land reform in pakistan a critical issue for future development
TRANSCRIPT
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8/10/2019 Land Reform in Pakistan a Critical Issue for Future Development
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L a n d R e f o r m i n P a k i s t a n :
A
C r i t i c a l I s s u e
f o r
F u t u r e
D e v e l o p m e n t ?
.
Salman Az i z and Thomas
r ay
Thi s paper r evi ews t he l and r ef orms t hat have been i mpl ement ed i n Paki st an (1959 and
1972) and t he ext ent t o whi ch t hey wer e i nst r ument al i n r esol vi ng pr obl ems of i ncome i n-
equal i t i es, r ur al pover t y and unempl oyment , and agr i cul t ur al pr oduct i on. The aut hor s
argue that nei t her t he
1959
or
1972
l and r ef orms have sol ved t hese pr obl ems. I n f act ,
l and owner shi p r emai ns hi ghl y concent r ated.
i i i stence t enant s as wel l as expl oi t i ng l andl ess l abor er s.
was redi st r i but ed as a resul t of t he
1972
r ef or m Si nce both l and r ef orms wer e i mpl e-
ment ed dur i ng per i ods of
r el at i ve soci al unr est , i t suggest s that t he pr i mar y obj ect i ve
of t he ref or ms was not t o achi eve an equi t abl e redi st r i but i on of l and but r at her t o nol l i f y
t he poor peasant s and gar ner t hei r pol i t i cal support ' ' . I n f act , no gr eat agr i cul t ur al
devel opment can be vi sual i zed wi t hi n t he pr esent st r uct ure of l and owner shi p. Onl y a
r adi cal r ef or m ( l and t o t he t i l l er s) cansol ve t he pr obl em of under devel opment . The pos-
s i bl e benef i t s of smal l f ar m ngarespel l ed out i n Sect i on I 11 of t he paper . The aut hor s
adm t t hat t he mat er i al i n t hi s sect i on
i s
pr oj ecti ve and hi ghl y t ent at i ve . I t i s ,
however , based on st udi es t hat pr edi ct sever eener gy shor t ages and envi r onment al probl ems
i n t he near f ut ur e and i s wel l wor t h ser i ous consi der at i on.
Lar ge l andowner s s queeze r ent s out of sub-
Onl y
0 . 5
percent of t he l and
Ther e i s no general l y accept ed
def i ni t i on of what const i t ut es Land Kef om .
Some have def i ned i t nar r owl y as a means t o
pr ovi de l and t o t he l andl ess whi l e ot her s
have concei ved i t br oadl y as a comprehensi ve
pr ogr am f or t he t r ansf or mat i on of t he en-
t i r e agr i cul t ur al economy under t he l abel of
Agr ari an Ref or m . ( Warr i ner
1969,
xi v) For
t hi s s tudy t he t er m r ef er s to publ i c pro-
gr ams t hat seek t o r estr uct ur e equi t abl y
and r at i onal l y a def ect i ve l and- t enur e sys-
t emby c ompul sor y, dr ast i c, and r api d means .
( Tai
1974, 11)
I n t he ent i r e pr ocess
of
l and r ef or m -
f r omi ni t i at i on t o compl et i on
-
t he govern-
ment pl ays a deci si ve r ol e. I n t he wor ds of
Kennet h H. Par sons, ' ' In a ver y deep sense,
l and t enure probl ems ar e power pr obl ems,
pr obl ems of di spar i t y i n econom c, soci al ,
and pol i t i cal power . ( Par sons 1956, 9)
Hence, l and ref or m pr ogr ams ar e di st i nctl y
publ i c pr ogr ams. . . undert aken by publ i c or
gover nment agenci es t o modi f y t he econom c
bas i s of pol i t i cs .
A s
such, am cabl e
SOUTH
ASIA BULLETIN
VoZ
I
No
2 .
Swnmer
1981
arr angement s or vol unt ary t r ansf ers of
l and ar e doomed to f ai l ur e as experi -
enced i n t he Bhoodan movement i n I ndi a.
