Laboratory 1

Safety and Security measures

Microscope parts identification

Cell fractionation technique

Lab Safety Rules

1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.

2. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a

direction or part of a procedure, ASK YOUR TEACHER BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH

THE ACTIVITY.

3. Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in the science

classroom without the presence of the teacher.

4. When first entering a science room, do not touch any equipment, chemicals, or

other materials in the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.

5. Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all

instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.

6. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use

laboratory glassware as containers for food or beverages.

7. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory.

Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the laboratory.

8. Always work in a well-ventilated area.

9. Keep hands away from face, eyes, mouth, and body while using chemicals or lab

equipment. Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments.

10. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including:

first aid kit(s), and fire extinguisher. Know where the fire alarm and the exits are

located.

11. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a laboratory period; containers

must be closed, and any electrical equipment turned off.

12. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware are used, students will wear safety

goggles.

13. Contact lenses may be not be worn in the laboratory.

14. Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair must be tied back, and

dangling jewelry and baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover

the foot. No sandals allowed on lab days.

15. A lab coat or smock should be worn during laboratory experiments.

To study cells

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living

organisms.

To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry

It can be difficult to understand how a cell, usually too small to be seen by

the unaided eye, can be so complex.

Cells are studied by using two Techniques:

- Microscopy

- cell fractionation

Microscope parts identification

There are basically two types of microscopes:

- Light microscope.

- Stereo Microscope.

Light microscope structure

The part � Function

Eyepiece � Magnifies the specimen image.

Body Tube The body tube holds the eye piece at the proper

distance.

Nose Piece The objective lenses can be turned to increase the

magnification.

Objective Lenses � The objective lenses increase magnification

(usually from 10x to 40x).

Stage Clips � These 2 clips hold the slide in place on the

stage.

Diaphragm � Used to vary the amount of light passing

through the slide. Usually it is better if the

amount of light is low.

Light Source � Some have lights, others have mirrors where

you must move the mirror to reflect light.

Arm � Used to support the microscope when carried,

and holds the body tube, nose piece and

objective lenses.

Stage � Supports the slide.

Coarse Adjustment Knob � Moves the stage up and down (quickly) for

focusing your image.

Fine Adjustment Knob � This knob moves the stage slightly to sharpen

the image.

Base � Supports the microscope.

Stereo Microscope Structure

Main differences between Light and Stereo Microscope

Light microscope Stereo microscope

40x – 1000 x 7x – 40x Magnification

4 objectives lenses 2 objectives lenses Structure

For higher magnification

(slides examination)

For lower magnification

(samples examination) Use

One source of lighting

Two

sources of lighting

(top/bottom)

Illumination

Cell Fractionation

Application: cell fractionation is used to isolate (fractionate) cell components

based on size and density.

Technique: First, cells are homogenized in a blender to break them up.

The resulting mixture called cell homogenate is then centrifuged at various

speeds and durations to fractionate the cell components, forming a series of

pellets, overlaid by the remaining homogenate ( supernatant).

Results:

In early experiments, researchers used microscopy to identify the

organelle in each pellet and biochemical methods to determine their

metabolic functions.

These identifications established a baseline for this method, enabling today’s

researchers to know which cell fraction they should collect in order to isolate

and study particular organelles.

Laboratory 2

Animal cell and Plant cell

Cell organelles

a. Animal Cell

An animal cell is a form of eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in

animals.

It has extensive and elaborately arranged internal membranes, which divide

the cell into compartments called the cell organelles.

Animal cell structures and their function

Function

Structure

Organelles

Boundary of the cell Phospholipid bilayer Cell membrane

Control all activity of the

cell, DNA maintenance

Double membrane

compartment Nucleus

Storage container Single membrane

compartment Vacuole

Cellular respiration Double membrane

compartment Mitochondria

Breakdown of large

molecules

Single membrane

compartment Lysosomes

Expression of lipids Single membrane

compartment

Smooth endoplasmic

reticulum

Translation and folding of

new proteins

Single membrane

compartment

Rough endoplasmic

reticulum

Translation of RNA into

proteins RNA-protein Ribosome

sorting, packaging,

processing and modification

of proteins

Single membrane

compartment Golgi apparatus

Function

Structure

Organelles

breakdown of metabolic

hydrogen peroxide

Single membrane

compartment Peroxisome

ribosome production protein-DNA-RNA Nucleolus

helps in cell division by

forming spindle fibers Microtubule protein

Centrioles

b. Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells found in plants and differ in several key

aspects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms by:

A Large central vacuole .

