Graduate Programs: The Neuroscience Paradigm

Anastasia S. TsingotjidouLab. of Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

and

Georgios C. PapadopoulosLab. of Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to provide an insight on the global organization of graduate studies in Neuroscience and set an example for other scientific disciplines. Neuroscience has been growing rapidly the last decades; this review will explain the reasons of the expansion on this research field and document its importance. An overview of the existing programs in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere in the world will be given. The Neuroscience paradigm will help the interested academicians to harmonize their scientific fields of interest while complying with the Bologna declaration.

Keywords: Neuroscience, Graduate Programs, Harmonization, Bologna Declaration, Global Integration

INTRODUCTION

Bologna Declaration (1999) was the implementation of significant educational reforms in pre- and post-graduate level. Since the establishment of these principles, some European countries (France, Germany, Italy and Austria) have introduced Bachelor’s and Master’s degree programs as an alternative to their traditional one-tiered systems of higher education. Others are still debating on this subject. However, there is a common desire to harmonize education in Europe and to integrate it with the educational programs of international institutions in the United States or elsewhere. The Neuroscience Graduate Programs offer an excellent example of this process.

The highlight of Bologna Declaration is based on the following themes: Adoption of a system of easily readable

and comparable degrees Adoption of a system essentially based on

two main cycles, undergraduate and graduate Establishment of a system of credits Promotion of mobility by overcoming

obstacles to the effective exercise of free movement

Promotion of European co-operation in quality assurance

Promotion of the necessary European dimensions in higher education, particularly in regards to curricular development.

This article will give a quick review of Neuroscience worldwide and focus on its aspects that make this field an example for the tasks that Bologna Declaration is aiming for.

NEUROSCIENCE

Neuroscience has become one of the major post-graduate choices worldwide. It investigates the molecular and cellular levels of the nervous system; the neuronal systems responsible for sensory and motor function; the basis of higher order processes, such as cognition and emotion. This area provides the basis for understanding the medical and veterinary fields that are concerned with treating nervous system disorders. These medical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry and ophthalmology.

The Society for Neuroscience (SfN), based in the United States of America, is a non-profit membership organization of basic scientists and physicians who study the brain and nervous system. Recognizing the tremendous potential for the study of the brain and nervous system as a separate field, the Society was formed in 1970. It has grown from 500 members to more than 36,000 and is the world's largest organization of scientists devoted to the study of the brain. The Society's primary goal is to promote the exchange of information among researchers. The Society works closely with other scientific societies, disease advocacy organizations, and the National Institutes of Health. It relies on its 111 local chapters for grassroots representation of the neuroscience community. SfN chapters across North America hold scientific lectures and other activities for the educational advancement of local neuroscience communities. The Society also produces a variety of publications.

The number of neuroscientists in Europe is large enough to match that of the neuroscientific community in North America. However, the degree of cohesiveness in the former is hampered by, among other things, the lack of a common language, the existence of geopolitical boundaries, and the dearth of pan-European funding initiatives. FENS, the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies, represents a large number of national European neuroscience societies and several monodisciplinary societies. FENS was founded in 1998 at the Forum of European Neuroscience in Berlin and is the successor organisation of ENA, the European Neuroscience Association.

FENS was founded with the goal of advancing research and education in neuroscience and representing neuroscience research in the European Commission, International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), and other granting bodies. FENS is the European partner of the American Society for Neuroscience and has members the following national societies:

Armenian Neuroscience Society Austrian Neuroscience Association Belgium Society of Neuroscience Brain Research Society of Finland British Neuroscience Association Croatian Society for Neuroscience Czech Neuroscience Society Danish Society for Neuroscience Dutch Neurofederation Georgian Neuroscience Association German Neuroscience Society Hellenic Society for Neuroscience Hungarian Neuroscience Society Israel Society for Neurosciences National Neuroscience Society of Romania Norwegian Neuroscience Society Polish Neuroscience Society Russian Physiological Society Neuroscience

Center Slovenian Neuroscience Association Sociedad Española de Neurociencia Sociedade Portuguesa de Neurosciências Società Italiana di Neuroscienze Societé des Neurosciences Swedish Neuroscience Network Swiss Society for Neuroscience Turkish Neuroscience Association

This is indicative of a network well organized based on local societies to form gradually larger scientific groups both in Europe and the United States, but elsewhere around the world as well. It provides a promotion of mobility between individuals, which is one of the prerequisites of Bologna declaration. The flow of information is moving easier among the groups and gives opportunities for collaboration in research.

THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROSCIENCE

The impact of Neuroscience can be easily demonstrated by the following numbers: at the annual fall meeting of SfN more than 28,000 participants present more than 15,000 reports of new scientific findings. In the United States more than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, including heart disease and cancer. Neurological illnesses affect more than 50 million Americans annually at costs exceeding $400 billion [1].In Europe, 3 out of 10 people suffer from brain dysfunction, and 1 out of 5 from depression. Neurological diseases cost over the 1/3 of the total cost for any other illness in the European Health Network. In 2004, this cost reached 386 billion Euros [2].

The significance of Neuroscience is also shown by the activities taken place during the congressionally designated Decade of the Brain. From 1990 to the

end of 1999, the Library of Congress and the National Institute of Mental Health (LC/NIMH) of the National Institutes of Health sponsored a unique interagency initiative to advance the goals set forth in a proclamation by the President of the United States designating the 1990s as the Decade of the Brain: "to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain research" through "appropriate programs, ceremonies, and activities." To achieve this public recognition, the LC/NIMH Project on the Decade of the Brain sponsored a variety of activities including publications and programs aimed at introducing Members of Congress, their staffs, and the general public to cutting-edge research on the brain and encouraging public dialogue on the ethical, philosophical, and humanistic implications of these emerging discoveries.

During this decade, neuroscience made significant discoveries in the following areas: genetics, brain plasticity and development, new drugs, imaging and cell death. Apparently, the standardization of post-graduate studies in Neuroscience facilitates the progress of research in this area and the continuation of scientific accomplishments leading in translational discoveries for treatment of many neurological diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Stroke and Stress. It is apparent that the field of neuroscience has made startling discoveries that have transformed our understanding of the healthy brain and helped to deliver treatments for disorders affecting millions.

In addition to its scientific focus, the Society administers a range of programs in support of the neuroscience community's interests in government relations, public information, educational outreach, minority advancement, chapters and international affairs. SfN also has a number of awards recognizing excellence in neuroscience.

The Government Affairs Program, in conjunction with the Governmental and Public Affairs Committee, the Committee on Animals in Research and the Social Issues Committee, informs legislators and policy makers about recent developments in neuroscience research and the implications of the discoveries for public policy, societal benefit and continued scientific progress.

The newly-created Educational Programs department, in conjunction with the Education Committee, the Committee on Neuroscience Literacy and the Neurobiology of Disease

Advisory Committee, focuses on educational outreach programs including Brain Awareness Week, Neuroscientist-Teacher Partner programs, Short Courses taken place in the annual meeting, and the Neurobiology of Disease Workshop. Educational Programs also focuses on bringing neuroscience in the news.

As outlined in the new SfN Strategic Plan, the Educational Programs department is working to create more professional development opportunities for SfN members by offering career development activities, information and educational resources for neuroscientists at all stages from undergraduate students on up through senior faculty.

SfN advances the public’s understanding of the brain and the nervous system by producing publications aimed at teachers, students and members of the public, including Brain Briefings, a monthly two-page newsletter explaining how basic neuroscience discoveries lead to clinical applications and Brain Facts, a 52-page primer on the brain and nervous system.

SfN seeks to increase participation of scientists from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds by offering fellowships, grants and awards along with workshops and poster sessions at the annual meetings.

This represents a nice model to compare and follow for many different fields of research seeking globalization as part of the objectives of Bologna declaration.

NEUROSCIENCE PROGRAMS

In 1970, neuroscience barely existed as a separate discipline. Today, more than 300 training programs exist in neuroscience alone, and neuroscience is one of the most exciting areas of biomedical research. Graduate Programs in this field are given by schools relevant to the medical profession (medical and/or veterinary medical schools).

In USA, every state possesses more than one Neuroscience Graduate programs. In the West Coast areas more than 22 programs exist. The Interdepartmental Ph.D. Program for Neuroscience at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA; http://www.neuroscience.ucla.edu) was established in 1965 as one of the first interdisciplinary predoctoral neuroscience programs. As the educational arm of the Brain Research Institute, the Program draws on the research and teaching expertise of a neuroscience faculty of nearly 150 individuals, one of the world's largest and most diverse faculties in this discipline.