( J anuzzi 1974, 125-6)
changes. I n an agr i cul t ur al soci et y
wher e l and i s at once the pr i nci pal
sour ce of weal t h, t he f oundati on of po-
l i t i cal power , and t he symbol of soci al
pr est i ge, t he syst emof l and- t enur e i s
not hi ng less than a vi ta l i ns t i t ut i on
t hat deter m nes and al l ocat es t he val ues
of soci ety. Gi ven t hat t here i s ext r eme
concent r at i on i n l and ownershi p pat t er ns,
dr asti c measur es ar e i nevi t abl e to accom
pl i sh t he desi r ed r esul t of l and r ef orm
i . e. r at i onal and equi t abl e r edi s t r i but i o
of l and.
agr ari an changes be ef f ect ed wi t hi n a
shor t span of t i me. ( Tai
1974, 17)
Wher e l and r ef or m
i s
necessary, evol ut i on-
ar y change i s of t en i mpr act i cabl e i f #not
i mpossi bl e. W t h cent ur i es- ol d t r adi -
t i ons, t he l and t enur e syst ems of l es s
devel oped count r i es have been const ant l y
re i nf orced i n t hei r r i gi di t y. To break
such r i gi di t y, speedy and ef f ect i ve
Land r ef or m al so ent ai l s dr ast i c
F i nal l y, l and r ef or m r equi res t hat
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act i on i s t he panacea - not gradual
adj ust ment s.
OBJ ECTI VES:
of l and r ef orm ar e economc devel opment and
soci al equi t y . ( Hi r sch 1972, 1 3 6 ) Mor e
speci f i cal l y, t hese obj ecti ves coul d be
st at ed i n t he f ol l ow ng manner .
The r het or i c sur r oundi ng the obj ect i ves
Soci o- Econom c Obj ect i ves:
A . mor e equi t abl e di st r i but i on of ownep
shi p and/ or r i ght s t o use l and.
B. mor e equi t abl e di st r i but i on of ear n-
i ng oppor t uni t y and i ncome.
C. an i ncr ease i n agr i cul t ur al produc-
t i on and t he market abl e surpl us t o
saf eguard t he suppl y of domest i c
consumpt i on.
f or t h0s. e engaged i n agr i cul t ur al
pr oduct i on.
D.
i ncr ease of r eal i ncome per capi t a
Al t hough t here ar e many pi t f al l s t o be
f aced i n at t empt i ng t o i mpl ement l and re-
fo rmo a subst ant i ve nat ur e, t hat does not
precl ude t he need and ur gency f or one.
many of t he devel opi ng count r i es wher e a
bi modal di st r i but i on of l and exi st s, t he
probl ems of r ur al pover t y and st agnant agr i -
cul t ur al pr oduct i on can onl y be ser i ousl y
t ackl ed once t here i s a mor e equi t abl e di s-
t r i but i on
of
l and. ( Asi an Devel opment Bank,
1978, 217) .
I n
ascer t ai ni ng t he opt i mum f ar m si ze
( subsi st ence or econom c) i n t he i m
pl ement at i on of l and r ef orm many ana-
l yst s have f ound smal l er f arms t o be
r el at i vel y mor e ef f i ci ent t han l ar ger
f ar ms. Vdr i ous st udi es on f arm si ze and
t he l evel of out put have consi st ent l y
i ndi cat ed that r el at i vel y smal l er f ar ms
have a gr eat er out put per hect are t han
t he l arger f arms or est ates However,
t o general i ze acr oss t he boar d woul d be
somewhat m sl eadi ng, but t he message i s
cl ear . Gi ven good government suppor t i ve
measur es ( i . e. Extensi on Servi ces) , t he
smal l er f arms,
a
pot ent i al consequenceof
l and ref orm can, i n f ac t , - havea
posi t i ve i mpact on pr oduct i on.
f ur t her i ndi cat ed t hat t he mar gi nal pr o-
duct i vi t y of l abor i n agr i cul t ur e i n
LDC'S
i s ver y l ow, and as much as t went y-
f i ve per cent of t he r ur al l abor f or ce i s
ei t her under or unempl oyed. ( Schul t z 1964,
5 4 ) Ther e i s f ur t her evi dence that t he
l ar ger f ar ms t end t o be r el at i vel y capi -
t al - i nt ensi ve whi l e t he smal l er f ar ms
pr act i ce a mor e l abor - i nt ensi ve f or m of
agr i cul t ur e. Gi ven a bi modal
f o r m
of
l and di st r i but i on, t he empl oyment ef f ect s
of a subst ant i ve l and redi st r i but i on
pr ogr am can be qui t e appr eci abl e.