A Cell wall.

Presence of plastids the most notable is the chloroplast.

Plant cell structures and their function

Organelles

Structure

Function

Cell wall Made of cellulose,

hemicellulose, and pectin.

Rigid, protective barrier

Chloroplast Double membrane

compartment Photosynthesis

Main differences between animal and plant cell

Animal cell

Plant cell

Don’t have chloroplast Have chloroplast

Don’t have a cell wall Have a cell wall

small vacuoles Large central vacuole

Prepare animal and plant cells experiment

Purpose :

In this lab, you will prepare and observe cells from a plant (onion) and an animal

(your own cheek).

Materials :

Water-methylene blue stain-iodine stain-glass slides-covers-cotton buds-dropper-

filter papers-onion.

Procedure :

a. animal cell preparation

Take clean cotton buds and gently scrape the inside of your cheek.

Place one drop of water on the slide.

Swirl the cotton bud with cheek cells, in the water drop on the slide.

Put one drop of Methylene blue solution , using dropper and add this to the

mixture on the slide.

Remove any excess water and stain from the slide using a filter paper.

Take a clean cover slip and lower it carefully on the slide.

Observe animal cells under the microscope , making sure the microscope is

on low power.

Go through the three powers (4X,10X and 40X) and label any parts you see.

After you draw your diagrams, rotate the nosepiece back to low power.

Remove the slide and turn off the microscope.

b. plant cell preparation

Peel off a small section of onion skin.

Place the onion skin in the center of the slide.

Add a small drop of iodine stain directly to the tissue.

Place a cover slip over the stained tissue.

Gently tap the slide with a pencil to remove any air bubbles and draw excess

stain from the slide using a filter paper.

Observe plant cells under the microscope like you did above.

Results

a. Animal cell

b. Plant cell

Plant cell

Animal cell

Cell shape

Nucleus position

Laboratory 3

Cell membrane Structure and Function

Movement Across membranes:

Diffusion Experiment

Osmosis Experiment

Cell membrane

The cell membrane or also called plasma membrane surrounds the living cell

and control the passage of substances in and out.

The ability of the cell to discriminate in its chemical exchanges with its

environment is fundamental to life, and it is the plasma membrane and its

components molecules that make this selectively possible.

Cell membrane Structure and Function

The structure of the cell membrane is known as “ fluid mosaic model”.

The major components are: lipids (phospholipids) and proteins.

It is composed of double layer of lipids with various proteins embedded in or

attached to this double layer.

The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane helps regulate the cell’s

molecular traffic.

The cell membrane exhibits a “ selective permeability”.

Movement across membranes

There are different ways of transporting molecules across the membrane.

The simplest and spontaneous ways are the ones which occurs passively.

These ways are called: Passive transport and include:

Diffusion

Osmosis

Diffusion

The rule of diffusion is that :

Substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less

concentrated.

We would like to demonstrate that diffusion occurs through the selective

permeable membrane.

Materials :

A large beaker that is half filled with water.

Tea spoon of corn flour.

Some cold water to mix and make a starch solution.

Sandwich plastic bag.

Iodine solution.

Procedure:

Pour the starch solution into the plastic bag.

Make sure that the bag is completely closed, you can use an elastic band.

Close the bag and place it down.

Then, place about 20 drops of iodine solution into the water in the beaker.

Insert the plastic bag filled with starch into the beaker that contains dilute

iodine solution.

Results

After a while, you will see that the starch solution inside the plastic bag has

changed to a blue black color.

The only way that could have occurred is if the iodine molecules have moved

from a region of higher concentration (the solution in the beaker) to a

region of lower concentration inside the plastic bag.

Conclusion

We can prove that the iodine molecules have indeed moved through the

plastic bag considered as a selective permeable barrier.

The longer you leave the bag in the iodine solution The greater the

results.

Osmosis

Osmosis is the process of movement of water molecules from an area of

higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a selectively

permeable membrane.

The process of osmosis can be observed by using potatoes as model of cell

membrane.

Purpose:

In this experiment , you are going to see how water can move into and out of a

potato slice.

