PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

This article was downloaded by: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network]On: 13 July 2010Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 783016864]Publisher RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

International Journal of Science EducationPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713737283

Student Perceptions of the Value of Physics LaboratoriesChristopher Deacona; Allyson Hajekba Department of Physics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Newfoundland, Canada b MemorialUniversity of Newfoundland, Instructional Development Office, Newfoundland, Canada

First published on: 12 July 2010

To cite this Article Deacon, Christopher and Hajek, Allyson(2010) 'Student Perceptions of the Value of PhysicsLaboratories', International Journal of Science Education,, First published on: 12 July 2010 (iFirst)To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09500693.2010.481682URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2010.481682

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial orsystematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply ordistribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug dosesshould be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directlyor indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

International Journal of Science Education2010, 135, iFirst Article

ISSN 0950-0693 (print)/ISSN 1464-5289 (online)/10/00000135 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09500693.2010.481682

RESEARCH REPORT

Student Perceptions of the Value of Physics Laboratories

Christopher Deacona* and Allyson HajekbaDepartment of Physics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Newfoundland, Canada; bMemorial University of Newfoundland, Instructional Development Office, Newfoundland, CanadaTaylor and FrancisTSED_A_481682.sgm10.1080/09500693.2010.481682International Journal of Science Education0950-0693 (print)/1464-5289 (online)Original Article2010Taylor & Francis0000000002010Dr. ChristopherDeaconcdeacon@mun.ca

Science instruction literature provides us with goals for laboratory instruction and guidelines fordesigning and implementing science labs in the post-secondary setting. How well are we doing inour attempt to provide a meaningful and positive learning experience for our students? This paperdescribes the results of a study to determine whether students view the lab component of second-year physics courses at a mid-sized Canadian University as a valuable learning experience. Theresults of a survey, administered over six semesters and completed by 168 students, indicate thatstudents do acknowledge the value of labs. The results also identify the factors that influence thestudents perceptions of value in physics labs. This paper discusses the four factors found to havethe greatest influence on students perceptions of the value of labs: (1) the pressure to complete anexperiment within the allotted time, (2) the information provided on the lab instruction sheets, (3)the help provided by lab staff and graduate teaching assistants, and (4) the students level ofpreparedness.

Keywords: Physics education; Survey; University

The unique contribution of practical work in science instruction should be its ability toaid in the development of conceptual thinking, stir the imagination, whet the appetiteand hone the methodological sharpness of those taking part in the experimentalexperience. (Anderson, 1976)

Introduction

Laboratory work has been an integral component of post-secondary science coursesfor many years and offers students a potentially rich learning experience (Byers,2002). Kirschner and Meester (1988) define lab work to be a subset of all practical

*Corresponding author. Department of Physics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, StJohns, Newfoundland, Canada. Email: cdeacon@mun.ca

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

2 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

work performed in the laboratory, which may include demonstrations and computersimulations in addition to hands-on experimental work. While there continues to bea widespread belief that lab work is necessary in order for students to gain a concep-tual understanding of the scientific disciplines and to develop a wide range of practicalskills, there is no universal guide as to the objectives of introductory practical lab work(Kirschner & Mester, 1988). In addition, educators have identified several challengesassociated with lab work and, given the time and resources necessary, many arequestioning whether learning outcomes can be achieved more effectively and effi-ciently by other means.

Domin (1999, 2007) identifies four styles of lab instruction: expository, discovery,inquiry, and problem-based. The expository style of instruction is evident in most first-year labs where the result is known in advance, the experimental procedure is standard,and minimal data analysis is required. In senior-level laboratory courses, studentsencounter an inquiry or problem-based style where experiments are more open-endedand complex. With considerably less supervision than previously encountered,students must determine the best procedure to conduct the investigation and areencouraged to question their results and show limitations of theory. If implementedproperly, Domin says that students will acquire knowledge and develop a rich under-standing of concepts, models, and theories. In this study, we focus on discovery-stylelaboratories at the second-year level. The challenge for students at this level is to effi-ciently conduct the experiment and to appropriately interpret the results obtained.

Goals of Lab Work

Several authors, for example, Shulman and Tamir (1973) (as cited in Hofstein &Lunetta, 1982), Hofstein and Lunetta (1982), Boud, Dunn, and Hegarty-Hazel(1986), Bernstein (2002), and Reid and Shah (2007), have identified the goals oflaboratory instruction. They involve the development of practical skills and knowl-edge and provide an opportunity to make science real. The American Associationof Physics Teachers (AAPT) has also issued a list of goals pertaining to the introduc-tory physics laboratory (AAPT, 1997). According to all these authors, a good lab isone which promotes effective learning and meets the objectives while making thelaboratory experience interesting and enjoyable. The challenge for educators is todecide which concepts must be learned and which skills must be developed andthen to design a laboratory experience consistent with the identified objectives. Weidentify the following five goals for our laboratories which are consistent with theobservations of these authors:

(1) Increase knowledge of physics(2) Develop practical abilities(3) Arouse and maintain interest, attitude satisfaction, and open-mindedness in

physics(4) Develop creative thinking and problem-solving ability(5) Promote scientific thinking and provide practice in the experimental methods

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 3

An alternative approach is described by von Aufschnaiter and von Aufschnaiter(2007) who state that the purpose of a laboratory is to provide structured practicalactivities which promote the development of conceptual understanding, rather thanconnecting pre-existing theory to practice. Rather than searching for good experi-ments that demonstrate a specific concept, these researchers promote laboratoryinstruction that focuses on good learning experiences, where students can discoverthe concepts from their activities. Giving students the opportunity to discover ruleson their own enables them to develop an understanding of what the scientificapproach is about.

Student Perceptions of Learning in the Physics Laboratory

Value, or value added, refers to the enhancement that students achieve (to knowl-edge, skills, abilities, and other attributes) as a result of their educational experience.Bennett (2001) defines value added as the difference between students attainmentswhen they have completed their education and what they had already attained at thebeginning. Laboratory work is considered to have value since students are expectedto have gained additional knowledge and practical skills which they did not have atthe beginning of the course.

The value of laboratories has been studied by several workers, for example,Borrmann (2008), Rigano and Ritchie (1994), and White (1996), who report thatlaboratory work is enjoyable and has promoted student interest in science (Hofstein& Lunetta, 2004). Cronholm, Hoog, and Martenson (2000) examined student atti-tudes towards experiments in biochemistry and found that students who performedwell appreciated the learning value of the laboratory exercises, especially in techniqueswhich are not easily learned from a text book. In a study of the chemistry teachinglaboratory at Perdue University, Polles (2006) includes social interaction, teamwork,and interaction with the teaching assistant (TA) as additional indicators of value.Polles research confirmed that the laboratory was a positive learning experience whichhelped students learn course content and teach necessary laboratory skills.

A recent survey by Hanif, Sneddon, Al-Ahmadi, and Reid (2009) also showedthat students enjoy laboratory work in physics. While viewing it as challenging, themajority of students in Hanif et al.s survey believed that laboratory work providedthem with an opportunity to understand theory and provided them with analyticaland problem-solving skills. Hanif et al.s work confirm Johnstone, Watt, andZamans (1998) finding that using pre-lab exercises encourages a positive attitude instudents towards their work in the physics laboratory. Students also gave positiveresponses such as fun, enjoyable, and interesting, but wanted more time toperform the experiments and wanted detailed demonstrations and instructions.