(c)
I ncome Redi st r i but i on.
Redi st r i but i on of l and may not onl y
i ncrease i ncomes of t enant s ( new and ol d)
as a r esul t of t he abol i t i on of shar e-
2
(b) Empl oyment , Studi es have
3
THE CASE FOR LAND REFORM
st r ong case f or l and r ef or m can be made on t i al f or f ur t her i ncr eases r esul t i ng
soci o- econom c gr ounds. The econom c ar gu- par t i al l y f r om owner shi p i ncent i ves.
ment s deal pr i mari l y wi t h pr oduct i on, . i ncome Fur t her more, evi dence suggest s t hat t he
r edi st r i but i on, and empl oyment .
smal l f armers may i n t he aggregat e
cr oppi ng and/ or t enancy rent s, but t he
I n r evi ew ng t he l i t erat ur e, an ext r emel y t r ansf er of owner shi p may pr ovi de a pot en-
save more t han l arger f armers gi ven sui t -
The Econom c Case f or Land Ref orm Land
r ef or m can be ver y i nst r ument al i n r est r uc-
abl e
condi t i on^ ^
The ext ent t o whi ch
t hi s i ncr ease i n savi ngs i s channel l ed
t ur i ng rur al soci et y and consequent l y has a
subst ant i al posi t i ve i mpact on pr oduct i on, t i on, however, woul d be dependen
i ncome r edi st r i but i on, empl oyment , and government t ax and pr i ce pol i cy.
capi t al f or mat i on.
makers of t en have m sgi vi ngs about l and
r ef or m and i t s det r i ment al ef f ect on pr o-
ducti on st emm ng f r om t he i nef f i ci enci es of
smal l f arms. Al t hough f ar m si ze i s a cri t - pl ement at i on of l and ref or m i t woul d
b e
i cal i s sue, and of t en t her e i s di f f i cul t y i n
t owards i nvest ment s or on- f arm consump-
I On
(a) Product i on. Pl anners and pol i cy
LEGI SLATI ON AND I MPLEMENTATI ON
Al t hough t here ar e numerous f act or s
t hat i mpi nge on the l egi sl at i on and i m
usef ul t o hi ghl i ght t he more cr i t i cal
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i ssues. ( War r i ner 1969, 15-21) They are:
(a) who wi l l be the benef i ci ari es; (b) t he
f orm of expr opr i at i on of l and, i . e. wi t h or
wi t hout compensat i on t o t he af f ect ed l and-
l or ds; (c) t he f or m of compensat i on, i . e.
gover nment
sponsor ed or a payment by t he
benef i ci ar i es t o t he l andowners ;
(d)
t he
l egi s l at i on i t sel f t hat m ght i nc l ude pos-
si bl e l oophol es t hr ough pr ovi si ons f or ex-
empt i on cl auses t hus r ef l ect i ng t he degr ee
of gover nment ' s pol i t i cal comm t ment
t o l and
r ef ormmeasur es; (e) t he si ze of t he
r edi st r i but ed par cel s of l and.
I n concl usi on, i t shoul d be emphasi zed
that t he cont r i but i on of l and r ef or m i n al -
l evi at i ng t he econom c and soci al di spar i t i es
r esul t i ng f r om t r adi t i onal l and tenure sys-
t ems i s as l i m t ed/ ext ensi ve as t he gover n-
ment' s i nabi l i t y/ abi l i t y ( and comm t ment ) .
I t
i s a necessar y, but not a suf f i c i ent con-
di t i on f or f ut ur e devel opment obj ecti ves.
I t i s i nst r ument al i n br eaki ng exi st i ng pat -
t erns of power and s et t i ng a st age where
benef i t s of f ut ur e pol i c i es accrue to the
popul ace i n a mor e equi t abl e manner.
11. LAND REFORM I N PAKI STAN
The need f or l and r ef orm i n Paki st an as
a key pr econdi t i on f or r evi t al i z i ng t he ag-
r i cul t ur al sect or was per cei ved by devel op-
ment econom st s mor e t han t wo decades ago.