Materials :

Potato - 2tsp sodium chloride - Knife - water - 2 drinking cups.

Procedure :

Slice up a potato into a 3 small pieces ( 1 cm squares )

Fill two cups with water.

In one of the cups add 2-3 table spoons of salt, and stir it in.

Make sure you label which cup has the salt, and which one doesn't.

Place one potato slice into plain water, and one into salty water.

Leave it for about 30 – 60 minutes.

Remove the pieces onto a plate.

Write your observation on these pieces by pay attention to size, how flexible it

is, etc.

Explain your result.

Laboratory 4

Cell Division

Mitosis

Meiosis

Technique of Preparing a Karyotype

Technique of testing a fetus for genetic disorders

Cell Division :

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more

daughter cells.

This process enable organisms to grow and to reproduce, it play a key role in

repairing tissues and in formation of new organisms.

There are 2 types of Cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis.

Somatic cells divide by mitosis.

Sex cells or gametes divide by meiosis.

Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases

Gap 1 (G1) Cells increase in size

Synthesize (S) DNA Replication

Gap 2 (G2) Cell continue to grow

Mitosis (M) Division into 2 daughter cells

The Cell cycle consist of two phases:

Interphase: is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its

time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division.

(G1, S, G2).

Mitosis: Results in the production of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.

The daughter cells and the original parent cell have the same number of

chromosomes (M).

Phases of Mitosis :

Prophase:

The chromatin condenses into double rod-shaped structures called

chromosomes in which the chromatin becomes visible and they attached to

each other by a central part called centromere.

Metaphase:

Characterized by positioning and alignment of chromosomes in the

equatorial level of the cell.

Anaphase:

The paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate and begin moving to

opposite ends (poles) of the cell.

Telophase:

The final stage of mitosis or meiosis during which the chromosomes of

daughter cells are grouped in new nuclei.

Chromosomes duplication Interphase

Condensation of DNA Prophase

Formation of the equatorial plate Metaphase

Migration of chromatids Anaphase

Decondensation of chromosome Telophase

Phases of mitosis under the microscope

Cytokinesis :

Mitosis is usually followed by cytokinesis, which is the division of the original

cell's cytoplasm.

At the end of cytokinesis, there are two distinct daughter cells.

Animal cells carry out cytokinesis by cleavage furrow.

Plant cells carry out cytokinesis by formation of cell plate.

Meiosis :

Meiosis includes two cycles of cell division result in production of four cells.

Each daughter cell has half number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

The four daughter cells are not identical between each other.

Comparison between Mitosis & Meiosis

Meiosis Mitosis

Definition A type of cellular

reproduction in which the

number of chromosomes

are reduced by half through

the separation of

homologous chromosomes

in a haploid cell.

A process of asexual

reproduction in which the

cell divides in two, with

an equal number of

chromosomes in diploid

cell.

Function sexual reproduction Cellular Reproduction &

general growth and repair

of the body

Type of reproduction Sexual Asexual

Occurs in Humans, animals, plants,

fungi

all organisms

Genetically Different Identical

Number of division 2 1

Number of daughter cells 4 2

Chromosome number Reduced by half Remains the same

This a figure that shows the difference between Mitosis &

Meiosis

Set of chromosomes in human cells :

Each human somatic cell has 46 chromosomes.

Chromosomes differ in size, and in the positions of their centromeres so they

can be distinguished from one another by microscopic examination when

sufficiently condensed.

Karyotype is the image of the arrangement of chromosome in pairs, starting

with the longest ones.

Preparing a Karyotype :

Application:

A karyotype is a display of condensed chromosomes arranged in pairs.

Karyotyping can be used to screen for abnormal numbers of chromosomes or

defective chromosomes associated with certain congenital disorders, such as Down

syndrome.

Preparing a Karyotype :

Technique:

Karyotypes are prepared from isolated somatic cells, which are treated with a drug

to stimulate mitosis and then grown in culture for several days.

Cells arrested in metaphase are stained and then viewed with a microscope

equipped with a digital camera.

A photograph of the chromosomes is displayed on a computer monitor, and the

images of the chromosomes are arranged into pairs according to size & shape.

Results:

This karyotype shows the chromosomes from a normal human male. The size of the

chromosome, position of the centromere, and pattern of stained bands help identify

specific chromosomes. Although difficult to discern in the karyotype, each

metaphase chromosome consists of two closely attached sister chromatids.