Shortcomings of Traditional Laboratories

von Aufschnaiter and von Aufschnaiter (2007) restate the commonly accepted opin-ion that laboratory work allows students to connect concepts from class to practical

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

4 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

activity. However, these authors found that university students rarely talked aboutphysics concepts or hypotheses before carrying out an experiment and typicallysearched for a formula to best suit their measurements, leading to a result that looksOK.

Many authors have criticized the use of cookbook labs (von Aufschnaiter andvon Aufschnaiter, 2007; White, 1996; Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004) because they donot engage students in thinking about the larger purposes of their investigation.While students try to follow the guidelines, they rarely show an understanding of therelevant concepts. Pickering (1988) (as cited in White, 1996) reports that organicchemistry labs have degenerated into cooking, because they require students merelyto create a product rather than solve a puzzle. Furthermore, cookbook experimentsdo not trigger sensory patterns which can be memorized and reused in new situa-tions. Without this sensory stimulation, students may report that the experimentsare boring, or do not work (Reiner & Gilbert, 2004). Also, assessment of studentspractical knowledge and abilities tends to be neglected, and thus students do notperceive laboratory experiences to be important in their learning.

Current research suggests that many students engage in laboratory activities with-out a clear sense of the purposes of their investigation. In addition, the quantity ofinformation presented in the laboratory guide can distract from the main goals of theexperiment itself. If students do not have a concept that relates to the presentedcontent, they are not likely to understand the concept demonstrated by the experi-ment (von Aufschnaiter & von Aufschnaiter, 2007). Laboratory activity should notfocus explicitly on scientific concepts at the beginning, but on structured discoverieswhich provide the opportunity for students to discover physics rules for themselves.This approach, according to the authors, will give students the ability to develop anintuitive understanding of what a scientific approach is about and, equally impor-tant, to experience how it feels to be a knowledge creator rather than a knowledgeconsumer.

Hofstein and Lunetta (2004) report that there has been a substantial paradigmshift in thinking about the ways in which learners construct their own scientificknowledge and understanding. There is a need to provide students with frequentopportunities for feedback, reflection, and modification of their ideas. Moreover,there is a growing sense that learners learn by solving real and meaningful problems.The laboratory can provide such opportunities for students if the teacher providesmeaningful investigations upon which they can construct scientific concepts within acommunity of learners in their classroom.

Group work can also be beneficial in promoting a positive learning environment.The science laboratory provides a setting in which students can work cooperativelyin small groups. The social environment is usually less formal than in a conventionalclassroom and thus the laboratory offers opportunities for cooperation amongstudents and the teacher. The effectiveness of group work as a learning tool has beenstudied by Roychoudhury and Roth (1996) who found that most students enjoyedworking together since they could share a task and could collaboratively constructthe meaning of a concept. However, there were occasional problems with free

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 5

riders or complaints from students who received no apparent credit from their co-workers for their contributions.

The Research Question

The need to assess the students perceptions in the science laboratory wasapproached by Fraser and Giddings (1995) who developed the Science LaboratoryEnvironment Inventory. This instrument consists of two 35-question surveys, onewhich asks about the actual lab experience and one which asks about thepreferred experience. The surveys focus on the social aspects, the physical space,the amount of independence and structure provided, and the relationship betweenthe material covered in the labs and the classes.

We undertook this study to determine whether students view the lab component ofsecond-year physics courses as a valuable learning experience and to identify factorsthat contribute to a positive perception of the lab experience. We did not evaluatestudents perceptions of the physical and social aspects of the labs, nor did we evalu-ate whether the overall goals or specific learning objectives for each lab wereachieved. Rather, the study focused on the students perception of whether the labscontributed to their understanding of physics concepts and their practical lab/experimental skills, their level of interest and enjoyment in participating in labs, andthe resources available to assist students in the successful completion of the labexperiments.

The Research Context

The Department of Physics offers two second-year courses with a weekly three-hourlaboratory component, Physics 2053: Fluids and Thermal Physics and Physics 2055:Electricity and Magnetism. Students taking these courses will have completed 10experiments (in topics such as mechanics, electrical circuits, and optics) in introduc-tory-level courses. Each of the second-year courses requires students to completeapproximately nine labs designed to introduce a variety of physics topics and experi-mental techniques important for success in these and higher level courses (seeAppendix 1). The need for adequate preparation is emphasized in an introductorylab session in which expectations for student participation are reviewed and theexperiments which will be performed during the semester are outlined. The benefitsof good preparation and the suggested steps for preparation are stressed.

In each lab session, approximately 20 students work in pairs on one of sevendifferent experiments being conducted in the lab simultaneously. The Departmentof Physics does not have enough equipment for all students to work on the sameexperiment. As a result, the order in which students perform experiments is notsynchronized with classroom lectures and students may not have had a theoreticalintroduction to the concepts explored in the lab. During the second week of classes,a schedule identifying the experiment that each pair will conduct during each sessionis posted on the laboratory web site.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

6 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

No bound manual is provided. Instead, notes for each experiment are available onthe lab web site. Consistent with discovery-style labs, the notes contain backgroundinformation and guidance for doing the experiment, but they are not detailed step-by-step or cookbook-style instructions. The notes are designed to encourage creativeand independent thinking, develop an ability to work in unfamiliar situations, andimprove problem-solving skills. Domin (1999) suggests that students who discoverfor themselves attach more meaning to the information and retain it better.

Students have access to a network of 18 computers that allow unrestrictedInternet access and the ability to run programmes such as Kaleidagraph1 andMathematica2 for data analysis. A lab instructor and two graduate TAs are presentin the lab and available for help during each session.

In the allotted three-hour lab time slot, students are expected to set up apparatus,collect and analyse data, and submit a written lab report containing four sections:objective, data and results, analysis, and conclusionas per guidelines provided onthe lab web site. Although students work in pairs, they are expected to submitindividually written reports in their laboratory notebooks at the end of the session.The TAs are responsible for marking the lab reports which are assigned a value of15% or 20% towards the final course grade.

Methodology

Participants

The survey was completed by 168 (41%) of 410 students registered in Physics 2053and Physics 2055 for six semesters from Fall 2003 to Winter 2006. They were madeaware of the survey through announcements in class and in the lab. Participationwas voluntary and on the students own time.

Procedure

Data collection. Observations, surveys, and interviews have been used to evaluatethe effectiveness of laboratories (Pike, 1991; Hein & Irvine, 1999; Hunter, McCosh,and Wilkins, 2003; Polles, 2006). We developed a survey consisting of an average of20 questions. Question types included statements on a five-point Likert scale, rang-ing from strongly agree to strongly disagree, multiple response questions, andopen-ended questions which allowed students to respond in their own words (seeAppendix 2). The questionnaire retained this format for each semester; however,some questions were reworded for clarity, added for obtaining more information, orremoved when the response provided no relevant or new information.

The survey was available online using the WebCT3 learning management systemfor a four-week period ending on the final day of exams. Students could access thesurvey at any time and although they logged in to the WebCT system usingtheir StudentWeb username and university student ID number, all responses wereanonymous. While the survey administrators could see which students hadcompleted the survey, they could not identify an individual students response.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 7

Data analysis. All the data from each semester were imported from WebCT into aspreadsheet. Quantitative feedback was tabulated for each semester, and the totalresponses for the survey period were obtained for each of the questions asked. Datawere analysed using Statistics Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Inthe initial analysis of the qualitative data from open-ended questions, we codedresponses according to the subject of each comment. Seventeen subjects were identi-fied, and within each subject group, responses were subdivided into positive,negative, and neutral comments. The number of responses in each group and theoccurrence of key words were used to determine the significant factors that impactedthe students experience in the labs. The 17 groups of responses were organizedinto three broader categories for discussion purposes (motivation, resources, andpreparation) and a miscellaneous category.