(http://www.gradschools.com/programs/neuroscience.html)

In Northeast side of USA there are 60 Neuroscience programs, given by different Schools. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences stands at the nexus of neuroscience, biology and psychology. This Department combines these disciplines to study specific aspects of the brain and mind, including vision, movement systems, learning and memory, neural and cognitive development, language and reasoning. Working collaboratively, it applies its expertise, tools, and techniques to address and answer both fundamental and universal questions about how the brain and mind work (http://web.mit.edu/bcs/).

At Yale, the Inter-departmental Neuroscience Program offers flexible but structured interdisciplinary training for independent research and teaching in neuroscience. The goal of the program is to ensure that degree candidates obtain a solid understanding of cellular and molecular neurobiology, physiology and biophysics, neural development, systems and behavior, and neural computation. The program investigates the development, neuronal organization, and function of the mammalian central nervous system. It represents part of the Yale Combined Program in the Biological and Biomedical Sciences (http://info.med.yale.edu/neurosci/).

All Neuroscience Graduate Programs in the US are highly competitive. Amongst other requirements for acceptance is knowledge of mathematics through calculus, general and organic chemistry, biochemistry, physics, and basic biology, including molecular and cell biology. From their side, Universities offer interdepartmental programs, meaning that they provide an integrated curriculum of several disciplines. For example, at UCLA the curriculum has six major components: core courses (Cell, Developmental and Molecular Neurobiology, Cellular Neurophysiology, Neuroanatomy, and Systems Neuroscience), laboratory rotations, literature-based seminars, advanced courses, teaching, and dissertation research.

In Canada, at least 20 Graduate Neuroscience Programs exist, leading to Master’s and/or Ph.Ds degrees. Usually, the program is run in conjunction with numerous departments in the Medical School (e.g.: Anatomy and Neurobiology, Biochemistry, Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biophysics) and in the Faculty of Science (Psychology). These programmes offer opportunities for graduate studies in a variety of clinically-applied

neuroscience disciplines. Others given solely by Psychology Departments may deal with how we see and hear, learn and remember, the development of perceptual and cognitive abilities (http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Canada/

neuroscience_canada.html).

In continental Europe there is an example of how degrees can be given by two collaborating institutes located overseas: The National Institutes of Health (USA)-Karolinska Institute (Sweden) Scholars Program in Neuroscience for predoctoral training of graduate students is a collaborative research program building on the excellence of both institutions and a common interest in educating highly talented individuals for careers as professional scientists. The Scholars Program in Neuroscience wishes to promote ground-breaking research in fundamental areas of neuroscience and psychiatry that could lead to a better understanding of brain function and neuropsychiatric disorders, new medical diagnostics and treatments, and the advancement of methodology for human brain imaging. This program provides the possibility for graduate students from both the United States and Sweden to divide their training for a doctoral degree between the two participating Institutes. In this manner graduate students in this program will benefit from a broadened scientific experience. Another example of multidisciplinary graduate program is given in one of the some prestigious European Universities: The International Max Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular Life Sciences is jointly conducted by the Max Planck Institutes of Biochemistry, Neurobiology and Psychiatry in cooperation with the Ludwig Maximilian University Munich and the Technical University Munich. The interdisciplinary PhD program, entirely taught in English, provides comprehensive scientific training in a superb and vibrant research environment, covering the areas of modern biochemistry, cell biology, molecular medicine, neurobiology and structural biology.

In United Kingdom and Ireland over 20 Neuroscience Programs exist; some were founded many decades ago. Once again, all degrees can be taken as part of multidisciplinary modular scheme suitable for a range of professional groups, offered by different Faculties, e.g.: Faculty of Natural Sciences and the Faculty of Health and Human Sciences. In some programs, this gives the opportunity to students to select optional courses according to their professional background and interests (http://www.gradschools.com/listings/UK/neuroscience_UK.html).

In Australia and New Zealand 12 Neuroscience Graduate Programs exist (http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Australia/neuroscience_Australia.html),

and elsewhere in the world, including India, China and Korea 20 more programs are taken place (http://www.gradschools.com/listings/out/neuroscience_out.html).

In the veterinary medicine schools many Departments conduct research in neuroscience, e.g. the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies in UK. The Division of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences of this School has a strong research record and is particularly active in the areas of neuroscience and studies at the single cell level, with many programs cutting across these two major areas.