Technique of testing a fetus for genetic disorders

What is Amniocentesis?

Amniocentesis is a diagnostic procedure performed on pregnant women that looks

for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities (birth defects) in the fetus.

Some common conditions that may be detected include Down syndrome (trisomy

21), cystic fibrosis, and others.

This test is generally performed between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy.

Karyotyping shows whether the chromosomes of the fetus are normal in number

and appearance or not.

Technique of Amniocentesis

1. A sample of amniotic fluid can be taken starting at the 14th to 16th week of

pregnancy.

2. Centrifugation of the sample to separate the fluid from the fetal cells.

3. Biochemical tests can be performed immediately on the amniotic fluid or

later on the cultured fetal cells.

4. Fetal cells must be cultured for several weeks to obtain sufficient numbers

for Karyotyping.

Laboratory 5

DNA structure

PCR technique

DNA extraction experiment

DNA Structure :

Experiments with bacteria and with phages provided the first strong evidence

that the genetic material is DNA.

DNA is a double helix molecule.

Two antiparallel sugar-phosphate chains wind around the outside of the

molecule.

The Nitrogenous bases project into the interior.

The nitrogenous bases hydrogen-bond in specific pairs:

A with T

G with C

A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins.

During Cell division, the DNA molecule is duplicated in the interphase and

passed to daughter cells in mitosis.

The DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins and of RNA molecules involved in the process of Gene Expression.

Techniques of molecular genetics:

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) :

It is a technique used to make multiple copies of a segment DNA of interest,

generating a large amount of copies from a small initial sample.

Amplification of DNA samples makes possible the detection of pathogenic

virus or bacteria, identification of individuals (DNA fingerprinting), and

several scientific research involving DNA manipulation.

Basic Tools:

What you need for the reaction is:

1. The DNA sequence of interest

2. Enzyme: DNA polymerase (heat resistant enzyme)

3. DNA primers

4. Free nucleotides (A,C,T,G).

Technique:

You combine all the tools together in the PCR tube and put it in the machine.

The PCR cycle begins.

Each cycle consists of three steps:

1. Denaturation (95ºC)

2. Annealing (55ºC)

3. Extension

1- Denaturation:

The first step is to heat the reaction up.

By adding heat to the system, denaturation which is the breakdown of the

hydrogen bonds between the different DNA strands occurs.

This results in two separate DNA sequences.

2- Annealing:

The second step is to allow the system to cool.

As it cools, the DNA primers are able to hybridize to the separate strands.

DNA synthesis starts from the 5’ to 3’ direction.

This means that the primers have to match the 3’ end of the sequences of

interest.

3- Extension:

The third step is that the DNA polymerase enzyme is going to bind to the DNA

sequence of interest with the primer.

Once the DNA polymerase is bound, it takes some of the free nucleotides and

slowly add them to the primer to finish up the new DNA strand.

Results:

We have now doubled the original DNA sequence.

As results, we have two new DNA molecules identical to the first DNA

sequence of interest.

By repeating the steps over and over again, we can double the number of

sequences every round.

Rapidly we can get a large amount of the desired DNA sequence.

DNA Extraction Experiment

First we need to do Extraction Solution

Materials (100 ml):

1. 1 tape spoon of shampoo.

2. ½ tea spoon of salt.

3. 1 cup of Water.

4. Beaker.

Procedure:

1. Mix the water and salt together in a beaker..

2. Add shampoo and Stir slowly to avoid foaming of the shampoo.

Seconded DNA Extraction

Materials :

1. 3 freshly Strawberry fruit.

2. Zipper bag.

3. Extraction Solution.

4. strainer.

5. beaker .

6. Ice cold 95% ethanol.

7. Tweezers.

Procedure:

1. Put the strawberry in zipper bag .

2. Add 3 spoons of extraction solution inside the zipper bag and close it.

3. Mash the strawberry with your hand for about 5 minutes.

4. Strain the mixture into a beaker using a strainer .

5. Gently Pour the ice cold ethanol down the side of the beaker to form a layer

on top .

6. Let the mixture sit for 2-3 minutes.

7. finally use the tweezers to remove the cloudy DNA from the beaker .