Observations

The survey data revealed three areas in which individual factors influence thestudents perception of the physics labs: student motivation, resources, andpreparation.

Motivation. The factors that influence students motivation to stay on task andcomplete the experiment to the best of their ability are: ratio of time and effortversus marks, benefits related to increased knowledge and skills in physics, inter-est and enjoyment, relevance of the lab experiment to the course material andeveryday life, and level of difficulty of experiments.

Resources. The following resources were identified as important in assistingstudents in their preparation for and successful completion of the lab experiments:adequate assistance from the lab instructor and TAs, sufficient information andguidance on lab instruction sheets, clear expectations for and constructive feed-back on written lab reports, apparatus in good working condition, and computersand software for data analysis.

Preparation. Activities undertaken by the student on his/her own as well as theactivities of the course and lab instructors are important factors in determiningthe students ability to successfully complete the lab experiment and write up inthe allotted time.

Motivation

Benefits. To check whether students realized the achievement of the goals todevelop conceptual understanding and intellectual and practical abilities, we askedstudents to indicate their degree of agreement with the statements: The labscontributed to my knowledge of physics (Question 3) and The labs helped improvemy lab skills and techniques (Question 4). In addition, the open-ended question,What did you like about the labs? (Question 21), prompted many students todescribe the ways in which they benefited from the labs.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

8 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Results, shown in Tables 1 and 2, indicate that most students realized benefits ofthe lab which related to both their knowledge of the discipline and their lab skills.Sixty-six per cent of the total number of respondents indicated agreement or strongagreement with the statement related to increased knowledge of physics and 69%agreed or strongly agreed with the statement regarding improved lab skills. Therewas no statistical difference in results between semesters in Table 1; however, thepercentage of students who strongly agree with the statement in Table 2 increasedbetween Fall 2003 and Fall 2004, but decreased in later semesters.

Table 1. Extent to which students agreed with the statement: The labs contributed to my knowledge of physics

The labs contributed to my knowledge of physics

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree Respondents (n)

Fall 2003 20 60 13 0 7 15Winter 2004 31 52 0 7 7 29Fall 2004 21 53 21 3 3 34Winter 2005 28 20 12 24 16 25Fall 2005 0 47 25 19 6 36Winter 2006 14 59 14 10 3 29

Notes. The numbers are given as a percentage of the total number of responses for each semester. Aone-way ANOVA was used to compare data between semesters. There was a significant F value of2.625 at p < 0.05. However, subsequent Bonferroni post-hoc tests showed no significantdifferences between each semesters data.

Table 2. Extent to which students agreed with the statement: The labs helped improve my lab skills and techniques

The labs helped improve my lab skills and techniques

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree

Strongly disagree Respondents (n)

Fall 2003 13 47 27 7 7 15Winter 2004 31 41 14 10 3 29Fall 2004 41 50 6 3 0 34Winter 2005 20 40 8 28 4 25Fall 2005 6 61 14 11 6 36Winter 2006 7 52 10 24 7 29

Notes. The numbers are given as a percentage of the total number of responses for each semester. Aone-way ANOVA was used to compare data between semesters. There was a significant F value of4.002 at p < 0.05. Subsequent Bonferroni post-hoc tests showed significant differences betweenFall 2004, Winter 2005, and Winter 2006 semesters.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 9

In response to the open-ended question, What did you like about the labs?, therewere over 40 positive comments which related to the benefits of seeing theory inaction and the practical applications of physics. The following comments are asample of those received:

Gave one the chance to apply the physics concepts that were discussed in class to realand practical situations.

They helped me learn a lot about physics and how they relate to everyday things.

They provide a hands-on application the classes lack and also give a good primer forhow to handle yourself when doing real lab work.

Interest or enjoyment. In order to gauge whether the labs were successful in arousingand maintaining interest and satisfaction, during the last two semesters of the surveyperiod, we asked students to indicate their level of agreement with the statement,The physics labs were interesting (Question 5). Of the 65 respondents, 43%indicated some level of agreement, 35% selected Neutral, and 22% disagreed withthe statement. From the open-ended questions about likes, dislikes, and suggestionsfor changes or improvements, we received 33 positive comments which used thewords interesting, fun, enjoy(ed/able), or great. The following are a sample:

Most of the labs were fun, good hands-on experiments.I enjoyed the hands-on aspect of the labs.The labs were a great learning experience.All the labs were interesting and relevant to course material.

Relevance. By the end of the course, we expect students to see the relationshipbetween material covered in lectures and experiments conducted in the lab. In addi-tion, as White (1979) recommends, we attempt to provide experiments that linktheory and practice in order to solve real-life problems. There were 15 commentsdirectly relating to the relevance of the lab experiments to the course lecturematerial. Of these, nine comments supported the opinion that labs were relevant andsix suggested they were not. We concluded that the relevance of the experiments,while important, was not a major factor in determining the students level of motiva-tion or satisfaction.

Difficulty. Survey results identified two major areas of difficulty: (1) completing thelab experiment and report write up in the allotted time, and (2) understanding thepurpose and theory of labs when related material was not covered in class lecturesbeforehand. Statements about the inadequate length of the lab session or theamount of work to be completed in the time slot were frequently accompanied bystatements expressing feelings of frustration, pressure, and stress. Forty commentsused the words rushed, pressure, stress, or scramble in describing how they feltabout the labs. Thirty-three of these explicitly stated that there was not enough timein one lab slot to complete the experiment and the written report. For example:

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

10 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

They were often too long; there was way too much pressure to get them done by the endof the lab period.

It was impossible to complete the experiment, do the lab write-up neatly, and includewhat was necessary for a good mark I found myself rushing the analysis of my dataand conclusions every week.

The required experiments, analysis, and write-up required far too much time tocomplete, so the labs were rushed, stressful, and a bad learning environment.

As evidence of their learning, students are required to write up and submit a reportat the end of each session. Survey Question 9 asked students to indicate when thedeadline for the submission of the written report should be. Response choices werethe end of the lab session, the day after the lab session, and one week after thedate of the lab session. The results are shown in Table 3. Over half selected the dayafter, with a slightly smaller number selecting a week later. The number of studentswho preferred to submit at the end of the lab session ranged from a minimum of 3%in Winter 2004 to a maximum of 20% in Fall 2005. These results are consistentwith the fact that a majority of students reported that they could not complete theexperiment and write a detailed report in the three-hour time slot.

Students who reported that they could not complete the experiment and report inthe allotted time also expressed dissatisfaction with the work they did because theyfelt rushed. As a result, the labs were stressful for many students. Twenty-six of thesestudents commented that their understanding of the physics concepts being exploredwas negatively affected by the need to rush. A sample of these comments follows:

The time constraints do not allow time to think about and properly analyse the data.

The majority of the student body in this course plays a game of beat the clock everyweek, trying to get the lab done and handed in within three hours. This results in learn-ing nothing and the goal ends up being to get it donewhether or not anything islearned is irrelevant.

So much work has to be done and I have no time to actually think about what I amdoing.

Table 3. Students preferred deadline for submitting their completed lab reports

The deadline for the submission of the lab experiment write-ups should be:

End of the lab session

Day after the lab session

One week after the date of the lab session Respondents (n)

Winter 2004 3 66 31 29Fall 2004 6 53 41 34Winter 2005 12 72 16 25Fall 2005 20 54 26 36Winter 2006 14 66 21 29

Note. The numbers represent the percentage of respondents for each semester. This question wasnot asked in the Fall 2003 survey.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 11

I found that I did not always have enough time to fully understand the lab and get thereport done in the time that was given.

