peoples and weakening of nations. But in the light of political developments, it should come as no surprise that the need for a popular national development which is delinked and freed at least partially from the effects of the crisis has become a pressing issue.

It is patently clear now that there is no such thing as a satisfactory "recipe" for development. Besides, in the seventies, general dissatisfaction surfaced in various forms in the realm of ideas, opinions and theories as well in social and political practice. A few examples may be mentioned:

(a) The eforts to call attention to the neglected ecological effects of de- velopment : since thestockholm Environment Conference and the creation of the Club of Rome, it is no longer possible to continue to ignore such important questions as the possible exhaustion of energy resources in particular, and the limited availability of farm land and water, although some neo-Malthusian

tendencies, clearly inspired by certain West-centred groups and organisations, have been rightfully rejected by many Third World governments and intellectuals and a number of conclusions and recommendations (like "zero growth") even more utterly rejected.

(b) The efforts made to reflect on certain priorities and means of development, in particular on the subject of employment ("Wor'd Employment Programme"), technology ("soft", "intermediary", the relationship between science-technology and dependency), prospects for food and agriculture (famine in the Sahel, prio- rity to basic needs and to foodcrops in particular, the "food weapon" theme, agribusiness policies etc...). A number of organisations, in particular those working either within a national institutional framework or within the United Nations system, have produced an abundant literature in these various fields: studies and publications by the World Bank, the I.L.O., the F.A.O. for inter- national conferences on Science and Technology, not forgetting the American, European and Japanese centres of futurology. The participation of Third World reflection centres in these debates is rather insignificant (with the honourable exception of the Bariloche Foundation), but what is more serious, the underlying effort to bolster up the intellectual infrastructure necessary for this partici- pation is lagging very far behind.

(c) The practical efforts made by Third World countries to alter the interna- tional order: from the rise in oil prices in 1973 to the last two UNCTAD Con- ferences (Nairobi and ~anila) with the adoption of the Charter for a New Inter- national Economic Order and the North-South Dialogue in between, these efforts have been the hallmark of the seventies. The results are generally known to be mediocre. The rise in oil prices excepted, no substantial result has been achieved with regard to the prices of raw materials, the reform of the inter- national monetary system, foreign indebtedness, transfer of technology, the law of the sea, etc ..., but here again, all analytical work on the internatio- nal order and its prospects as well as its crises have been carried out almost exclusively by the centres of reflection in the North.

(d) The failure of the world system to find its own equilibrium has created a trend in some Third World countries of thinking in terms of more self-reliant national development. However, the fact of proclaiming that kind of develop- ment will remain precarious as long as there are no concrete policy proposals arising from theory and practice taking into consideration the various aspects of the problems mentioned earlier (what technology? what forms of and limits to participation in the international division of labour? etc...). In these areas practically all the theoretical work has been either too abstract or too general. Concrete experiments, which are embryonic and partial, deserve to be given closer scrutiny than they have until now.

(e) The theme of "collective autonomy", intended to make up for the short- comings of self-reliant national development on the one hand and to counteract resistance by the international order on the other, is mere rhetoric. The U.N. conferences (TCDC, ECDC ... ) and resolutions passed by Non-aligned countries and the Group of 77, although positive, cannot by themselves remedy the inadequacy of the comprehensive economic and political analysis, the prospects envisaged or concrete studies carried out (well-defined sectorial cooperation). Even

here. the capability to analyse these problems and make proposals appears to be surprisingly weak within the Third World.

3. "Futurology", which is becoming more and more fashionable, is the most visible symptom of this crisis. In the past twenty-five years, "surveys of the future" were more often confined to projections of past and present trends leading to "optimistic" and facile conclusions.

Current studies on the future are different, and seem to fall within one of the three following groups of methods:

(a) The tendency to formulate complex "models" integrating the whole world either as a unit or broken down into representative sub-regions, and to include a type of "new" variable (ecology, natural resources). There are about five or six famous models in existence, all, with the exception of the Bariloche model, produced by researchers in the North. The complex nature of these mo- dels has probably reduced their public impact even though their "conclusions" have been popularised by the mass media. This technical complexity does not make up for the poverty of the assumptions: by force of circumstances, because it is necessary to "quantify", the "unknown" options are avoided (technology etc...).

(b) The new trend of replacing quantified models by more qualitative "scena- rios" is an attempt to provide an answer to the criticism levelled against them. Scenarios were invented for politico-military reasons of strategy introducing chains of possible action and reaction based on an initial situation and a first "action". The main feature of an "economic" scenario is a time series interacting in a less explicit way. They tend rather to describe a consistent arrival point and the moving trends necessary to reach that point.

(c) Taking it one step further, and on the basis of an ideological critique of the procedures and language of futurology, there is a propensity to empha- size the analysis of the contradictions of the present world and their irmne- diate alternative political solutions which in turn determine the further evolution of the systems. These critical analyses are based on the assumption that all present socio-economic systems are subjected to strong internal pres- sure which make it impossible to predict whether they will last in their pre- sent forms. In the West, the trend towards continued increased state interven- tion in favour of the "Welfare State" to ensure income growth and full employ- ment is threatened by ecological problems, world crises and other changes that could occur in the world. This threat has stoked up the flames of "neo- liberalism" which has taken hold in every field of intellectual activity (economic management, politics, vision of society) as has occured in actual political development of many countries. The trends in the Third World are contradictory, and to a certain extent accentuate the differentiation within this group of more than 100 countries. Sometimes, with or without "economic liberalisation", the ruling regimes seem to opt for greater integration in the strategies of multinational corporations and at times there are populist type explosions of varying intensity (Iran, Nicaragua, Ethiopia, Ghana...). These are all indications of the prevailing malaise. There has thus been a recru- descence of efforts to open up new avenues which are popular, national and self-reliant. An analysis of all these contradictory trends would be necessary,

transcending the conventional styles of "futurist economics" or political science, to ensure a more serious interpretation of the ideological aspects of various movements and the implicit and explicit strategies of the existing social forces.

1. Our programme falls within the global framework of the questions raised in the preceding section. It is likewise situated within the perspective of a methodological option which, as described in paragraph I'3c.i~ based on an analy- sis of the contradictions in the system as it now operates. In other words, the programme is fundamentally concerned with making a detailed assessment of the crises of the '70s, experiments in economic policy, new and positive experiences, however embryonic, fragile and controvertible they may be, and the confrontation between developments and strategies. It is to this work, which unfortunately has hitherto been largely unexplored, particularly in Africa, that the bulk of activities in the immediate phase of programme development will probably be devoted.

2. First launched in 1977, the programme remained in a relatively long prepara- tory stage until June 1, 1980. A Conference held in July, 1977, in Dakar, and attended by close to a hundred African researchers and individuals involved in development activities, as well as a number of foreign guests, defined the pro- gramme's objectives and guiding principles. Between August 1977 and May 1980, two researchers made contributions: a) in the area of the political economy of a few ores which were important for Africa (bauxite, copper and uranium); the results of this study were the subject of a symposium held in Addis Ababa in August, 1979, and b) in the area of new rural development strategies in which priority was given to food production. This work is currently being pursued in the area of iron ore and the iron and steel industry in Africa, on the one hand (expected to be completed in November, 1980), and with the perspective of holding a symposium on Agriculture in the Sahelian region on the other (sympo- sium planned for fall, 1980).

3. With the installation of the full team as of June 1,1980, the programme entered a new phase. Consequently, the programme is being developed at a time when Africa's needs are most crying.

In fact, the criticism which we developed in the '60s and '70s of concepts vindicating externally-oriented development began to gain popularity in the mid-'70s when the crisis effectively thwarted thepursuit of conventional stra- tegies. It was thus that the African economic summit in Lagos (April, 1980) adotped the concepts of an endogenous development which was self-reliant on both the national and continent-wide levels, borrowing from the criticism of

*/ A catalogue of results of the work carried out between 1977 and May, 1980 - is available and may be obtained from the programme's administrative secretary.

of externally-oriented development down to the very language it used. There is a chance, then, that the implementation of "another development" will find its way onto the agendas for certan government actions in the years to come. L'n- fortunately, no preparations have been made for this eventuality, and under these circumstances the promotion of "self-reliant development", "delinking" and "South-South cooperation" is in danger of becoming a hollow rhetoric if systematic reflection is not initiated to give it tangible meaning. Yet this is far from being the case: to date, there is no African strategy which meets the challenges of our time, even on paper. In fact, the strategy for the 3rd development decade in Africa is nothing more than a blueprint for an outward- looking strategy which vainly perpetuates the tendencies of the '60s, despite the accompanying texts which make reference to the language of self-reliant development - at once thus politically na'ive, contradictory and futile. In seeking to concretize the ways and means of a national and popular development, our organisation has thus assumed considerable responsibility.

4. For the coming (two-year) period, the programme has set as its target con- comitantly to pursue an assessment of the crisis in Africa in the '70s and the development of alternative policies.

(a) While the outward-looking development models which were put into practice during the '50s and '60s are relatively familiar, the "transition into crisis" and the "reactions to'it" during the '70s are considerably less so.

An analysis of the specific and concrete characteristics of the crisis in the various African countries is thus called for. In the light of the specific nature of African social formations and the different forms taken by their integration into the international division of labour, the shifting of the weight of the crisis onto the African countries, especially vulnerable on all levels due precisely to the lack of a self-reliant historical development, has already manifested itself through the various phenomena of a breakdown and disintegration visible on the financial, political and national levels, and in the balance of payments.

We might now a priori consider four types of crisis and evolution: (i) that of the countries which did not experience significant growth during the '60s and for which the crisis means only the aggravation of a stagnation which was already present - about twenty African countries, (ii) that of the countries which have experienced a strong growth based on petroleum and mineral exploi- tation. Some have seen a modification in the conditions of their growth resul- ting from a fall-off in foreign demand. Others (such as the petroleum coun- tries) even seem to be benefiting from the crisis. The question is whether they have arrived at an actual stage in an ongoing process or are simply heading into an impasse. Within OPEC, the African countries on the one hand and the Arab group on the other should be studied from this particular angle; (iii) that of the countries which have experienced a strong growth based on export agri- culture and light import substitution industry, but where the machinery of growth seems to have broken down, and lastly (iv) that of the countries which have tried to react to the crisis by introducing delinkage and embarking upon a national and popular development.

Furthermore, and independently of these distinctions, it would seem that in Africa growth has dropped off more sharply than elsewhere (particularly Latin America), and that the crisis has manifested itself even at very low levels of per capita income, often three times lower than those of other countries and regions which appear to have more successfully withstood the shock. Perhaps this weakness, which may be the result of the failings of the state structure, has to be countered by "regional groupings" which already have their champions, but whose role and prospects are still to be examined.

Lastly, with regard to the assessment of the crisis and the reactions which it has drawn, particular attention will be given to the region of Southern Africa, where the South African challenge has influenced current developments.

(b) An examination of industrialisation strategies and policies and the bar- riers to which they have led during the ' ~ O S , as well as the reactions to those barriers, will permit a more thoroughgoing analysis of the specific features of the crisis in Africa, and make it possible to determine the features of alternative options.

We are still no more than superficially acquainted with the three families of industrialisation practices in Africa, to wit: (i) import substitution, carried out by local forces which are generally weaker here than elsewhere, and therefore increasingly determined by the domination of foreign capital, (ii) the mining model, long a preserve of the foreign companies and an exten- sion of the metropolitan industries, and (iii) experiments in independent national industrial development.

Yet these three models were overtaken by the crisis during ' ~ O S , a crisis whose solution is still a source of contention. Some advocate the implantation of light foreign export industries, based on cheap labour (yet how competitive is African when compared with other Third World regions in this area?), and others favour the dislocation of industries such as iron and steel and the petro- chemical industries, rechanneling mining or petroleum revenues which are pre- sently "recycled" for other purposes. The mining model, which far from being archaic, is gradually being resuscitated as Europe becomes dependent on foreign sources for its ores, seems to be undergoing a crlsis owing to a slackening of the demand. It is a crisis to which the transnationals seem to be answering with specific strategies for the unification of the mining sector, which call into question the reforms brought about within the context of nationalisation in the '60s. As for experiments in independent national development, their inherent contradictions (state accumulation and massive tecl~nologicdl impor- tation) which are recognizable in the agricultural crisis dnd the foreign debt, should be subjected to closer scrutiny.

An assessment of the contradictory developments of the '70s n~igl~t provide LI

firmer foundation for a study of the two following general questions:

(i) What are the prospects for the development of the different bra~~cl~es of African industry within the various scenarios possible of the intern:~tional division of labour: alternative energy choices, mining and processing <if ores, labour-intensive light industries (including the problems of industrial free zones, etc.).

(ii) What is the scope and meaning of the political economy of mining revenues? What are the relations which, beyond the direct conditions of supply and demand which determine prices, relate mining revenues to the international division of labour? How can such revenues be used for development?

By definition, these critical appreciations of developments which are either continuing or in crisis, undoubtedly invite an examination of a positive alter- native which would consist of envisaging a strategy of industrialization at the service of a priority agricultural development. Given the concrete conditions in Africa, what would such a choice mean in terms of priority sectors of indus- trial production, global policies (relative prices, financing, salaries and agricultural prices, etc ...) and adapted socio-economic forms (large and small units, central and decentralized management, technological choices, etc...)?

(c) The formulation of a systematic problematic for a development which, with the aim of satisfying the needs of the popular masses, would be agriculturally- based.

+ The three principal modalities of the colonial exploitation of Africa's agri- cultural and rural potentials are doubtless relatively familiar: (i) the colonial trade economy, predominant in West Africa, based on the insertion of a small-scale peasant production into world trade, (ii) the plantation economy of the large, concessionary companies of Central Africa and (iii) the "labour reserve" economy of Southern Africa. It is important, however, to realize that the modalities of withdrawal of a surplus of these forms, now arfhaic, were struck by the crisis well before the '70s; the crisis in these systems in fact came about concomitantly with the rise of the national liberation movements of the '50s. This may in fact explain the mediocre performances of African agri- culture in the '60s.

On the other hand, our knowledge of the recent differentiations which have arisen during the '70s is only scanty. Indeed, the forms taken by these de- velopments are still only in their first stirrings: the green revolution and kulakisation, the activities of agribusiness, to name only the most obvious, as the impact of strategies recommended by outside forces (the World Bank campaign for "basic needs", for example). We are still largely unacquainted with the popular policies practiced in certain countries: agrarian reforms, cooperatives, etc...

There are thus no easy answers to the question of finding the alternative options which exist on the technical (irrigation, rain-fed crops, intensifi- cation, mechanisation, etc ... ) and social levels (cooperatives, kulaki.sation, agribusiness, etc...), if food self-sufficiency for the entire African and Af'ro-Arab group is to be obtained. A way to reconcile the demands of economic policy (distribution of revenues, fiscal policies, price and salary policies, financing policies, delinking of local systems in relation to the pressures of international competition, etc.) with priority given to food production must be found. Consequently, we would like to go beyond the method which all too often reduces this priority to a simple question of choosing "food production projects" without considering the macro-economic policy demands which such a choice entails (method recommended by the World Bank, for example).

(d) The formulation of the major principles of a collective African autonomy. The criticism of the conventional forms of integration (common markets, etc . . . ) the results of which are either mediocre or negatlve (accentuated unequal development, etc . . . ) should induce their replacement with viable projects within the perspective of the reinforcement of a national and collective self- reliant development, and thus, of a selective delinking. l.!ith a critical examination of current developments in South-South cooperation (OPEC fund, Afro Arab cooperation, specific bilateral agreements, etc . . . ) the principles recom- mended could be made more concrete. Designed in fact to be a complement to what is commonly known as "North-South cooperation", South-South cooperation projects should be subjected to a thorough and critical study. Furthermore this cooperation, which could be reanimated within the perspective of a greater collective autonomy, should be able to face up not only to the long-term prob- lems, but to those arising in the immediate transition period as well. Perhaps the usual policies, which generally aggravape the situation (as witnessed by interventions of the I.M.F.), could be replaced by other short-term policies, both on the national level, and within the African and Afro-Arab groups.

(e) A study of the workings of political life in Africa and the Arab World, from the point of view in particular of the problematic of the State, the Nation, ethnic groups and ideologies. The aim of this study, which should depart from the methods used in the study of conventional politicology, is to understand how the economic choices considered are translated into political reality.

For each of these lines of development envisaged, specific programmes and time- tables will be drawn up by the Dakar centre and the project's main collabora- tors from the CODESRIA network. Publications will be envisaged within these detailed plans of action.

l. A research programme such as this one cannot be carried out exclusively by a small group of people. The Dakar centre must therefore engage the skills available across the continent in the fifty or so institutes and centres asso- ciated within CODESRIA. Any criticisms, comments and suggestions they may have with regard to the proposals made in this text are therefore welcome, in addition, the Dakar group is closely cooperating with other CODESRIA programmes, organized into "networks": industrialisation and technology in Africa, rural development and class formation, state and development, population and rnigra- tion, agribusiness.

The African programme, which is an integral part of the whole range of GNITAR's programmes of studies on the Future, is pooling its efforts with the programme for Asia which was inaugurated at the March, 1980 conference organized in New Delhi and will be setting up similar working relations with an impending pro- gramme for Latin America and the Caribbean.

Other existing programmes have already demanded close collaboration. Among them, we shall mention: a) the programme of the Arab League and IDCAS ( I ~ ~ I J s - trial Development Centre for Arab States), "Arab industrial development

perspectives for the year 2000'' and another concerning the propects for Afro- Arab cooperation; b ) the programmes of four regional G.N.U. (United Sations University) networks dealing with alternative development models (Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Arab world), along with certain other U . N . C . programmes; c) the UNRISD (tinited Nations Research Institute for Social Development) pro- gramme of study of food systems and its programme on women's role and place in development in Africa. Additional collaboration is planned with ENDA (Environ- ment and Development in Africa) etc...

In addition, relations of cooperation will be set up with research groups which, either worldwide or on the scale of the developed world in the East and West, are working onananalysis of the crisis and future perspectives. Collaboration with various programmes which have been envisaged, including one on the Mediter- ranean region, has been considered within this context.

Furthermore, during the 1977-1980 preparatory phase, the programme had already set up relations of cooperation with various bodies such as IFDA (International Foundation for Development Alternatives), U.N.U. (GPID-Goals, Processes, Indi- cators of Development - programme) IIEP (UNESCO Institute), NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International cooperation), etc... on the basis of which it received various financial contributions.

2. It is hoped that the combined results of this work will provide a useful contribution which will fit into the global efforts of the United Nations sys- tem aimed at working out a strategy based on the New International Economic Order, of the O.A.U. (Organisation of African Unity), which is responsible for the implementation of the programme adopted by the Lagos summit, and of the Arab League.

3. "Strategies for the Future of Africa'' is a decentralized UNITAR programme whose independent budget is provided by the Swedish Agency SAREC (Swedish Agency for Research and Economic Cooperation). This budget provides the resources for operation of the Dakar centre (4 researchers, l administrative assistant, twice-yearly workshops, and the administrative and publishing ex- penses corresponding to these activities). CODESRIA houses the centre, and has responsibility for the execution of certain back-up services (typing, corres- ponderice, etc.. . ) .

In addition to the financing of the central nucleus, as described above, the programme hopes to obtain financial s~~pport from various sources, in relation particularly to the programmes with which cooperation has been set up or is sought. These contributions may be allotted to occasional activities foreseen in the programme (symposia, workshops, publications etc...), to complementary services (detachment of personnel, experts' consultancy, etc...), or to the programme's overall financing.

Source: Asian Action - Newsletter of the Asian Cultural F o r m on Development No. 23.

B U I L D I NG BLOCKS

HUMAN RIGHTS: BASES FOR A NEW SYSTEM OF SAFEGUARD

by A l v a r o Buns te r 194 Surrenden Road B r i g h t o n BN1 6NN, England

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: The d a i m s o f many governments t o be the guardians o f human r i g h t s are no longercredib le . A new system o f promoting, protecting and safeguarding human f i gh t s i s there fore proposed uhich uouM transcend the nat ion s t a t e , and uhieh w u l d base the dutg t o protec t a l i f e free from fear and free from want on the w i l l , and se l f -de terminat ion of people and t h e i r genuinely par t ic ipatory organizations. The proposed system would a l so promote a d i f f e r e n t understan- ding o f the international- community, seeing it as a community made up o f peo- p les , not of s t a t e s . Seeking t o complement e x i s t i n g governmental and i n t e r - governmental safeguards o f human r i g h t s and t o coordinate them w i th ex tra- governmental a c t i v i t i e s , an i n t e rna t iona l "centra l corporate body" - non- o f f i c i a l i n character - i s proposed u h k h would drau i t s s t r eng th from people's organizat ions , e spec ia l l y from par t ic ipatory grassroots support , and from i n t e r - nat ional public opinion.

D R O I T S DE L'HOMME: ELEMENTS D 'UN NOUVEAU S Y S T ~ M E DE PROTECTION

Reswnb: I t e s t ev ident que de nombreux gouvevnements ne sont pas ou ne sont plus l e s garants des d r o i t s de Z'homme. Un nouueau systems de protec t ion e t de promotion de ces & o h e s t propose i c i . Transcendant 2'6tat-nation, i-l v o i t duns l a uolonte e t l 'auto-dbtermination des peuples e t de l e w s organi- sa t ions authentiquement par t i e ipa t i ve s l a base de l a protec t ion d'une ex is tence I'Lb&rde de La c ra in t e e t du besoin.

Ce syst6me contr ibuerai t 6galement 6 vine mei'Lleure compr4hension de l a eom- munautb i n t e rna t iona le , eonque c o r n l a c o m n a u t b des peuples, e t non des & t o t s . I 2 s ' a g i t d ' b l a r g i r Ie syst2me gouuernemental e t inter-gouvernemental. de protec t ion des d r o i t s de l'honune e t de l e coordonner avec l e s a e t i v i t 4 s extra-gouvernementales. A c e t e f f e t , l'aute'u" propose un organisme central. non-gouvernemental qui dev i ve ra i t sa force des organisations populaires, n o t m e n t 6 La base, e t de l ' op in ion pubtique i n t e rmt iona ' i e . Ses f o n d i o n s s en t decr i t e s en deta'il.

A l v a r o Bunster

HUMAN RIGHTS: BASES FOR A NEW SYSTEM OF SAFEGUARD

1. Th is document embodies an a t tempt t o o f f e r , f rom t h e p o i n t o f view o f ano ther development , a f i r s t s t e p towards g i v i n g concre te form t o t h e d e s i r e

t o i n s t i t u t e a new system f o r guaran tee ing and sa feguard ing human r i g h t s .

The system c u r r e n t l y i n o p e r a t i o n i s one o f n a t i o n s t a t e s . These C O - e x i s t i n a w o r l d whose sharp p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s accentuate t h e de lays , l i m i t a t i o n s and inadequacies i n h e r e n t i n an apparatus o f j u r i d i c a l safeguards which i s a d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t s tage o f e v o l u t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. I t i s n o t uncommon f o r S ta tes t o f i n d themselves drawn by p o l i t i c a l con t ingency f i r s t l y i n t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n , and a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g , t h e i n c e p t i o n and f o r m u l a t i o n o f convent ions concern ing human r i g h t s and l a t e r i n t o f a i l i n g t o r a t i f y them. Antagonisms between n a t i o n s o f t e n l e a d t o l e n g t h y postponements o f t h e coming i n t o f o r c e o f i ns t ruments which have a l r e a d y been drawn up, as happened w i t h b o t h human r i g h t s Pacts, o r t o obs tac les be ing p laced i n t h e way o f t h e i r e f f e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n , as occur red r e c e n t l y w i t h i n t h e Organ iza t ion o f American S t a t e s (OAS) th rough t h e r e f u s a l o f f u n d i n g f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cour t o f Human R i g h t s s e t up by t h e r e s p e c t i v e Convention. To t h i s must be added t h a t some o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d sa feguard ing mechanisms - whose i n t r i n s i c d e f i c i e n c i e s i t would take t o o l o n g t o expound i n d e t a i l he re - o u t o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e s i g n a t o r y s t a t e s , o n l y beg in t o f u n c t i o n a f t e r t h e resources of i n t e r n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n have been exhausted, and sometimes o n l y i n t h e case o f those s t a t e s which, bes ides hav ing r a t i f i e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e ins t ruments , have accepted t h e b i n d i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r body s p e c i f i e d i n t h e t r e a t y o r t h e a d m i s s i b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r l i t i g a n t o r l e g a l recourse . A l l o f t h i s a t a pace which bears no r e l a t i o n t o t h e u r g e n t need t o g i v e m a t e r i a l o r moral red ress t o t h e peop le o r groups a f f e c t e d .

I n a system o f n a t i o n s t a t e s , i s i t p o s s i b l e t o achieve a balance between t h e s t a t e a t t r i b u t e o f s o v e r e i g n t y and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s c o n t r a c t e d by t h e S ta tes i n t h e f i e l d o f human r i g h t s ? I n a system o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s i t i s assumed as a m a t t e r o f course t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e peop le i s ensured through t h e s t a t e apparatus and t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y taken i n t o account by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e governments. The a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n , however, i s d i f f e r e n t . The g u l f which i n p r a c t i c e e x i s t s between t h e prosperous and t h e depr i ved n a t i o n s i s reproduced w i t h i n t h e s o c i e t y o f many c o u n t r i e s and leads t o a community o f i n t e r e s t s n o t between peoples as a whole b u t between c e n t r a l and p e r i p h e r a l 61 i t e s , caus ing these t o c o l l a b o r a t e c l o s e l y w i t h one another . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y b l a t a n t a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l s t a t e s where t h e need f o r e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y e f f i c i e n t forms o f c o e r c i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e a l l i e d e l i t e s has l e d t o a spa te o f i n t e n s e l y r e p r e s s i v e m i l i t a r y regimes and c o n s t a n t v i o l a t i o n o f human r i g h t s . I n any system o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s whose compos i t i on r e f l e c t s t h i s imbalance i t becomes more than d i f f i c u l t , then, t o r e g a r d as genuine t h e c la ims o f govern- ments as guard ians o f human r i g h t s .