Laboratory 6

Plant Tissues

Animal Tissues

Plant Tissues

Definition of tissue:

A tissue is composed of group of cells from the same origin that share the same

structure and the same specific function.

Plant tissue:

Plants do have a higher level of structure called plant tissue systems.

A plant tissue system can be defined as a functional unit, which connects all organs

of a plant.

Like animal tissue system, plant tissue system is also grouped into various tissues

based on their functions.

Meristematic tissues:

Consist of actively dividing cells, these tissues in a plant consist of small,

densely packed cells that can keep dividing to form new cells and lead to

increase the length and the thickness of the plant.

They have the following characteristics:

o the cells are small.

o the cells walls are thin.

o cells have large nuclei.

o vacuoles are absent or very small.

Permanent tissues:

Are those tissues which have lost the power of cell division.

Cells of permanent tissues are matured, have a definite shape, size and

function.

On basis of the constituents cells, permanent tissues are classified into two

types.

I. Simple

II. Complex

Simple Permanent tissues:

Composed of single type of cells.

There are three types:

1. PARENCHYMA CELLS: Thin walled, they function in storage & photosynthesis.

2. COLLENCHYMA CELLS: Unevenly thick walls. Give flexible support to plant.

3. SCLERENCHYMA CELLS: Evenly thick walls. Provide rigid support to the plant.

Complex Permanent tissues:

Composed of more than one type of cells.

There are two complex permanent tissues:

1. XYLEM: Transports water and dissolved minerals from roots into shoots.

2. PHLOEM: Transports food made in mature leaves to the roots and to non-

photosynthetic parts of shoot system.

Plant Organs :

Tissues are organized together to form organs.

Organs are composed of two or more tissues performing specific function.

Each plant has three specific organs:

i. Root.

ii. Leaf.

iii. Stem.

Each plant organ (root –leaf-stem) has dermal, vascular and ground tissues.

These are pictures that show a cross section of monocot and

dicot root

Animal Tissues

There are four basic types of animal tissues.

1. Epithelial tissues

2. Connective tissues

3. Muscle tissues

4. Nervous tissues

Each organ of the animal organism is made up of 2 or more types of animal

tissues.

Epithelial tissue

Covers the outside of the body

Lines organs and cavities inside the body.

Epithelial tissues can be classified on the basis of two criteria:

1- Shape.

2- Arrangement.

:TYPES ON BASIS OF SHAPE

Cuboidal epithelium

Squamous epithelium

Columnar epithelium

TYPES ON BASIS OF ARRANGEMENT:

Simple epithelium

Stratified epithelium

Pseudo stratified epithelium

Simple epithelial tissue

Stratified epithelial tissue

This is some microscope pictures of epithelial tissues

Simple cuboidal

Simple squamous

Pseudostratified

columnar

Simple columnar

Connective tissue

Connective tissue binds and supports other tissues in the body.

There are many types of connective tissues:

1. Loose connective tissue.

2. Cartilage.

3. Fibrous connective tissue.

4. Adipose tissue.

5. Blood.

6. Bone.

1- Loose connective tissue:

Is characterized by the presence of many gaps between the cells. It is composed of a

network of fibres which bind the epithelia to the underlying tissues.

2- Cartilage:

Is a flexible connective tissue that consists of a dense matrix of collagen fibers and

elastic fibers. It can be found in many areas in the body of human and other animals.

3- Fibrous connective tissue:

TENDONS: attach muscles to bones.

LIGAMENTS: connect bones at joints.

4 - Adipose tissue :

Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and

insulates the body.

5- Blood:

Blood tissue is a connective tissue that works to perform several functions.

Blood composition:

RBC: red blood cells that carry oxygen

WBC: white blood cells function in immunity

Platelets: help in blood clotting

Plasma: transport of nutrients and wastes.

Adipose cell

Adipose tissue

6- Bone:

Bone is a mineralized connective tissue. It forms the skeleton in most vertebrates.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissues are responsible for all types of body movement.

There are 3 types of muscle tissues in vertebrate body:

Skeletal ( striated)

Cardiac

Smooth muscles

Skeletal muscle

It is responsible for voluntary movements and consists of muscle fibers (bundles of

long cells).

Cardiac muscle

Is a type of involuntary striated muscle found in the walls of the heart.

Smooth muscle

It is an involuntary.

non-striated muscle.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue is made of nerve cells.