Several students commented on the difficulty in using unfamiliar lab apparatusand six recommended a tutorial or introductory session on how to set up and use theequipment. Six comments related directly to the level of difficulty of the physicsconcepts applied or to the design of the experiments.

Timeeffortmarks ratio. Moore (2003) found that lab attendance is strongly corre-lated with overall academic performance in the course. In the courses surveyed, thenumber of hours spent in the lab each week is approximately equal to the number ofhours spent in the classroom. Since time on task is one of Chickering and Gamsons(1987) seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education, we werecurious about whether students thought the weight of the laboratory mark wasappropriate for the time and effort they put into completing the labs and whetherthey received a fair mark.

The weight of the lab mark for the courses surveyed was either 15% or 20% of thetotal course mark as determined by the course instructor. We asked students if thiswas appropriate or whether it should be greater or less than the assigned value(Question 1). For courses where the lab contributed 15% towards the final coursemark, 28% of students indicated that the value of the labs should be greater.Fourteen per cent of students in courses where the lab contributed 20% towards thecourse mark indicated that the value should be greater. Six of 10 comments aboutthe value of the labs suggested that the amount of time or effort required justifiedgreater weight towards the course mark.

Students were asked to indicate their level of agreement to the statement: I wasfairly marked on my lab report. Sixty-four per cent agreed or strongly agreed withthis statement, 22% were neutral, and 14% disagreed or strongly disagreed. Of the17 comments received about the fairness of marking, eight were related to theconsistency of marking by the TAs and five related to the students perception thatthe marker was hard or picky.

Of the factors related to student motivation to stay on task and complete the labto the best of their ability, benefits related to increased knowledge of physicsthrough application and improvement of practical lab skills were the greatestpositive factors. Difficulty as it relates to the students ability to complete theexperiment and report write up in the allowed time was the greatest negative factorin this group.

Resources

A number of resources are available to students to assist them in understanding andcompleting the experiment. These include a textbook, experimental apparatus,computers and software, instruction sheets, report writing and marking guidelines,written feedback on lab reports, and help provided in the lab by staff and TAs. We

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

12 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

asked students to rate the helpfulness of each resource and provided opportunity forthem to give qualitative feedback.

Textbook. We did not investigate the degree to which the course textbook assistedin the students ability to complete the labs.

Experimental apparatus. The Department of Physics provides the necessaryequipment for students to perform each experiment and endeavours to keep theequipment in good working condition. On occasion, apparatus may fail due tonormal wear and tear, or misuse. When this happens, students, understandably, getfrustrated and anxious about time wasted. Only 10 students made a negativecomment on the condition of the lab apparatus, and we therefore conclude that thequality and condition of experimental apparatus was not a significant factor in thestudents lab experience.

Computers and software. The physics labs are equipped with computers and soft-ware to assist students in their data analysis. Mathematica was used for the first twosemesters of the survey period and Kaleidagraph was used in the remaining foursemesters. While Kaleidagraph received fewer negative comments than Mathemat-ica, the use of these was perceived by some students to be a major challenge andsometimes cited as a reason for failing to complete the lab on time. While documen-tation and instructions for using the software were available online, comments suchas the one below suggest that some students were overwhelmed by many features ofthe software:

Without proper instruction as to how to use , there is no possible way for usas students to know how to use this program to our best advantage. There are manyways to get a certain answer from , some more efficient than others, butwithout proper instruction as to how to perform these tasks, we cannot be expected toperform them from simply reading the help menu.

However, the total number of comments received related to the computers andsoftware available (24 positive; 26 negative) suggests that this did not have a signifi-cant negative impact on the students overall experience in the lab during the studyperiod.

Lab instruction sheets. The lab instruction sheets provide background informationon the theory and methods to be used for each experiment. In an effort to encouragestudents to develop their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, no completestep-by-step instructions for conducting the experiment are provided. One studentgot it right when he/she wrote: The lab guide sheets were a great help. They didnttell you any answer; just kind of helped you figure it out along the way. However,many students believed the instruction sheets to be too vague or unclear. Forty

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 13

comments suggested that the instruction sheets could be improved to better assiststudents in understanding the lab and what was required of them. Students wantedmore diagrams and more detailed information on how to use the equipment andconduct the experiment. Below is a sample of these comments:

There should be clearer instructions on how to set up the circuits and perform theexperiments for those students who have never seen this type of equipment before.

The lab guide sheets could have used some more information and theory, especiallysince most of the material was NOT covered in class before the lab.

More details on the lab handout regarding procedure and purpose would be excellent.

It would be nice to have some diagrams and more detailed explanation on how theequipment is actually used.

The lab guides were sometimes vague and hard to follow.

The instruction sheets were identified as one of the major factors which influencedstudents perceptions of the lab. Approximately 56% of the students responded thatthe instruction sheets were, to some degree, helpful (Question 13), but it is clear thatstudents would like more detailed directions for doing experiments than arecurrently provided.

Expectations for and feedback on written lab report. The physics lab web site providesmarking guidelines to assist students in understanding the requirements of the writ-ten report and to assist TAs in their marking role. They describe how marks areallotted for items such as organization, graph plotting, calculations, and interpreta-tion. Few comments were written on the marking guidelines as they relate to helpingstudents understand the expectations for the written lab report. When asked toindicate the level of helpfulness of the marking guidelines (Question 13), 74%responded that the guidelines were helpful or somewhat helpful, 6% respondedvery helpful, and 20% responded not helpful. Consequently, understanding theexpectations for writing the lab report was not seen to be a factor that contributednegatively to the students overall experience.

Feedback is essential to the learning process and may take a variety of forms.Providing constructive written feedback on the students lab reports is a taskexpected of the TAs as they mark the reports. In response to the statement: Ireceived constructive feedback on my lab report (Question 11), 58% of studentsindicated agreement or strong agreement. Twenty-three percent respondedNeutral and 19% disagreed or strongly disagreed.

Assistance in the labs. The survey asked students to indicate their level of agreementwith the statement: Adequate help was provided during the lab session(Question 7). Table 4 shows that 63% of the responses either agree or strongly agreewith this statement. The ANOVA results suggest a significant difference betweensemesters, and a Bonferroni post-hoc test shows a significant difference between Fall

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

14 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

2004, Winter 2005, and Winter 2006 data. This may be attributed to a number offactors including the presence or absence of the course instructor in the lab and thepersonal qualities of the individual TAs assigned for those semesters.

Four surveys (Fall 2004Winter 2006) specifically asked for comments on thehelp received in the labs (Question 8). The number of comments received inresponse to this prompt was combined with comments from all surveys relatedto TAs received in open-ended questions about likes, dislikes, and suggestionsfor improvement. The total number of comments on the help provided by TAswas significant and provided evidence that students rely greatly on the availabil-ity and helpfulness of TAs and recognized the potential positive contributionTAs can make to their overall lab experience. Students provided 111 writtencomments in response to the open-ended question inviting comments on thehelp provided in the labs. Of these, 37 were positive, complementing the TAs,while 51 were negative. There were 23 comments of a more general nature thatidentified the qualities of a TA which students considered necessary in the lab.Four dominant themes emerged from the comments: friendliness, physics knowl-edge, availability, and language and communication skills. These are discussedbelow.