The Department of Veterinary & Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology & Physiology of Veterinary Medicine School of Washington State University offers a Graduate Program in Neuroscience. Neuroscience plays an important role to advance medical science for both humans and animals. The mission of the Graduate Program in Neuroscience is to formalize this study through research and graduate education (http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/depts-vcapp/neurosci/).Graduates of the Neuroscience Program are prepared for careers in teaching, research, and public service. Potential employers of Program graduates include colleges and universities, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, and governmental agencies. Graduates are capable of teaching neuroscience, physiology, and pharmacology to professional and graduate students in the health sciences. Graduates are trained to pursue research in neuroscience with a specialization in an area of their choice. Upon graduation, they are credible experts in the areas of their thesis research. Graduates can identify significant research problems and formulate logical, comprehensive strategies for studying these problems. They have extensive knowledge of the scientific method and an appreciation for the demands that this method makes on the integrity of scientists.

All Neuroscience Programs, within the years, have been more or less integrated, although their research areas have broaden, including: Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience; Systems Neuroscience; Developmental Neuroscience; Behavioral & Cognitive Neuroscience; Clinical Neuroscience; Imaging in Neuroscience; Neuroengineering.

What is apparent in Neuroscience Programs in different Universities is the promotion of appropriate interdepartmental communication, initiation of development of grant proposal and new program activities as needs and opportunities arise. These characteristics strengthen the

integration of the studies which is based on promotion of mobility, co-operation in quality assurance, and promotion of the attractiveness of the European Higher Education area.

CONCLUSIONSTHE NEUROSCIENCE PARADIGM

From the time of Hippocrates who first stated that the brain is involved in sensation and is the seat of intelligence, neuroscience has been a very exciting and fascinating field for research. Over the years, neuroscience network has grown to become a global association of scientists and/or educators.

National Neuroscience Societies have been established, including Society for Neuroscience in the United States and comprise all together the International Brain Research Organization. Annually or biannually these societies are holding meetings to present their new data; in some cases (Society for Neuroscience meetings) the participants are more than 28,000. Progress has been made on the research field with new findings and researchers have become Nobel laureates due to the importance of their discoveries.

On the other hand, many Universities worldwide have launched neuroscience graduate programs to educate students in this field. Some of these programs have been described in previous paragraphs. One common characteristic they share is their dependency on many different specialties, so that courses of these programs are given by many different departments. All these programs provide students with access to diverse study and training opportunities. Teachers, researchers and administrative staff receive recognition and valorisation of periods spent in a European context, or elsewhere in the world researching, teaching and training, without prejudicing their statutory rights. In other words, this satisfies one of Bologna declaration’s priorities which is the promotion of mobility by overcoming obstacles to the effective exercise of free movement.

Furthermore, mobility at higher levels has also been achieved. In Bologna declaration:”Ministers call for increased mobility at the doctoral and postdoctoral levels and encourage the institutions concerned to increase their co-operation in doctoral studies and the training of young researchers.” As explained in previous paragraphs, cooperation at doctoral level exists in all neuroscience graduate programs. Hence, another fulfilled objective of Bologna declaration is the promotion of the necessary European (and not only) dimensions in higher education, particularly with regards to curricular development, inter-institutional co-operation, mobility schemes and integrated programs of study, training and research.

The same Ministers that constructed Bologna declaration actively supported the development of adequate quality assurance of integrated curricula leading to joint degrees. This goal is apparently achieved in almost every neuroscience graduate program, since the degrees are given by different departments of the same institution, and sometimes by different universities located in different countries. This gives the opportunity to develop comparable criteria and methodologies.

In conclusion, in Europe and elsewhere citizens’ employability is being promoted through degrees given by neuroscience programs as well as the international competitiveness of the European higher education system and livelong learning.

Overall, Neuroscience represents a paradigm as a scientific field structured and organized in compliance to Bologna declaration objectives. The organizational experience gained in Neuroscience can hopefully be transferred to other scientific fields.

REFERENCES

[1] Brain Facts (2002) Society for Neuroscience; Editor: Joseph Carey, Washington, USA

[2] Meeting of Minds, European Citizens Deliberation on Brain Science, Brussels (2005).

http://info.med.yale.edu/neurosci/

http://www.gradschools.com/programs/neuroscience.html

http://www.gradschools.com/listings/UK/neuroscience_UK.html

http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Canada/neuroscience_canada.html

http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Australia/neuroscience_australia.html

http://www.gradschools.com/listings/out/neuroscience_out.html

http://www.neuroscience.ucla.edu

http://web.mit.edu/bcs/

http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/depts-vcapp/neurosci/