It is specialized to react to stimuli and to conduct impulses to various organs

in the body which bring about a response to the stimulus.

It’s found in the brain and the spinal cord.

Laboratory 7

The Five kingdoms of life:

1. Monera Kingdom.

2. Protista Kingdom.

3. Fungi Kingdom.

Every living creature on Earth belongs to a kingdom.

These kingdoms are based on how living things are the same and how they

are different.

Scientists divide all living things into 5 kingdoms*:

1-Monera. 2. Protista. 3. Fungi. 4.Plantae. 5.Animalia.

Kingdoms are divided into categories called phyla, each phylum is divided

into classes, each class into orders, each order into families, each family into

genera, and each genus into species.

To which kingdom do viruses belong?

Viruses are not classified in any kingdom yet ,because they are not really

alive. They only show signs of life after they infect a host cell.

Virus: lifeless particle that does not carry out any METABOLIC functions on its

own and CANNOT REPRODUCE on its own until it invades a living HOST cell.

Viruses are much smaller than bacteria, about 20nm in diameter.

Most viruses are too small to be seen directly with a light microscope.

Viral genomes may consist of double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA,

double-stranded RNA or single-stranded RNA depending on the kind of virus.

Capsids and Envelopes

The protein shell enclosing the viral genome is called a capsid.

Depending on the type of virus, the capsid can be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or

more complex in shape.

Capsids are built from a large number of protein subunits called capsomeres.

Some viruses have a membranous envelope surrounding the capsids and

help in infecting hosts.

Viral structure

Viruses can reproduce only in host cells

Viruses lack metabolic enzymes and equipment for making proteins, such as

ribosomes.

They are obligate intracellular parasites, they can reproduce only within a

host cell.

Each type of virus can infect cells of only a limited variety of hosts, called the

host range of the virus.

Human cold viruses infect only the cells lining the upper respiratory tract, and

the AIDS virus binds to receptors present only on certain types of white blood

cells.

A simplified viral reproductive cycle

Viral diseases in humans

Chickenpox:

an infection caused by the virus. Most cases are in children under age 15, but older

children and adults can get it. It spreads very easily from one person to another.

Poliomyelitis :

a viral infection that can lead to paralysis, breathing problems, or even death.

The virus enters through the mouth and multiplies in the throat and gastrointestinal

tract, then moves into the bloodstream and is carried to the central nervous system

where it replicates and destroys the motor neuron cells.

1.Monera Kingdom

Bacteria make up the entire kingdom.

There are billions of bacteria on earth.

It is a single celled organism.

They are prokaryotes (no nucleus).

Some bacteria are beneficial to us, such as the ones found in yogurt. Others

can cause us to get sick.

Bacterial Cell Structure

Bacteria Shapes

Shapes of Bacterial colonies

Bacteria Shapes under microscope

Pathogenic bacteria cause many human diseases

Streptococcus pneumoniae : lives in the throats of most healthy people, but it can multiply and cause pneumonia when the host’s defenses are down.�

(d) vibrio

Vibrio cholerae: it’s causes cholera , a dangerous disease characterized by

severe diarrhea. Resulting from the consumption of water contaminated with

human feces.

How cholera affects the body

2. Protista kingdom:

Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic organisms. They are the smallest of all

animals.

There are three main types of protozoa:

1. Amoeba 2. Paramecium 3. Euglena

Pathogenic Protists cause many human diseases

Plasmodium parasites:

Responsible for most malarial infection, that spread by mosquitoes.

Plasmodium Protozoa

Plasmodium protozoa cause malaria. The parasites are spread by a mosquito vector.

Parasites enter a host’s blood through the bite of an infected mosquito. The

parasites infect the host’s red blood cells, causing symptoms such as fever, joint

pain, anemia, and fatigue. In fact, malaria is one of the most common infectious

diseases on the planet. Malaria is also a very serious disease. It kills several million

people each year, most of them children.

Entamoeba histolytica: Responsible for Amoebic dysentery (amoebiasis) an infection of the intestine, cause

sever diarrhea with blood.

Amoeba

shape No definite shape

Movement Pseudopods (fake feet)

Ingestion Engulfs (swallows) food with pseudopods.