I t has been s a i d t h a t i n the in te r -governmenta l system t h e nega t i ve e lement i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p o l i t i c i z a t i o n b u t t h e f a c t t h a t governments which have t h e l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n t o r e s p e c t human r i g h t s a r e o f t e n t h e most i m p e n i t e n t v i o l a - t o r s o f them and may be capable, f o r example, o f condemning t o r t u r e i n a r e s o l u t i o n adopted b y consensus, as i f many o f them had n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e o f i t . B u t the a t t i t u d e o f t h e community o f n a t i o n s towards t h e o f f e n d i n g governments i s a l s o m o t i v a t e d by t h e above-mentioned schism i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l w o r l d which determines heqemonies and favours t h e grouping o f c o u n t r i e s i n t o l a r g e b locs . Thus t h e U n i t e d Nat ions, work ing as a p o l i t i c a l body, has n o t y e t managed t o g i v e a u n i v e r s a l dimension t o t h e bases upon which i t has a c t e d i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . The l i n e a t wh ich i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i n defense o f human r i g h t s begins t o be necessary s h o u l d be t h a t which d i v i d e s a mere i s o l a t e d and c i r c u m s t a n t i a l case o f i n f r i n g e m e n t , even a f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e episode, perhaps even a r e c u r r e n t one, f rom sys temat i c , f l a g r a n t and massive v i o l a t i o n o f human r i g h t s . The l o g i c a l consequence would seem t o be t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should n o t be taken i n r e s p e c t o f episodes b u t of s i t u a t i o n s i n which t h e r e i s : s y s t e m a t i c d e n i a l o f t h e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f peoples, t h e es tab l i shment o f a system o f "apar the id " , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n , the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new fo rm o f fasc ism b y m i l i t a r y regimes, t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f wars o f aggression, t h e open t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, o r , i n some cases, t h e endangering o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y . I n a l l these s i t u a t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n shou ld be taken s i n c e i n t e r n a l domestic remedies a r e imposs ib le and n a t i o n a l " l e g a l i t y " i s impoten t .

I n s p i t e o f i t s l o g i c , i t i s i n e v i t a b l y a g a i n s t t h e background o f a w o r l d which i s p o l i t i c a l l y s p l i t t h a t one has t o view t h i s conc lus ion , which i s f a r f rom b e i n g r i g o r o u s l y and u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i e d owing t o f e a r s i n some q u a r t e r s t h a t coheren t and s u s t a i n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n m i g h t l a t e r l e a d t o i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e i r own a f f a i r s , o r t o an i n c l i n a t i o n i n o t h e r q u a r t e r s t o a c t o n l y i n accordance w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l con t ingenc ies o r s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t pe rce ived i n t h e zone i n q u e s t i o n .

The system f o r t h e defense o f human r i g h t s o u t l i n e d here i s n o t based, t h e r e - f o r e , on s t a t e s b u t on peoples. I t p o s t u l a t e s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , w i t h i n each of these, o f a11 t h e s o c i a l f o r c e s and movements which a t t h e p r e s e n t t ime a r e f i g h t i n g i n t h e name o f t h e peop le f o r human r i g h t s , so t h a t t h e y may shape t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system th rough genu ine ly p a r t i c i p a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t n e x t envisages wor ld-wide c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f a11 these o r g a n i z a t i o n s by a c e n t r a l body which shou ld r e f l e c t t h e abnega t ion and s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e work f o r human r i g h t s wh ich i s undertaken on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l by n o n - o f f i c i a l i n s t i t u - t i o n s o f v a r i o u s k inds . I t does n o t , o f course. seek t h e p r e v i o u s d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g o f f i c i a l system and i t presen ts i t s e l f unprovided w i t h j u r i d i c a l mechanisms f o r enforcement which, i n f a c t , a r e n o t i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e e x e r c i s e o f f u n c t i o n s which i m p l y a mandatefrom w o r l d p u b l i c o p i n i o n and wh ich tend, a t t h e same t ime, t o m o b i l i z e i t . I t s whole a c t i v i t y i s presumed t o r e s t upon t h e necessary nexus between development and human r i g h t s , see ing t h e l a t t e r as one and i n d i v i s i b l e .

2. Ano ther development , understood as an a l l - e m b r a c i n g dynamic i n t h e l i f t o f a s o c i e t y , a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s t h e concep tua l b a s i s upon which t o e r e c t t h e new system o f defense. S ince t h i s concep t sees t h e process o f development s p r i n g i n g f rom t h e v e r y h e a r t o f each community, which thus assumes s o v e r e i g n t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g i t s own f u t u r e , t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y i s e x e r c i s e d by a l l t h e men and women who make up t h a t s o c i e t y and a l l v e r t i c a l systems a r e r e j e c t e d as pos- s i b l e sources o f t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m . By p a r t i c i p a t i n g d i r e c t l y i n d e c i s i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r common d e s t i n y they f a v o u r a f u n c t i o n a l and s p a t i a l decen- t r a l i z a t i o n which c o n s i d e r a b l y weakens wha t have u n t i l now been seen as t h e organs o f c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y . I t can cause no s u r p r i s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h o u g h t abou t ano ther development shou ld c o n s i d e r r e a l n a t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s t o o r i c h i n va lues and a s p i r a t i o n s f o r governments and i n s t i t u t i o n s t o be autho- r i z e d f u l l y t o r e p r e s e n t them.

The p o s t u l a t i o n o f a s o v e r e i g n t y e s s e n t i a l l y r e s i d i n g i n t h e whole community and t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t i t s e x e r c i s e ough t t o ex tend beyond t h e forms o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n s t i t u t e d w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e n a t i o n s t a t e l e a d one t o i d e n t i f y those s o c i e t i e s i n which ano ther development ough t t o be e labo- r a t e d as a11 those human communit ies i n p r i n c i p l e capab le o f f r e e l y under- t a k i n g t h e p rocess , even i f i n p r a c t i c e they a re n o t y e t independent , s o v e r e i g n communi t ies. The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n which, i n a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l order , may be ach ieved by each o f these v a r i o u s t ypes o f communi t ies, unders tood as autonomous s o c i a l g roup ings , can o n l y be based on t h e i r b e l o n g i n g t o t h a t o r d e r as j u r i d i c a l s u b j e c t s endowed w i t h v a r i o u s r i g h t s and capab le o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , bes ides b e i n g p roc la imed i n t h e C h a r t e r o f t h e U n i t e d Na t ions , i s e n s h r i n e d (and n o t by chance) i n t h e Pacts on human r i g h t s , t h e i n c l u s i o n o f those s o c i e t i e s i n a more e f f i c i e n t appara tus f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f these r i g h t s shou ld be a n a t u r a l c o r o l l a r y . A l l t h i s means p l a c i n g o u r concep t ion o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community upon a d i f f e r e n t b a s i s , t h a t i s , see ing i t as a community made up o f peoples, n o t o f s t a t e s .

T h i s i s n o t , indeed, a new idea, b u t i t meshes n a t u r a l l y and l o g i c a l l y w i t h a tendency, which i s g a i n i n g ground i n modern j u r i d i c a l though t , t o a d m i t peoples as t h e s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l aw , t o a s s o c i a t e them w i t h j u r i d i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f u n i v e r s a l v a l i d i t y and t o recogn ize t h a t t h e y have i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s . As i s w e l l known, theemergence of peoples as e n t i t l e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l aw m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e e x p l o s i o n o f n a t i o n a l i t i e s a f t e r t h e European r e v o l u t i o n s o f 1848, i n t h e concern f o r m i n o r i t i e s a f t e r t h e f i r s t Wor ld War and i n t h e f e r o c i o u s s u b j u g a t i o n o f European peoples by t h e A x i s powers d u r i n g t h e second. The p r i n c i p l e o f t h e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f peoples i s l a i d down i n t h e A t l a n t i c C h a r t e r o f 1941 and l a t e r i n t h a t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . These g i v e r i s e t o t h e law o f d e c o l o n i z a t i o n expressed i n v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s . The Pacts on Human R i g h t s , i n f o r c e s i n c e 1976, t a k e on s p e c i a l impor tance i n t h i s r e s p e c t i n v iew o f t h e m a t e r i a l t hey s p e c i f i c a l l y dea l w i t h , t h e i r r e c e n t d a t a and t h e i r c l e a r b i n d i n g f o r c e .

The p r a c t i c e o f t h e U n i t e d Na t ions , when h a v i n g r e c o u r s e t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o r r i g h t of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , i s t o a p p l y i t t o peoples occup ied by f o r e i g n powers, t o "dependent" peoples, t h a t i s t o say, s u b j e c t e d t o c o l o n i a l domi- n a t i o n , and t o peoples who have s o v e r e i g n t y i n theory , b u t who a r e governed by a r a c i s t m i n o r i t y . To t h i s U n i t e d N a t i o n s l i s t s h o u l d be added, n o t w i t h - s t a n d i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l problems wh ich t h e i r i n c l u s i o n generates, peoples who

have s o v e r e i g n t y i n theory b u t who a r e sub jec ted t o t h e oppression, e x p l o i t a - t i o n o r t y r a n n y o f a n a t i o n a l p r i v i l e g e d c lass o r o f governments imposed o r ma in ta ined by f o r c e . A l l these peoples must come t o g e t h e r t o c r e a t e a s t r u c - t u r e f o r t h e defense o f human r i g h t s . And they shou ld do so even i f t h e concept o f a people con t inues t o be assoc ia ted w i t h t h a t o f t h e S t a t e t o t h e advantage o f t h e l a t t e r , even i f i t may be d i f f i c u l t t o compel t h e S t a t e machi- ne ry t o work i n favour o f t h e r i g h t s o f i t s own people, even i f t h e represen ta - t i o n o f peoples remains i n t h e hands o f t h e s t a t e s , and even i f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law p r o t e c t s t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f s t a t e s more than those of peoples (J.A. Salmon).

The concept o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e t o d e c i s i o n s o f d i v e r s e n a t u r e . The human r i g h t s Pacts, f o l l o w i n g t h e precedent o f e a r l i e r i ns t ruments , a p p l y i t t o t h e f r e e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s , t h e f r e e p u r s u i t o f s o c i a l , economic and c u l t u r a l development and t o t h e freedom t o d ispose o f n a t u r a l r i c h e s and resources.

I t has been customary t o doubt t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f i n s e r t i n g a c lause on t h e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f peoples i n j u r i d i c a l t e x t s concerned w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s . The t r u t h i s t h a t t h a t i n s e r t i o n v a l i d a t e s the i n t e n t and scope o f t h e system o f defense proposed here. Tha t i n s e r t i o n i s , o f course, t h e c l e a r e s t s i g n t h a t r e s p e c t f o r human d i g n i t y and an e x i s t e n c e f r e e f rom f e a r and want a r e cons idered bound up w i t h t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e community t o which t h e i n d i v i d u a l belongs. I t i s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n which t h e community p a r t i c i p a t e s , then, r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l s , who must be i n t h e f r o n t l i n e o f t h i s d e f e n s i v e a c t i o n . I n t h e second p lace, t h e p r e c e p t on s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n l i n k s human r i g h t s w i t h s o c i a l aims beyond t h e scope o f i n d i v i d u a l s , such as economic, s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l development. Th is l i n k , a l r e a d y e v i d e n t i n t h e C h a r t e r o f t h e U n i t e d Nat ions , became ever more obvious i n p r a c t i c e w i t h t h e g a t h e r i n g momentum o f d e c o l o n i z a t i o n . I n t h e course o f t h i s process, r e a l r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s came t o be c o n d i t i o n a l b o t h on t h e w i d t h o f t h e g u l f which inadequate develop- ment opened between t h e r i c h and t h e poor w i t h i n a n a t i o n , and on t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i n e q u a l i t y o f development between one n a t i o n and ano ther . Bu t b o t h these f a c t o r s a r e i n e q u i v o c a l l y d e f i n e d as t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e dependence o f t h e poor n a t i o n s on t h e r i c h n a t i o n s . There fo re , t h e defense o f human r i g h t s i n t h e proposed system cannot p rogress i n i s o l a t i o n f rom t h e anomalies i n t h e ob jec - t i v e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n which i n f r i n g e m e n t o f these r i g h t s occurs. Nor can i t be c o n f i n e d mere ly w i t h i n t h e boundar ies o f each community b u t must assume an i n t e r n a t i o n a l dimension.

The w i d e r v iew which i s now taken o f t h e defense o f human r i g h t s i s t h e expres- s i o n o f a s o c i e t y ve ry d i f f e r e n t f rom t h a t o f two c e n t u r i e s ago i n which t h e t r a d i t i o n o f those r i g h t s was born. Nowadays t h e r e i s a tendency f o r t h e l i n e o f demarca t ion between c i v i l s o c i e t y and p o l i t i c a l s t a t e t o d isappear and f o r p o l i t i c a l l i f e no l o n g e r t o be seen as t h e means, and c i v i l s o c i e t y as t h e end f o r wh ich i t works. The proposed de fens ive system, t h e r e f o r e , no longer sees t h e i n d i v i d u a l as a r e c l u s e , t h e n a t u r a l man c o n f i n e d i n h i s own c e l l w i t h h i s p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s and whims, c u t o f f f rom t h e r e s t o f mankind. L i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y and t h e o t h e r r i g h t s o f men and c i t i z e n s a r e p e r c e i v e d as a u n i t y which i s s o c i a l l y i n d i v i s i b l e and o n l y i n t e l l e c t u a l l y separab le . The e f f e c t of t h i s i s t o g i v e a h i g h e r r e l a t i v e va lue t o development and t o promote economic, s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l r i g h t s t o a t l e a s t t h e same l e v e l o f importance as c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s .

T h i s i s t h e l i n e of t h i n k i n g which should govern t h e p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e defense o f a11 these r i g h t s .

3. As we have a l ready s a i d , t h e proposed system t ranscends t h e framework o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s , r i s e s above t h e j u r i d i c a l , t e c h n i c a l and p o l i t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h a t framewark and p laces t h e defense o f human r i g h t s d i r e c t l y on t h e shou lders o f the people, as a p r a c t i c a l c o r o l l a r y t o t h e l i n k between r i g h t s and development.

Understood thus, t h e d ~ t y t o p r o t e c t a l i f e f r e e f rom f e a r ( c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s ) and a l i f e f r e e from want (economic, s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l r i g h t s ) devo lves upon t h e w i l l and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e community. Such p ro - t e c t i o n e n t a i l s , as a f i r s t s tep , e x p l o r i n g t h e depths o f each n a t i o n a l r e a l i t y t o d i s c o v e r i n what manner and t o what e x t e n t t h e i n f r i n g e m e n t o f human r i g h t s o f any k i n d has i t s r o o t s i n t h e d a i l y e x p l o i t a t i o n p r a c t i s e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f n a t i o n a l and f o r e i q n m i n o r i t y i n t e r e s t s . and t o dec ide t h e most s u i t a b l e method o f r e a c t i n g a g a i n i t t h a t i i f r i n g e m e n t . Recent h i s t o r y shows how t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e and p e r s i s t e n t i n t i m i d a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , making them v i c t i m s of f e a r , i s p r e c i s e l y designed t o f a v o u r t h e accumulat ion o f c a p i t a l , a t t h e c o s t o f t h e impoverishment o f t h e m a j o r i t y , who a r e thus made v i c t i m s o f want. The new system must, as f a r as p o s s i b l e , d i r e c t i t s a t t a c k more a g a i n s t s i t u a t i o n s which v i o l a t e human r i g h t s than a g a i n s t episodes. I n f r i n g e m e n t s must be regarded n o t as t h e r e s u l t o f mere a r b i t r a r y a c t s o f w i ( t h i s would l e a d t o a r o u t i n e and hopeless b a t t l e ) b u t as t h e express ion and consequence of w o r l d d e s e q u i l i b r i u m , o f s t r u c t u r a l anomalies i n t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y i n q u e s t i o n and o f a b e r r a t i o n s and inadequacies i n i t s development. Whatever immediate response t o these v i o l a t i o n s may be decided upon must t h e r e f o r e be made w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e t o r e c o g n i t i o n and r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r v a l u e as i n d i c e s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s which must be changed i n o r d e r t o a b o l i s h o r a t l e a s t d i m i n i s h t h e p resen t massive i n f r i n g m e n t o f human r i g h t s .

The proposed system does n o t e n t a i l denying t h e d e b t which t h e sa feguard ing o f human r i g h t s owes t o t h e o f f i c i a l systems, u n i v e r s a l o r r e g i o n a l , which a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r promot ion and p r o t e c t i o n . The general organs o f t h e U n i t e d Nat ions as w e l l as i t s s p e c i a l i z e d agencies, t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s c r e a t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s as w e l l as those e s t a b l i s h e d by p a r t i c u l a r t r e a t i e s on human r i g h t s , have s i n c e t h e end o f t h e second World War, done admi rab le work i n t h e es tab l i shment o f norms concerned w i t h human r i g h t s and i n t h e promot ion and p r o t e c t i o n o f those r i g h t s . I f much s t r e s s has h i t h e r t o been l a i d i n t h i s paper on t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and d e f e c t s o f t h e o f f i c i a l system, i t i s e s s e n t i a l a l s o t o pay t r i b u t e t o i t s p o s i t i v e achievements, e s p e c i a l l y as regards t h e p romu lqa t ion o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Human R i g h t s Char te r , deco- I o n i z a t i o n , t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t r a d e u n i o n freedom and many o t h e r f i e l d s . It would be senseless a t t h e p r e s e n t moment t o p o s t u l a t e t h e replacement o f t h e in te r -governmenta l system b y one based on a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o t h e r than t h a t of n a t i o n s t a t e s . The proposed system, then, does n o t seek t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e o f f i c i a l system b u t t o comple- ment i t and i s n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h i t . Rather , i t s own s t r u c t u r e , i t s methods, i t s a c t i v i t y and a l l t h e exper ience i t may accumulate w i l l be a b l e t o e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e on t h e apparatus o f i n te r -governmenta l s u p e r v i s i o n , a d a p t i n g i t t o new h i s t o r i c a l c i rcumstances and f a v o u r i n g i t s re fo rm.

The f o u n d a t i o n stones o f t h e in ter-governmental system a r e t h e states, a l t h o u g h i n e x c e p t i o n a l cases a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n may c o n t a i n de lega t ions f rom d i f f e r e n t sources, as i s t h e case w i t h t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour O r g a n i z a t i o n (ILO), and even though t h e r e i s a growing tendency f o r t h e members o f c e r t a i n c o r p o r a t e bodies t o be designated on account of t h e i r pe rsona l q u a 7 i t i e s r a t h e r than t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n . What f o u n d a t i o n stones suppor t t h e proposed system?

The answer must be g i v e n f o r b o t h t h e n a t i o n a l and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s

(a ) Peoples fo rm t h e bas is o f t h e system, which i s fundamenta l l y decen- t r a l i z e d . For these purposes t h e system c o n s i s t s o f a11 o f them w i t h o u t excep t ion .

There i s no doubt t h a t r e c o g n i z i n g such a broad r e p r e s e n t a t i o n produces s i t u a t i o n s o f cons iderab le comp lex i t y .

We a r e d e a l i n g , o f course, w i t h an e x t r e m e l y heterogenous group, as t h e i n c l u - s i o n o f a11 t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f peoples a l r e a d y d e f i n e d beg ins t o make c l e a r . On t h e p o l i t i c a l p lane t h e gamut extends f rom peoples who a r e s t i l l sub juga ted t o those which have been independent f o r c e n t u r i e s , p a s s i n g through those which en joy a r e l a t i v e l y l o n g s t a n d i n g fo rma l independence and r e l a t i v e l y l i b e r a l p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l l i f e and th rough t h e v a s t range o f those which d i s p l a y a f a l s e independence o r where v a r i o u s p r i v i l e g e s a r e granted, i n p rac - t i c e o r by law, t o sma l l groups o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . On t h e pTane o f economic and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e degree and t y p e o f development, t h e a g r a r i a n ' peasant s o c i e t i e s l i e a t one extreme and a t t h e o t h e r l i e t h e s o c i e t i e s which a r e h i g h l y o r modera te ly u rban ized and comple te ly o r p a r t i a l l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d .

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The c u l t u r a l p l a n e i n c l u d e s peoples o f a n c i e n t , p r i m a l c u l t u r e s and peoples whose c u l t u r e has i t s o r i g i n s i n a r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . A l l t h i s produces, as happens w i t h p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e forms o f development, d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of d e p a r t u r e i n t h e i r manner o f r e g a r d i n g human r i g h t s and o f p r o t e c t i n g them a g a i n s t a11 t h e l i k e w i s e d i v e r s e forms.which t h e v i o l a t i o n o f them can take .

T h i s m u l t i p l i c i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l v iewpo in ts can, i n t h e f i r s t p lace , reopen t h e argument abou t whether it i s p o s s i b l e t o go on c o n s i d e r i n g u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d a ca ta logue o f human r i g h t s which, up t i l l now, has been regarded n o t j u s t as an e t h i c a l minimum b u t as an uncha l lengeab le moral and j u r i d i c a l requ i rement . The d i v e r s i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l exper ience c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t v i s i o n s , s e n s i b i l i t i e s and sca les o f values. I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t n o t a l l peoples have been n u r t u r e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f j e a l o u s l y guard ing the bounda- r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y by means o f l i m i t a t i o n s p laced on t h e power of a l e g i t i m a t e and sovere ign s t a t e . Peoples w i t h a g r e a t e r t r a d i t i o n o f communi- t a r i s m whose s t a t e s t r u c t u r e i s n o t y e t c o n s o l i d a t e d a r e i g n o r a n t o f t h i s c o n s t a n t b a t t l e between t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y and between t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e s t a t e . By h i s t o r i c a l chance, i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y may perhaps have more t a n g i b l e meaning f o r those peoples who have always enjoyed i t than f o r those who have o n l y exper ienced i t i n p e r i o d s o f e x c e p t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l good-fortune. I n a d d i t i o n , i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n t e n t on overcoming t h e enormous o b s t a c l e s t o development, t h e r e a r e those who express r e s e r v a t i o n s about t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d o p e r a t i o n o f c e r t a i n u n i v e r s a l l y accepted human r i g h t s such as l i b e r t y o f work o r employment, freedom o f i n f o r m a t i o n , freedom o f p o l i t i c a l

a s s o c i a t i o n and o the rs . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h i s debate shou ld be c a r r i e d on s y s t e m a t i c a l l y by t h e peoples themselves and n o t by t h e s t a t e s .

I n the second p lace , i t i s wel l -known t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s wh ich make up a g i v e n p a t t e r n o f v i o l a t i o n o f human r i g h t s a re ex t reme ly d i v e r s e . The p o p u l a t i o n wh ich s u f f e r s them i s t h e most s u i t a b l e body t o dec ide what they a r e and t o f i g h t a g a i n s t them. The r u r a l s e c t o r , f o r example, more defenceless than the urban, and i n some T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s f r e q u e n t l y c u t o f f from t h e c e n t r e s wh ich m i g h t p r o v i d e some form o f s o l i d a r i t y , i s u s u a l l y , th rough i t s own s t r u g g l e s , i n t h e b e s t p o s i t i o n t o i d e n t i f y t h e o r i g i n o f c o n f l i c t s about l and ownership, t h e s u p p o r t which usurpers o f t e n r e c e i v e f rom t h e government, t h e c o r r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n ' m i n i f u n d i s m ' as a r e s u l t o f t h e i l l e g a l s e i z u r e o f l a n d and t h e s o r t o f pe rsona l p e r s e c u t i o n which t h e l a t i - f u n d i s t employs a g a i n s t i nd igenous groups o r sma l l landowners. Something analogous can be s a i d abou t abuses commit ted i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s . The c o m p l e x i t y o f each s i t u a t i o n t h e r e f o r e makes i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t i n e v e r y t h i n g t o do w i t h human r i g h t s and t h e i r defense i t shou ld be t h e people, and n o t t h e i r fo rma l p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , who s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n , express t h e i r o p i n i o n and g i v e l i f e t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and forms o f defense.

( b ) The g r a s s - r o o t s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t which can be p r o v i d e d t o an u n o f f i c i a l system o f p r o t e c t i o n by t h e g r e a t c i r c l e o f t h e peoples o f t h e w o r l d , a l t h o u g h v e r y s o l i d and necessary, i s n o t i n i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t . The u n i v e r s a l d i s r e g a r d f o r human r i g h t s and t h e f requency w i t h which i n o u r t i m e t h e y a r e i g n o r e d i n r e s p e c t o f e n t i r e peoples, c o n v e r t s t h e i r defense i n t o a t r u e campaign f o r l i b e r a t i o n , and i n many p laces , i n t o a campaign f o r s u r v i v a l . T h i s makes necessary a wide r a n g i n g campaign t o arouse w o r l d p u b l i c o p i n i o n wh ich demands t h e b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r o f f o r c e s which a r e o f t e n separa ted f r o m each o t h e r by s o c i a l and i d e o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s and a r e sometimes a d v e r s a r i e s i n t h e s p i r i t u a l f i e i d o r i n t h a t o f p o l i t i c s o r t r a d e un ions . These f o r c e s i n t r o - duce a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t d imension, however much t h e aggregate o f t h e v a r i o u s communit ies may come t o r e f l e c t t h e whole w o r l d ' s i n t e r e s t s .

Among these f o r c e s a r e i n c l u d e d those wh ich d e r i v e t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y f rom t h e i r p o l i t i c a l m i l i t a n c y o r f rom t h e i r a f f i l i a t i o n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e u n i o n movement. Then one can p i c k o u t ano ther c o n t i n g e n t wh ich has more r e c e n t l y j o i n e d t h e a c t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e f o r e m i n e n t l y h u m a n i t a r i a n reasons, p rominen t w i t h i n i t b e i n g t h e members o f t h e ecumenical churches and, i n genera l , a l l t hose who a r e b e g i n n i n g t o r e b e l a g a i n s t man's c r u e l t y t o man f o r reasons wh ich a r e above a l l e t h i c a l , o f mora l i n d i g n a t i o n . One can a l s o i d e n t i f y those who j o i n t h e p r o t e s t movement th rough anger a t t h e huge s c a l e on which modern forms o f e x p l o i t a t i o n a1 t e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man w i t h h i s env i ronment , cause t h e s y s t e m a t i c d e s t r u c t i o n o f n a t u r e o r t h e s e r i o u s d i s t o r - t i o n o f s i m p l e forms o f coex is tence th rough t h e i n c i t e m e n t t o excess ive consumption, th rough r e s o r t i n g t o a degree o f techno logy n o t j u s t i f i e d by any o b j e c t i v e n e c e s s i t y o r th rough an oppress ive b u r e a u c r a t i s a t i o n . F i n a l l y , those who s t r u g g l e f o r peace and, moreover, t h e immense m a j o r i t y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s and a r t i s t s , a l e r t t o t h e problems which a f f e c t t h e human community and s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s u f f e r i n g s wh ich i t must d a i l y bear , complete t h e t a p e s t r y of c i v i l s o c i e t y , d e p i c t e d t h i s t i m e on a w o r l d s c a l e i n o r d 2 r t o r e i n f o r c e t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a new system f o r t h e defense o f human r i g h t s (Schwember).