However , si nce t hen, onl y meager at t empt s
have been made i n t hi s di r ect i on. The r e-
s ul t - Paki s t an i s s t i l l pl agued wi t h a
st agnant agr i cul t ur al sect or, gr eat i ncome
di spar i t i es, and pover t y
of
t he r ur al
masses.
THE TRADI TI ONAL LAND TENURE SYSTEM
i . t exi st ed pr i or t o t he l and ref or ms of
1959, had the f ol l owi ng maj or char act eri s-
t i cs :
A. The Zam ndar or Sover ment i nt er-
The t r adi t i onal l and tenur e syst emas
6
medi ar i es h' ad f ul l pr opr i et or shi p
over l arge est at es and exact ed exor-
bi t ant r ent s f r omt enant s as a
-
sour ce of gover nment r evenue and
personal income .
B. Uni t s of cul t i vat i on ( sual l
C. A bi modal pat t ern of l and owner -
f arms) wer e hi ghl y f r agment ed.
shi p exi st ed wi t h ext r eme con-
cent r at i on of l and owners hi p by
a handf ul of l arge f armer s ( Tabl e
1).
For exampl e,
0.13
percent of
t he l andowner s owned over f i f t een
per cent of t he cul t i vat ed l and
i n par cel s of over 500 acres
each.
D. Extr eme i nsecur i t y of t enant s
and subst ant i al r ack- r ent i ng by
l arge owner s ( Zam ndars) was
pr eval ent .
E. Appr oxi mat el y t en percent of t he
househol ds wer e cl assi f i ed as
l andl ess l abor, and cl ose t o
t went y- t wo percent of t he r ur al
popul at i on was ei t her unempl oyed
or under empl oyed.
F. Most
of
t he benef i t s of devel op-
ment pr ograms accr ued t o t he
l ar ge 1andot mer s, a consequence
of t he power exer ci sed by t hem
at al l l evel s of gover nment . 7
nomena and hi ghl y expl oi t at i ve
soc i al l y and econom cal l y ( f i f ty
percent of t he cr op went t o l and-
owners) .
H. Land on t he l ar ger f ar ms was
gr ossl y under ut i l i zed.
Fol l owi ng t he m l i t ar y coup i n 1959,
a pr ogr amf or l and ref or mwas i nst i t ut ed
by Ayub Khan. However , f r om t he begi n- -
ni ng, he apparent l y had no i nt ent i on
of
r educi ng t he hol di ngs of any but t he
G. Sharecr oppi ng was a common phe-
l ar gest Zam ndar s. 8
THE 1959 LAND REFORMS
Al t hough the of f i c i al l y stated
obj ect i ves of t he 1959 l and r ef orm wer e
i ndeed i mpr essi ve i n t hei r scope and po-
t ent i al i mpact on agr i cul t ur al pr oduct i on,
i ncome r edi st r i but i on, and empl oyment ,
t hei r ef f ect i veness or t he l ack of i t i s
c l ear l y re f l ec ted i n the f orm of l egi s l a-
t i on passed and t he ul t i mate r esul t s of
l and r edi st r i but i on t hat f ol l owed.
L e g i ~l a t i o n: ~ he l egi s l at i on
abol i shed the r ol e of i nt ermedi ari eswi t h t h
gover nment assum ng t he rol e of t ax
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col l - ector . I n addi t i on, i t cal l ed for :
A .
a l and owner shi p cei l i ng of 500
acres of i r r i gat ed or
1000
acr es of
uni r r i gat ed l and, any excess bei ng
r esumed by gover nment wi t h compensa-
t i on t o t he af f ect ed l andowner s.
B.
The benef i ci ar i es wer e t o be ei t her
exi st i ng t enant s or ot her deser vi ng
per sons . I n addi t i on, t he benef i -
ci ar i es woul d f i nance t he compensa-
t i on of t he af f ect ed l andowners by
annual payment s.
Exempt i on cl auses were pr ovi ded f or
l and t r ansf er s t o hei r s and f or
l and used f or orchar ds, st ud f ar ms,
and l i vest ock.
D.
No
f r agment at i on of l and was perm s-
si bl e whi ch woul d resul t i n t he f i nal
area of f r agment ed hol di ngs bei ng
bel ow t wel ve ac r edo , t he aver age
si ze of r edi str i but ed par cel s of
l and.