Digestion Food is broken down in food vacuole

Excretion

Wastes are excreted through the cell

membrane. Excess water is pumped out by

the contractile vacuole

Reproduction Binary fission, asexual

Structure Of Amoeba

Paramecium

shape Slipper shaped

Movement Cilia like hair

Ingestion Food is swept into oral groove by cilia then

into the gullet.

Digestion Food is broken down in food vacuole

Excretion

Wastes are excreted through the anal pore.

Excess water is pumped out by the contractile

vacuole

Reproduction Binary fission and conjugation

Structure Of Paramecium

Euglena

shape Oval shaped

Movement Flagella like tail

Ingestion Makes food in chloroplast or food enters

through the cell membrane.

Digestion Food is broken down by enzymes in the

cytoplasm

Excretion

Contractile vacuole uses to excrete water

and waste from inside and discharges it to

outside through a hole in the cell

membrane.

Reproduction Binary fission

Structure Of Euglena

3. Fungi Kingdom:

Fungi are Eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeast,

mold, mushroom.

Grow best in warm, moist environments.

They are heterotrophs (can’t make their own food)

Most fungi grow as tubular filaments called hyphae.

Fungi Produce both sexual and asexual spores.

Pathogenic Fungi cause many human diseases

Ringworm is a common skin infection that is caused by a fungus. It’s called

“ringworm” because it can cause a circular rash (shaped like a ring) that is

usually red and itchy.

Nail fungus is a common condition that begins as a white or yellow spot

under the tip of your fingernail or toenail. As the fungal infection goes

deeper, nail fungus may cause your nail to discolor, thicken and crumble at

the edge.�

Laboratory 8

Animal Kingdom

Animal Kingdom

There are many different types of animals in the world. Many animals are

quite similar to each other, others are quite different. Animals can be

classified based on their similarities.

The animal kingdom is divided into about 35 phyla encompassing 1.3 million

known species.

We divided animal kingdom into two major groups:

Vertebrates

Invertebrates

A. Vertebrates

Vertebrates are often larger and have more complex bodies than

invertebrates .

There are approximately 52,000 species of vertebrates.

It have only one phylum (Chordata).

Kingdom :Animalia, or "animal“.

Phylum : Chordata.

Sub phylum: Vertebrate.

Class :

1. Amphibia.

2. Fish.

3. Reptiles.

4. Birds.

5.Mammals.

1. class: Amphibia

includes semi-aquatic animals with moist skin.

They must return to the water to breed.

Ex: Frog, Salamander and newt.

2.Class: fish

Breathe through gills.

Have a moist skin covered in scales.

Ex : Goldfish, shark and Cod.

3. class: Reptilia

They have dry, scaly skin.

Ex : Crocodile, Snake and Turtle.

4. class: birds

have wings and feathers for flight.

Laying eggs.

Ex : Ostrich, Penguin and Flamingo.

5. Class: mammals

Give birth to live young.

Covered with hair or fur.

Females nurse their young with milk.

Ex : Rabbit, Dolphin and Bats.

1. Vertebrates

Examples Main features Class

Frog, salamander , newt. Moist permeable, skin. Amphibia

Co

ld

blo

od

ed

Goldfish, shark, cod. Gills, Wet scales. Fish

Crocodile, lizard, snake, turtles. Dry scales, lay eggs . Reptiles

Ostrich , penguins , budgerigar. Feathers, Beaks. Birds

War

m

blo

od

ed

Rabbit, dolphin, Bats. Fur, produce milk. Mammals

2. Invertebrates

Animals without a Backbone or Spinal Column.

Invertebrates account for 95% of known animal species.

32 phylum – 735,000 species.

more than 90% of the invertebrates are insects.

We’ll examine 8 of those phyla with more detail.

1. Phylum: Porifera

Sponges are sessile animals

(they spend their lives attached to rocks).

Water enters the small pores of a sponge, travels through canals, and exits through a

large hole at the top of the sponge.

Ex : Sponges.

2.Phylum: Cnidaria

Members of this phylum have tentacles with stinging cells.

Ex : Jellyfish, Sea anemones and Hydra.

3.Phylum: Echinodermata

Echinoderms have spiny (prickly) skin.

Ex : Sea urchins, sand dollar and Sea star.

4.Phylum: Mollusca

Most mollusks have a hard shell covering their soft bodies.

Ex : Snails, Clams and Octopus.