4. Me must now address t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a system which draws i t s suppor t f rom peoples and which must t h e r e f o r e e x h i b i t an a p p r e c i a b l e degree o f d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . Th is presents problems o f v a r i o u s k inds .

I n general terms i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e presence o f peoples i n t h e system must be expressed i n t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e invo lvement o f every community. When one speaks o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n nowadays one means more than j u s t an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f i n d i v i a u a l s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i r e c t l y i n t h e making and c a r r y i n g o u t o f d e c i s i o n s . One i s r e f e r r i n g , i n f a c t , t o those o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n which t h e peop le d a i l y p l a y an a c t i v e p a r t , and n o t mere ly t o those i n which i t has an i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e through the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s which i t e l e c t s f rom t i m e t o t ime. T h i s u n i o n o f f o r c e s which o r i g i n a t e i n o rgan ized sec to rs , and wh ich must o f course s p r i n g f rom t h e d i r e c t v i c t i m s o f abuse and depreda t ion and f r o m a l l t h e groups and s o c i a l s t r a t a which express t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y w i t h such v i c t i m s , shou ld i n c l u d e " t h e new arenas i n which t h e dec is ions o f contemporary s o c i e t i e s a r e made: t h e educa t iona l system, t h e w o r l d o f l abour , t h e o rgan iza - t i o n s which c o n t r o l mass communication" (Cardoso).

Such g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s cannot, however, f u l l y cover a l l t h e d i s s i m i l a r r e a l i t i e s and p o l i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n s which i t i s necessary t o cons ider . The f a c t i s t h a t n o t a l l T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s can p r o p e r l y be s a i d t o possess an educa t iona l system, a w o r l d o f o rgan ized l a b o u r o r bodies which c o n t r o l mass communication. Moreover, i n many o f them i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s ( l e t a lone o r g a n i z a t i o n s based on them) such as consumers, workers, e t h n i c o r r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s , young people, poor peasants o r marg ina l urban s e t t l e r s . Fur thermore, t h e r e a r e g r e a t d i v e r g e n c i e s i n t h e degree o f p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n , m a t u r i t y , exper ience and combat i v i ty o f d i f f e r e n t communi- t i e s . One has o n l y t o t h i n k o f t h e abyss which, i n t h i s sphere, separates those peoples which have produced l i b e r a t i o n movements w i t h deep-rooted mass suppor t f rom n a t i o n s w i t h an eminen t l y r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n and a premonetary economy whose r e c e n t p o l i t i c a l independence has been due l e s s t o a s t r u g g l e f o r l i b e r a t i o n than t o t h e f r e e concession o f i t by t h e i r ex -co lon ia l masters.

There i s no doubt t h a t a l l t h i s leads t o a g r e a t h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n t h e compo- s i t i o n and n a t u r e o f t h e committees, f r o n t s , assembl ies ( o r whatever name may be g i v e n t o them) which a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e v a r i o u s peoples ought t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e n u c l e i o f t h e system here proposed. I n t h e f a c e o f t h i s , what i s most i m p o r t a n t i s t o r e a f f i r m t h e genu ine ly p a r t i c i p a t i v e charac te r which those n u c l e i shou ld e x h i b i t , i f p o s s i b l e r i g h t down t o t h e l o c a l l e v e l . I n an i n t e r - governmental system i t i s reasonable t o s t a r t by u r g i n g the a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e member s t a t e s t o s e t up commissions f o r t h e p romot ion and p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s . I n a system formed by peoples, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i d e a t h a t i t s composing e lements shou ld be appo in ted f rom above by an a c t o f a u t h o r i t y i s on p r i n c i p l e u n t h i n k a b l e .

The concre te o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e recommended system shou ld a t t h a t p o i n t t a k e i n t o account t h e v a r i e d and r i c h exper ience o f many n a t i o n a l communit ies wh ich have founded committees, assemblies o r commissions f o r t h e defense o f human r i g h t s , g e n e r a l l y i n ex t reme ly adverse c o n d i t i o n s and o f t e n runn ing grave r i s k s . S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f d i v e r s e n a t u r e and aims whose r a i s o n d l $ t r e i s o f t e n , i n f a c t , n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e defense o f human r i g h t s , have r a p i d l y inc reased t h e ranks of t h e i r suppor te rs . Founded f o r t h e p u r s u i t o f l i m i t e d o b j e c t i v e s

o f p romot ing a cause, sp read ing i n f o r m a t i o n and e x e r t i n g moderate p ressure on t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , these movements have g r a d u a l l y widened t h e range o f t h e i r aims and i n t e n s i f i e d t h e i r a c t i v i t y , as c i rcumstances have d i c t a t e d . The exper ience thus a c q u i r e d w i l l be ex t reme ly va luab le when t h e t ime comes t o t a k e p a r t i n t h e system nere recommended.

Once i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e sum o f t h e de fens ive o r g a n i z a t i o n s dev ised by t h e communit ies themselves, one m i g h t examine the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t peoples o f a common h i s t o r i c a l pas t , o f s i m i l a r , s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and o f a c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l homogeneity shou ld r e g i o n a l l y co -o rd ina te op in ions , exper iences and methods o f a c t i o n i n t h e promot ion and p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s . T h i s r e g i o n a l co- o r d i n a t i o n seems p o s s i b l e , f o r i ns tance , between t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s o f t h e Caribbean, between some Arab c o u n t r i e s and between t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e sou thern cone o f the American c o n t i n e n t .

The comparison and c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s and exper iences among such r e g i o n a l g roup ings c o u l d produce con lcus ions which would be u s e f u l f o r t h e even tua l f o r m u l a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l l y o r u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e s tandards o f human r i g h t s and t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f new and more e f f e c t i v e mechanisms f o r t h e i r p romot ion and p r o t e c t i o n . I t c o u l d a l s o , i n an even tua l formal i n s t i t u t i o n a l i - z a t i o n o f t h e system here recommended, be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p r e v e n t i n g t h e es tab l i shment o f r e g i o n a l mechanisms f o r the defense o f human r i g h t s which a r e t a c i t l y s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e s h i f t s i n p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e which an hegemonic n a t i o n may f ~ n d exped ien t , as occur red f o r a l o n g t ime i n t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f American S t a t e s (OAS). F i n a l l y , i t c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e o p i n i o n s wor thy o f be ing taken i n t o account i n t h e f u t u r e d e c e n t r a l i z h t i o n o f t h e in te r -governmenta l system o f t h e U n i t e d Nat ions and t h e cor respond ing agencies r e s p o n s i b l e f o r human r i g h t s .

It remains t o c o n s i d e r whether i t i s p roper f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system t o be completed by t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l communi t i e s , whether r e g i o n a l l y co -o rd ina ted o r n o t , w i t h i n a w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l framework, which would g i v e express ion t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l g rass roo ts suppor t we have a l r e a d y descr ibed .

It m i g h t be argued t h a t such i n c l u s i o n would i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h e system an extraneous f a c t o r n o t emanating f rom the sovere ign w i l l o f t h e peoples. I n f a c t , i t i s r e a l l y a q u e s t i o n o f t h i s same w i l l seen f rom a d i f f e r e n t angle. Moreover t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o p reven t i t b e i n g t h e peoples themselves who a r e more o r l e s s b r o a d l y represen ted i n t h i s new dimension, I n r e a l i t y , i t seems ind ispensab le t o e s t a b l i s h a c e n t r a l c o r p o r a t e body t o g i v e t a n g i b l e fo rm t o t h e sys tem's wor ld-wide back ing t o ensure t h e cohesion w i t h i n one organism of t h e n u c l e i o r n a t i o n a l campaigns f o r t h e defense o f human r i g h t s , t o co- o r d i n a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s on a w o r i d l e v e l and t o make p o s s i b l e under tak ings which can o n l y be decided upon and c a r r i e d o u t c e n t r a l l y .

The e x i s t e n c e o f such a c e n t r a l c o r p o r a t e body would h e l p t o p r o v i d e t h e p ro - posed system w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l d imension which i t l a c k s compared w i t h t h e in te r -governmenta l system. Tha t i n s t i t u t i o n a l d imension must n o t , o f course, be o f an o f f i c i a l charac te r ; fu r the rmore , i t s v e r y n a t u r e must be t o shun any k i n d o f o f f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r and perhaps t o assume i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t

o f f i c i a l bod ies a s t a t u s s i m i l a r t o t h a t wh ich t h e U n i t e d Nat ions accords t o non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Th is i n s t i t u t i o n a l dimension must have i t s r o o t s , n o t i n movements whose very n a t u r e d e s t i n e s them f o r d i s s o l u t i o n o r e x t i n c t i o n sooner o r l a t e r , b u t i n i n s t i t u t i o n s which w i l l endure and which h e l p t o c o n f e r c r e d i b i l i t y and some measure o f safeguard o r p r o t e c t i o n on t h e apparatus, a t t h e same t ime as i t opens up f o r i t i n t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s and i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l sphere an o p e r a t i o n a l area i n which i t may remain, as f a r as p o s s i b l e , s a f e f rom. the r i s k o f b e i n g immed ia te ly crushed o r immobi l ized. Among t h e l a r g e number o f such i n s t i t u t i o n s m i g h t be counted, f o r example, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Red Cross, t h e World Counci l o f Churches, t h e I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Commission o f J u r i s t s , t h e I n t e r p a r l i a m e n t a r y Union, t h e g r e a t i n t e r - n a t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n s o f t r a d e unions and Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l .

5. The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e proposed o r g a n i z a t i o n s must be seen i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e element which can r e p l a c e t h e j u r i d i c a l compulsion o f t h e inter-governmen- t a l system. Th is element i s t h e same one which i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s makes t h e a c t i o n o f t h a t system meaningfu l and e f f e c t i v e , b u t the new system would r e l y e n t i r e l y on i t s d i r e c t use: i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c o p i n i o n . I t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s recogn ised b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t s i n t h e sphere o f t h e in te r -governmenta l system i t s e l f . Some o f them cons ider t h a t t h e o n l y way o f g e t t i n g o u t o f t h e morass i n which t h e omnipotence o f t h e modern s t a t e seems t o w ish t o bog down human r i g h t s i s t o appeal t o those who appear t o have a p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n , t h a t i s t o say " a l l o f us " (K . Vasak). The persuas ive o r d i s s u a s i v e w e i g h t o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n has become, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f a cen tu ry , a s o l i d f a c t o f t h e g r e a t e s t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l importance.

The o t h e r m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e which must be assoc ia ted w i t h p u b l i c o p i n i o n i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y i n a l l i t s human i ta r ian , s p i r i t u a l and p o l i t i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s .

T h i s hav ing been s a i d , t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e new o r g a n i z a t i o n i n p romot ing and p r o t e c t i n g human r i g h t s can be seen t o cover a wide range o f a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d i n g , i n t e r a l i a , i n q u i r y , i n f o r m a t i o n , v i g i l a n c e , denunc ia t ion , c o l l e c - t i o n o f c o r r o b o r a t i v e evidence, t h e c o n s t a n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e human r i g h t s s i t u a t i o n and t h e maintenance and keeping up t o da te o f a bank o f c u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f s tandards o r codes o f c i v i l , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l conduct, t h e drawing-up o f s tandards and r e g u l a t i o n s about human r i g h t s and o t h e r m a t t e r s which determine o r accompany t h e i r due r e s p e c t and enjoyment, and, f i n a l l y , t o a c t as a t r i b u n a l o f conscience. None o f these a c t i v i t i e s must be i n v e s t e d w i t h any p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t n o r be m o t i v a t e d by any p o l i t i c a l purposes, i n o r d e r t h a t such p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s , denunc ia t ion b e f o r e w o r l d p u b l i c o p i n i o n o r whatever o t h e r e n t e r p r i s e i s underaken may be seen t o be f r e e o f any u l t e r i o r mot i ves which m i g h t l i m i t o r weaken i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . There i s no room i n t h e proposed system f o r s u b o r d i n a t i n g t h e r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s t o p o l i t i c a l expediency.

Among t h e p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n s we may a p p r o p r i a t e l y emphasize t h e f o l l o w i n g :

(a ) The p e r i o d i c p u b l i c a t i o n o f r e p o r t s c o u l d become ex t reme ly e f f e c t i v e and surmount a l l t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s which i t p resen ts i n t h e in te r -governmenta l system.

N a t u r a l l y , s i n c e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t p r o v i d e d by t h e i n t e r e s t e d s t a t e ( g e n e r a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n appear ing, by hook o r by c rook , t o be conforming t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l s tandards ) b u t by a u t h e n t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e i n t e r e s t e d people, a l l doubt about t h e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n d isappears. It would a l s o be p o s s i b l e t o i s s u e r e p o r t s much more f r e q u e n t l y .

I t l i k e w i s e becomes f e a s i b l e t o produce t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n a p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d f o r m a t by means o f a s c i e n t i f i c a l l y des igned q u e s t i o n n a i r e which w i l l s y s t e - m a t i c a l l y cover a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n which a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e w o r l d s t r u g g l e on b e h a l f o f human r i g h t s . T h i s i s e q u a l l y v a l i d f o r a11 human r i g h t s and, i m p l i c i t l y , f o r t h e process o f develop- ment i t s e l f . Of course we a r e n o t i m p l y i n g by t h i s t h a t n a t i o n a l committees o r campaigns wh ich may have t h e i r o r i g i n s i n ne ighbourhood communit ies o r i n v i l l a g e s , w i l l be capab le o f r e p l y i n g t o these i n q u i r i e s as p r e c i s e l y and d i l i g e n t l y as an e x p e r t would do. I n o r d e r n o t t o make absurd demands on such commit tees i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t these q u e s t i o n n a i r e s shou ld be drawn up i n a fo rm wh ich i s ba lanced, s e n s i b l e and c l e a r . The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g , above a l l , i s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d induce t h e n a t i o n a l committees o r campaigns t o p r o v i d e t r u s t - wor thy i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e and on e q u a l i t y i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f goods and s e r v i c e s (F.H. Cardoso).

Measur ing we1 l - b e i n g i s n o t o r i o u s l y a more d i f f i c u l t t a s k than measur ing g rowth , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e i n d i c a t o r s i s i n i t s e l f ve ry complex, and i f s o c i a l e q u a l i t y and u n e q u a l i t y a l s o stem f rom non-mate r ia l e lements which i t i s a lmos t imposs ib le , so f a r , t o measure s c i e n t i f i c a l l y , such as a l l those upon which t h e d i s a l i e n a t i o n o r l i b e r t y o f each i n d i v i d u a l depends and t h e e x t e n t o f h i s r e a l s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n s abou t t h e develop- ment o f h i s community.

So f a r as t h e s o - c a l l e d c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s a r e concerned, t h e p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s c o u l d o f f e r examples o f t h e manner and degree i n wh ich t h e y a r e respec- t e d o r v i o l a t e d i n t h e community, t h e genera l o r d i s c r i m i n a t o r y c h a r a c t e r o f i n f r i n g e m e n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o groups o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e communi ty 's s p e c i f i c p l a n s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s own c u r r e n t c i rcumstances, and, i n genera l , any o t h e r f a c t o r f a c t o r wh ich , as we have s a i d , can b e s t be d i s c e r n e d and eva lua - t e d by t h e community i t s e l f .

The s c r u t i n y o f these p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s can be more f r e e , d i l i g e n t , search ing , dynamic and w idespread t h a n t h a t p r a c t i s e d by t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f s t a t e s . The r e p o r t s must always be p u b l i c and open t o commentary, a d d i t i o n s , c l a r i f i - c a t i o n s and r e f u t a t i o n s f rom any q u a r t e r , an i d e a l a lways rep resen ted as u t o p i a n i n t h e case o f t h e p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s env isaged i n v a r i o u s procedures o f t h e in te r -governmenta l system. Consequent ly t h e y must r e c e i v e p r o f u s e and d i v e r s i f i e d p u b l i c i t y , f a r g r e a t e r i n e x t e n t and i n t e n s i t y than t h a t g i v e n t o t h e o f f i c i a l a p p a r a t u s ' s d e c i s i o n s and t h e documentat ion which suppor ts them.

F i n a l l y , t h e proposed p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s shou ld n o t g i v e r i s e t o a s i n g l e , p r e - de te rm ined course o f a c t i o n , as happens i n t h e i n t e r - s t a t e system, and can t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f c o u n t e r - a c t i v i t i e s .

To sum up, t h e p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s should be t h e p r i n c i p a l source o f i n f o r m a t i o n about, and t h e most s o l i d b a s i s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of, t h e s t a t e o f t h e wor ld , i t s p o l i t i c a l processes and t h e degree t o which needs, beg inn ing w i t h those o f t h e poor and e x p l o i t e d , a r e s a t i s f i e d , a l s o t h e conduct o f governments towards t h e communit ies they r u l e .

(b ) The j u d i c i a l , o r q u a s i - j u d i c i a l , f u n c t i o n , ve ry l i m i t e d even i n t h e i n t e r - governmental system f o r wel l -known t e c h n i c o - j u r i d i c a l reasons, must, a f o r t i o r i , be even more so i n t h e proposed system. Nevertheless, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t t e r i s n o t made up o f S ta tes , i t s n o n - r i t u a l charac te r , t h e i n t e r w e a v i n g o f t h e c e n t r e and t h e p e r i p h e r y i n i t s s t r u c t u r e and t h e use o f methods o f p u b l i c i t y which i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y can cause t o echo round t h e wor ld , c o u l d cause i t t o r e g a i n i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t was o r i g i n a l l y l o s t t o i t through i t s l a c k o f means o f j u r i d i c a l enforcement. T h i s makes i t e s p e c i a l l y w e l l - s u i t e d t o " try" n o t o n l y t h e cases o f i n d i v i d u a l s b u t those o f s o c i e t i e s i n which t h e r i g h t s o f whole peoples a r e i n f r i n g e d .

Such " t r i a l s " c o u l d take v a r i o u s forms:

( l ) Open hear ings t o cons ider t h e permanent v i o l a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t o f a peop le t o development and o f t h e r i g h t s o f i t s component i n d i v i d u a l s , o r a p a r t i c u l a r i s o l a t e d even t o f g r e a t concern which v i o l a t e s those r i g h t s . Examples o f t h e f i r s t a re : t h e case o f Paraguay, t h e case o f H a i t i and t h e case o f Indonesia; a case o f t h e second: the murder o f s c h o o l c h i l d r e n b y t h e "emperor" Bokassa.

These sessions, somewhat r e m i n i s c e n t o f those o f t h e ad hoc w o r k i n g - p a r t i e s appo in ted by t h e U n i t e d Nat ions, a re , however, envisaged as q u i t e e x t e n s i v e p u b l i c sessions whose procedure would be predetermined by t h e c e n t r a l c o r p o r a t e body o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n which ev idence would be presented and an a n a l y s i s o f t h e w o r l d s i t u a t i o n undertaken. T h e i r conc lus ions , on t h e o t h e r hand, would be open, t h a t i s t o say, they would n o t l e a d t o predetermined courses of a c t i o n . The "doss ie r " , o r i t s e s s e n t i a l p a r t s , i s always p r i m a r i l y in tended t o be m a t e r i a l f o r widespread pub1 i c i t y .

W i t h i n t h i s ca tegory t h e r e i s room f o r p o s s i b l e hear ings o f p u b l i c accusa t ions b rough t i n a b s e n t i a a g a i n s t p a r t i c u l a r people, r e s u l t i n g s imp ly i n a v e r d i c t o f g u i l t o r innocence, i n t h e s t y l e o f those c a r r i e d o u t by t h e Russe l l T r i b u n a l .

( 2 ) The r e c e p t i o n and h a n d l i n g o f denunc ia t ions o r summonses ( t h e Dag Hammarskjold Report c a l l s them "appeals") b rough t by an i n d i v i d u a l o r a s o c i a l group, because o f t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e i r m a t e r i a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r p o l i t i c a l d i g n i t y , and seek ing t h e r e c o g n i t i o n , respec t , p r o t e c t i o n o r re -es tab l i shment o f t h e i r r i g h t s .

( 3 ) F a c t - f i n d i n g miss ions o f b r i e f e r d u r a t i o n , l i k e those undertaken i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s by o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Red Cross, t h e World Counc i l o f Churches, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commission o f J u r i s t s and Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l . Under t h i s heading i s i n c l u d e d the sending o f observers t o p o l i t i c a l t r i a l s .

( c ) The f o r m u l a t i o n o f s tandards o f c i v i l , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l conduct by means o f which a c o u n t r y ' s advance o r d e c l i n e i n t h e r e s p e c t o f human r i q h t s may be measured and i t s government judged a c c o r d i n g l y b e f o r e t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e w o r l d ' s uo l i t i c a l conscience.

( d ) The drawing up o f a body o f s tandards r e l a t i n g t o t h e guaran tee ing and sa feguard ing o f human r i g h t s and t o mat te rs concerned w i t h t h e c l o s e t i e s which u n i t e them w i t h development, such as, f o r example, t h e r e g u l a t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e common pa t r imony o f mankind, t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l environment, o r communications.

I t cannot be t o o s t r o n g l y emphasized t h a t any f u t u r e j u r i d i c a l guarantee o f human r i g h t s , o f t h e d i v e r s i f i e d r a t h e r than u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e which we have been advocat ing, must be c l o s e l y examined by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community i t s e l f .

I n o t h e r words, i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s which r a d i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h one peop le f rom another , i t i s necessary t o make a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o f o r m u l a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s tandards f o r t h e guaran tee ing o f human r i g h t s , wh ich i n s t e a d o f endors ing as u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d those va lues which a r e h e l d t o be such i n t h e western t r a d i t i o n , may make such r e s e r v a t i o n s as a r e p roper t o a l l o w f o r c u l t u r a l and r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Only f r e e debate and t h e f r e e es tab l i shment o f these standards by t h e peoples themselves can produce a s a t i s f a c t o r y outcome t o t h i s immensely i m p o r t a n t task .

6. The system o f p r o t e c t i o n here recommended d e r i v e s f rom t h e modern a s p i r a t i o n t o make t h e defense o f human r i g h t s t h e o b j e c t i v e o f a u n i v e r s a l s t r u g g l e , which shou ld e n l i s t a11 peoples, a11 s o c i a l organisms and a l l i n d i v i d u a l s , as seems, moreover, t o have been t h e des ign o f t h e U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n (T. van Boven). It draws i t s s t r e n g t h f rom t h e o p i n i o n s and exper iences o f t h e peoples themselves, and conscious t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o separa te t h e p rogress of t h e r i g h t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n a s o c i e t y f rom t h e i n e q u a l i t i e s between n a t i o n s which a f f l i c t t h e w o r l d o rder , i t seeks s u p p o r t i n t h e u n i v e r s a l s o l i d a r i t y p r o v i d e d by o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s . I t s mechanisms f u n c t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n d i s s o l u b l e nexus between development and human r i g h t s and on t h e premise t h a t t h e l a t t e r , by whatever means they may be d e f i n e d and guaranteed, c o n s t i t u t e a whole which i t i s n e i t h e r c o n c e p t u a l l y n o r m a t e r i a l l y p o s s i b l e t o d i s i n t e g r a t e .

I t s l a c k o f c o e r c i v e f o r c e does n o t p resen t s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t y . No t o n l y a r e t h e mechanisms o f enforcement i n t h e in te r -governmenta l system o b v i o u s l y weak, b u t such l i m i t e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s as they can c l a i m i s i n f a c t due t o t h e opera- t i o n o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n which, however, t h e proposed system, by i t s ve ry n a t u r e , seems l i k e l y t o s t i r up more w i d e l y and more deeply.

INTERACTIONS

VERS UN DEVELOPPEMENT PARTICIPE EN MILIEU URBAIN

par Ben hahdl CISSE I / -

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l / ENDA, B . P . 3370, Dakar, Senegal (preface au cahier ENDA No. 2 8 , m e m e t i t r e ) .

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LL PIOUVEPIENT DE EASE */ Jac de Bruyn e t Roger Jacobs -

L ' in t e rac t i on qui s u i z e s t compos6e d ' e x t r u i t s c l r m document public? par l e Serv ice d'appui d Z ' i n t e ~ e o m n i e u t i o n ( c f . IFDA Dossier 19). (Texte de d iscuss ion No. 213) .

Le mouvement de base d o i t deve lopper l ' u t o p i e e t r e n d r e v i v a n t e l ' i n s p i r a t i o n en se reg roupan t p a r t o u t avec l e s opprim6s pour m e t t r e a nu l e pouvo i r , l e c o n t e s t e r , l e repousser . 11s e v e i l l e r o n t un processus dans l e q u e l une nouve-11e consc ience de soi-mGme e t de l 'ensemble se developpera; dans l e s r e l a t i o n s humaines, on t e n t e r a de depasser l l o p p r e s s i o n ; on r e a l i s e r a des i n s t i t u t i o n s s u i v a n t d l a u t r e s schemas que ceux t r a d i t i o n n e l s a grande 6 c h e l l e e t a monopoles, c e s e r o n t des i n s t i t u t i o n s q u i aonneront une chance a l l a u t o g e s t i o n .

Les groupes de base s o n t des l i e u x ou des processus d16panouissement e t d'eman- c i p a t i o n peuvent se r e a l i s e r e t o n t des chances de r @ u s s i t e c La a u s s i il d o i t G t r e p o s s i b l e de t e s t e r l e s v a l e u r s en l e s c o n f r o n t a n t e t en l e s l a i s s a n t c r i - t i q u e r p a r d ' a u t r e s , C ' e s t a u s s i un l i e u OCI l 1 i d 6 o 1 o g i e dominante e s t demas- quee e t n lau ra p l u s l e mEme impact .