C.
At t he t i me, t hese r ef orms were hai l ed
as r evol ut i onar y. I n r et r ospect , t hey wer e
si mpl y measur es t hat subdued t he pot ent i al f or
soci al unr est and r et ai ned l andl or d l oyal t y.
Consi der i ng t hehei ght of cei l i ngs i mposed, t he
exempt i ons pr ovi ded, and t he pr i or knowl edge
( si nce
1949)
of t he possi bi l i t y of l and r ef or ms
by t he l andl or ds, i t was no sur pr i se t hat onl y
910
owner s were af f ected; onl y f our per cent
of t he tot al cul t i vat ed l and was expr opr i at ed;
and, f i nal l y, onl y 2. 4 per cent of t he t ot al
l and under cul t i vat i on was r edi st r i but ed
( Tabl e 2).
1959 l and r ef orm many shor t comngs ar e evi -
dent . Fi r st , cl ear l y t he new gover nment
l acked t he pol i t i cal wi l l f or ref or m Second,
t he i nor di nat el y hi gh cei l i ng i mposed, cou-
pl ed w t h t he pr ovi si ons f or exempt i ons,
pr ecl uded the possi bi l i t y of subst ant i al ex-
pr opr i at i on of l and. Thi r d, the i mposi t i on
of bur densome payment s on t he benef i ci ar i es
f or t he acqui r ed l and di d not creat e pr opi t i ous
ci r cumst ances f or them Four t h, t her e wer e no
concr et e pr oposal s i n t he l egi sl at i on t hat
at t acked t he pr obl em of l andl ess l abor. Fi f t h,
al t hough t he Zam ndars were abol i shed, t he
st ate was now t he rent r ecei ver w t h t he t en-
ant s r emai ni ng as t enant s. Si xt h, t he r ef or m
was i mpl ement ed t hr ough a hi ghl y cent r al i zed,
pr ovi nci al , bur eaucrati c adm ni st r at i on t hat
I n r evi ew ng t he f i nal resul t s of t he
l acked the qual i f i cat i ons and i nt egr i t y
f or t he j ob. ( Myrdal 1968, 1330)
Fi nal l y, t her e was no peasant par t i ci pa-
t i on i n t he over al l i mpl ement at i on
of
t he
l and r ef or m
cur bi ng of f r agment at i on of l andhol di ngs
and some i mprovement i n secur i t y of t en-
ant s f romunj ust i f i ed evi ct i ons. (Tai
1974, 345)
The onl y posi t i ve out come was t he
THE 1972
LAND REFORMS
1959 r ef or ms, can be r egarded as a di smal
f ai l ure
i n
t er ms of t hei r i mpact on agr i -
cul t ur al out put , empl oyment , and i ncome
di spar i t i es as di scussed l at er i n t hi s
sect i on.
Law Regul at i on 115 ( MLR) wer e:
The 1972 l and r ef orms, l i ke t he
The mai n pr ovi Ei ons of t he Mar t i al
A A cei l i ng of 150 acres of i r r i -
gat ed, or
300
acres of uni r r i gat ed
l and was i mposed on i ndi vi dual
hol di ngs. Any sur pl uswas t obe
ex-
propr i atedwi t hout compensat i on.
f r ee t o exi st i ng t enant s and
l andl ess l abor .
C. Pr ovi si ons
f o r
t he r i ght t o
t r ansf er l and t o hei r s were made.
D. The l andl ord woul d deci de whi ch
of hi s pl ot s he woul d sur r ender .
E.