5.Phylum: Annelida (Segmented worms)

Annelids have bodies that are segmented (divided into sections).

Ex : Earthworm, Sandworm and Leeches.

6.Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

The worms in this phylum are all very thin and flat, and parasitic .

Ex : Tapeworm, Planarians and Flukes.

7. Phylum: Nematoda (Roundworms)

Nematodes are not segmented; their body surfaces appear smooth.

Many nematodes are parasites

Ex : Hookworm.

8.Phylum: Arthropoda

largest phylum.

All arthropods, including this tick, have jointed legs.

Arthropods have a crunchy shell called an exoskeleton.

Divided into 3 classes:

1. Crustaceans.

2. Insects.

3. Arachnids.

CRUSTACEANS

have claws

Ex: Shrimps ,lobster.

INSECTS

have 6 legs, 3 body

segments and wings.

Ex: Bees ,mosquitoes, grasshopper.

ARACHNIDS

have 8 legs. Ex: Scorpion ,

spider

ssppeecciieess EExxaammpplleess MMaaiinn ffeeaattuurreess PPhhyylluumm

5,500 Sponges. No tissues or organs, pores.

11..PPoorriiffeerraa

7,000 Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars,

Sea Stars. Spiny skin 22..EEcchhiinnooddeerrmmaattaa

10,000 Jellyfish, sea anemones,

hydra. Gastrovascular

cavity 33..CCnniiddaarriiaa

16,500 Earthworms, sandworms,

leeches. Segmented

worms 44..AAnnnneelliiddaa

20,000 Tapeworms, planarians,

and flukes. Flatworms 55..PPllaattyyhheellmmiinntthheess

25,000 Hookworm. Roundworms 66..NNeemmaattooddaa

93,000 Snails, clams, and

octopuses. Soft body 77..MMoolllluussccaa

1,000,000 Crustaceans, Arachnids,

and Insects. Segmented

exoskeleton 88..AArrtthhrrooppooddaa

Laboratory 9

Plant Kingdom

Plant Kingdom:

This kingdom has organisms that are multi-cellular.

have cell walls and chlorophyll.

produce their own food.

and don’t physically move from one place to another.

Scientists divided The plant kingdom is into two groups:

Non-vascular plants

plants that do not have tubes to carry water up the plant or tubes to carry

food made in the leaves down the plant.

Spore: the reproductive cell of a nonvascular plant

Examples:

Vascular Plant

Plants that have tubes to carry water up and food down the plant.

Examples:

Tree

Roses

Grass

Photosynthesis

Plant cells produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis allows plants to convert light energy into food energy.

Morphology

1.Roots

A true root system consists of a primary root and secondary roots (or lateral

roots).

Generally, two categories are recognized:

1.Adventitious roots.

2.Taproots.

1.Roots 2.Stems

3.Fruits 4.leaves

A. Adventitious roots

Arise from the stem and not from another root.

They usually occur in monocots .

Adventitious roots can be classified as:

1. Fibrous roots.

2. Pillar root Aerial .

3. Cauline root.

4. Contractile root.

5. Respiratory root.

6. Tuberous root.

B. Tap Root

The primary root is prominent which tapers at the end and there are fibrous

secondary roots running outward.

Most common in dicots.

tap root divided into:

A stem is the part of a plant

from which shoots and buds arise.

Stems are classified as:

1. Weak

2.Metamorphosis stem

B. Metamorphosis stem

A fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the

flower one or more ovaries.

It can be divided into 3 main categories :

A. Compound Fruits

A compound fruit is one that develops from Several

ovaries in a multiple flowers.

Examples : Pineapple, Mulberries, Figs.

Compound fruits

Aggregate fruits

simple fruits

B. Aggregate Fruits

Aggregate fruits form from single flowers

that have multiple carpels which are not

joined together.

Examples : Raspberry , Strawberry .

C. Simple Fruits

A simple fruit develops from

one ovary in a one flower.

Examples : Cherry, tomato.

The leaf can be classified based on:

1. Leaf shape.

2. Leaf margin.

3. Leaf venation.

4.Leaf arrangement.

1.Simple leaf

2.Compound Leaf

Compound pinnate

Cordate

Sagittate

Compound palmate

3.Lobed Leaf

Palmate lobed

Pinnate lobed

Leaf arrangement