Approche

Le mouvement o u v r i e r c o u r a i t apres l a r e v o l u t i o n , c ' e s t - a - d i r e l e moment p r e c i s de l a p r i s e de p o u v o i r p a r l a c l a s s e opprimke, l e p o i n t c e n t r a l a p a r t i r du- que l des mesures fondamentales pouva ien t G t r e p r i s e s a f i n de fonder une n o u v e l l e s o c i 6 t e L

Pour l e mouvement de base, l a r 6 v o l u t i o n n l e s t pas quelque chose qu lon a t t e n d un j o u r . E l l e se f a i t ma in tenan t e t de f a ~ o n permanente pa r soi-mGme e t avec son groupe E l l e n ' e s t pas un moment un ique e t p r i v i l i i g i e de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n de l l ensemb le de l a s o c i e t e e t de ses d i f f e r e n t s p a r t i s . Mais c l e s t un proces- sus permanent q u i e s t a c c e s s i b l e d 6 j a ma in tenan t pour chacun, en rompant avec l ' i d 6 o l o g i e dominante q u i d i t : " C ' e s t comme ca e t pas autrernent" .

Par l e processus de c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n ( - v i a a c t i o n - r e f l e x i o n e t o r g a n i s a t i o n ) p a r l e t r a v a i l s u r des probl6mes a c t u e l s e t impor tan ts , s o r t i r des s 6 c u r i t e s fausses e t des r a p p o r t s e t s t r u c t u r e s anonymes en o p t a n t pour des processus d ' e m a n c i p a t i o n e t d16panouissement de s o i , de son entourage e t du monde.

h/ IOCIMAB (mouvements d'animation de base), Kuringersteenweg 35, B-3500 Hasselt, Belgique?

Dans c e t t e op t ique , on ne peut pas f a i r e l a r e v o l u t i o n pour l e s a u t r e s * On peu t S t r e en t a n t que personne ou que groupe r e v o l u t i o n n a i r e e t comme ca & r e u n e i n v i t a t i o n pour d l a u t r e s a f a i r e de @meJ "Le p l u s i m p o r t a n t e s t l a r e v o l t e de l lhomme concre t , de m i l l i o n s dlhommes e t l ' 6 v e i l de l Ihumain q u i e s t p r e s e n t dans chaque p r o c h a i n " (De B a t ~ e l i e r ) ~

Le mouvement o u v r i e r en t a n t que c l a s s e a p r i s l ' a r m e de l ' a c t i o n massive: g reve genera le, m a n i f e s t a t i o n s de masse ( q u i p a r f o i s ressemb la ien t a un d e f i l e de t r o u p e s ) > L ' a c c e n t se t r o u v e ma in tenan t p l u s s u r des a c t i o n s p r e c i s e s e t d i f f e r e n c i e e s , chaque i n i t i a t i v e ayan t sa c o u l e u r p rop re . C 1 e s t li que l a con- s c i e n c e e t l a c r e a t i v i t e j o u e n t un r 6 1 e p l u s i m p o r t a n t .

Le mouvement de base t r a v a i l l e avec de nouveaux elements pedagogiques: - l 'exper ience comme element c e n t r a l ;

- c r e e r une n o u v e l l e r e l a t i o n e n t r e eli2ves e t p ro fesseurs , r e l a t i o n dans l e d i a l o g u e , r e n c o n t r e humaine 2 l a p l a c e d lune r e p r o d u c t i o n e t d lun t r a n s f e r t du s a v o i r - Ce q u i e s t t y p i q u e pour une s o c i e t e 012 l e s p u i s s a n t s saven t t o u t e t pensent p o u v o i r d e t e r m i n e r l e s normes de ce q u i e s t v r a i , bon e t beau.

Les groupes de base redecouvren t l ' e d u c a t i o n en l i e n avec l a v i e p e r s o n n e l l e (moi avec mon exper ience) e t avec l e % ( l e s problemes q u i mloccupent) e t avec l e s r a p p o r t s humains; au l i e u d 'une 6 c o l e o rgan isee comme une us ine ,

L 1 u t o p i e d 'une s o c i e t e democrat ique l i b r e d ' o p p r e s s i o n a des chances de v i e ou de m o r t s e l o n q u ' e l l e developpe ou non ces methodes n o u v e l l e s d 'appren t i ssage .

Pas de democratic sans une pedagogie q u i permet a chacun de d e c o u v r i r t o u t c e l a 2 t r a v e r s l e processus que l e groupe met en marche, en d ' a u t r e s termes, il nous f a u t un mouvement pedagogique e t e d u c a t i f q u i nous l i b e r e de l l a p p r e n t i s s a g e s c o l a i r e a l i e n a n t e t des fausses p r e t e n t i o n s de c e r t a i n s hommes de sc iences , des s p e c i a l i s t e s -

Les groupes de base deve lopperon t une a u t r e r e l a t i o n e n t r e v i v r e e t apprendre; e n t r e r e f l e x i o n e t p r a x i s ; e n t r e t c t e , mains e t c o e u r > Les r a p p o r t s des groupes en p o u v o i r s o n t c a r a c t 6 r i s e s p a r l e t r a n s f e r t e t l e dressage, ceux des groupes de base l e son t p a r l a c r e a t i v i t e , l a r e n c o n t r e e t l a reconnaissance de l ' o r i - g i n a l i t e de chacun= Ce n ' e s t p o s s i b l e que quand l e s groupes de base rompent avec l ' e t a b l i e t prennent une p o s i t i o n marg ina le : c ' e s t - a - d i r e , se d i s t a n c e r e t i n t e r i e u r e m e n t e t e x t e r i eurement, p rendre une p o s i t i o n de r e s i s t a n c e avec l e s f a i b l e s e t pas une p o s i t i o n de conquerant d u p o u v o i r >

Les groupes de base c o l l a b o r e r o n t dans c e r t a i n s p o i n t s avec des organes du mouvement o u v r i e r mais sans l a i s s e r d e f i n i r l e u r i d e n t i t e 2 p a r t i r de ces o r g a n i s a t i o n s , sans se l i e r de facon i n c o n d i t i o n n e l l e a c e r t a i n s p a r t i s , sans reconna i t r e ces p a r t i s comme des i n s t a n c e s d i r e c t i v e s d u processus d 'emancipa- t i o n u

Les c h o i x d l o r g a n i s a t i o ~

L ' o b j e c t i f e t l 'approche de te rminen t na tu re1 lement l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n , L 'au toges- t i o n , l a d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n e t l e s e l f - r e l i a n c e son t des c r i t e r e s fondamentaux q u i d o i v e n t a s s u r e r l a coherence de n o t r e o r g a n i s a t i o n .

. 1Â Le mouvement de base pr6ne l a c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n e t l ' e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n s o c i a l e .

2' Ces groupes de base r e f u s e n t l a pensee t r a d i t i o n n e l l e du pouvo i r p o l i t i q u e .

S i l 'on v e u t donner une chance 3 l a dynamique des groupes locaux , a l o r s , on ne peut pas l e s s t r u c t u r e r dans un cadre c e n t r a l i s t e , u n i f o r m i s a n t . On ne peu t pas non p l u s e x i g e r d 'eux t r o p d ' e n e r g i e pour l a m i s e en p lace des s t r u c t u r e s c e n t r a l e s de c o o r d i n a t i o n q u i , a l e u r t o u r , d e t e r m i n e r a i e n t l a dynamique en r e d u i s a n t l e s groupes locaux a d e v e n i r des s a t e l l i t e s sans d i r e c t i o n propre.

S i l 'on ne veu t pas c o n q u e r i r l e pouvo i r , n i se l a n c e r dans l a compet i t i on , a l o r s on n ' e x i g e pas de c e n t r a l i s a t i o n > Le mouvement de base d o i t developper une a u t r e forme d ' u n i t e donnant beaucoup p lus de marge a l ' o r i g i n a l i t e e t l ' independance.

Chaque groupe d o i t auss i b i e n au n i v e a u du contenu qu 'au n iveau de son o rgan i - s a t i o n , assure r une p a r t i e de s e l f - r e l i a n c e , de p roduc t ion autonome (develop- per une a c t i o n propre e t une r e f l e x i o n p ropre - analyse, e t c , ) e t d 1 o r g a n i s a - t i o n autonome ( s t r u c t u r e s - homes e t moyens),

Tous l e s groupes de base s o n t des exper iences de democrat ie d i r e c t e , de recher - che d 'une e c h e l l e p a r t i r de l a q u e l l e l ' a u t o g e s t i o n e t l e s e l f - r e l i a n c e son t p o s s i b l e s ; ce q u i depasse c e t t e l i m i t e f a i t l l o b j e t d 'une c o l l a b o r a t i o n l i b r e e n t r e 6gaux>

Les groupes de base v i v e n t ou meurent s e l o n q u ' i l s s o n t capables ou non de m e t t r e en p l a c e un reseau:

l ) d'echange e t de c o n f r o n t a t i o n de ces exp6r iences e t concept ions, s u r l a base de quo i , cnaque groupe s o i t capable de de te rminer sa p r o p r e d i r e c t i o n e t de s i t u e r l e s problemes auxquels il t r a v a i l l e dans un ensemble p lus vaste;

2 ) de c o l l a b o r a t i o n e n t r e groupes s i m i l a i r e s : l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n d 'une s o l i d a r i t e c o n c r e t e encourageante (des r a p p o r t s hor i zon taux) ;

3 ) d l a c t i o n commune tempora i re q u i e x i g e r a i t une s t r u c t u r e momentanee p l u s o rgan isee ( c o o r d i n a t i o n l i m i t e e e t tempora i re ) .

Les groupes de base peuvent c o l l a b o r e r 3 l a m ise en p lace de ces formes de communications en o r g a n i s a n t ensemble des cen t res de rencon t re , en c o l l a b o r a n t a une p u b l i c a t i o n commune, a un s e r v i c e de documentat ion e t de p u b l i c a t i o n , des i n i t i a t i v e s de fo rmat ion , de p late- formes d l a c t i o n e t c . > > E t c e l a auss i b i en au n iveau i n t e r n a t i o n a l que r e g i o n a l .

Donc, aussi en m a t i e r e d o o r g a n i s a t i o n , on ne p e u t que f o r m u l e r quelques i n d i - c a t i o n s : d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n des rgseaux de cmmun ica t ion , des c o o r d i n a t i o n s tempora i res en i o n c t i o n de c e r t a i n e s a c t i o n s , @changes e t c o l l a b o r a t i o n l i b r e s e n t r e @gaux. Chaque groupe e t chaque reg ion c o n c r 6 t i s e r a t o u t c e l a s u i v a n t ses p ropres p o s s i b i l i t 6 s .

Cela ne v e u t p o i n t d i r e que l e mouvement de base d o i t f a i r e o p p o s i t i o n au mouve- ment o u v r i e r , La l u t t e pour assure r l e minimum d lex is tence , pour une e g a l i t @ p l u s grande des revenus, c o n t r e l a s p 6 c u l a t i o n f o n c i e r e , c o n t r e l e p o u v o i r des e tab l i ssements @conomiques e t f i n a n c i e r s e t c . , c C e t t e l u t t e e s t egalement l a n6t.r-e.

Dans une c ~ n j o n c t u r e de c r i s e , t e l l e que nous l a connaissons a l l h e u r e a c t u e l l e , 11 s e r a i l z ' a i l l e u f s s t u p i d e de p a r a l y s e r par une a t t i t u d e s e c t a i r e t o u t e s l e s f o r c s s s;;;;iti?nnelles q u i s o n t d e j a s i f a i b l e s .

l.lais : E I S ?e4: cer ta inement pas s i g n i f i e r que nous renoncons a n o t r e i n s p i - r a c i ? f f : .ale s d q ~ e nous l a r e f o u l o n s dans l e s o u b l i e t t e s , dans l e s e u l b u t de 2 5 5 25 i s 1 p a f f r ~ n t e r l e mouvement o u v r i e r '

;3:?::izs g i f f e r e n t q u a l i t a t i v e m e n t de ceux du mouvement o u v r i e r i n s t i t u - * ' - L I ~ ~ ~ , ~ I . , S & E: s o n t insgres dans une l o g i q u e q u i d i f f e r e a u t a n t de l a l o g i q u e p rs??e c? ;aucne t r a d i t i o n n e l l e ,

Jana ls rl;uj >oudons retomber dans l e p iege s u i v a n t : dans sa l u t t e c o n t r e l e c a 2 i :a1 i S W , - 5 nouvement o u v r i e r a v a i t developp6 un c e r t a i n nombre de ca t@- g o r i e s , q u i , x ~ r t a n t , se s i t u a i e n t dans l e mGme cadre l o g i q u e que l e s id@es q u ' l l j c o ? 9 a t t a i e n t .

En face ae l ' i d 6 o l o g i e de d r o i t e , a e t @ p lac@e une de gauche' Face au pouvo i r c a p i t a l l s t e c i v i l , on a c o n s t r u i t une c o n t r e - f o r c e t r a v a i l l i s t e * Ces deux choses s e r n ~ l a i e n t fo rmer a e l l e s deux un couple de f re res -ennemis<

Dans l e r n i r o i r des despotes d ' a u j o u r d l h u i se r e f l e t e d @ j a l ' i m a g e de ceux de dema i n.

Les chefs d i f f e r e n t seulement de l a f a ~ o n don t i l s dominent, mais i l s r e s t e n t des t y r a n s , possesseurs d ' u n p o u v o i r exerce en t a n t que p r o p r i 6 t a i r e s s

En resunant , o n p o u r r a i t d i r e que, sans sa p ropre i n s p i r a t i o n , l e mouvement de base n ' a pas l e d r o i t a l ' e x i s t e n c e , l e mouvement de base d o i t r a d i c a l e m e n t e t pour ;a c la i re rnen t prendre p o s i t i o n , s i n o n il n ' a q u ' a s l i n t @ g r e r dans l e s mouvernents e ~ i s t a n t s .

LES FEMlCS: PREMIERES C I V I L 1 S A T R I C E S E T PREMIERES T R A V A I L L E U S E S D E L'HUMANITE

par Diana Senghor L/

Les fermnes constitdent la moit-G de to, populat-ion mond-iale, accomplissent l e s d e w t i e r s du temps de t rava i l , recoi- vent l e dzxi2me du revenu global e t poss2dent l e centisme de La p q r - i e t i dins Ie monde.

A 1 'aube de 1 'humani te, i 1 y a des d i z a i n e s de m i l l i e r s d'annees, c e ne s o n t pas l e s homes, mais 1es femmes q u i o n t assure l a p r o t e c t i o n e t 1a s u b s i s t a n c e du groupe humain, Les femmes son t l e s premieres t r a v a i l l e u s e s de 1 'humanite.

S i 1es 6 t r e s humains des deux sexes o n t commence a t r a v a i l l e r ensemble, ( a coopere r ) pour s a t i s f a i r e 1es besoins c o l l e c t i f s du groupe, s a i l s o n t commence a s ' o r g a n i s e r en s o c i e t e e t a se " c i v i l i s e r " , c ' e s t sous 1 ' i n f l u e n c e e x c l u s i v e des femmes q u i a v a i e n t d e j i commence a coopere r e n t r e e l l e s . Les femmes s o n t l e s premieres c i v i l i s a t r i c e s de 1 'humani t e .

T e l l e e s t l a these recen te , soutenue de maniere convaincante par une anthropo- logue amer ica ine Evelyn Reed 2/ , q u i c o n t r e d i t a i n s i l e p o i n t de vue couramment admis s e l o n l e q u e l , d u r a n t l a p r e h i s t o i r e , l e s femmes a v a i e n t d6jS e t e re162 gu6es aux taches menageres, t a n d i s que l e s homes 1es p r o t e g e a i e n t e t l e s nour- r i s s a i e n t , e l l e s e t l e u r s p e t i t s .

1 ) Les f e m e s a 1 ' o r i g i n e de l a c i v i l i s a t i o n

Chez presque tous l e s mammiferes, l e s males son t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t guides p a r ] ' i n s t i n c t sexuel e t l e s femel les par I ' i n s t i n c t mate rne l .

O r , l ' i n s t i n c t sexuel e s t un f a c t e u r de d i v i s i o n e n t r e l e s males, q u i se combat- t e n t e t s ' e n t r e t u e n t pour c o n q u e r i r une f e m e l l e , Au c o n t r a i r e , 1 ' i n s t i n c t mate rne l des feme l les e s t a 1 ' o r i g i n e de 1a f a m i l l e animale. Ce t te f a m i l l e c o n s i s t e en une mere q u i p o u r v o i t a ses beso ins propres e t a ceux de ses p e t i t s . Non seulement 1e male n ' y p o u r v o i t pas, mais i 1 depend p a r f o i s de l a f e m e l l e pour sa subs is tance . "Quand un male r e j o i n t un groupe de l i o n n e s , il s ' e n remet en t ie rement a e11es pour sa subsis tance. L o i n d ' e t r e un p a t r i a r c h e sa- t i s f a i t , il e s t au mieux t o l e r e p a r l e s feme l les , au p i r e p r o s c r i t e t re l6gu6 a une v i e s o l i t a i r e . Les males ne son t pas 1e sexe ~ u p 6 r i e u r " ~

l/ (Paru dans Famille et Developpement, No. 23, septembre 1980, B.P. 5061, - Fann, Dakar, Senegal).

2 1 Evelyn Reed: "~6minisme et Anthr~~ologie", -

11 en e s t a l l e de meme chez 1es "homin iens" , l o r s q u ' i l s commencerent a se d i f f e - r e n c i e r des s inges e t a se developper en " h o m m e ~ " ~

Les femmes o n t , a c e t t e pe r iode , assure 2 l a f o i s l a subs is tance des e n f a n t s e t l e u r p r o t e c t i o n ( c o n t r e 1es animaux, mais auss i c o n t r e l e s males l i v r e s a l e u r i n s t i n c t sexue l e t a l e u r s a p p e t i t s d e s t r u c t e u r s ) . E l l e s l e s o n t p o u r c e l a e c a r t e ( e n dehors de l a " s a i s o n des amours"), e t o n t cooper6 e n t r e e 1 l e s i

P u i s , l e s jeunes males, au c o n t a c t de l e u r s meres ( p l u s longs chez l e s hominiens que chez l e s a u t r e s m a m i f e r e s ) o n t f a i t l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de 1a v i e s o c i a l e , e t f u r e n t t o l e r e s p a r l e s troupes de femnes q u i c o n t i n u a i e n t a a s s u r e r 1a subs is - t a n c e du groupe au moyeii de v e g e t a u ~ ~ Cet a p p r e n t i s s a g e l e u r p e r m i t d 'abord de ne p l u s a v o i r " recours aux s e u l s combats c o m p e t i t i f s pour s a t i s f a i r e l e u r s i n s t i n c t s s e x u e l s " . 11 l e u r p e r m i t d ' a u t r e p a r t de coopere r pour v i v r e . "Les homin iens d u r e n t f r s i ne r e t r e p r i m e r c e t t e sexual i t e a g r e s ~ i v e ~ L e u r combat pour s u r v i v r e dans un environnement h o s t i l e e t a i t b i e n t r o p acharne pour l a i s s e r p l a c e a des l u t t e s La c o o p e r a t i o n e x c l u a i t l a c o m p e t i t i o n (...). Rompant avec l e u r passe d ' i n d i v i d u a l i s m e e t de c o m p e t i t i o n , l e s h o m e s p u r e n t e n f i n s ' u n i r e t t r a v a i l l e r ensemble a a s s u r e r l e u r subs is tance e t l e u r p r o t e c t i o n commune". 11s d e t o u r n e r e n t l e u r c o m b a t i v i t e v e r s des a c t i v i t e s t o u j o u r s d e s t r u c t r i c e s ma is desormais p r o f i t a b l e s a l e u r groupe: 1a chasse aux animaux pour 1a s u b s i s - tance de l a c o l l e c t i v i t e , e t a u s s i 1a guer re , pour sa p r o t e c t i o n i

Les femmes c o n t i n u e r e n t non seulement a se l i v r e r c o l l e c t i v e m e n t a l a c u e i l l e t t e , mais e l l e s i n v e n t e r e n t l a p l u p a r t des techn iques q u i a l l a i e n t donner naissance a l a c i v i l i s a t i o n : 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e , 1 ' e levage , 1 ' a r t i s a n a t .

Le t r a v a i l c o l l e c t i f des femmes engendra auss i l a n e c e s s i t e de communiquer e n t r e e l l e s , e t c o n t r i b u a a i n s i a l a na issance de l a p a r o l e e t du langage. "Les femmes a c t i v e s de corps e t d ' e s p r i t i n v e n t e r e n t probablement l e langage, ce nouvel o u t i l d o n t e l l e s a v a i e n t b e s o i n " .

A i n s i Eve lyn Reed m o n t r e - t - e l l e comment "nous sommes redevab les aux femmes d ' a v o i r c o n d u i t n o t r e espece s u r l a v o i e de l a c i v i l i s a t i o n e t de l ' human isa - t i o n " .

2 ) Les p remie rs " t r a v a i l l e u r s " : 1es femmes

La subs is tance de ces groupes e t a i t assur i ie de facon p l u s r e g u l i e r e e t p l u s su re p a r l e t r a v a i l de l a femne que p a r 1a chasse l o i n t a i n e e t i n c e r t a i n e des hommes, L ' e s s e n t i e l de 1 'approv is ionnement a l i m e n t a i r e du groupe r e p o s a i t s u r 1 ' e f f o r t des femmes. La quete de 1a n o u r r i t u r e , sa t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e t sa c o n s e r v a t i o n p a r l e s femmes f u r e n t a 1 ' o r i g i n e des grandes decouver tes techn iques de 1 'hu- man i t * .

Les p remie rs medeci ns

D a n s tous l e s pays du monde, e t dans t o u t e s l e s r e g i o n s , l e s p r i m i t i f s decou- v r e n t 1es v e r t u s c u r a t i v e s des p l a n t e s . Les p remie rs g u e r i s s e u r s de l ' h i s t o i r e f u r e n t , en r e a l i t e des femnes.. En c u l t i v a n t l e s o l e t en c h e r c h a n t p l a n t e s e t legumes comes t ib les , l e s femmes p r i m i t i v e s a c q u i r e n t des connaissances de oo tan ique extr8mement poussees. E l l e s a p p r i r e n t a c o n n a i t r e 1es p r o p r i e t e s des

herbes e t d e v i n r e n t , de ce f a i t , l e s premiers doc teu rs " ( E . Reed).

Les premiers a g r i c u l t e u r s

Un p r e h i s t o r i e n G , C h i l d e e c r i t: "Les p r i n c i p a l e s ce rea les (mais, r i z , m i l , b l e , o r g e ) a i n s i que l e manioc, l ' i g n a m e e t d ' a u t r e s p lan tes non c e r e a l e s f u r e n t decouver tes p a r des s o c i e t e s don t 1 ' h i s t o i r e n ' a pas conserve l e nom.. . pour accompl i r c e t t e r e v o l u t i o n n e o l i t h i q u e , l e s hommes, ou p l u t o t l e s femmes d u r e n t non seulement d e c o u v r i r l e s p l a n t e s e t l e s methodes de c u l t u r e l e s p lus appro- prices, mais encore i n v e n t e r l e s o u t i l s pour l a b o u r e r , moissonner e t emaga- s i n e r 1es r e c o l t e s , p u i s 1es t r a n s f o r m e r en n o u r r i t u r e " ,

Les p remie rs e l e v e u r s

' L e s femmes s ' i n t e r e s s a i e n t a u s s i a l a v i e animale, E l l e s a t t r a p a i e n t des o i seaux e t de p e t i t s animaux q u ' e l l e s g a r d a i e n t e t n o u r r i s s a i e n t a i n s i que 1es jeunes animaux rappor tes p a r l e s chasseurs.. . En epargnant 1es animaux, e11es a p p r i r e n t p a r degres i 1es domest iquer" (E . Reed).

Les p remie rs a c h i t e c t e s e t i ngenieurs

"Pour e n t r e p o s e r 1 a n o u r r i t u r e , l e s femmes c o n s t r u i s i r e n t d i f f e r e n t s rnodeles de c o f f r e s , e t m6me de v e r i t a b l e s e n t r e p o t s d 'une a r c h i t e c t u r e so ignee , Des "caches" e t des " g r e n i e r s " f u r e n t creuses a m6me l e s o l e t g a r n i s de p a i l l e , ou, en pays marecageux, c o n s t r u i t s s u r p i l o t i s (...). Les domes des mosquees t i r e n t l e u r o r i g i n e de l a forme des t o i t s des e n t r e p o t s c o n s t r u i t s p a r 1es A f r i c a i n s pour emmagasiner 1e ma'i's ( . ,.) l e s femmes f u r e n t i 1 ' o r i g i n e e t dans de nom- breuses reg ions , des " a r c h i t e c t e s " e t des " i n g 6 n i e u r s " ( E . Reed).

A i n s i qu 'on l e v o i t , l e s femmes n ' o n t pas, a l ' o r i g i n e , dependu des hommes p o u r l e u r s u b s i s t a n c e e t c e l l e de l a f a m i l l e . De p l u s , e11es n ' o n t pas seulement j o u e un r o l e predominant dans l ' a c q u i s i t i o n e t 1a p r o d u c t i o n des b iens communs, mais e l l e s o n t egalement e t 6 a 1 ' o r i g i n e de nombreuses i n v e n t i o n s techn iques .

Possession de b i e n s en commun

A c e t t e epoque, e c r i t E. Reed, " l a s o c i e t e p o s s e d a i t un s y s t h e de r e l a t i o n s s o c i a l e s e t sexuel l e s egal i t a i r e s , decoul a n t d ' u n mode de p r o d u c t i o n c o l l e c t i - v i s t e e t de 1a possess ion des b i e n s en commun". Ce n ' e s t que b i e n p l u s t a r d que l e s f e m e s o n t perdu l e s d r o i t s i d e n t i q u e s a ceux des hommes q u ' e l l e s posseda ien t jusque 12: a p a r t i r du moment ou l e pe r fec t ionnement des ins t ruments de t r a v a i l a c o n d u i t a une d i v i s i o n de ce t r a v a i l , e n t r e des groupes soc iaux (des " c l asses" ) d i f f e r e n t s . D& l o r s , meme l o r s q u ' e l l e s c o n t i n u a i e n t a p a r t i - c i p e r de facon d e c i s i v e a l a p r o d u c t i o n des b i e n s ( c e q u i e s t l e cas dans nombre de pays a f r i c a i n s ) , des d r o i t s e t des d e v o i r s inegaux l e u r o n t e t 6 reserves.