Evi ct i ons of t enant s wer e onl y
j ust i f i ed i f r ent was not pai d
by them The l evel of r ent s was
not st i pul at ed. ( Hai der and
Kuhnen 1974, 59)
B. Land was t o be r edi st r i but ed
I n assessi ng t he f i nal i mpact of MLR
115 i n l i ght of t he l egi sl at i on' s mai n
f eat ur es, t her e i s no r eason t o be opt i -
m sti c. Thi s i s f ur t her suppor t ed by
data whi ch i ndi cate t hat onl y 0. 5 percent
of t ot al cul t i vat ed l and was r edi st r i but e
t o onl y 0.1 per cent of t he t ot al r ur al
popul at i on w t h an i ncome redi st r i but i on
ef f ect of onl y t wo percent . ( Her r i ng and
Chaudhr y 1974, 245- 279) cabl e 3). Fur t hermore
t he r ef or mmeasures suf f ered f r ommany of
t he same weaknesses out l i ned under t he
1959 l and ref orm f or many
of
t he same
r easons, i . e. l ack of pol i t i cal comm t ment
r ef l ected i n the i mposi t i on of a f ai r l y
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h ig h c e i l i n g and t h e p r o v i s i on s f o r t h e r i g h t
t o t r a n s f e r l a nd t o h e i r s .
In e v a l u a t i n g t h e i m pa c t of t h e two l a n d
r e f o r m s i n terms of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n d ,
t h e c o n c l u s i o n
i s
indeed a p e s s i m i s t i c o n e .
The reforms were n o t i n st r u m e nt a l o r e f f e c t i v e
i n r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e p a t t e r n of l a n d o wn er sh ip
which i s s t i l l h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d . The f a c t
t h a t b o t h l a n d r e fo rm s
(1959
and
1972)
were
i mp le me nt ed d u r in g p e r i o d s o f r e l a t i v e s o c i a l
u n r e s t
seems
t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p ri m ary ob-
j e c t i v e o f t h e r e fo r ms
w a s
n o t t o a c h i ev e an
e q u i t a b l e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l an d b u t r a t h e r
t o m o l l i f y t h e p oo r p e a sa n t s a nd g a r n e r t h e i r
p o l i t i c a l s u p po rt .
A G R I C U L T U W PRODUCTION,
INCOME
D I S T R I B U T I O N ,
AND EMPLOYMENT
A f t e r e x p e r i e n c i n g some s t a g n a t i o n i n
o u t p u t d u r i n g t h e 1950's, Pakistan showed
e x c e p t i o n a l g ro w t h d u r i n g t h e
1960's
w i t h
o u t p u t g ro wi ng f a s t e r t h a n p o p u l a t io n . I1
r e a so n f o r t h i s g ro wt h i n o u t p u t c an l a r g e l y
b e a t t r i b u t e d t t h e Green Revolution .
Dur ing the
1950-65
p e r i o d , i r r i g a t i o n im prove -
ments a lone w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n e a r l y h a l f
of t h e i n c r e a s e i n o u t p u t . ( S t e r n and F al l o n
1970,
42) I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i i i t ro d u c t io n o f
h i g h y i e l d i n g
varieties (HYV's)
of seeds ,
governmen t su bs id ie s o f
50-75
p e rc e n t o n f e r -
t i l i z e r and p e s t i c i d e s , a nd improved c r e d i t
f a c i l i t i e s ha ve g i v en f u r t h e r i mp et us t o ou t-
p u t i n c re a s e s . (E l k i n g to n
1970,
1)
The absence
of a n e f f i c a c i o u s l an d re fo rm h a s, i n f a c t ,
p r e cl u de d t h e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s t h a t c o ul d h av e
b e en a c h i e ve d b y i n c re a s e d o u t p u t , g i v en t h a t
p r o d u c t i v i t y and l an d u t i l i z a t i o n on t h e
smaller farms i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i gh e r t h an on
the
l a rg e r f a rm s ( t w e n t y - f i v e a c r e s a nd o v e r ) .
c a b l e 5) I n es senc e , th e meager l and re fo rms
h av e n o t ha d t h e d e s i r e d i m pa c t on a g r i c u l t u r a l
p ro d u c t io n . Even a f t e r t h e
1972
reforms a l l
o u t p u t i n c re a s e s h av e r e s u l t e d p r i m a r i l y f rom
i n c re a s e d c ro p a c re a g e u n d e r
HYVTs12
and
g r e a t e r f e r t i l i z e r d i s t r i b u t i o n and u se ( t o
la rge l andowners ) . I t should be emphasized
t h a t most of t h e s e o u t p u t i n c r e a s e s a r e h i g h l y
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e l a r g e r f ar ms o f
a bo ve f i f t y a c re s w hi ch u s e
t w i c e
as much fer-
t i l i z e r a s t h e
smal ler
fa rmers - p r i m a r i l y
b ec au se o f t h e i r s o c i a l p r e s t i g e a nd power t h a t
i s u n q ue s t io n a bl y u s e fu l i n c o n d i t i o n s o f
f e r t i l i z e r s c a r c i t y . l 3
The
Most of th e product io n
b e n e f i t s o f i n c re a s e d g o ve rn me nt s u p p o r t
m ea su re s g r a v i t a t e d t o t h e l a r g e l a nd -
ow ne rs a nd ha v e r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r i n -
c o m e d i s p a r i t i e s , as p o p u l a t i o n a n d ru ra l
unemployment have pr og re ss iv el y inc reas ed.