Friendliness of the TAs. The friendliness of the TAs attracted the greatest numberof positive comments (30), for example:

Instructors were very friendly, and were easy to approach if you had a problem.

I like how the lab instructors were very friendly and helpful they dont get frustratedwhen you dont understand something.

It was great! They always tried to help, and usually made me laugh too.

Table 4. Extent to which students agreed with the statement: Adequate help was provided during the lab session

Adequate help was provided during the lab session

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree

Strongly disagree

Respondents (n)

Fall 2003 27 33 13 13 13 15Winter 2004 31 45 21 3 0 29Fall 2004 38 50 6 6 0 34Winter 2005 12 50 8 12 28 25Fall 2005 6 56 8 8 19 36Winter 2006 3 31 21 21 24 29

Notes. The numbers are given as a percentage of the total number of responses for each semester. A one-way ANOVA was used to compare data between semesters. There was a significant F value of 7.839 at p < 0.05.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 15

Some students named individual TAs who had left a favourable impression,showing that students were able to relate to and establish a productive mentoringrelationship with TAs. In contrast, 15 negative comments were received fromstudents who felt that the TAs were not friendly or helpful.

The physics knowledge of the TAs. It is expected that TAs should be familiar withthe underlying physics theory behind each experiment. The physics knowledge of theTAs did not appear to be an issue relative to their ability to help set up the equipmentand explain how to do the lab. There were four positive comments only, including:

The help provided during the labs was very good. For the most part, there was alwayssomeone there to help with the setting up of the lab and the theory behind it.

The instructor and lab assistant knew the lab exercises well and were effective inanswering any questions I had.

Eight negative comments suggested that the TAs did not fully understand the laband could not provide satisfactory help, for example:

The instructors were not well versed in all aspects of the lab, they could not answersome of my questions very effectively.

Some students said that they had been given conflicting information by differentTAs. Because there could be several ways of doing an experiment, individual TAsmay have suggested their preferred method, leading to confusion among thestudents. Since only 12 comments were received relating to the TAs knowledge ofthe physics, we conclude that their knowledge of physics concepts and the experi-mental design and apparatus alone did not negatively impact the students level ofsatisfaction.

The availability of the TAs. A students perception of the availability of the TAs isdependent on the amount of time that student has to wait before getting help. Nine-teen responses indicated a perception that TAs were not available when needed.There were only three positive comments. Although the ratio of students to assis-tants (lab instructor plus TAs) is approximately 10 to 1, a common request was toprovide more TAs so that students do not need to wait for assistance, for example:

There should be more lab instructors, so that the ones that are there are not over-whelmed with all of the students questions. Also, so they can rotate and take breaks ifneed be while there is still enough instructors left to handle the students in the lab forthat time period. There should be adequate help when questions come up. It was veryhard to adjust, but would have been much easier if there had been more and better helpavailable.

The language and communication skills of the TAs. Negative comments (nine)about the communication skills of TAs related to difficulties in understanding thosefor whom English was not their native language. For example:

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

16 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

One of my TAs didnt speak English very well I found it VERY hard to get myquestions answered because either the TA didnt understand me, or I didnt understandhim.

As testament to the important role TAs play, some students acknowledged thatwithout help, they might have failed the lab component of the course:

The help provided during the lab was very helpful the labs would have been difficultwithout the help.

If it wasnt for the help I received during the lab period, I would have failed most of thelabs. Thank you!

Preparation

In the Fall 2003 survey, we asked if students had read the lab instruction sheet priorto coming to the lab session. Out of 15 respondents, 11 reported that they had readthe instruction sheet while four did not. In subsequent surveys, this question wasrevised to obtain more detailed information about how the students prepared for thelab sessions. We asked students to indicate how they prepared by selecting from anumber of options (Question 2).

Table 5 summarizes the amount of preparation that students had done prior tocoming to the lab. While between 23% and 65% of students report that they readthe lab instruction sheet prior to coming to the lab, 53% of the total number ofstudents during the survey period report that in addition to reading the labinstruction sheet they also prepared by reviewing their class notes and/or the text-book and/or discussing the lab with someone else. The number of students whoreported not doing any preparation for the labs did not exceed 10% (Winter 2006semester).

Because there is insufficient equipment for multiple setups of a single experi-ment, some students will not have covered relevant material in class prior toconducting an experiment. Twenty-nine student comments provided in responseto the question, What did you dislike about the physics labs? related to thedifficulty experienced when concepts, key to conducting and understanding thelab, were not covered in the lectures beforehand. The following commentsillustrate this difficulty:

If the lab experiments were to reflect the theory that was being learned in lecture, theywould be much more effective.

Usually the material in the labs are ahead of the lectures, so the material is unknownand difficult to understand during a lab.

[Labs] should be developed in a way that the professor has at least covered the materialbefore you are asked to do a lab on that topic, since not every student can learn physicsby reading the book.

Perhaps the labs should match the in-class lectures more effectively. We could thenhave more time conducting the experiment and less time getting help from the labinstructors.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 17

Tab

le 5

.M

etho

ds u

sed

by s

tude

nts

to p

repa

re f

or t

he la

bora

tory

Rea

d in

stru

ctio

n sh

eet

Rea

d no

tes/

text

book

Ask

so

meo

ne

Rea

d in

stru

ctio

n sh

eet

plus

one

ot

her

pr

epar

atio

n ac

tivi

ty

Rea

d in

stru

ctio

n sh

eet

plus

mor

e th

an o

ne o

ther

pr

epar

atio

n ac

tivi

tyD

id n

ot

prep

are

Res

pond

ents

(n)

Win

ter

2004

324

043

147

28F

all 2

004

650

09

243

34W

inte

r 20

0536

44

4412

025

Fal

l 200

523

00

5120

635

Win

ter

2006

287

038

1710

29

Not

e. T

he n

umbe

rs r

epre

sent

the

per

cent

age

of r

espo

nden

ts f

or e

ach

sem

este

r.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

18 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Johnstone et al. (1998) assert that pre-lab exercises increase understanding andperformance in lab experiments. Pre-lab exercises help students focus on importantinformation, encourage lab preparation and planning, and increase understandingby reducing information overload in the lab (Reid & Shah, 2007). When askedwhether they agree with the recommendation to implement a pre-lab quiz as part ofthe lab component, 72% of respondents in the last two semesters of the study periodindicated that they disagreed or strongly disagreed with the recommendation.This is not surprising since most students view a pre-lab quiz as adding extra work totheir already heavy loads. Only nine students indicated any degree of agreement.These students acknowledged the benefit of a pre-lab exercisequestions that helpyou prepare for the lab, not only with theory but with method, so we know what toexpect when entering the lab, and force students to prepare for labs.

Among the comments from students were a variety of suggestions about resourcesor activities that may be developed to help students prepare for and successfullycomplete labs. In order of frequency, these included: more detailed instructionsheets, more help from TAs, lecture topics synchronized with experiments,introductory labs on setting up circuits and using the oscilloscope, a lecture onwriting lab reports, pre-lab talks, pre-lab quizzes or questions, access to a sample labreport, and return of the lab notebook in sufficient time to review feedback andbegin the write up for the upcoming experiment.

Discussion

The survey was initially designed as a project to obtain feedback from students aboutthe value of their experience in the lab. The data from that first survey prompted usto refine and continue to administer the survey in subsequent semesters to gain amore comprehensive understanding of the students lab experience and of thefactors that contribute to their perception of value. Future research would beconducted with a survey administered after a validation process involving facultymembers and lab staff, and a pilot test with a randomly selected group of second-year physics students.