LES FEMivlES ET LES JEUNES FILLES DE M'tlARZA (TUNISIE CENTRALE)

FACE AU CHAiiGErtENT

par A ' Ben Choura */

Si-qnalons tout d'abord Ze caracteve oraiginal des act ions menses 2 M'Harza. Les act ions essentiellement soc-iales f u r p . 7 2 t souvent nen4es aupr6s de la population feminine qui fut le principal in ter locuteur des antennes de ces projets; ces derni6res 4tant elles-mSmes des jeunes f i l l e s de la region.

I 2 y a l e s actions proprement d i t e s (education e t formation), obje ts de notre in tervent ion e t qui cornmencent 2 dormer du vest? l e s r i s u l t a t s escomptds, ddmontrant a i n s i que ces jeunes rurales se sont montrdps "2 Za hauteur" des tSches qui l e w f w e n t confines.

Je me propose de VOIP dans les Ziqnes qui suivent 1 ~ s retombees de ces actions pour la population feminine en general e t pour Zes antennps de projets en par t i cu l i e r , Ces retornbies, qui se traduisent par des ehanqements, in tdressent e n premier l ieu lea "messag2re.s" p o w qui, en derniere anaZyse, les actions awa-ient Ze p l x prof i t4 (bond q d i t u t i f ) .

Je tenterai de Le montrer en essayant de cerner c e t t e mutation sur deux plans: plan psychologique e t plan social.

Je me baserai surtout sur Ifexperience des antennes sani taires , ccs i'i 'iustrant Le mieux, 2 mon sens, l e s changements intervenus.

1. A c t i v i t e des antennes s a n i t a i r e s e t ec latement au n iveau des r o l e s

L ' a c t i v i t e proposee a ces jeunes f i l l e s deborde l e c a d r e des a c t i v i t e s des femmes de ce sec teur ; en f a i s a n t t r a v a i l l e r ces d e r n i s r e s , nous avons c o n t r i b u e a un ec la tement de r o l e ; en e f f e t , aucune jeune f i l l e dans M'Harza avan t c e t t e exper ience n ' a v a i t occupe d ' a u t r e s f o n c t i o n s en dehors de c e l l e s i m p a r t i e s a t o u t e f e m e de c e t t e zone. L ' i m p a c t d 'une t e l l e i n n o v a t i o n ne peu t e t r e mesure a 1 'heure a c t u e l l e , f a u t e de r e c u l s u f f i s a n t ; cependant, ces jeunes f i l l e s s o n t dej.3 des examples e t sans doute des precurseurs pour p l u s jeunes q u ' e l l e s su r - t o u t .

2' Role de l ' a n t e n n e dans sa f a n i i l l e e t dans 1a conununaut6

D6sormais, 1 'antenne s a n i t a i r e a son "mot a d i r e " dans sa f a m i n e , r a p p o r t a n t un " s a l a i r e " ; e l l e occupe une p lace n o u v e l l e par-mi l e s s iens ; e11e n ' e s t p lus percue comme improduc t i ve . Dans l a communaute, e l l e e s t c o n s e i l l e r e aupres des femmes s u r t o u t , b i e n que l e s mar is e t 1es hommes en genera l f a s s e n t appel a e l l e l o r s de l i t i g e s f a m i l i a u x p a r exemple. Mais c ' e s t aupres des femmes,

* / Paru dans ERRIF, bulletin de 1'Association pour Ie Dgveloppement et l'animation rurale, No. 1, 1980. (ASDEAR, 10 rue Eve Nohelle, Tunis, Tunisia).

son "groupe naturel" que je serai tentee de d i re que son role es t important: sa formation, ainsi que ses deplacements horsde M'Harza, font qu 'e l l e e s t introductrice de manisre d 1 6 t r e , de nouvel l es modes; e l l e draine une cer taine idee du progres. .. e11e e s t ce l le a qui 1 'on veut ressembler.

3, Role e t position dans 1a communaute

Cette jeune f i l l e joue veri tablement l e role d'animatrice aupres des familles; ses tSches multiples 1ui conferent u n assez grand prestige. E11e e s t une 'personnali t e" au m6me t i t r e que 1 ' inf i rmier ou 1 ' ins t i tu teur . Depuis qu'el l e occupe ce poste, e l l e ass i s te aux reunions p01 i tiques , Recemrnent, l a section de 1'UNFT l / de M'Harza f u t creee; ce n ' es t sans doute pas u n hasard que l 'une des educatrices en s o i t devenue 1a presidente.

4. Travail e t champ dlaction plus elargis

Ayant franchi c e t t e barriere qui es t 1e cloisonnement des femes dans cer taines tSches strictement feminines, l es animatrices vont e t viennent par les pis tes de 1 'Imada. A u depart, ce ne f u t point f a c i l e pour e l l es , les paysans sont s i peu encl ins au changement surtout lorsque celui-ci regarde leurs femmes, leurs f i l l e s . L1ent6tement de ces dernieres a eu raison des embuches rencon- t rees; actuellernent, l e controle (social) ne s 'exerce plus sur el les de facon aussi contraignante, Travail l e r pour 1e Hakem, 1 eur confers, enfin, une cer- taine invulnerabilite maintenant. Elles ont come a l l i e s 1es Cheiks e t 1es jeunes responsables d u Parti qui les defendent, car i l s ont v u e t compris l ' u t i l i t e de leur travail (1es mentalites ne changent pas rapidement, surtout lorsqu ' i l s ' a g i t de femme~!)~

Parlons a present du travail des tisseuses. Nous savons qu'en milieu rural l a femme accomplit toutes sortes de tzches, aussi bien 2 1 ' in te r ieur qu ' i 1 'ex- ter ieur de la maison (s'occupe du menage, charrie l 'eau s'occupe de l ' en t re - tien des animaux, t i s s e , laboure,. , ,) toutes 1es tSches menageres e t autres reposent en grande part ie sur ses epaules, mais bien que procurant a l a famille u n gain certain de depenses en t i s san t par exemple les effets dont on a besoin (klims, burnous), son travail n ' es t pas perry comme t e l , car i1 n 'est pas source de revenus. Les tisseuses d1"A.S.D.E.A.R." en contribuant a une entree d'argent voient leur ac t iv i te valorisee e t en t i r e n t u n prestige certain aupres des leurs , mais comme e l les exercent une ac t iv i te strictement feminine ayant pour cadre de t ravai l 1a maison, cela ne revalorise en rien leurs rapports avec les autres membres de 1a coimnunaute; c ' e s t uniquement dans leur famille qu ' e l l es seront l e mieux considerees. Par centre , 1 'act ivi t e des antennes es t porteuse de mutations e t ce a plusieurs niveaux.

5. Travail e t repercussions au plan psychologique

Sur 1e plan psychologique, 1 'antenne a acquis au f i l des mois de t rava i l , une certaine assurance etant de plus en plus consultee dans sa famille e t dans son

I / Union Nationale des Femmes Tunisiennes -

entourage; e11e a conscience de son impor tance t o u t e n o u v e l l e . Sa t i m i d i t e d ' a n t a n e s t ba layee; nous en avons d ' a i l l e u r s eu l ' i l l u s t r a t i o n l o r s de 1 'Assemblee General e de 1 ' an d e r n i e r . Pour 1es indemni t e s q u ' e l l e r e c o i t, e l l e en d i s p o s e p le inement dans 1a p l u p a r t des cas: es t -ce un s i g n e d ' a u t o n o - m ie? B i e n s f i r , c e l l e - c i e s t t o u t e r e l a t i v e , mais comme nous sommes 5 l a campagne, c e t t e l i b e r t e d ' a c t i o n e s t l o i n d ' e t r e n e g l i g e a b l e . L ' a n t e n n e saura u t i l i s e r l ' a r g e n t gagne: e t a n t en age d ' e t r e mar iee, e l l e s ' e n s e r v i r a pour c o n s t i t u e r son t rousseau.

6 . T r a v a i l e t v a l o r i s a t i o n s o c i a l e

Ayan t t r a v a i l l e , l a jeune f i l l e e s t supposee e t r e mieux dotee e t a c e t t e a t t r a c - t i o n s ' a j o u t e une c o n v o i t i s e l i e e aux connaissances acquises, 5 un c e r t a i n s a v o i r f a i r e , en un mot a une c e r t a i n e "modern i te" de ces f i l l e s , Jugee p l u s 'moderne" p a r r a p p o r t aux a u t r e s f i l l e s de son douar, e l l e a t t i r e r a ] ' a t t e n t i o n des jeunes gens i n t e r e s s e s par ces aspects q u i t r o u v e r o n t en ces d e r n i e r e s des epouses a l a hau teur de l e u r s a s p i r a t i o n s : e l l e saura mieux g e r e r sa maison, s 'occuper de ses en fan ts , r e c e v o i r . Ce s o n t des aspec ts q u i o n t a c t u e l l e m e n t d u po ids dans l e c h o i x du c o n j o i n t en m i l i e u r u r a l . Nous avons v u que l a v a l e u r de 1 'antenne s u r l e march6 m a t r i m o n i a l e s t accrue.

7 . La p o p u l a t i o n f e m i n i n e face au changement

Le t r a v a i l d ' e d u c a t i o n s a n i t a i r e mene depuis p l u s de deux annees donne d 'assez bons r e s u l t a t s . Les femmes de M'Harza o n t conscience du r o l e q u ' e l l e s o n t a j o u e r en m a t i e r e de p r e v e n t i o n de l e u r san te e t c e l l e des l e u r s . Prenons I ' e x e m p l e de l ' e a u : l ' a t t e n t i o n q u b e l l e s p o r t e n t 5 son t r a i t e m e n t , 1es s o i n s q u ' e l l e s p o r t e n t a u s s i a c o u v r i r l e s j a r r e s pour 1 'eau de bo isson , l e s "cours " que j ' a i pu p rendre aupres d ' e l l e s quan t au t r a i t e m e n t de l ' e a u , temoignent de c e t t e conscience.

L ' h y g i e n e f a m i l i a l e e s t b i e n " l e u r a f f a i r e " e t e l l e s l ' assument r e e l l e m e n t En r e g l e genera le , e l l e s ne r e m p l i s s e n t p l u s l e u r s t zches de menagere e t d ' e d u c a t i o n des e n f a n t s de facon machi na le .

Aux ques t ions -p ieges que j e l e u r a i posees, e l l e s ne repondent pas, " c ' e s t c o m e c e l a que mes a i e u l e s o n t t o u j o u r s f a i t " . E l l e s a ~ ~ l i q u e n t l e s conse donnes e t s i n t davantage s o u c i e u s e i de ce q u i touche 1 ' hyg iene e t 1a san te .

L ' h y g i e n e e t 1a p r e v e n t i o n des jeunes e n f a n t s c o n t r e l e s ma lad ies e s t l a pre- o c c u p a t i o n des meres de f a m i l l e ; p l u s aucun e n f a n t dans M'Harza ne r e s t e non touche par 1a v a c c i n a t i o n ; b i e n que l ' e f f o r t dans ce domaine ne s o i t pas sou- tenu p a r t o u t e s avec l a m h e constance ( n e g l i g e n c e de f a i r e f a i r e l e s r a p p e l s ) , i 1 n ' e n demeure pas moins qu 'une e tape combien i m p o r t a n t e e s t f r a n c h i e . Nos " t r a v a i l l e u s e s " s u r p l a c e se chargen t quant 2 e11es de f a i r e f r a n c h i r l e s a u t r e s etapes e t e l l e s 1e f o n t du r e s t e avec beaucoup de c o n v i c t i o n '

Nous pouvons d i r e que nombreuses s o n t 1es femmes q u i f o n t 1 ' a s s o c i a t i o n e n t r e l a ma lad ie e t 1 ' hyg iene a observe r pour e v i t e r c e l l e - c i e t 1 ' o n t i n t e g w e au n i v e a u de l e u r vecu q u o t i d i e n .

Au p l a n c u r a t i f , l e r a p p o r t a l a medecine e s t a u t r e : l e s p r a t i q u e s archaiques t e l l e que l ' a p p l i c a t i o n de l a " p i s s e de chamel le" pour 1es c o n j o n c t i v i t e s , pour prendre un exemple, s o n t l a i s s e e s au p r o f i t de d e s i n f e c t a n t s e t a u t r e s remedes de medecine d i t e o c c i d e n t a l e ; au moindre probl@ne on a c c o u r t a 1a s a l l e de s o i ns.

Passons a p resen t a un a u t r e aspect de muta t ion , c e l u i - c i i n t e r e s s a n t p l u t 6 t l e s m e n t a l i t e s en general e t 1es comportements v i s - a - v i s des f e m e s en m i l i e u r u r a l ; c i n q ans de t r a v a i l de s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n des f a m i l l e s s u r ces aspects, nous amenent 2 des r e s u l t a t s p l u t 6 t t i m i d e s , mais encourageants; l e s e f f o r t s f o u r n i s ne f u r e n t pas v a i n s i Les changements ne s o n t pas n o t o i r e s pour ce q u i e s t de l a v i e des f e m e s mariees, cependant l e s idees e t l e s p r a t i q u e s secu- l a i r e s v i s - a - v i s de ces dern ie res tombent peu a peu. Les paren ts s o n t moins r e t i c e n t s quant a l a s c o l a r i s a t i o n de l e u r s f i l l e s e t j e s u i s persuadee que 1 'exemple du t r a v a i l p o s s i b l e des f i l l e s e t de l e u r c o n t r i b u t i o n 2 1 'ame l io ra - t i o n des c o n d i t i o n s de v i e dans l a zone donnee avec l ' e x p e r i e n c e antennes f a m i l i a l e s m i l i t e r a davantage en f a v e u r d 'une ouver tu re .

T o u t e f o i s , a ce propos, un i n d i c a t e u r assez p a r l a n t pour ce q u i e s t du change- ment v i s - a - v i s des f i l l e s e s t l e s u i v a n t : a l a q u e s t i o n posee "Enverrez-vous v o t r e grande f i l l e au Centre de l a Jeune F i l l e r u r a l e de S i d i Amor Bouha j la?" , pres de 1a moi t i e des f a m i l l e s concernees o n t repondu p a r 1 ' a f f i r m a t i v e Sachant que c e t t e l o c a l i t e e s t a 35 Kms de M'Harza, j e mesure l e pas f r a n c h i depuis; nous somrnes l o i n des tous premiers pas oG l e s f a m i l l e s h e s i t a n t e s a v a i e n t c o n f i e l e u r s f i l l e s a mes c o l l @ g u e s e t ce pour un appren t i ssage s u r p lace ! Aucune, 2 1 'epoque, n ' a c c e p t a i t 1 ' i d e e d 'envoyer 1eur f i l l e dans l e Centre de l a Jeune F i l l e Rura le .

Cependant, i 1 e s t b i e n e v i d e n t que, ma lg re ces s ignes p o s i t i f s , c ' e s t chez 1es jeunes - e t t r e s progressivement - que l e s m e n t a l i t e s evo luen t e t que l ' o n peu t esperer une o u v e r t u r e r e e l l e f a c e au changement.

PUGWASH AND THE THIRD SYSTEM */ by Kwee Swan-Liat-

The c i r c l e o f major a c t o r s on t h e contemporary scene i s no l o n g e r c o n f i n e d t o n a t i o n - s t a t e s , t h e i r governments and popu la t ions . A growing number o f i n c r e a - s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , m u l t i r e g i o n a l r e l i g i o u s group- i ngs , and t r a n s n a t i o n a l business c o r p o r a t i o n s have emerged and taken t h e i r p l a c e among t h e i m p o r t a n t decis ion-makers. Decis ion-making i s o n l y a phase - n o t even a d e f i n i t i v e phase - i n t h e c o n t i n u i n g process o f communication, con- s u l t a t i o n , d e l i b e r a t i o n , opin ion-making, c r i t i c a l assessment o f t h e p r e s s i n g problems o f o u r t ime. I n t h i s process o f communication, opin ion-making and assessment i n t e l l e c t u a l s , s c i e n t i s t s , ph i losophers , a r t i s t s , j o u r n a l i s t s , p o l i - t i c i a n s a r e i n v o l v e d . T h i s process i s o n l y p a r t i a l l y r a t i o n a l i z e d . R a t i o n a l

*/ Professor of Phi losophy, U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology, Eindhoven, W i l lem de R i j ke laan 2, 5616 EA Eindhoven, The Nether lands.

d e c i s i o n s and r e s o l u t i o n s , accord ing t o genera1 1y accepted p01 i t i c a l r u l e s and procedures, a r e i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h l e s s r a t i o n a l a c t i o n s and c lashes as expres- s i o n s o f some fo rm o f c o l l e c t i v e w i l l and de te rmina t ion .

"Democracy" i s t h e outcome o f a h i s t o r i c endeavour t o sys temat i ze a general w i l l ( ' v o l o n t e g e n e r a t e ' ) i n q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e procedures o f e x p l i - c i t a t i o n and implementat ion. As f a r as t h e " g e n e r a l i t y " o f t h i s w i l l can be f o r m a l l y expressed and accounted f o r i n t h e process of p o l t i i c a l d e c i s i o n - making, t h e system can be c a l l e d "democrat ic" . As these systems o f democracy evo lve i n h i s t o r y , b o t h t h e i r con ten ts and t h e i r boundar ies r e f l e c t t h e changes and f i x a t i o n s o f t h e h i s t o r i c c o n s t e l l a t i o n . The con ten ts r e f e r t o t h e goa ls and i d e a l s represen ted i n t h e "general w i l l " . They a r e "democrat ic" i n s o f a r as they r e p r e s e n t t h e w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e people. The boundar ies a r e i n - v o l v e d i n t h e assignment o f what should be understood by " t h e people" . Wi th r e s p e c t t o bo th t h e con ten ts and boundar ies o f democrat ic systems h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n s and f i x a t i o n s occur . "Democracy" i s t h e express ion o f a "general w i l l ' ' o n l y i n so f a r as t h i s general w i l l can be p o l i t i c a l l y a s c e r t a i n e d as t h e w i l l o f sovere ign n a t i o n - s t a t e s . Th is concept of the "sovere ign n a t i o n - s t a t e " i s t h e b a s i c f i c t i o n enab l ing some form o f " i n t e r n a t i o n a l decis ion-making" .

W i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d Nat ions, t h e h i s t o r i c f i c t i o n s and f i x a - t i o n s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g members a r e perpe tua ted i n t h e r e s t r i c t e d and some- t imes c o n t r a d i c t o r y procedures t o t r a n s l a t e " t h e general w i l l o f t h e w o r l d community o f n a t i o n s " i n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l and t r a n s n a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s and s t r a - t e g i e s . The f i c t i o n s o f t h e e x i s t i n g v a r i a n t s o f "par l i amenta ry democracies" and "peop le ' s democracies" a r e accepted as r e a l and t h e votes of t h e n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r e counted as t h e express ion o f t h e "general w i l l " o f t h e n a t i o n s represented. To account f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among smal l and b i g n a t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g f rom t h e n o n - r a t i o n a l process o f h i s t o r i c f i x a t i o n o f boundar ies, ad- d i t i o n a l procedures a r e fo rmu la ted t o d i s t i n g u i s h superpowers and combine common i n t e r e s t s i n t r a n s n a t i o n a l r e g i o n s i n t h e wor ld ,

One c r i t i c a l i s s u e was looming l a r g e a t t h e t i m e when t h e U n i t e d Nat ions Organ- i z a t i o n was e rec ted : t h e problem o f w o r l d s e c u r i t y i n f a c e o f n u c l e a r arma- ments. T h i s dominant i s s u e i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e d ispu ted procedure o f "we igh ing t h e general w i l l " w i t h i n t h e S e c u r i t y Counc i l , a s p e c i a l UN organ designed f o r t h a t purpose. I n s p i t e o f p e r s i s t i n g a t tempts and campaigns t o cu rb and con- t r o l t h e problem o f w o r l d armaments and s e c u r i t y , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s l y aggravat ing. Campaigns f o r n u c l e a r disarmament and arms c o n t r o l a r e n o t o n l y pursued by p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s , t h e i r governments and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . Disarmament and w o r l d s e c u r i t y has i n c r e a s i n g l y become a common concern o f p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t ranscend ing t h e boundar ies of n a t i o n - s t a t e s . S c i e n t i s t s and r e l i g i o u s leaders i n p a r t i c u l a r have more and more been a c t i v e i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f n a t i o n a l f i c t i o n s and f i x a t i o n s ,

One such group o f concerned s c i e n t i s t s i s Pugwash. Pugwash Conferences on Science and World A f f a i r s have c a r r i e d w e i g h t by t h e s i n c e r i t y and e x p e r t a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s c i e n t i s t s i n v o l v e d . Wh i le u n o f f i c i a l , Pugwash meetings have o f t e n hera lded severa l y e a r s i n advance what were t o become o f f i c i a l n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreements. I t soon became e v i d e n t t h a t w h i l e arms

c o n t r o l a im ing a t n u c l e a r disarmament must c o n t i n u e as t h e p r i o r i t y o b j e c t i v e , Pugwash should concern i t s e l f w i t h o t h e r ques t ions c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o w o r l d s e c u r i t y and an endur ing peace: sources o f c o n f l i c t and i n t e r n a t i o n a l tens ion , such as t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l development o f new weapons o f mass d e s t r u c t i o n ; t h e enormous and i n c r e a s i n g economic d i s p a r i t y between i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ; envi ronmental d e t e r i o r a t i o n ; energy; d e p l e t i o n o f n a t u r a l resources; and problems o f p o p u l a t i o n growth.

A l l these problems a r e c l o s e l y in te rconnec ted . One can d i s c e r n some s p e c i f i c c l u s t e r s . Sometimes t h e emphasis i s cen t red on t h e problem o f s e c u r i t y and disarmament, sometimes on t h e i d e a l o f a more e q u i t a b l e wor ld-wide development. Animated and search ing p u b l i c d iscuss ions , consc iousness- ra is ing campaigns, m a n i f e s t a t i o n s and u r g e n t p leas a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f a movement which on t h i s Scale i s a r e l a t i v e l y new phenomenon i n the w o r l d ' s h i s t o r y .

Obviously , Pugwash i s o n l y one o u t o f many groups and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , growing i n number and range, which a r e a c t i v e i n t h i s wor ld-wide movement. Undoubtedly we may c h a r a c t e r i z e t h i s movement as t h e t r u e express ion o f a general w i l l , i r r e s i s t a b l y b r e a k i n g th rough over a wide f r o n t . It i s a movement s t a r t i n g on v a r i o u s p o i n t s , d i r e c t e d towards var ious , g r a d u a l l y converg ing goals. A t t h e cen te rs o f t h e movement t h e de te rmina te e f f o r t i s s t r o n g e s t . Separa te ly , each s t r a n d represen ts o n l y a smal l m i n o r i t y , and nowhere y e t has reached t h e majo- r i t y of t h e people. One o f t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s , however, i s t h a t s i m i - l a r p o s i t i o n s a r e defended and c la imed a l l over t h e w o r l d , and t h a t t h e i ssues r a i s e d a r e o b v i o u s l y u n i v e r s a l . E r v i n Lasz'lo and h i s co-workers have mapped o u t an a t l a s and i n v e n t o r y o f Goals f o r mankind: A r e p o r t t o t h e Club of on t h e new hor i zons o f g l o b a l community (1977)

Together w i t h t h e l i s t i n g o f g l o b a l goals, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o map t h e v a r i o u s groups and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b o t h w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e U n i t e d Nat ions and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l and t r a n s n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , such as t h e ILO, t h e U o r l d Counci l o f Churches, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l o f S c i e n t i f i c Unions. The i n - ven to ry o f w o r l d goa ls i n c l u d e : w o r l d s e c u r i t y and disarmament, human r i g h t s , development a s s i s t a n c e and coopera t ion , w o r l d food, w o r l d h e a l t h and b a s i c we l l -be ing , w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n ( c h i l d r e n , women, m i n o r i t i e s , refugees) , w o r l d environment, w o r l d law, l a b o u r c o n d i t i o n s and employment, techno log ies f o r b a s i c needs, a1 t e r n a t i v e techno log ies and a1 t e r n a t i v e l i f e - s t y 1 es, w o r l d sc ience, educa t ion and c u l t u r e .

A l t e r n a t i v e c u l t u r e s emerge i n many p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d as a response - o f t e n a r a d i c a l one - t o t h e problems o f l i f e and a l i e n a t i o n exper ienced i n modern "es tab l i shment " s o c i e t y .. . The m e n t a l i t y of persons who have op ted o u t o f t h e mainstream s o c i e t y t o search f o r more d e s i r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s shows some s t r i k i n g common f e a t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y when c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e t y p i c a l mind s e t o f advanced i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . T h e i r emphasis i s on s e r v i c e r a t h e r than achievement,communication r a t h e r than p r e s t i g e , f u l f i l m e n t o f s o c i a l tasks r a t h e r than career-making, and l i f e i n t h e here-and-now r a t h e r t h a n preoccupa- t i o n w i t h t h e f u t u r e ... The a l t e r n a t i v e c u l t u r e s recogn ize t h e f i n i t e n e s s and v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f Ear th , They a r e r e d i s c o v e r i n g a consciousness t h a t man- k i n d has a l l b u t l o s t i n i t s obsession w i t h m a t e r i a l - t e c h n o l o g i c a l p rogress : t h e consciousness o f b e i n g one w i t h Na tu re ... The communit ies o f t h e a l t e r - n a t i v e c u l t u r e s s t r i v e t o be s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g . S e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n becomes a

major goal . The a l t e r n a t i v e c u l t u r e s grow and spread w i t h g r e a t r a p i d i t y . They evo lve t h e i r own l i f e s t y l e s and modes o f e x i s t e n c e ... The i n f l u e n c e of modern w o r l d views on t h e minds of contemporary people i s cons iderab le . Th is i n f l u e n c e c o u l d do much t o f u r t h e r t h e transcendence o f i n n e r l i m i t s and by r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l o f mutual s o l i d a r i t y among t h e w o r l d ' s people. . . The achievement o f w o r l d s o l i d a r i t y i s t h e g r e a t i m p e r a t i v e o f o u r e r a . We a r e moving towards a Nor1 d S o l i d a r i t y Rev01 u t i o n . "

T h i s T h i r d s y s t e m i s r a p i d l y becoming an i m p o r t a n t r e a l i t y . I t i s t h e man i fes - t a t i o n o f what Lasz lo has termed t h e World S o l i d a r i t y Revo lu t ion . I n t h e i n t e r - n a t i o n a l f i e l d o f po l i cy -mak ing t h e T h i r d System operates as a t h i r d f o r c e d i a - l e c t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e F i r s t System o f in te rgovernmenta l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e groups o f sovere ign n a t i o n - s t a t e s and t h e i r governments, and t h e Second System o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s which, by t h e i n f l u e n c e and power of t h e i r common i n t e r e s t s based on p r o f i t and u t i l i t y , a r e capable of t ranscen- d i n g t h e f i c t i o n s and f i x a t i o n s o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s . F o r t h e same reason as t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e Second System a r e capable of t r a n s - cending t h e b a r r i e r s and boundar ies o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s , so t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e T h i r d System may a l s o extend t h e i r r a d i u s o f a c t i o n beyond t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and f i x a t i o n s o f sovere ign n a t i o n - s t a t e s .