G ive n t h e e x t e n t o f l a n d a c t u a l l y
r e d i s t r i b u t e d
as
a
r e s u l t
of
t h e l a n d
refo rm measures , i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t
t h e i r employment impact w a s a l s o m i n i -
m al . The p o t e n t i a l t o do
s o ,
however,
e x i s t s , as t h e smaller fa rms no t on ly
h av e a g r e a t e r c ro p pi n g i n t e n s i t y b u t
a re a l s o a l mo st t w i c e as l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e
as t h e l a r g e r f ar ms .@ a bl e
5)
Although
a f t e r t h e 1959 re fo rms a r u r a l w or ks
program was implemented with some success
(1961/62),
s i nc e then governmen t inves t -
ment i n t h i s s e c t o r has been lack ing .14
Fur thermore , th e government sub s id ies on
i n p u t s and c r e d i t , a l on g w i th t h e p o l i c y
of mechan iza t ion and in du s t r i a l funda-
m en ta li sm , h a ve t e n de d t o b e p o s i t i v e
i n c e n t i v e s t o w a rd s a labor-saving form
o f a g r i c u l t u r a l de ve lo pm en t on t h e l a r g e r
farms (Nul ty
1972, 123)
t h u s f u r t h e r ag -
g ra v a t i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n . The c on se qu en ce
h a s be e n o ne of p o l i t i c a l a nd s o c i a l un-
res t i n t h e r u r a l
areas
t h a t i s m a n i fe s t
i n t h e d i s r u p ti o n i n t h e c o un tr y s i n c e
1968,
as
t h e ru ra l -u rb a n m i g ra t i o n h a s
incre ased markedly . Dur ing th e per iod
1961-1972,
t h e urb a n p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d
by a lmos t s i x mi l l i on . However, of th i s
i n c r e a s e , r u r a l-u rb a n m i g ra t i o n c o n t r i b -
u ted 34.7 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l o f a p-
p rox imate ly two mi l l io n mig ran t s i n
s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s
r a t e
slowed
because of t he Green Revo lut ion .
The q u e s t i o n o f i ncom e d i s t r i b u t i o n
a n d , h e nc e , p o v e r t y ha s a l s o be en s u b j e c t
t o some of th e same b i a s e s , r e s u l t i n g i n
g r e a t e r i ncome d i s p a r i t i e s a n d p o ve r t y.
Al though there i s no d a t a a v a i l a b l e o n
t h e i ncome r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i mp ac t of t h e
1959
r e f o r m s , t h e r e
i s
r e as on t o b e l i e v e
t h a t t h e i r i m p a c t
w a s
no t much g r ea te r
t h a n t h e two p e rc e n t i ncom e r e d i s t r i b u t i o
impact o f th e 1972 re fo rms (Tab le 3).