Our survey has identified four factors that significantly contribute to the studentslevel of satisfaction with the second-year physics labs. Related to the students moti-vation, an appropriate amount of time to complete the experiment and write a labreport was the factor with the greatest impact. The information on instruction sheetsand the help provided by lab staff and TAs were identified as the two resources thatmost contributed to the students overall satisfaction. Finally, the preparationstudents must do on their own, which may be impacted by the lack of synchroniza-tion between course and laboratory topics, influences the students ability tosuccessfully complete the lab. The results related to the information provided on theinstruction sheets and the allotted time to complete the experiment are consistentwith Hanif et al.s (2009) observations.

Ideally, students should start their experiment promptly and remain focused onthe task, confident in their ability to perform the experiment and learn from it. The

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 19

total number of survey comments received about an overall lack of time whichresulted in an increased pressure to complete the lab and report and associated feel-ings of stress were significant and concerning. Waiting for help from TAs, vagueinstructions, malfunctioning equipment, and lack of familiarity with the data analysissoftware have been cited as problems taking up precious time in the labs. Thecombined number of comments identifying these specific problems is small relativeto those that identified a general lack of time as a source of stress and a negativefactor in their ability to understand the physics concepts being explored.

While students would prefer to submit their written lab report on the day follow-ing the lab session or later, previous experience has resulted in undesirableoutcomes. These include students spending unreasonable amounts of time on thereport, reports being submitted with little or no additional work done, and latesubmissions. Also, students expected the TAs to be available to provide additionalhelp beyond their scheduled hours of work. A possible solution to this time-manage-ment problem is to identify the type, frequency, and duration of activities in the labthat lead to delays and other problems which result in frustration, stress, and workthat is unsatisfactory or unfinished. We could then work with students to developstrategies to help them stay focused and organized, thus minimizing unproductivetime in the lab and allowing the report to be submitted on time.

Those who approach the lab with the attitude of going through the motions willfind themselves frustrated by the intentional lack of step-by-step instructionsprovided in the lab instruction sheets. These sheets are a guide only and aredesigned to engage students in problem solving and critical thinking, one of the goalsof laboratory instruction. The students desire for more detailed instructions mayreflect a reluctance to take responsibility for their own learning. It is hoped that witha greater emphasis on individual pre-lab preparation, students may become moresuccessful with the current level of detail provided. A review of the lab instructionsheets may identify alternate wording or diagrams to better communicate the goalsand required tasks for the experiments and thus address comments about clarity andthe need for appropriate diagrams.

The help provided by lab staff and TAs is a topic which attracted the greatestamount of feedback and confirms that good quality TA help is important inmaximizing the benefit that students obtain from their lab work. It is essential, there-fore, to ensure that the Department pays attention to the calibre of TAs hired toassist in the lab. Apart from their knowledge and skills in the discipline, it is impor-tant to ensure that the TAs have strong interpersonal skills and can communicateclearly. A high priority will be placed on TA training and the encouragement of TAparticipation in professional development opportunities. The School of GraduateStudies has teaching development programmes specifically designed for graduateassistants. Two of these programmes are the Graduate Program in Teaching andTeaching Opportunities for Graduate Students, which provides graduate studentswith progressively more challenging teaching opportunities. Future surveys wouldindicate whether TAs possess the necessary skills and would assess the impact ofprofessional development undertaken.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

20 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

The degree to which students are prepared to participate in an experiment willimpact their understanding of its purpose, their ability to complete it on time, andtheir enjoyment. When a concept is not taught in the classroom prior to conductingan experiment on that concept, students are more challenged to understand thetheory and methods used. Students need to be aware of the importance of prepara-tion. While Table 5 shows the majority of students prepare for labs by reading thelab instruction sheets, we need to encourage more than a cursory review. Instructorsmust emphasize, on regular basis throughout the semester, the need to: (1) reviewtheir previous lab report and marker comments; (2) check the online lab schedule tofind out what experiment they will perform next; (3) carefully read the lab instruc-tion sheet; (4) identify the main concepts, methodologies, and purpose of the lab;and (5) review relevant textbook sections and class notes, and if necessary, discussthe experiment with a peer, or lab or course instructor to fill in the gaps in theirunderstanding.

Though there was an overwhelmingly negative response from students regardingthe implementation of pre-lab quizzes, because research has shown that pre-labexercises have a positive impact on students performance, we will use pre-labquizzes in future semesters. By conducting a similar survey following the implemen-tation of pre-labs and comparing data to the current survey data, we will determinethe impact that this preparatory activity has on lab completion rates and level ofenjoyment.

This survey has reassured us that labs fulfil a need in the curriculum of theDepartment of Physics and that students acknowledge the academic benefits ofparticipating in the weekly lab sessions. It has identified factors, unrelated to thephysics content, that impact the students level of enjoyment. These factors are astarting point for further study and the development of strategies to increase studentsatisfaction with the physics lab experience.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank S. Pippy, Centre for Institutional Analysis andPlanning, Memorial University of Newfoundland, for assistance with SPSS andinterpretation of the ANOVA output.

Notes

1. Kaleidagraph is a product of Synergy Software.2. Mathematica is a product of Wolfram Research Inc.3. WebCT is a product of Blackboard Inc.

References

AAPT (American Association of Physics Teachers). (1997). The goal of introductory physicslaboratories. Retrieved August 20, 2009, from http://www.aapt.org/Policy/goaloflabs.cfm

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 21

Anderson, R. O. (1976). The experience of science: A new perspective for laboratory teaching. NewYork: Columbia University, Teachers College Press (Cited in Hofstein and Lunetta (1982)).

Bennett, D. C. (2001). Assessing quality in higher educationPerspectives. Liberal education.Retrieved December 12, 2008, from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NKR/is_2_87/ai_88581415

Bernstein, G. H. (2002). The role of the lab TA. IEEE Potentials, 21(3), 3638.Borrmann, T. (2008). Laboratory education in New Zealand. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,

Science and Technology Education, 4, 327335.Boud, D., Dunn, J., & Hegarty-Hazel, E. (1986). Teaching in laboratories. Guildford: Society for

Research into Higher Education & NFER-Nelson.Byers, W. (2002). Promoting active learning through small group laboratory classes. University

Chemistry Education, 6, 2834.Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate

education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 37.Cronholm, T., Hoog, J.-O., & Martenson, D. (2000). Student attitudes towards laboratory exercises

in medical biochemistry. Medical Teacher, 22, 3033.Domin, D. (1999). A review of laboratory instruction styles. Journal of Chemical Education, 76,

543547.Domin, D. S. (2007). Students perceptions of when conceptual development occurs during labo-

ratory instruction. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 8(2), 140152.Fraser, B. J., & Giddings, G. J. (1995). Evolution and validation of a personal form of an instru-

ment for assessing science laboratory classroom environments. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 32(4), 399422.

Hanif, M., Sneddon, P. H., Al-Ahmadi, F. M., & Reid, N. (2009). The perceptions, views andopinions of university students about physics learning during undergraduate laboratory work.European Journal of Physics, 30, 8596.

Hein, T. L., & Irvine, S. E. (1999). Technology as a teaching and learning tool: Assessing studentunderstanding in the introductory physics lab. American Society for Engineering EducationAnnual Conference, Session 2380, Charlotte, NC.

Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (1982). The role of the laboratory in science teaching: Neglectedaspects of research. Review of Educational Research, 52, 201217.

Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (2004). The laboratory in science education: Foundations for thetwenty-first century. Science Education, 88, 2854.