Pugwash a c t u a l l y belongs t o t h e T h i r d System and has c o n t r i b u t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o i t s s t reng then ing . I t would be reasonable t o promote a c l o s e r c o n t a c t and coopera t ion between Pugwash and IFDA, and b r i n g some c o o r d i n a t i o n between t h e a c t i v i t i e s and o b j e c t i v e s o f b o t h o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Contacts and coopera t ion between Pugwash and IFDA can be arranged i n a s i m i l a r way as between Pugwash and Peace Research I n s t i t u t e s . Views and p roposa ls o f IFDA may be i n t r o - duced and d iscussed on Pugwash conferences, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s e c t i o n s dea l - i n g w i t h problems o f development and development a l t e r n a t i v e s . L i kew ise , Pug- wash s c i e n t i s t s may c o n t r i b u t e t o d i s c u s s i o n s and p roposa ls o f IFDA p u b l i s h e d i n t h e IFDA Dossiers. E s p e c i a l l y where t h e c r u c i a l i s s u e o f w o r l d s e c u r i t y and disarmament i s in te rwoven w i t h development a l t e r n a t i v e s and a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s t y l e s , a d i a l o g u e o f Pugwash s c i e n t i s t s and IFDA may be f r u i t f u l and i n - s p i r i n g . Though t h e r e i s a general agreement t h a t " t h e r e i s a c l o s e connec t ion between t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , disarmament and t h e econo- mic development o f c o u n t r i e s , so t h a t any p rogress towards any o f those ob jec - t i v e s w i l l c o n s t i t u t e progress towards a11 o f them" (UN General Assembly Reso- l u t i o n 2734 X X V , 16 December 1970), i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o reach agreement on a c t u a l p o l i c i e s e f f e c t u a t i n g p rogress i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s t o g e t h e r .

Disarmanent and development a r e i ssues t h a t have most preoccupied t h e a t t e n - t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community s i n c e World War 11. Yet a t tempts t o es tab- l i s h a p o s i t i v e feedback between p o l i c i e s toward b o t h aims have n o t been very success fu l . Th is m i g h t be due fundamenta l l y t o t h e ve ry s t r u c t u r e s and work- i n g s o f t h e F i r s t and Second Systems. C o n s o l i d a t i o n and s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e T h i r d System m i g h t induce a p o l i t i c a l breakthrough. The T h i r d System must n o t be cons idered as a counter-system a g a i n s t t h e F i r s t System and t h e Second Sys- tem. It may be more e f f e c t i v e i n those realms where "development" i s hampered by dominant i n t e r e s t s o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and c o r p o r a t i v e p r o f i t which a r e m u t u a l l y a n t a g o n i s t i c and c o n t r a d i c t o r y . The T h i r d System may become a more

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e express ion o f t h e "general w i l l " o f peop le o f a l l n a t i o n s . The e x p l i c i t a t i o n and imp lementa t ion o f t h i s "general w i l l " through t h e T h i r d Sys- tem m i g h t complement and c o r r e c t t h e d e c i s i o n s and p o l i c i e s o f t h e F i r s t and Second Systems.

I n c o u n t r i e s where "development" has n o t proceeded t o advanced l e v e l s , b o t h t h e F i r s t and t h e Second Systems a r e weak, T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s do n o t have s t a t e s and t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s s t r o n g enough t o w i t h s t a n d t h e m i l i t a r y and eco- nomic aggress ion o f i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . A t p r e s e n t abou t 95 p e r c e n t o f a l l s c i e n t i s t s a r e l i v i n g and work ing i n those h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . When they f e e l a t r u e s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d peop le everywhere i n t h e wor ld , they can m a n i f e s t t h i s s o l i d a r i t y most e f f e c t i v e l y th rough t h e T h i r d System. The T h i r d System i s i t s e l f an i n t e g r a t i o n o f development a l t e r n a t i v e s b o t h w i t h i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

P r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n o f l o f t y i d e a l s must have t h e i r consequent e f f e c t u a - t i o n i n p r a c t i c a l a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s . A l t e r n a t i v e developments a r e m a n i f e s t i n a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s t y l e s and s o c i a l groups which a r e t r u l y l i v i n g towards t h e i r i d e a l s . S c i e n t i s t s must become more a l e r t o f a l t e r n a t i v e developments. They become aware o f what i s a c t u a l l y happening i n t h e w o r l d as express ions of a "general w i l l " by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n ac t ion - research , b o t h i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t ranscend ing t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and b a r r i e r s , t h e f i c - t i o n s and f i x a t i o n s o f t h e F i r s t and Second systems. Science must have more o f p u b l i c involvement , p u b l i c opin ion-making, decis ion-making and pol icy-making. S c i e n t i s t s do n o t "belong" t o separa te n a t i o n - s t a t e s o r e x c l u s i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Science evo lved as a de te rmina te and r a t i o n a l e f f o r t o f man t o understand t h e w o r l d and h imse l f i n a process o f p lanned development. N a t i o n - s t a t e s and t r a n s - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e stages w i t h i n t h i s process o f development. Wars and economic e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e excess ive forms o f unequal development. It i s a mis- take t o a s c r i b e them t o t h e d e c i s i o n o f s t a t e s and m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . The d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l power and i n f l u e n c e o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s and t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e themselves express ions o f one-s ided overdevelopment. A w e l l - balanced s t r a t e g y w i t h development a l t e r n a t i v e s may c o n t r i b u t e t o disarmament and equi tab1 e development.

THE VALUE OF ENERGY DECISIONS by Lasz lo Bodnar */

lC What a r e t h e d e c i s i o n s abou t?

L i f e and c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e based on t h e use o f t h e r a d i a t i n g and s t o r e d s o l a r energy. Thus e n e r g y - r e l a t e d dec is ions deal w i t h l i f e and c i v i l i s a t i o n ,

A h igh-energy c i v i l i z a t i o n , l i k e ours, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e ex t reme ly v igo - rous use o f s t o r e d s o l a r energy. The con t inued e x i s t e n c e of t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n depends on t h e cont inuous supp ly o f energy. An a l t e r n a t i v e source, t h e n u c l e a r

* / 86 Dunblaine Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5M 2S1 -

o p t i o n , would reduce o u r dependence by c r e a t i n g s o l a r processes i n non-so la r c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s o p t i o n c o u l d p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r b o t h a f u r t h e r growth o f m a t e r i a l w e a l t h and a l s o , e i t h e r by design o r by a c c i d e n t , f o r a complete c o l l a p s e o f c i v i l i z e d l i f e "

2. C r i t e r i a

Energy d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t l i f e and c i v i l i z a t i o n and shou ld meet two b a s i c c r i - t e r i a e :

- slowdown i n t h e i n c r e a s e o f entropy, and

- r e c o g n i t i o n o f b i r t h - r i g h t s o f a l l human beings ( g l o b a l s o l i d a r i t y )

3. En t ropy

P o p u l a t i o n growth fi a s u b s t a n t i a l improvement i n l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e inc reased economic a c t i v i t i e s , i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r resources.

Georgescu-Roegen, one o f t h e l e a d i n g economists o f o u r t ime, p r o f e s s o r o f eco- nomics a t V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , N a s h v i l l e , Tennessee , b e l i e v e s t h a t economic a c t i v i t y must n o t s i m p l y cease t o grow, b u t shou ld e v e n t u a l l y d e c l i n e . I n h i s c l a s s i c book "The En t ropy Law and t h e Economic Process" l/, he a p p l i e s t h e e n t r o p y law (Second Law o f Thermodynamics) t o a l l economic processes. Cen t ra l t o t h i s law i s t h e n o t i o n o f i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y t h a t c e r t a i n processes go i n one d i r e c t i o n o n l y and can never be repeated except a t f a r g r e a t e r c o s t on t h e whole. En t ropy i s a measure o f t h e d i s s i p a t e d energy, The en t ropy o f a c l o s e d system always inc reases , t h e change b e i n g f rom f r e e energy t o d i s s i p a t e d , n o t t h e o t h e r way around. En t ropy i s a l s o a measure o f d i s o r d e r l i n e s s , d i s s i - pa ted energy i n t h e heat , smoke and ashes represen ts a more c h a o t i c s i t u a t i o n than t h a t b e f o r e a lump of c o a l was burned. (An i n g o t o f cooper has low en t ropy because i t s atoms a r e d isposed i n a more o r d e r l y s t a t e than they were i n t h e o r i g i n a l copper ore. D i d t h e r e f i n e r c r e a t e low e n t r o p y i n making t h e i n g o t ? No, because i n t h e s m e l t i n g he produced f a r more h i g h en t ropy) .

Economic a c t i v i t i e s , says Georgescu-Roegen, c o n s i s t o f t h e cont inuous and i r r e - v e r s i b l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f l ow e n t r o p y i n t o h i g h . The m a t e r i a l o u t p u t i s h i g h e n t r o p y i n t h e form o f p o l l u t i o n , d i s s i p a t e d m a t t e r and heat . Economic develop- ment i s d e f i n i t e l y a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e human spec ies as a whole i f i t s i n t e r e s t i s t o have a l i f e span as l o n g as i t i s compat ib le w i t h i t s dowry o f low en t ropy . Our p r e s e n t h i g h l e v e l o f consumption can be o n l y ma in ta ined a t t h e expense o f t h e f u t u r e genera t ions .

For t h i s reason, he has proposed a "minimal bioeconomic program". The main p o i n t s o f t h i s program a r e as f o l l o w s :

l / Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971. See a l s o Jeremy R i f k i n , - Entropy, A new world view (New York: The Viking P r e s s , 1980).

- Produc t ion o f a l l i ns t ruments o f war shou ld be p r o h i b i t e d comp le te ly

- Consumption f o r t h e sake o f fash ion , waste o f energy and m a t e r i a l s i n gene- r a l , should be cons idered and d e a l t w i t h as bioeconomic cr imes.

- Wi th t h e p r o d u c t i v e fo rces thereby re leased, i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s s h o u l d h e l p t h e deve lop ing n a t i o n s t o a r r i v e as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e t o a reasonably accep tab le l e v e l o f m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g .

Global s o l i d a r i t y

According t o IBRD es t imates , i n 1977, t h e w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n was about f o u r b i l - l i o n . Approximate ly one b i l l i o n people l i v e d i n t h e high-income, i n d u s t r i a - l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , w i t h $5,000 GNP p e r c a p i t a and 4,000 kg o f coa l e q u i v a l e n t energy consumption. Another 1.2 b i l l i o n l i v e d i n low-income c o u n t r i e s , w i t h $150 income and 52 kg coa l e q u i v a l e n t energy consumption p e r c a p i t a . The balance, 1.7 b i l l i o n was made up by t h e m idd le income c o u n t r i e s w i t h some $590 GNP and 500 kg coa l e q u i v a l e n t energy consumption p e r c a p i t a .

Table 1 sums up the s i t u a t i o n as i t p r e v a i l e d i n 1977.

Table 1

World P o p u l a t i o n and Income 1977

P o p u l a t i o n GNP GNP/Cap.

- B i l l i o n Per Cent Mi l 1 i o n Per Cent $

M i d d l e & Low-Income 2,854.1 74.0 1,21 Count r ies

TOTAL 3,892.2 100.0 6,512,3 1OOi0 1,631 " 3

R a t i o o f GNP p e r c a p i t a : 12.5 i n d u s t r i a l i z e d high-income c o u n t r i e s ; 1.0 m i d d l e and low-income c o u n t r i e s ; and between r i c h and poor c o u n t r i e s i s 34:1,

O r t o d e s c r i b e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n ano ther way, i n terms o f use o f resources: 10 m i l l i o n a d d i t i o n a l persons i n t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o 350 m i l l i o n persons i n the poor c o u n t r i e s o f t h e wor ld. Th is r a t i o pu ts t h e problem of p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n i n a somewhat d i f f e r e n t l i g h t ,

Accord ing t o Wor ld Bank p r o j e c t i o n s by t h e y e a r 2000 t h e w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n w i l l reach 6.2 b i l l i o n and of t h i s L 4 b i l l i o n w i l l l i v e i n high-income c o u n t r i e s '

Tab le 2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the assumpt ion t h a t by t h e y e a r 2000 GNP p e r c a p i t a wou ld o n l y modera te l y i nc rease (35 p e r c e n t ) i n t h e h igh- income c o u n t r i e s and t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d would exper ience a s u b s t a n t i a l r i s e i n GNP, from $410 i n 1977 t o $2,290 i n 2000. The gap i n GNP p e r c a p i t a between h i g h - income c o u n t r i e s and t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d would be reduced f rom 12.5 i n 1977 t o 3 i n 2000.

Tab le 2

P o p u l a t i o n and Income by 2000 --

P o p u l a t i o n GNP GNP/Cap.

M i l l i o n Per Cent B i l l i o n Per Cent P

$

(1977 $ ) (1977 $ )

High-Income C o u n t r i e s

1 ,400 22 6

Medium & Low-Income 4,800 77.4 10,992 53.3 2,290 C o u n t r i e s

TOTAL 6,200 100.0 20,610 100.0 3,324

Table 2 shows t h a t i f a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n GNP p e r c a p i t a i n t h e low and middle- income c o u n t r i e s takes p l a c e w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g GNP p e r c a p i t a i n t h e h i g h - income c o u n t r i e s t h e t o t a l g l o b a l p r o d u c t would have t o be i n c r e a s e d f rom t h e p r e s e n t $6,512 b i l l i o n t o $20,610 b i l l i o n , i . e . by 316 p e r c e n t by 2000.

I t i s s a f e t o assume t h a t a g rowth o f t h i s magni tude wou ld be techno log ica11y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and e c o l o g i c a l l y u n f e a s i b l e .

I s t h e r e any s o l u t i o n ?

The f u t u r e depends on t h e p o s i t i v e accommodation o f t h e f o l l o w i n g two c o n s i - d e r a t i o n s :

- t h e maximum r e d u c t i o n t h a t r i c h n a t i o n s a r e w i l l i n g t o t a k e i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l we1 l b e i n g , i n c l u d i n g use o f energy, and

- t h e minimum improvement t h a t poor n a t i o n s a r e w i l l i n g t o accep t on b e h a l f o f a c o m o n e f f o r t t o p r o l o n g t h e t i m e span o f t h e human r a c e f a c i n g f i n i t e resources, o r p u t i n a more p o s i t i v e form: t o e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n an e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e w i t h na tu re .

The i n c r e a s e and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a t e r i a l w e a l t h i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o energy. Therefore, as l o n g as s o l a r energy s tocks and v i a b l e energy o p t i o n s a re i n t h e hands o f power and p r o f i t seekers, any a t t e m p t t o reach a reasonab le compromise between t h e poor and r i c h n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d i s doomed t o f a i l u r e .

What i s r e q u i r e d i s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Wor ld Energy Bank i n c o n t r o l o f a l l m a j o r energy sources. The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e World Energy Bank would be based on t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s :

1 , U n c o n d i t i o n a l supp ly o f agreed minimum energy needs o f a l l human b e i n g s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o pay.

2. A p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g share o f poor and middle- income c o u n t r i e s t o meet t h e i r n e g o t i a t e d and agreed p o p u l a t i o n and economic t a r g e t s .

3. A p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c l i n i n g conven t iona l energy quo ta f o r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s w i t h re-assessed soc ia l -economic t a r g e t s and i n c r e a s i n g depen- dence on sa fe , non-conven t iona l energy sources.

A World Energy Bank o p e r a t i n g w i t h these b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would be i n t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f b o t h energy s u p p l i e r s and users .

I f these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s appear t o b e n a i v e o r preposterous, then what a r e t h e o p t i o n s ?

PESTICIDE DUMP1 ING PROGRESS REPORT

M i l l i o n s of pounds of p e s t i c i d e s banned o r s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e United S t a t e s a r e exported t o t h e Th i rd World. Concern i s growing about t h e damage t o peop le i n t h e Th i rd World and t h e hazards posed t o Americans who e a t imported food sprayed w i t h t h e s e po i sons . But nowhere i s t h e r e a comprehensive, docu- mented a n a l y s i s of g l o b a l p e s t i c i d e dumping and what we can do.

To meet t h i s need, David Weir and Mark Schap i ro o f t h e Oakland-based Center f o r I n v e s t i g a t i v e Repor t ing a r e w r i t i n g a book f o r t h e I n s t i t u t e , ' C i r c l e of Poison: P e s t i c i d e s i n t h e Hungry World ' , t o be pub l i shed t h i s f a l l . They have i n t e r - '

viewed over 100 chemical workers , government o f f i c i a l s and chemical manufac- t u r e r s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and compiled a l i s t of a l l p e s t i c i d e s manufactured f o r e x p o r t , i n c l u d i n g t h e names and a d d r e s s e s of t h e manufac tu re r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o uncovering t h e i n d u s t r y ' s r o l e , they w i l l p r e s e n t t h e f i r s t s y s t e m a t i c e x p l a n a t i o n of how our t a x d o l l a r s h e l p t o f a c i l i t a t e dangerous p e s t i c i d e t r a d e .

T h e i r a r t i c l e , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r s documenting t h e dumping by American cor- p o r a t i o n s of c o n t r a c e p t i v e s , d r u g s , toys and o t h e r p roduc t s i n t h e Third World, h a s r e c e i v e d two n a t i o n a l awards, i n c l u d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l Magazine Award f o r r e p o r t i n g e x c e l l e n c e . For c o p i e s of t h e 24-page r e p r i n t of "The Corpora te Crime of t h e Century", send $.85 t o Mother Jones R e p r i n t S e r v i c e , 625 Thi rd S t r e e t , 4 t h f l o o r , San F r a n c i s c o , CA 94107.

A I D THAT DOESN'T by Frances Moore Lappe, Joseph Coil ins and David Kinley l/

The report of the Presidential Commission on World Hunger was issued in Decem- ber 1979. A synopsis of that document might read:

The basic cause of hunger i s poverty. The solut ion l i e s i n the greater poli- t i c a l w i l l of government o f f i c i a l s and vast ly increased foreign assistance, particularly from the United States . The actors are nations and government o f f i c i a l s ; the rec ip ien t s are the poor.

The ser ies of assumptions underlying these conclusions cohere into a world view that i s shared by millions. In this short space we cannot hope to sup- plant i t ; we hope only t o challenge i t .

According t o the Commission: "Poverty i s the root cause of hunger today." A1- though the report mentions the "inequitable distribution of resources and income" as one "condition of poverty," the roots of such inequality are not central to i t s diagnosis of hunger, nor in any way related to the solutions proposed by the Commission. The Commission's analysis focuses on poverty, but poverty, l ike hunger, i s an effect . To get to the cause of hunger one must ask why people are poor. The answer i s that some people are poor because they lack the power to secure the income, food and housing they need. This d i f - ference in phrasing i s not a semantic quibble. To speak of power i s t o focus on the relationships among people. Only in so doing can we get to the roots of social problems.

So many go hungry where adequate and even plentiful food resources ex i s t because a relat ive few have the power to monopolize control over those resour- ces. Such concentration of economic and pol i t ical power i s tightening in many countries on the village and national levels as well as on the level of international trade.

By contrast, identifying poverty as the cause of hunger leads to a focus on the provision of things t o a l l ev ia te poverty - inputs and capital works to in- crease productivity and production. B u t unless the more basic issue of power i s f i r s t confronted, gain from such improvements will invariably be appropria- ted by those already in advantaged positions.

We can identify th i s pattern in country a f t e r country. In a Bangladesh village, tubewells designed to benefit the poorest farmers become the property of the vi l lage 's r ichest landlord. In Haiti , food-for-work projects intended to help

l/ Published in Christianity and crisis, Vol. 40, ITo.5, Harch 31, 198C. - Frances Moore LappG and Joseph Collins are co-founder& of the Institute for Food and Development Policy and authors of Food First: Beyond the Myth of Scarcity (Ballantine). David Kinley is a member of the staff of

the Institute. (2588 Mission Str., San Francisco, CA 94110, U.S.A.).

t h e l a n d l e s s poor end up as a boon t o t h e v i l l a g e e l i t e . I n Indones ia , r u r a l e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n j u s t i f i e d as a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o jobs i n r u r a l i n d u s t r i e s r e s u l t s i n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b s o f thousands o f poor r u r a l women.

I f , then, power i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g i ssue , how can we c o n f r o n t i t ?

The answer i s t h a t we cannot address t h e i s s u e o f power f o r o t h e r people. We do, however, have t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o address t h e growing c o n c e n t r a t i o n of economic power i n o u r own s o c i e t y . Moreover, w h i l e as o u t s i d e r s we cannot empower peop le who a r e now oppressed abroad, we can and shou ld h e l p t o remove t h e m i g h t y obs tac les i n t h e i r way, p a r t i c u l a r l y those obs tac les t h a t a r e b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d w i t h o u r t a x d o l l a r s and i n our name.

ROADBLOCKS MADE I N U . S . A .

Those obs tac les i n c l u d e 1 ) o f f i c i a l US f o r e i g n a i d t h a t concen t ra tes i t s sup- p o r t on some o f t h e w o r l d ' s most r e p r e s s i v e regimes; 2 ) m i l i t a r y ass is tance and s a l e s t h a t amount t o f o u r t imes t h e development p r o j e c t a i d t o t h e T h i r d World, and a l s o t h a t a r e used t o en t rench e l i t e - d o m i n a t e d and r e p r e s s i v e regimes ( o u r m i l i t a r y a i d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , f o r example, i s expected t o more than doub le i n 1980); and 3 ) US Government-aided corpora te i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n t h e economies o f t h e T h i r d World (again, such investments, s u b s i d i z e d by our t a x d o l l a r s , g i v e r u l i n g e l i t e s a g rea te r - than-ever s take b o t h i n r e s i s t i n g r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n t r o l and i n expanding t h e i r h o l d over l o c a l resources) . These a r e some o f t h e key obs tac les i n t h e way o f t h e hungry abroad as they o rgan ize f o r power over t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s resources . Our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o expose these obs tac les and h e l p remove them.

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Commission p r e s c r i b e s g rea te r - than-ever US f o r e i g n ass is tance as o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s o l v i n g w o r l d hunger. I n c a l l i n g f o r a t r i p l i n g o f US f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e (as a percentage o f GNP), t h e Commission appears t o accept t h e c la ims o f a i d pol icymakers t h a t a i d i s now o r i e n t e d toward meet ing t h e b a s i c needs of t h e poor and toward c o u n t r i e s where p o v e r t y i s t h e w o r s t and t o governments most concerned about t h e poor .

We c h a l l e n g e these c la ims . US b i l a t e r a l a s s i s t a n c e i s h i g h l y concen t ra ted on a few c o u n t r i e s , w i t h 10 c o u n t r i e s r e c e i v i n g w e l l over h a l f t h e t o t a l . I s r a e l and Egypt a lone r e c e i v e a f u l l 40 percen t . O f t h e t o p 10 r e c i p i e n t s , o n l y f o u r a r e cons idered low income. Among t h e t o p 10 a r e t h e Governments o f Indonesia, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and Bangladesh. I n each o f these c o u n t r i e s v a s t inc reases i n f o r e i g n ass is tance i n t h e l a s t decade have gone hand i n hand w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g impoverishment and r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e people.

I n t h e Ph i1 i p p i n e s , f o r example, w h i l e r i c e p r o d u c t i o n inc reased by t w o - t h i r d s o v e r t h e 15 y e a r s p r i o r t o 1976 and t h e Government now encourages r i c e expor ts , t h e Government's a n t i - p e o p l e p01 i c i e s have made t h e F i l i p i n o people, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Cambodians, t h e p o o r e s t f e d i n a11 o f Asia.

The b a s i c f a l l a c y embodied i n t h e Commission's "more US a i d " p r e s c r i p t i o n i s t h e assumption t h a t a i d can be designed t o reach t h e power less even though channeled th rough t h e p o w e r f u l . O f f i c i a l f o r e i g n ass is tance n e c e s s a r i l y f l o w s th rough r e c i p i e n t governments and these governments ( p a r t i c u l a r l y those t h e US chooses t o a i d ) r e p r e s e n t narrow, e l i t i s t economic i n t e r e s t s . Fore ign a i d has

n o t p layed a t rans fo rming r o l e - t r a n s f o r m i n g an an t i -democra t i c economic c o n t r o l by a few i n t o a p a r t i c i p a r o r y , democrat ic process o f change. I t can- n o t . Rather , o f f i c i a l f o r e i g n a i d r e i n f o r c e s t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a1 ready e x i s t . C e r t a i n l y t h i s i s t h e case w i t h government-to-government a id . Only w i t h g r e a t ca re can t h e i n f e c t i o n o f resources through p r i v a t e ( "vo lun- t a r y " ) agencies avo id these same dynamics.

I L L U S I O N AND REALITY

The a c t o r s i n t h e t r a g i c drama o f w o r l d hunger a r e seen by t h e Commission as "deve lop ing n a t i o n s " o r t h e "deve lop ing wor ld " . N a t i o n a l l eaders a r e p u t f o r t h as t h e i n i t i a t o r s of change. "Hunger," we a re t o l d , " r e f l e c t s l a c k o f s u f f i - c i e n t p o l i t i c a l w i l l . " And t h e problem o f hunger w i l l o n l y g e t worse "unless t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e of many n a t i o n a l l eaders i s r e p l a c e d by concern and commit- ment".