Hunter, C., McCosh, R., & Wilkins, H. (2003). Integrating learning and assessment in laboratorywork. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice, 4, 6775.

Johnstone, A. H., Watt, A., & Zaman, T. U. (1998). Students attitude and cogitative changes to aphysics lab. Physics Education, 33, 2229.

Kirschner, P. A., & Meester, M. A. M. (1988). The laboratory in higher science education:Problems, premises and objectives. Higher Education, 17, 8198.

Moore, R. (2003). Students choices in developmental education: Is it really important to attendclass? Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 20(1), 4252.

Pickering, M. (1988). A physical chemist looks at organic chemistry lab. Journal of ChemicalEducation, 65, 143144.

Pike, G. R. (1991). The effects of background, coursework, and involvement on students gradesand satisfaction. Research in Higher Education, 32, 1530.

Polles, J. S. (2006). The chemistry teaching laboratory: The student perspective. Ph.D. thesis, PurdueUniversity.

Reid, N., & Shah, I. (2007). The role of laboratory work in university chemistry. Chemistry Educa-tion Research and Practice, 8, 172185.

Reiner, M., & Gilbert, J. K. (2004). The symbiotic roles of empirical experimentation and thoughtexperimentation in the learning of physics. International Journal of Science Education, 26(15),18191834.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

22 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Rigano, D. L., & Ritchie, S. M., (1994). Students thinking in a chemistry laboratory. Research inScience Education, 24, 270279.

Roychoudhury, A., & Roth, W.-M. (1996). Interactions in an open-inquiry physics laboratory.International Journal of Science Education, 18(4), 423445.

von Aufschnaiter, C., & von Aufschnaiter, S. (2007). University students activities, thinking andlearning during laboratory work. European Journal of Physics, 28, S51S60.

White, R. T. (1979). Relevance of practical work to comprehension in physics. Physics Education,14, 384387.

White, R. T. (1996). The link between the laboratory and learning. International Journal of ScienceEducation, 18(7), 761774.

Wieman, C., & Perkins, K. (2005). Transforming physics education. Physics Today, 58(11), 3641.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 23

Appendix 1. List of Laboratory Experiments

Physics 2053: Fluids and Thermal Physics

The Thermistor

Summary: Students measure the resistance of a thermistor as a function of tempera-ture and plot the data. Values for the constants A and B are determined by fitting thedata to the exponential function R = AeBT.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure resistance using digital multimeter(2) Plot a graph using Kaleidagraph(3) Describe the relationship between resistance and temperature(4) Calculate numerical constants associated with the thermistor

Phase Change in Water

Summary: The phase change from ice to liquid water is studied by two methods. Thefirst uses a triple point cell to show that the phase change occurs with no change intemperature, while the second method allows the latent heat of fusion of ice to bedetermined.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure temperature using a thermistor(2) Identify three phases of water in equilibrium(3) Demonstrate Latent Heat(4) Calculate the value of the Latent Heat of fusion for ice

The Kelvin Temperature Scale

Summary: Students use a modified form of the constant volume gas thermometer toaccurately measure temperature. The accuracy of the calibration is checked bydetermining the temperature of boiling water, liquid nitrogen, and solid carbondioxide. Because the apparatus expands and contracts with changes in temperature,a correction is applied to the calculated temperatures.

Learning goals:

(1) Use a triple point cell(2) Explain what is meant by fixed point(3) Explain what is meant by absolute zero(4) Calculate temperature based on the relation between pressure and temperature

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

24 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Viscosity of Water

Summary: Poiseuilles law is used to determine the viscosity of water by measuringthe flow of water along a capillary tube.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure flow rate(2) Determine pressure from the height of a water column(3) Calculate viscosity from the slope of a straight line graph

Viscosity of Sugar Solution

Summary: A rotating cylinder is used to determine the viscosity of sugar solution.The total drag depends on the applied torque. The algebra is more complex than forthe water experiment, and some manipulation of the data is required before theviscosity can be determined.

Learning goals:

(1) Describe the relation between torque and rotation(2) Explain the role of viscosity(3) Manipulate the algebraic formula for viscosity into a form suitable for plotting(4) Determine viscosity from the slope of a straight line graph

The Bernoulli Equation

Summary: The Bernoulli equation is used to compare the measured and predictedflow rates of water though two short tubes of different diameter. A discrepancybetween the two flow rates allows students to calculate the coefficient of dischargeand discuss the effect of friction in the tubes.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure flow rate(2) Apply the Bernoulli equation to calculate the predicted flow rate from the

heights of two water columns(3) Explain the role of the coefficient of discharge

Linear Expansion

Summary: The coefficient of linear expansion is determined for different metals bymeasuring the change in length which occurs when steam is passed through tubesof copper, stainless steel, and aluminium. A thermistor is used to measuretemperature.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 25

Learning goals:

(1) Measure small distances(2) Obtain temperatures from the resistance of a thermistor(3) Demonstrate that different materials have different expansion coefficients

Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes

Summary: The gas laws are investigated by studying the variation of pressure andvolume of air under isothermal and adiabatic conditions.

Learning goals:

(1) Operate apparatus interfaced to a computer for the acquisition of temperature,volume, and pressure data

(2) Plot graphs of pressure versus volume and obtain the appropriate mathematicalrelation

(3) Illustrate the difference between isothermal and adiabatic compression

Thermal Radiation: Stefans Law and radiative properties of surfaces

Summary: These two experiments demonstrate the fourth power law relationshipbetween power and radiation. In Stefans law a light bulb is illuminated using avariable power supply. The variation of power with temperature is plotted to estab-lish the fourth power law. The fourth power law is not obeyed at low filamenttemperatures and should be apparent from students graphs. In radiative propertiesof surfaces, a metallic cube is heated electrically and the thermal radiation from itsfaces is measured using a sensor which is connected to a computer. It is shown that apolished surface emits less radiation than a matt surface, and leads to a discussion ofblack-body radiation.

Learning goals:

(1) Operate apparatus interfaced to a computer for the acquisition of current, volume,and temperature data

(2) Plot graphs and obtain the appropriate power law(3) Demonstrate the behaviour of a black body

The Stirling Engine: The heat engine

Summary: This experiment uses many of the physics concepts discussed in thecourse to explain the relation between heat, work, energy, power, and efficiency.Students generate a graph to show the pressure and volume changes which occur(the Carnot cycle) and use a spreadsheet to calculate the work done per cycle, andhence the efficiency of the heat engine.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

26 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Learning goals:

(1) Use the heat engine to show the relationship between heat and work(2) Show how apparatus can be interfaced to computers for data acquisition(3) Plot graphs of pressure versus temperature(4) Use a spreadsheet for data analysis

Physics 2055 Laboratory

This laboratory consists of a sequence of experiments designed to demonstrateproperties of electrical circuits. Each experiment requires students to construct asimple circuit on a solderless breadboard, take appropriate measurements of voltage,current, frequency, etc., and plot a suitable graph. The graph may follow a straightline or a more complicated mathematical function. The experiments are performedin sequence, with the expectation that students will have mastered the skills requiredin one experiment before continuing to the next.

Introduction to the Lab

Summary: Students construct simple electrical circuits to become familiar with theequipment which will be used in future lab sessions.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure voltage, current, and resistance using a digital multimeter(2) Construct and debug simple electrical circuits on a breadboard

Linear and Nonlinear Resistors

(The instruction sheet for this experiment is provided at the end of this section.)