Such f o r m u l a t i o n s obscure- a b a s i c t r u t h . Na t ions do n o t e x i s t as e n t i t i e s t h a t w i l l end hunger; n a t i o n s a r e made up o f many competing i n t e r e s t s , n o t a com- m u n i t y of i n t e r e s t s . Whether hunger can be e l i m i n a t e d w i l l l a r g e l y depend on t h e outcome o f t h e s t r u o ~ l e among those competinq i n t e r e s t s . Th is has been the exper ience of every coun t ry where hunger has been e l i m i n a t e d . To c a l l f o r change i n t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l o f those now i n power i n r o s t c o u n t r i e s i s t o ask f o r those b e n e f i t i n g f rom t h e c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n t r o l over p r o d u c t i v e resources t o take t h e i n i t i a t i v e f o r change. Not on'1.y i s such a c a l l na ive ; i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o p o l i c i e s t h a t shore up r e p r e s s i v e regimes and d i v e r t s a t t e n t i o n from t h e t r u e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f Americans.

The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f Americans does n o t l i e i n i n t e r v e n i n g t o make t h e e l i t e c lasses h e l p " t h e i r poor" . Hunger w i l l never be ended by t h e poor b e c p r i n ~ r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e la rgesse o f t h e w e l l - o f f . J u s t as i t i s by t h e sweat and b l o o d of t h e poor t h a t much o f t h e food and l u x u r i e s o f t h e w e l l - o f f a r e p ro - duced, so i t i s t h e poor who must o rgan ize themselves t o overcome t h e i r powerlessness.

W i t h t h i s understandins and w i t h t h e knowledge t h a t i n every c o u n t r y where irany go hungry t h e r e i s a l r e a d y movement f o r change, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e o f An'ieri- cans i s t o h e l p remove t h e obs tac les i n t h e way o f those work ing f o r chanoe, p a r t i c u l a r l y those, l i k e t h e t h r e e o u t l i n e d above, f o r ii!hich US c i t i z e n s bear d i r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I n some c o u n t r i e s , l i k e t h e Phi1 i p p i n e s and E l Salvador, t h e r e s i s t a n c e and d r i v e f o r g r e a t e r j u s t i c e i s i n c r e a s i n g l y w e l l organized; i n o t h e r s , l i k e H a i t i , i t appears j u s t t o be beg inn ing . Yet i n e i t h e r case, a p r ime r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r us i s t o s t o p s u p p o r t i n g t i ic enen.ies o f such e f f o r t s .

By c o n t r a s t , t h e two key recommendations o f t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l Commission - inc reased US f o r e i g n a i d and s t r o n g e r p o l i t i c a l w i l l - add g r e a t e r m a t e r i a l h e l p and l e g i t i m a c y t o t h e v e r y f o r c e s o f concen t ra ted economic and p o l i t i c a l power t h a t s tand d i r e c t l y , and i n many ins tances b r u t a l l y , opposed t o change. Those ready t o address t h e ou t rage o f needless hunger shou ld work t o end such s u p p o r t f o r t h e adversar ies o f t h e poor and t h e i r a l l i e s - beg inn ing w i t h exposing t h e t r u e uses and impact o f f o r e i g n economic and m i l i t a r y a i d .

THE LESSON FROM OPEC

Hazel Henderson - l/ had t h i s t o say i n an i n t e r v i e w t o OI& (May 1980):

omni: How has o u r exper ience w i t h OPEC been a lesson? - Renderson: I t h i n k i t was t h e o n l y shock t h a t c o u l d make us r e a l i z e how f a r o u t o f l i n e w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e wor ld o u r energy consumption has been. A t t h e o u t s e t OPEC was v i l i f i e d as a d read fu l c a r t e l . Now some o f us r e a l i z e t h a t i t

was t h e b e s t t h i n g t h a t c o u l d have happened t o h e l p us adapt. Now t h a t t h e c a r t e l has b roken on t h e up s i d e and t h e r e ' s pe t ro leum s e l l i n g a t f o r t y d o l l a r s a b a r r e l on t h e s p o t market, w e ' r e going t o be p r a y i n g f o r OPEC t o h o l d t h e l i n e , We may even r e a l i z e how much o f t h e OPEC p r i c e i n c r e a s e has been s imp ly an a t tempt t o compensate f o r t h e d o l l a r ' s d e c l i n i n g va lue .

I n ano ther i n t e r v i e w ( t o t h e East West Journa l , March 1980) Hazel commented on 'economics as a form o f b r a i n damage':

z: You d e s c r i b e economics i n your book, " C r e a t i n g AI t e r n a t i v e Fu tu res" , as a "pseudoscience" and as "a form o f b r a i n damage". Why a r e economists so myopic?

E: I t ' s because they have a ve ry neat l i n e a r model o f t h e wor ld . I t ' s t o t a l l y d i v o r c e d f rom t h e b a s i c laws o f physics, b i o l o g y , b i o p r o d u c t i v i t y - t h e r e a l w o r l d o f n a t u r e . Economists have t h e i r l i t t l e models o f supply and demand, i n p u t and o u t p u t , and a11 o f those f a i r l y s i m p l i s t i c ways o f v iew ing t h e w o r l d so t h a t a n y t h i n g e l s e t h a t goes on w i l l be an " e x t e r n a l " v a r i a b l e . So i f you have a n o n l i n e a r system t h a t i s jumping around a l l over t h e p lace and y o u ' r e u s i n g such an inadequate map, i t ' s l i k e u s i n g a l i t t l e f l a s h l i g h t t o l i g h t up t h e s i t u a t i o n . The economists have a f l a s h l i g h t s t a b b i n g away a t t h e dark, and t h e r e ' s no way t h a t any k i n d o f p o l i c y d i r e c t i o n s can f l o w o u t o f t h a t s o r t of approach.

I t ' s a g r e a t danger t o l e t those people s t a y i n charge. Tha t ' s why I have per - s o n a l l y f e l t so m iss ionary t h e p a s t t e n years o f my l i f e about t h e need t o de- f r o c k t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p r i e s t h o o d which b e s t r i d e s t h e resource a l l o c a t i o n s p ro - cess i n most i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . The economists have t o be exposed as c h a r l a t a n s . We have t o have much more complex i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y p o l i c y ~, iodels, and those w i l l n o t emerge as l o n g as we have t h e economists t e l l i n g us t h a t they know what t o do.

l/ Hazel Henderson is an economist. Born in England in 1933, she came to the - United States in 1956. She is an advisor to many national and international associations, including the Council on Economic Priorities, the Worldwatch Institute, and the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment. A self-employed author, economic analyst, and political activist, she has authored 'Creating Alternative FuturesV(G.P. Putnam's, 1978) and has just published a new book, 'The Politics of Reconceptualization'. (New York: Anchor/Doubleday Press, 1980).

26(120)

A LETTER FROM THE ASSOC WALES (AUSTRALIA) I/

I A T I G l OF WORK COOPERA TILLS or NEW sou

The above A s s o c i a t i o n i s p r e s e n t l y i n t h e p lann ing stage. I t w i l l c o n s i s t o f abou t twenty smal l workers co -opera t i ves i n New South Wales, A u s t r a l i a , w i t h a t o t a l membership o f about 250. The Co-operat ives a r e t h e beginnings o f a growing movement happening s imul taneous ly i n w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d l o c a t i o n s through- o u t t h e S t a t e ( p o p u l a t i o n about 5 m i l l i o n ) b o t h urban and coun t ry . The indus- t r i a l s e r v i c e s p rov ided a r e m o s t l y i n t h e manufac tu r ing s e c t o r w i t h f i b r e g l a s s products, meta l f a b r i c a t i o n and woodworking predominat ing. There a r e some s e r - v i c e s e c t o r business rang ing f rom r e t a i l i n g , c a t e r i n g , r u b b i s h r e c y c l i n g , home maintenance e t c , t o l a b o u r c o n t r a c t i n g '

Our s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s l i e i n t h e f i e l d s o f : -

a ) t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r y (and d e c i s i o n making)

b ) technology a p p r o p r i a t e t o smal l s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n

c ) new markets i n energy a l t e r n a t i v e s , t r a n s p o r t and waste r e c y c l i n g

d ) a more in fo rmed approach t o l o c a l ownership

e) worker s e l f management

f ) jobs c rea ted th rough v i a b l e Co-operat ive businesses

g) l e a r n i n g by do ing and deve lop ing new s k i l l s

One o f t h e major reasons f o r w r i t i n g i s t h a t we f e e l so o u t o f touch down h e r e t o much o f what we-hear i s happening i n Europe- Successes i n t h e above f i e l d s a r e gleened from European and Nor th American p u b l i c a t i o n s , d iscussed, theor i sed , t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e A u s t r a l i a n c o n t e x t and a t tempts made a t p u t t i n g i t a11 i n t o p r a c t i c e . Wi th a b i t o f s t r u g g l e , we seem t o be g e t t i n g somewhere, though t h r e e o f our members have had t o c l o s e down r e c e n t l y ( i n , 1 ) f i s h marke t ing , 2) b i c y c l e r e p a i r , r e n o v a t i o n and accessory manufacture and 3) c o n t r a c t c l e a - n i n g ) ' S k i l l s and markets a r e t h e main problems as f i n a n c e has been a v a i l a b l e f o r two y e a r s from t h e N.S.W, S t a t e Labour Government which, w h i l e n o t b e i n g f u l l y a t t u n e d t o o u r o b j e c t i v e s , has been very suppor t i ve ,

We a r e r e a l l y l o o k i n g f o r c o n t a c t s , i n f o r m a t i o n exchanges and t e c h n i c a l sour- ces which may h e l p us and o t h e r s h e r e (and you t o o - feedback:) i n p r a c t i c a l l y examining o u r processes and s t r u c t u r e s i n o r d e r t o ensure b e t t e r management and p o t e n t i a l

l/ c /o Alan Greig, Strivetts Lane, Balmain, N.S.W., Australia 204. -

INTERNATIONAL EHG I NEERING ETHICS PROJECT

A r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t - t o i d e n t i f y and examine t h e e t h i c a l c m f l i c t s and dilemmas f a c i n g engineers p r a c t i c i n g i n a c u l t u r e o t h e r t h a n t h e i r own - is c u r r e n t l y be ing undertaken by an engineer /ph i losopher team. A l - though i n t e r n a t i o n a l bus iness e t h i c s and p u b l i c p o l i c y concerning technology t r a n s f e r have rece ived some d i s c u s s i o n , this p r o j e c t w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m c o n f r o n t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l engineer engaged i n some p a r t i c u l a r engineer ing p r o j e c t i n a n o t h e r c u l t u r e .

I t is b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s s t u d y is t h e f i r s t of i t s kind. The m- d i r e c t o r s , D r . E . C. Jones o f I m a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , an e n g i n e e r w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l exper ience , and D r . C . A. Smith o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri- m l l a , a ph i losopher working i n t h e a r e a of engineer ing e t h i c s , s a y t h a t , t o t h e i r k n m l e d g e , "almost no a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o t h e e t h i c a l prob- l e m c o n f r o n t i n g i n d i v i d u a l engineers who f i n d t h e m e l v e s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e w i t h a n o t h e r c u l t u r e and who must ccpe. "

C o n f l i c t s can a r i s e f o r anyone working i n another c u l t u r e w i t h a l t e r n a - t i v e c u s t o m and w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e c m c e p t i o n s o f j u s t i c e , w e l f a r e , p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , t h e good l i f e , t r e a t m e n t of m i n o r i t i e s , e t c . But i n a d d i t i o n t o such g e n e r a l concerns, t h i s p r o j e c t w i l l address s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e e t h i c a l di lemnas t h a t a r i s e w i t h i n a l l a r e a s of engineer ing work: d e s i g n , i n p l e m n - t a t i o n , managment, worker r e l a t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s p o l i t i c a l , l e g a l , r e g u l a t o r y , economic, r e l i g i o u s o r e d u c a t i o n a l .

The des ign and i r q l e m e n t a t i o n of a t e c h n o l o g i c a l system f o r another c u l t u r e may r e i n f o r c e o r c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e va lues and way o f l i f e o f t h a t c u l t u r e , t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e . Design o f t h e workplace provides a s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t i n g such e f f e c t s ; t h e workplace can be designed t o accumnwdate o r v i o l a t e t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , r o l e s , s t a t u s and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e . The e n g i n e e r ' s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of workers i n i n e f f i c i e n t and/or r e p r e h e n s i b l e may have t o be balanced a g a i n s t worker d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h any arrangements. t h a t v i o l a t e such s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I n l i k e manner, a p r o j e c t c u l t u r e t h a t has a d i f f e r e n t v a l u a t i o n o f s a f e t y and h e a l t h can p r e s e n t des ign c c m f l i c t s , as can a l t e r n a t i v e a t t i t u d e s toward t h e environment, resources , and g e t t i n g one ' s hands d i r t y i n "hands-on" WO&.

A second a r e a o f c o n f l i c t concerns management s t y l e s - t h e management e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e may h o l d many s u r p r i s e s f o r t h e engineer . Leadership s t y l e s necessary f o r acceptance can be p e r s o n a l l y o r m r a l l y re - pugnant t o t h e engineer . A l t e r n a t i v e conceptions and va lues o f t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e can p r e s e n t e t h i c a l dilemmas i n l a b o r r e l a t i o n s ; when e q u a l t r e a t - ment of a l l v i o l a t e s t h e s o c i a l r o l e s of t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e : when p e t t y th ievezy is regarded as a f r i n g e b e n e f i t o r i s t h e r e s u l t of a l t e r n a t i v e views of p r o p e r t y ; when h i r i n g and f i r i n g p r a c t i c e s c o n f l i c t w i t h c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s . A l t e r n a t i v e c m c e p t i o n s o f "who is a worker" can a l s o p r e s e n t p r o b l e m ; f o r exanple , l o c a l e x c l u s i o n of c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s o r groups because of t aboo o r p r e j u d i c e , o r a h igh v a l u a t i o n o f t o t a l group p a r t i c i - p a t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h o s e who a r e i n e f f i c i e n t o r p r e s e n t s a f e t y p m b l e m .

Engineers muct i n t e r a c t p r o f e s s i o n a l l y w i t h l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . A l t e r n a t i v e laws, l e g a l i n s t i t u t l o n s and enforcement mechanism can ob- v i o u s l y r a i s e e t h i c a l questions f o r t h e engineer . But c o n f l i c t s may a l s o a r i s e where t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e economc assumptions and p r a c t i c e s : haggl ing , " j u s t p r i c e " assunpt ions , b r i b e q ' , o r t h e b e l i e f t h a t buying and s e l l i n g a r e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g l n t r o d u c t i o n s and p a i d go- betweens. S i m i l a r l y , a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s can p r e s e n t p r o b l e m ; f o r exanple, i n r e l a t i o n s w i t h l o c a l p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s , i n g a n i n g approva l f o r p lans and procedures , i n handl ing political p r e s s u r e s , e t c . (Areas o f p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y obviously c r e a t e another s e t of s p e c i a l p r o b l e m . ) B a l i n g w i t h regu1ator.y agencies having m f m l i a r procedures and/or a l - t e r n a t i v e s e t s o f r e g u l a t i o n s is a n o t h e r a r e a of p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t f o r t h e e n g i n e e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e r e q u l a t l o n s a r e weaker than t h o s e t h e e n g i n e e r i s used t o , o r i f t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n s is n o t under- s t o o d o r is judged t o be r e p r e h e n s i b l e , o r i f t h e r e g u l a t i o n s a r e conmnly ignored i n t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e .

Engineers w i l l exper ience c u l t u r e shock involv ing a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e - s t y l e s and c u s t o m i n t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e . Some of t h e s e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s may b e judged p e r s o n a l l y o r m r a l l y repugnant. In s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e en- g i n e e r ' s a c t i o n s may r a i s e q u e s t i o n s i n t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e . The s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e enqineer w i t h l o c a l groups can a l s o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s con- c e r n i n g t h e apparen t ( o r r e a l ) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c l a s s o r group. A d i f f e r e n t s e t o f q u e s t i o n s may be r a i s e d i f t h e e n g i n e e r remains a l m f i n an enc lave o f h i s o r h e r own n a t i o n a l i t y . Experience of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s can e f f e c t t h e e n g i n e e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e and t h e c u l t u r e ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f him o r h e r , and l e a d t o " p r o f e s s i o n a l c u l t u r e sock' ' t h a t can c r e a t e e t h i c a l c o n f l i c t s on t h e job o r exacerba te t h e c o n f l i c t s a l ready noted.

The CO-di rec tors o f t h i s p r o j e c t a r e c u r r e n t l y engaged i n c o l l e c t i n g m r e d e t a i l e d in format ion and e s t a b l i s h i n g a network o f c o n t a c t s . I t i s e w e c t e d t h a t an a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s w i l l a i d i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a n t i c i p a t i o n of such d i f f i c u l t i e s , w i l l a i d enqineers i n handl ing such s i t u a t i o n s , and w i l l h e l p t o minimize s t r e s s f o r b o t h t h e e n q i n e e r and t h e p r o j e c t c u l t u r e . I n d i v i d u a l s who can c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s s t u d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w i t h f i r s t - h a n d exper iences , a r e asked t o c o n t a c t e i t h e r P r o f e s s o r E. C . Jones , Department o f E l e c t r i c a l Engineering, I w a s t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Ames, I w a 50011, o r P r o f e s s o r C . A . Smith, Department o f Philosophy, Univers i ty of Missouri-Rolla, F ~ l l a , Missouri 65401. A l l in format ion re- ceived w i l l be t r e a t e d c o n f i d e n t i a l l y .

IvIEOITERRANEE: V I S I O N , DRAIIE, ESPOIR

par Mahdi Elmandjra l/

La Mediterranee c l e s t 21 pays, 310 mi l l ions d ' hab i t an t s e t u n Produit In t e r i eu r Brut de pres de lcOOO mi l l i a rds de d o l l a r s c Cette region s e resume en t r o i s mots qui ca rac t e r i s en t son passe e t son present e t peut-6tre son avenir: VISION, DRAME e t ESPOIRe

VISION

Berceau de p1 usieurs c i v i l i s a t i ons e t des t r o i s grandes re1 igions monotheistes, l a Mediterranee e s t une t e r r e de v is ions 012 l ' home occupe une posit ion cen- t r a l e s o i t en t a n t qu' individu s o i t en t a n t qu1616ment de groupe q u ' i l s l a g i s s e de l a famil le ou de l a t r i bu ou de l a region& Le colloque qui v i en t de s lachever a longuement t r a i t 6 de c e t t e question l o r s de l'examen des points concernant l a f ami l l e , l a condition feminine come l o r s de celui ayant t r a i t aux valeurs socio-cul ture l les . Pour chaque affirmation i l y a v a i t au moins deux contre-affirmations e t p1 usieurs in ter rogat ions sans r6ponses Le f a i t e s t que malgre une ce r t a ine uni te dans l e teinps e t $an5 l l e space , l a MGditerranGe presente de grandes d ive r s i t e s en t r e l e Nord e t l e Sud, l 'Es t e t l 'Ouest. C ' e s t peut-Gtre pour ce la que Fernand Braudel par le de "destins c o l l e c t i f s " au p lur ie l L Pour ce qui e s t de l a condition feminine, t ou t l e monde s l e s t accord6 2 cons ta ter q u ' e l l e l a i s s a i t beaucoup 2 d e s i r e r su r l a r i v e Sud e t q u ' e i l e e t a i t lo in d ' e t r e pa r f a i t e s u r l a r i ve Nord- Certains on t e t a b l i un l i e n d i r e c t en t r e l e s s t ruc tu re s de l a famil le qui n 'avaient pas evolue particu- l ierement dans l e Sud e t l a condition de la f e m e qui e s t encore t rop a s se rv i e* On a aussi remarque que l ' image de l a f e m e dans l e Nord que ce s o i t Lravers l e contenu des mass media ou des manuels s co l a i r e s n ' e s t pas 8 1a hauteur des principes d ' ega l i t e qu ' a f f i chen t ses soci6 t6so

La famil le en t a n t q u ' i n s t i t u t i o n n ' e s t pas mise en cause c a r c ' e s t un des grands acquis de l a soc i e t e mediterraneenne, mais c ' e s t son archajsme e t ses mecanismes de reproduction excessivement conservateurs qui cons t i t uen t de ser ieux obs tac les a lLam61ioration de l a condition feminine' C ' e s t 2 t ravers l i educa t ion - une education qui st imule l l imaginat ion , favor ise l a crea t ion e t l ' innovation - que l 'on pourra esperer de ver i tables changeinents* L 'ac t ion au niveau de l a 1.5gislation e s t egalement e f f i cace mais son respect e s t assez l e n t c a r i l r equ ie r t une transformation des s t ruc tu re s mentales'

La ref lexion su r l a condition feminine e t su r l a fami l le mGne necessa i re t~ent a l l a n a l y s e du changement socia l e t du contexte economique qui l e conditionne- On a indique que l ' u n i t e de l a Mediterranee r e s s o r t a i t d'abord du f a i t qu ' e l l e

i/ Rapport du Colloque 'La Mgditerrange 2 l'heure de l'6largissement de la - Comunaut6 euroPGenne1, Rome, 28-30 juin 1980. Le professeur Mahdi El- mandjra, ancien recteur de lVUniversit6 Mohammed V 2 Rabat, est prgsident de la F6d6ration mondiale des Gtudes sur le futur (51 bd. Montmorency, 75016 P a r i ~ ) ~

a e t 6 mise a l ' e c a r t des f r u i t s de l a r6volution i n d u s t r i e l l e , t e l s que l e t r ava i l s a l a r i e de l a femme. On a aussi d i t que sans 116mancipation de l ' h o m e i l n'y a u r a i t pas d'emancipation de l a femme.

La discussion su r l e s valeurs socio-cul ture l les a mis en lumiere l e con t r a s t e , en Mediterranee, en t r e une vision humaniste, genereuse e t s o l i d a i r e dlune pa r t , e t l a non-homog6n6it6 dans l e s f a i t s e t l a s i t u a t i o n d t i n f 6 r i o r i t 6 par rapport au monde i n d u s t r i a l i s e d ' au t r e pa r t " La s p 6 c i f i c i t 6 de l a M6diterran6e s e r6du i t - e l l e aujourd'hui A sa marginali t6 dans l a pr6paration du monde post- i ndus t r i e l qui e s t d6j& & nos portes? Pour c e r t a i n s , l a r6ponse e s t oui; pour d1autres ,1e consta t e s t plus nuanceo La c i v i l i s a t i o n de l a Mediterranee n 'a pas perdu l a b a t a i l l e - e l l e e s t seulement d i s t anc ig c a r s i l 'Europe indust r i - e l l e s ' e s t acharnee a mai t r i s e r l a matiere, l a Mediterranee a toujours essay6 de ma i t r i s e r l ' e s p r i t e t f avo r i se r l1e16ment humain e t s p i r i t ~ e l ~ La t r a d i t i o n joue encore un r61e primordial en Mediterranee mais i l s ' a g i t d lune t r a d i t i o n s t a t i q u e e t f igee qui n'6volue que par mimetisme e t 00 l e regard e s t sans cesse o r i en t6 vers l lextC-rieuro D1oO l a c r i s e d 1 i d e n t i t 6 c u l t u r e l l e quand i l ne s 1 a g i t d1a l i6na t ion tou t cour t . Permettez-moi de me r e f6 re r une f o i s encore 2. Braudel qui a d i t qu'on "reconnait une c i v i l i s a t i o n & ce q u ' e l l e refuse d'em- prunter".

La sens ib i l i t s , l 'amour, l e sens du beau e t l e s valeurs humaines qui caract6- r i s e n t encore l a Mediterranee pourraient cont r ibuer A une ve r i t ab l e relance S ' i l s pouvaient slappuyer s u r un modele de d6veloppement endogene. Un modele qui depassera i t l e "Know How" pour s e pr6occuper du "Know Why" qui a toujours 6 t e 1e point f o r t de l a M6diterrani2eo Sans une remise en cause des modSles de d@veloppement - su r tou t s u r l a r i ve Sud - aucun e spo i r n l e s t permis. Bien plus que de remise en cause c ' e s t de "ruptures" qu ' i l f a u t pa r l e r c a r comme l ' a d i t un des par t ic ipants " l e regard s u r l ' aveni r e s t toujours u n a c t e de fo i qui implique A l a f o i s cont inui te e t rupture". Entretemps l e s valeurs du pass6 son t exploi tees par l e s forces dominantes a des f i n s pol i t iques qui emp6chent ces valeurs d16vo1uer e t d ' a s su re r l e s transformations socio-cul ture l les re- quises pour l a s a t i s f a c t i o n des a sp i r a t i ons des populations.

LE DRAME

Le drame de l a t46diterran6e e s t d'abord son sous-d6veloppement ~ c o n m i q u e qui e s t bien plus accentue dans l e Sud. Ce sous-d@veloppement e s t A l a f o i s l a cause e t l a cons6quence d1 in6ga l i t 6 s excessives a 1 1 i n t 6 r i e u r des pays e t e n t r e 1es pays. Le revenu per capi ta en 1978 v a r i a i t de $400 en Egypte, A $8-300 en France - un rapport de l 20 mais a 1 1 i n t 6 r i e u r de l tEgypte come dans beau- coup de pays de l a r ive Sud,l ' & a r t en t r e l e s plus nant is e t l e s plus pauvres a t t e i n t souvent l e r a t i o de l 600 U'oO 1e probl6me de l a r ed i s t r i bu t ion qui d6passe l e s formalit6s diplomatiques du soi -d isant "dialogue" Nord-Sud ou de l a "char i t6" b i l a t e r a l e mais qui r equ ie r t une ve r i t ab l e res t ructura t ion du systeme 6conomique in t e rna t iona l .

L1autre vo le t du drame mediterransen ce sont l e s c o n f l i t s armes qui n 'ont cess6 de miner ce bassin. 11 e s t per t inent de consta ter qu'a l lexcept ion de l a c r i s e Chypriote, tous l e s c o n f l i t s ann6s depuis l a f i n de l a 2&e guerre mondiale s e son t passes dans 1es pays non-Europeens de l a Mediterranee - aucun de ces 9 pays n ly a 6chapp6.

Le drame e s t que la Mediterran@e e s t u n t e r r i t o i r e constamment agresse poli- tiquement, mil i tairement, economiquement, comme sur les plans cul turel e t 6co10gique~ Come l 'a encore d i t un des intervenants "La M@diterranee e s t un volcan e t non u n lac1 '* Un volcan qui explosera encore plus souvent au cours de la presente decennie e t qui verra une accentuation de confrontations e t de confl i t s dont les causes seront essentiel lement dlordre cul turel c

Oui, mais l a Msditerranee e s t aussi espoir e t esp6rance. Le pessimisme pour l'immediat e s t la just i f icat ion de l l e s p o i r pour l e long terme* La Mediterra- n@e doi t sunnonter l e poids des h6g@monismes politiques, 6conomiques e t cul- turels qui l l e touf fen t pour retrouver la richesse de sa diversi te e t de son pluralisme. L1espoir reside dans la place qu'occupe le facteur humain dans toute demarche mediterran6enne m6me s i encore trop de pays de la r@gion baf- fouent actuel lement les droi t s de l 'hornme les plus elementaires. L'espoir c ' e s t aussi l es nouvelles generations qui sont e t seront de moins en moins complex&s L3 l 'egard du mod6le de civi l isat ion industr ie l le qui a joue son r61e, f a i t son temps e t se prepare 6 rejoindre s o i t l e garage s o i t l e musee. L1espoir c l e s t l 'affaiblissement du rale de l 'Etat-Nation e t la fornation de grands en- sembles 6conomiques regionaux de 200 6 300 millions de personnes sans lesquelles aucunv6r i tab led6ve loppement ne pourra se fa i re dans l l aven i r . L'espoir e t l e rsve ce sont 1a mise sur pied d'ensembles africains e t arabes qui, avec la Communaut6 economiqueeurop6enne, pourraient mener L3 un ensemble mediterraneen inter-comunautaire.

La real isat ion dlun tel ensemble inter-comunautaire devra cependant attendre 11int6gration 6conomique de llAfrique e t ce l le des pays arabes pour permettre des discussions un peu plus 6quilibr6eso Entretemps les pays du Nord de la MCditerranGe devraient fa i re preuve de pudeur politique, 6conomique e t cultu- re l l e e t ne pas prscipiter un "trilogue" qui r isquerai t de nlCtre qu'un "mono- l ogue" neocol oni a1 i S te.

L1espoir c l e s t llGtablissement d'un s y s t a e de communication ii double sens qui favoriserai t la mobilite des homes, des id6es e t des biens dans la meilleure des traditions mediterraneennes qui s l e s t trop alt6r6e par un espr i t mercantile 00 les hommes sont s o i t des touristes qulon manipule s o i t des t ravai l leurs migrants qu'on exploite. L'espoir, c l e s t l ' i den t i t e e t l 'enra~inement~

Ceux-ci ne reprgsentent pas une demarche purement affective e t sentimentale qui regarde uniquement vers le passe. I1 s ' a g i t a par t i r de ce passe toujours fe r - t i l e de fa i re face aux defis e trupturesque confronte la Soci6te mediterrane- enne e t d1ar r6 te r les chocs e t defigurations qui harc6lent l a region e t d'in- venter ensemble des solutions a la probl6matique de c r i se qui e s t egalement une cr ise de c iv i l i sa t ion . La fausse dichotomie tradition-avenir e s t depassse. 11 e s t question de transformation pour survivre selon des mod6les librement choisis au lieu de subir pour survivre dans l e mim6tisme.

Ce qui e s t specifiquement m6diterran6en e t commun ii toutes les cultures de ce t te region, c l e s t une interrogation sans cesse renouvelee qui fonde sa vision de l Is t re humain e t de son devenir. Cette vision e s t humaniste e t universelle.

E l l e e s t l a c l e de l a comprehension des systemes de v a l e u r s s o c i o - c u l t u r e l s medi terraneens . Ce c o l l o q u e a c o n f i r m s - au cas 012 i 1 y a u r a i t eu un doute - que l a M e d i t e r r a - nee e x i s t e t o u j o u r s e t que m6me s i e11e e s t ac tue l lement malade, 1es v a l e u r s q u i l a sous- tendent e t l a d i v e r s i t e de ses c u l t u r e s 1 u i assure ron t de m e i l l e u r s j o u r s dans un a v e n i r q u i v a l o r i s e r a 1 ' e s p r i t e t l'homme e t sans l e s q u e l s i 1 ne s a u r a i t y a v o i r d ' a v e n i r pour personne.

MATERIALS RECEIVED L O C A L SPACE

. C laud io Schuf tan, E t h i c s and i d e o l o g y i n n u t r i t i o n : where do you stand, l 8 pp. and N u t r i t i o n p l a n n i n g : what do p r o f e s s i o n a l s w o r k m f x d - around t h e w o r l d t h i n k ? 40 pp. (Dpt . o f N u t r i t i o n , Tulane School o f Pu'oTic Hea l th , 1430 Tulane avenue, New Or leans, LA 70112, USA).

. Leonard J. Duhl, MD, The dimensions o f h e a l t h o r h e a l t h i n a new epoch: t r a d i t i o n a l h e a l i n g and 'modern' m e d i c i ~ n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r i i a , B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a 94720) 19 pp.

. T j e e r d Dee ls t ra , P lann ing f o r t h e urban ecosphere ( O f f i c e o f research i n ecology and p lann ing , D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology, Berlageweg 1, NL-2628 CR D e l f t , The Nether lands) 5 pp.

. E t t o r e G e l p i , Analyse p r o s p e c t i v e des p01 i t i q u e s e t des a c t i v i tCs d 'educa- t i o n permanente (11 rue Cambronne, P a r i s XV, France ) 7 p<.-----

N A T I O N A L S P A C E

. A b d e l l a t i f Benachenhou, L16conomie a l g e r i e n n e e n t r e l ' a u t o n c m i e e t l a dependance (Cen t re de recherche en economie appTiquee, 20 6ue'Chahid Kha le f Mustapha, Ben Aknoun, A l g e r , A l g e r i e ) 14 pp.

G L O B A L SPACE

. Andre Gunder Frank, P o l i t i c a l economic r e p r e s s i o n i n the T h i r d World ( U n i v e r s i t y o f East Ang l ia , School o f Development S tud ies , T ? o r w i c h 7 ~ ~ , England) 42 pp.

. Manuel L a j o L., T ransna t iona l e n t e r p r i s e s and food: a case s tudy o f t h e m i l k p r o d u c t i o n i n Peru ( U n i v e r s i t y o f East A n g l i a , School o f Development S tud ies , Norwich NR4 7TJ, England) 19 pp.

. Maur ice Goldsmith, Techn ica l change and t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f a i d (Paper read t o t h e Cornonwealth s e c t i o n of t h e Royal S o c i e t y o f A r t s , 5 February 1980) 12 pp. (Science P o l i c y Foundat ion L t d . , 36 Craven S t r e e t , London WC2N 5NG, England) .

IFDA DOSSIER 20 , NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1 9 8 0

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

LOCAL SPACE

. Four p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Asian and P a c i f i c Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Centre, Kuala Lumpur, 1980:

- I n a y a t u l l a h (ed . ) , Land reform: some Asian exper iences;

- P.T. George and K.N. Raju, Implementat ion o f l and r e f o r m i n t h r e e v i l l a g e s o f Kera la S t a t e , India;

- R.D. Wanigaratne, W. Gooneratne and N. Shanmugaratnam, Implementat ion o f l a n d r e f o r m i n s e l e c t e d v i l l a g e s o f S r i Lanka; and

- Kamal S i d d i q u i , Implementat ion o f l a n d r e f o r m i n f o u r v i l l a g e s o f Bangladesh.

. Three p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour O f f i c e , Geneva, 1980:

- A j i t Kumar Ghose, A g r a r i a n r e f o r m i n West Bengal : o b j e c t i v e s , achievements, and l i m i t a t i o n s ;

- i d . Shor t - te rm changes i n income d i s t r i b u t i o n i n poor a g r a r i a n economies: a s tudy o f famines w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o I n d i a n sub-con t inen t ; and

- Assefa Bequele, Pover ty , i n e q u a l i t y and s t a g n a t i o n , The Ghanaian exper ience.

L P e t e r Cadogan, D i r e c t democracy, An appeal t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l c lasses , t h e p o l i t i c a l l y d isenchanted and t o t h e depr i ved , The case f o r an England o f sovere ign r e p u b l i c s , e x t r a - p a r l i a m e n t a r y democracy and a new a c t i v e non- v i o l e n c e o f t h e c e n t r e (London: D i r e c t Democracy, 1 Hampstead H i l l Gardens, London NW 3 ) , 50 ppi

. P a t r i c k F. Howden, E c o - l o g i s t i c s , Programming i n t o s e l f - r e 1 iance, compat ib le technology and a bio-economy. Recyc l ing ourse lves i n t o t h e b e t t e r l i f e . A

, grand t o u r i n t o h o w - i t - w i l l - w o r k ( w r i t e t o t h e au thor , ' C l o v e l l y , Menagissey, Mount Hawke, Truro, Cornwa l l ) (UK £5 .95

B,J. Leeuwenberg, 'Small s c a l e hydropower f o r r u r a l development' , AT-News, V01 March 1980 (THD/CAT. Mi jnbouwp le in 11, D e l f t , The Nether lands) ,

. ENDA, Pour 1 'ecodevel oppement: techno log ies t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s , techno log ies combinees? (Numero s p e c i a l de Environnement A f r i c a i n (No. 11-12, v o l . I 1 1 ,. 3-4) ; ENDA, B-P. 3370, Dakar, Senegal, 484 pp.

Jean P i e r r e P e r i e r e t Jean Jacques Gu ibber t , Amenagement e t g e s t i o n e n v i r o n - nementale en A f r i q u e : jeux pedagogiques e t f o r m a t i o n (Environnement a f r i c a i n , No. hors s e r i e , mai 1980)L

Richards D. Karuna i ra jan , The Bio-Gas Way t o Modern Rural L i f e (Serendeepam, S i thankerny N.Ps, S r i Lanka). The development o f b io-gas technology ho lds t h e key t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a modern way o f r u r a l l i f e , n o t o n l y i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , b u t i n t h e h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced coun- t r i e s as we1 l.

. WsT.H. Wong T i n g Fook, The med ic ina l p l a n t s o f M a u r i t i u s (Dakar: ENDA, March 1980).

. A l a i n L a f f i t t e , S t r a t e g i c du developpement a r t i s a n a l u r b a i n (Dakar: ENDA, Et.57, septembre 1980).

F ranqo ise Durand e t Made D. D iou f , Quels t r a n s p o r t s u rba ins dans 1e T i e r s Monde? 'Cars r a p i d e s ' a Dakar (Dakar: ENDA, Et.54, j u i n 1980).

. ENDA, Enfance e t jeunesse dans l ' env i ronnement ouest a f r i c a i n (Dakar: ENDA, Et.48, o c t o b r e 1979).

. Groupe de recherche e t de r e a l i s a t i o n s pour l e d6veloooement r u r a l dans 1e - 8

T i e r s Monde, C o n t r i b u t i o n s a l l @ t u d e des m i g r a t i o n s dans l a v a l l s e du f l e u v e Senegal ( P a r i s : GRDR Doss ie r NO.^), F r . f r a n ~ a i s 20.m. 145 rue S a i n t Dominique, 75007 P a r i S ) .

P e r d i t a Huston, T h i r d World Women Speak o u t , (London: Praeger, 1979). I n t e r - views i n T u n i s i a , Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, S r i Lanka and Mexico on change, develop- ment and b a s i c needs.

, UNDP, Rura l women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n development, E v a l u a t i o n Study No.3 (New York: UNDP, 1980), 228 pp.

The f e m i n i s t press i n Western Europe, a r e p e r t o r y ( I S I S , i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u l - l e t i n No. 16. Case p o s t a l e 301, 1227 Carouge, Geneva, S w i t z e r l a n d ) .

. J. van Heemst (ed.), P o l i c y Workshop on t h e r o l e o f NGOs and NGGs i n develop- ment: r e p o r t , group papers and t e n t a t i v e conc lus ions (The Hague: I n s t i t u t e of - S o c i a l S tud ies , 1980).

NATIONAL SPACE

. P a t r i c k Mase t te Kuuya, Another Development f o r Uganda (Nyon: IFDA Occasio- n a l paper No. 2, 1980), 56 pp. (Swiss f r a n c s 10.- o r US $7). The background t o t h e paper by t h e same au thor p u b l i s h e d i n IFDA Doss ie r 13. The a u t h o r i s now M i n i s t e r o f R e h a b i l i t a t i o n i n t h e Government of Uganda

Har tmut B r a n d t e t a l . Perspec t i ves o f independent development i n Southern A f r i c a , The cases o f Zimbabwe and Namibia ( B e r l i n : German Development I n s t i t u t e , 1980). Can be ob ta ined f rom t h e GDI, 1-raunhoferst rasse 33-36, D-1000 B e r l i n 10, FR Germany).

G. Fischer ( d i r ) , Homrnes d i E t a t d lAsie e t l e u r pol i t ique (Pa r i s : Universite Rene Descartes, 1980). Les grands d lAsie : Nehru, Bandaranaike, Ho Chi Minh, Sihanouk e t Mossadegh - par A , H . Banisadr e t son ami P O V ie i l l e .

'Les revenus petrol i e r s arabes e t l eu r u t i l i s a t i o n ' , dans Poli t ique au- jourd 'hui , (No. 7-8, j u i l l e t - aou t 1980), pp 5-20. Ex t r a i t d 'une etude de l a Confederation in ternat ionale des syndicats arabes (Pol i t ique aujourd 'hui , 14 rue des P e t i t s Hotels, 75010 Pa r i s , France),

Geraldo Semenzato, Guatemala: Un g r i t o en e l des i e r to , mimeog. 37 pp (GOSO, Rua Marquez de S. Vicente 464, Apto 204, Gefvea, 22 451 Rio de Janei ro , Bras i1)-

Jorge Garcia-Bogza, A basic-needs analyt ica l bibliography (Pa r i s : O E C D Development Centre, 1980). The f i r s t pub1 ished r e s u l t of the projec t 'Basic needs: general aspects and national c o n t e ~ t s ' ~

GLOBAL SPACE

Juan Carlos Sanchez Arnau (con George Corm, Abdelkader Sid-Ahmed, Samuel Lichtensztejn, Jose Manuel Quijano y Gonzalo Martner), Deuda externa y desarro- 110 (Par is : Centro internacional para e l desa r ro l lo , 1980) 165 avenue Chc de Gaulle, 92 200 Neuilly s u r Seine, France. Este e s texto expan01 de 10s t raba- jos rea l izados en e1 context0 del proyecto t e r c e r sistema de FIPAD (vease Uocumentos FIPAD 14, 16 y 17, p. 115),.

. Enrique Ig l e s i a s , 'The energy chal lenge ' , CEPAL Review, (No. 10, April 19801, pp. 7-19.

Rajni Kothari, 'Towards a j u s t world ' , A1 t e rna t ives (Vol. V , 1979/80), pp. 1-42. Also ava i l ab l e i n booklet form from Centre f o r t h e Study of developing s o c i e t i e s , 29 Rajpur Rd, Delhi 110054, India , o r I n s t i t u t e f o r World Order, 777 UN Plaza, New York, N Y 10017, USA.

. Reginald H. Green, 'Access f o r expor ts , t he new protectionism and a l l GATT: notes toward negotiable proposals ' , Marga Quaterly Journal (Vol, 5, No. 4 ) , pp. 1-20.

J u l i o A. Cortes Hernandez, Util idad. l imi t an t e s v a1 t e rna t ivas de l a t rans-

. R. French-Davis, Economia in ternacional , Teorias y po l i t i ca s para el desar- r o l l 0 (Mexico: Fondo de cu l tu ra economica, 1979). - . Dieter Ernst ( e d . ) , The New in ternat ional d iv i s ion of labour, technology and under-development (Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag , 1980) with papers by Karl Sauvant, Ch. A. Michalet, P i e r r e Judet , Miguel Wionszck, Helge Hveem, Peter O'Brian, Ward Morehouse, Die ter Senghaas and Francisco Sagas t i .

Jean D'Herbes e t Jean Touscoz, Les contra ts internationaux de cooperation indus t r i e l 1 e e t l e nouvel ordre economique in ternat ional (Par is : Presses Univers i ta i res de France, 1980).

La1 Jayawardena, H,M,A. O n i t i r i , W i l l i a m G. Demas e t a1, The w o r l d economic c r i s i s , a Commonwealth p e r s p e c t i v e (London: Commonwealth s e c r e t a r i a t , 1980), Repor t b y a group o f e x p e r t s ,

Johan Gal tung, The Nor th /Sou th debate: techno logy , b a s i c human needs and t h e New i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r (New York: I n s t i t u t e f o r Wor ld Order, 1980) -

R ichard Fa1 k , 'A w o r l d o r d e r p e r s p e c t i v e on a u t h o r i t a r i a n tendencies ' , A1 t e r n a t i v e s ( V o l . 5, No, 2, August 1979), pp 127-193. An e l a b o r a t i o n o n t h e paper by Fa lk e t a1 i n IFDA D o s s i e r 18.

F a i t h and Science i n an u n j u s t wor ld , Repor t o f the Wor ld Counc i l o f Chur- ches ' Conference o f t h e F u t u r e (Geneva: World Counc i l o f Churches, 1980) 2 V01

Wor ld development movement, Sugar: c r i s i s i n t h e T h i r d World (London: WDM, 1980). Shows how a s e l f i s h and w a s t e f u l EEC sugar p o l i c y has impover i shed t h e poor c o u n t r i e s who a r e dependent on sugar. The b o o k l e t urges B r i t a i n t o t a k e a l e a d i n g r o l e i n p r e s s i n g t h e EEC t o adop t a sugar p o l i c y more respon- s i b l e t o t h e needs o f t h e poor (Wor ld development movement, Bed fo rd Chambers, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8HA),

PERIODICALS

. P u b l i c E n t e r p r i s e , Vol , 1 No, 1: a new j o u r n a l q u a t e r l y p u b l i s h e d by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Center f o r pub1 i c e n t e r p r i s e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . I t r e - p laces t h e ' B u l l e t i n ' wh ich ICPE has been p u b l i s h i n g f o r t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s (P.Oa Box 92, 61109 L j u b l j ana , Yugoslav ia) ;

C r - f t i c a y utop'fa, E1 numero 2. Cont inua con 1a p u b l i c a c i b n de t e x t o s preparados o r i g i n a r i a m e n t e para 1a p r imera c o n f e r e n c i a r e g i o n a l de CLACSO sobre C o n d i c i o n e s S o c i a l e s de l a deinocrac ia ' , r e a l i z a d o en Costa Rica, e n t r e e l 16

y e l 20 de o c t u b r e de 1978 y d e l que se d i o cuenta en e l nimero a n t e r i o r de C r - f t i c a & u t o p i a . ( A l s i n a 500, P i s o ZO, 1087 Buenos A i r e s , Argent ina) ,

Econom-fa de America L a t i n a , es una R e v i s t a sernest ra l , e d i t a d a en e s p a i o l desde 1978 p o r e l Cen t ro de Investigation y Docencia Economicas (CIDE), de Mexico. Su o b j e c t i v e es c o n t r i b u i r a1 conoc im ien to a c t u a l i z a d o y a l a compren- s i o n de l a r e a l i d a d l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a . A esos e f e c t o s , b r i n d a i n f o r m a c i o n y ana l i s i s de 10s p r i n c i p a l e s fenomenos y l a s tendenc ias mas r e l e v a n t e s , t a n t o a n i v e l g l o b a l como de l a s s i t u a c i o n e s nac iona les e s p e c i f i c a s . La R e v i s t a p re tende s e r cuace de i n q u i e t u d e s y c o n s t i t u i r un medio de e x p r e s i o n de d i v e r - sas l i n e a s de pensamiento de todos a q u e l l o s que a s p i r a n a un d e s t i n o aut6nom0, l i b r e y p leno de 10s pa fses la t i noamer i canos , respe tando su d i v e r s i d a d y s u con tex to . La p u b l i c a c i 6 n est: p r i n c i p a l m e n t e des t inada a c e n t r e s academicos, c i e n t f f i c o s s o c i a l e s , e s t u d i a n t e s , i n s t i t u c i o n e s y , en genera l , a personas i n t e r e s a d a s e n l a economia de America L a t i n a . ( C e n t r o de l n v e s t i g a c i o n y Docencia Econ6micas (CIDE), Ap* P o s t a l 41-655, Mexico 10 DF, Mexico) .

, COMMODITIES, FINANCE AND TRADE - ISSUES I N NORTH-SOUTH NEGOTIA- TIONS EDITED BY ARJUN SENGUPTA (LONDON; FRANCES PINTER , 1980)

This volume i s t h e product of s e v e r a l seminars j o i n t l y o rgan ized by t h e Cen t re f o r Research on t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order , Oxford and t h e Chr Michelsen I n s t i t u t e , Bergen a s p a r t of t h e IFDA Third System p r o j e c t . The seminars brought t o g e t h e r bo th academics and p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d of i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic diplomacy; t h e papers , and t h e e x t r a c t s from t h e d i s - c u s s i o n con ta ined i n t h e volume a r e t h e r e f o r e an unevenly blended c o c k t a i l . Arjun Sengupta i n an e x c e l l e n t and e x t e n s i v e I n t r o d u c t i o n , however, p rov ides t h e r i g h t a p e r i t i f .

The commodities s e c t i o n i n t h e volume appear t h e more i n t e r e s t i n g a l though i t s s t r e n g t h l i e s more i n i t s a n a l y s i s than i n t h e p o l i c y c o n c l u s i o n s . There i s s t i l l no consensus a s t o t h e r i g h t t h i n g t o be done i n r e l a t i o n t o i n t e r n a t i o - n a l t r a d e i n commodities. I s p r i c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t h e major o b j e c t i v e o r t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of e a r n i n g s o r bo th? Or a r e they a l t e r n a t i v e s ? Are compensatory f i n a n c i n g schemes adequa te t o d e a l w i t h t h e c y c l i c a l problems? The s i g n i f i - cance of t h e Common Fund depends on t h e window through which we peep.

The problem i s t h a t t h e e n t i r e commodity i s s u e i s looked upon from a "mutual i n t e r e s t " a n g l e i n c r e a s i n g l y becoming t h e f a s h i o n of t h e "moderates" and t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e s i n t h e North-South n e g o t i a t i n g p rocess . The danger i s t h a t such a p e r s p e c t i v e might now be l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t . Changes i n t h e power s t r u c - t u r e and t h a t i n c l u d e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i n commodities w i l l no t be b rought a b o u t by t h e goodwi l l of Western o r E a s t e r n governments. The r o l e o f producer a s s o c i a t e and a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of u n i l a t e r a l , c o u n t e r v a i l i n g a c t i o n by producing c o u n t r i e s t o o b t a i n a n improved b a r g a i n a r e no t mentioned. P r o f . H e l l e i n e r i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e d i s c u s s i o n u rges t h e need t o q u e s t i o n

"some of t h e s e d e e p l y roo ted o r t h o d o x i e s " and " t o work on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l founda t ions of economic and p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s " . Th i s i s e x a c t l y what should be done i n t h e commodities s e c t o r and b e a r i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y i n mind t h e no t s o i n e f f e c t i v e s t r e n g t h of commodity producing c o u n t r i e s .

The s e c t i o n s on F inance and Trade a r e u s e f u l b u t l a c k comprehensive coverage o f t h e s a l i e n t i s s u e s , Of the 400 pages t h e l a t t e r 150 pages of t h e volume c o n s t i t u t e e x t r a c t s from t h e d i s c u s s i o n and some r e a l l y good p i c k i n g s a r e t o be found. The e x t r a c t s a r e s u p e r b l y o rgan ized and i n t h e s e pages one f e e l s t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y of North-South r e l a t i o n s . One f i n d s a t l a s t a d i s c u s s i o n of whether t h e s t r a t e g i e s of t h e South were r i g h t o r wrong, adequa te o r inadequa te . The d i s c u s s i o n i s probably inadequa te , b u t i t i s a good s t a r t and h o p e f u l l y t h e s e a r c h f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s should now be on, (L.de S ) .

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the respons ib i l i t y of the+ authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be repro- duced or transmitted in any form or by any means ui thout permission of the authors or IFDA. I n case of reprint , acknowledgement of source and rece ip t of a copy would be appreciated. IFDA Dossier i s published b i - monthly.

THE IFDA DOSSIER IN 1981 r The IFDA Dossier, which appeared twenty times during the

, last three years will become, next year, a quarterly. A n d we are asking those who can afford it to contribute to its financing.

l

I As indicated in Dossier 1 (January 1978), the IFDA Dossier was to be published 'whenever there is material available'. We did not intend originally to publish it so often. However, the third system project, which absorbed most of IFDA energies between 1978 and last summer, pro- vided so many papers that we had to carry the burden of a monthly and later a bi-monthly publication.

Whilst continuing to attempt to help the third system and in particu- lar the unheard voices to express themselves and to facilitate the exchange of ideas and information on alternatives, the time has now come for IFDA to work in a less hectic manner. As part of our con- solidation and our adopting our own 'cruising speed', we will pre- pare four Do~siers a year and mail them, in principle, in January, April, July and October.

The new pace will make it possible to mail it by surface, which will mean substantial savings. Some time may thus elapse between your receipt of this present issue (mailed directly to 8,500 addresses in all regions) and that of Dossier 21.

Further, we receive so many requests for subscriptions that it has been decided to ask a price from those who can afford to pay it and are prepared to participate in our effort towards autonomy. They should hopefully include most of our readers in the industrialized countries. The subscription prices will be as follows:

IFDA DOSSIER - SUBSCRIPTION TO FOUR ISSUES

Surface Airmail

SFR US$ SFR US$

. Subscribers from industrialized countries 32.- 20.- 40.- 25.-

. Subscribers from the Third World and students

Please send cheque or money orders to: IFDA, 2 Place du March*, 1260 Nyon, Switzerland.