Summary: Students construct a series circuit consisting of a power supply and aresistor. By varying the current and measuring the voltage across the resistor, itsresistance can be determined. Substituting the resistor for a light bulb showsstudents that Ohms Law no longer holds.

Learning goals:

(1) Construct a simple series circuit and know how to measure voltage, current, andresistance

(2) Verify Ohms law by plotting graphs of current versus voltage(3) Explain how the functional relation for a resistor and a light bulb differ

Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws

Summary: Students construct a simple electrical network and use Kirchhoffs laws tocalculate the various currents in the circuit and compare these with measured values.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 27

Learning goals:

(1) Construct a more complicated circuit on the breadboard(2) Formulate and solve circuit equations to calculate current using a spreadsheet or

other software

Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor

Summary: Students determine the time constant for an RC circuit by measuring thetime required for the capacitor to completely charge and also to completelydischarge from a fully charged state. The experiment is repeated using a light bulb inplace of a capacitor, and students are encouraged to think about how the capacitoracts as either a gate or a filter.

Learning goals:

(1) Plot graphs of voltage versus time to determine the time constant for the circuit(2) Explain the role of the time constant in an RC circuit(3) Explain how the flow of charge affects the brightness of the light bulb

Introduction to the Oscilloscope

Summary: Students use the oscilloscope to measure voltage and frequency, in prepa-ration for subsequent experiments.

Learning goals:

(1) Measure AC and DC voltages using the oscilloscope(2) Explain the difference between amplitude, peak to peak voltage, and rms

voltage(3) Identify and distinguish between sine, square, and triangular waveforms(4) Compare the suitability of an oscilloscope versus a digital multimeter as a

measuring device(5) Explain why a multimeter fails at high frequency

The Diode

Summary: This is very similar to the first experiment, with the resistor replaced by adiode. Students show that the current in a forward biased diode obeys an exponen-tial power law, while a reversed biased diode does not conduct. The behaviour of adiode under ac conditions is also studied.

Learning goals:

(1) Define what is meant by forward bias and reverse bias(2) Identify when a diode is conducting by observing an ac trace using an oscillo-

scope

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

28 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Introduction to AC: The RC circuit

Summary: Students construct a simple series circuit consisting of a resistor and acapacitor. The power is provided by an ac waveform generator.

Learning goals:

(1) Show how frequency affects the impedance of the capacitor(2) Describe the difference between a low pass filter and a high pass filter(3) Define the concept of phase

RL Filter Circuits

Summary: Students construct a simple series circuit, as above, with the capacitorreplaced by an inductor. By observing the signal across the inductor, and plottinggain as a function of frequency, students can calculate the value of the inductor andits associated resistance.

Learning goals:

(1) Show how the voltage across an inductor varies with frequency(2) Plot a straight line graph and calculate the inductance from its slope and resis-

tance from the intercept

Resonance in LCR Series Circuit

Summary: Students construct a series circuit consisting of an inductor, capacitor,and resistor. The resonant frequency is obtained from a graph of gain versusfrequency, as well as the phase change which occurs as the frequency is increasedpast resonance.

Learning goal:

(1) Show the variation of gain and phase in a series LCR circuit

Sample Instruction Sheet for Physics 2055 Experiment, Linear and Nonlinear Resistors

Department of Physics and Physical OceanographyPhysics 2055 Laboratory

Introduction

The current in an electrical circuit depends on the magnitude of the source voltageand the resistance of the various components. The voltage drop across a linearcomponent is given by Ohms law:

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 29

but for a nonlinear component, Ohms law does not apply. In this experiment youwill study the different behaviours of a regular resistor and a light bulb.

Procedure

(1) Construct the series circuit shown, using V = 12 volts dc. Rx is an unknownresistance and R1 is a variable decade resistance box. Starting with R1 = 0 ,measure the voltage across Rx and the current in it. By increasing R1 in suitablesteps obtain a series of voltage and current values, and plot a graph of VRx versusIRx.

Figure 1. A simple series circuit to study Ohms Law

(2) From your graph, verify that the resistor obeys Ohms law and hence determinea value for Rx. What is the uncertainty in Rx? Check your result by measuring itsvalue using a DMM.

(3) How does the resistance of the voltmeter affect the voltage reading across aparticular resistor? Does it matter if the voltmeters resistance is low (few k), orlarge (M)? Explain your answer.

V IR= ( )1

Figure 1. A simple series circuit to study Ohms law

VRx

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

30 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Nonlinear Resistors

(1) Nonlinear conductors such as semiconductors, thermistors, and diodes do nothave a constant resistance. Instead, we can write the voltage drop as a functionof current in the form:

where A is a constant.(2) Replace the resistance Rx by a light bulb and obtain a data table which shows the

voltage drop across the bulb and the current. Plot this data and explain why youthink the graph displays this behaviour.

(3) Use the laboratory computers to determine values for n and A, and discuss thesignificance of these results.

Appendix 2. Second-Year Physics Lab Survey

Question 1

The lab component of the course should be worth ________________ of the overallcourse mark.

a. less than 20%b. 20%c. more than 20%

Question 2

Prior to coming to the lab session, I prepared for each lab experiment by doing thefollowing (check all that apply):

a. reading the lab guide sheetb. reading my class notes and/or textbookc. asking someone about the lab experimentd. I did not prepare

Question 3

The labs contributed to my knowledge of physics.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

V AI n= ( )2

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 31

Question 4

The labs helped improve my lab skills and techniques (data analysis, report writing,etc.).

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 5

The physics labs were interesting.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 6

I recommend the lab component include a pre-lab quiz that would be part of the labmark and would be submitted prior to each lab session.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 7

Adequate help was provided during the lab session.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly Disagree

Question 8

Additional comments on the help provided during labs:

Question 9

The deadline for the submission of lab reports should be

a. the end of the lab sessionb. the day after the lab sessionc. one week after the date of the lab session

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

32 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Question 10

If you selected b or c in response to Question 8, please explain why you believe moretime is required to complete the lab report.

Question 11

I received constructive feedback on my lab report.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 12

I was marked fairly on my lab report.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 13

How helpful to you were the following:

Matching pairs:

Lab guide sheets

Lab web site (physics.mun.ca/cdeacon)

Marking guidelines

WebCT access to grades

Question 14

The radio project helped me connect course work with a practical application.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 33

Question 15

The radio project was interesting and enjoyable.

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagreee. Strongly disagree

Question 16

Additional comments regarding the resources listed above in Question 13:

Question 17

Use of the lab computers (check all that apply):

a. assisted in completion of the labsb. enhanced my understanding of the underlying physics of each labc. helped develop my computer skillsd. was equally shared between lab partnerse. was the primary responsibility of one lab partner

Question 18

Kaleidagraph is used for data analysis in the physics labs. Rate the degree to whichyou agree or disagree with the following statements about Kaleidagraph.

Matching pairs:

Kaleidagraph is relevant and useful for completingthe lab experiments.

Kaleidagraph is easy to learn.

I can use Kaleidagraph effectively and efficiently.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

34 C. Deacon and A. Hajek

Question 19

Additional comments about Kaleidagraph:

Question 20

The physics lab computers have the necessary software to complete each lab experi-ment. What other software would be helpful to have on the computers for use duringthe lab session or at times when the lab is free?

Question 21What did you like about the labs?

Question 22What did you dislike about the labs?

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0

The Value of Physics Laboratories 35

Question 23Please provide your suggestions for changes or improvements in the lab sessions.

Downlo

aded

By:

[Ca

nadi

an R

esea

rch

Know

ledg

e Ne

twor

k] A

t: 1

1:51

13

July

201

0