A l th o ug h, d a t s on P a k i s t a n ' s ru r a l i ncom e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c um ul at iv
inc om e s h a r e s of t h e l o w es t t e n p e rc e n t o f
h o u se h o ld s i n c re a s e d o v e r t h e p e r i o d
1959/61
-
1969/70
(Chaudhry
1973, 250-51),
t h e in com e s h a re o f t h i s g rou p d e c l i n e d
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f rom fou r perce nt i n 1966-68 t o 3.7 pe rcen t
i n 1969/70. Over th e same pe r iod , t h e pe r-
c e n tage of r u r a l popu la t ion unde r t h e pove r ty
l i n e of
R s . 300.00 a t
cons tan t 1959/60 pr ic es
a l s o dec l ined f rom 61 pe rcent t o 60 pe rcent .15
On th e oth er hand, th e percentage of popula-
t i o n e a r n i n g
l e s s
th an t h e mean income ( pe r
c a p i t a ) ha s s t e a d i ly inc r e a se d . ( Alaudd in
1975, 436)
The major reason fo r t he dec l i ne i n income
d i s p a r i t i e s d u r in g t h e b r i e f p e r io d o f 1 96 3/ 64
t o 1968/69
was
pr im a r i ly
a
r e s u l t o f t h e ad-
vent of th e Green Revolution coupled wit h a
massive rura l -urban migra t ion pa t te r n . (Burki
1973). By 1969/70, th e r i p p le e f f e c t of th e
Green Revoluti on began t o su bs ide somewhat,
a nd th e popu la t ion p r e s su r e s s i nc e the n have
produced gr ea te r ine qua l i t y and pover ty
as
employment o pp ort uni t ie s have no t kept up wi th
demand. (Population i s now growing
a t
an annua l
r a t e of 3.2 percent . )
The pauc i ty and aggrega te na tur e of d a t a
does not provide a b a s i s f o r c on cl us i ve
evi-
dence t ha t pove r ty ha s inc r e a se d o r de c l ine d .
H o w ev e r ,i f p ov e r ty i s d e f i n e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d o f
l i v i n g w i t h c a l o r i e i n t a k e a s o ne me as ur e
of
pover ty
l e v e l s , t h e n in d e ed t h e r e
i s
e v ide nc e th a t sugge s t s
thatpovertylevelsmayhaveincreased
O v e r t h e
p e r i o d 1 9 4 9 / 5 0 - 1 9 7 1 / 7 2 , t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y c a l o r i e
i n t a k e o f t h e r u r a l p o p ul a t io n h a s sh ow na s t e ad y
d e c l i n e f r o m2 , O l O ca l o ri e s i n 1 9 4 9 / 5 0 t o 1 8 9 8
c a l o r i e s i n 1 9 7 1 / 7 2 .
Insummary, th e land reformmeasures i n
P a k i s t a nh a v e b e e nl a r g e l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n re s t r u c -
t u r i n g t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l s t r a t a o f r u r a l s o c i -
e t y s o a s t o p r o v i d e as u i t a b l e f r am e w o r k f o r e q u i t -
t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l d ev el op me nt .
111
Land reform i n Pa kis tan h as been meagre
a t
b e s t .
L i t t l e
l a n d h a s be en r e d i s t r i b u t e d .
W e
ha ve t r i e d t o make th e
case
i n t h i s paper
t h a t a n e q u i t a b l e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d
c ou ld r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r p ro du ct io n, g r e a t e r
t o t a l employment, and
a
more equi tab le d is -
t r ib u t io n of income and ea rn ing oppor t uni t ie s .
I nc r e a se d c a p i t a l f o rm a tion i s a l s o a poss i -
b i l i t y . (Adams 1973) The foregoin g di scu ssi on
has tended t o embrace t r ad i t io na l conceptu-
a l i z a t i o n s
of
l a nd r ef or m. I n the ne x t s e c t i on ,
t h e a u t h o r s
w i l l
a tt em pt t o i n t e g r a t e
new ob jec t iv es i n t o land re form measures
by introducing energy and environmental
i s s u e s . W e i n t r oduc e the se c onc e r ns to
sugge st t h e g r a v i ty of f u t u r e im pe r a t ive s
demanding land reforms.
ENERGY,
ENVIRONMENTAL
SIDE EFFECTS
Development plannin g i n Pak ist an has
been charac te r ized as growth now/ equal-
i t y l a t e r .
t i on a nd d i s t r i bu t i on i n a nothe r. (Ham id
1974) Growth ve rsus d i s t r i bu t i on has
c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r
as moderniza t ion of th e la rg es t f a rms.
The na tur e of t h i s modern iza tion has been
l a bo r -s a vi n g, c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e , and
energy in te ns iv e, (Nulty 1972) The
a u t h o r s s u g g es t t h a t
a
cont inua t ion of
t h i s m ode rn iz at ion o f t h e l a r g e s t f ar ms
w i l l
r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e i n income d i s -
p a r i t i e s , w i l l c o n t r i b ut e t o r i s i n g fo od
p r i c e s , w i l l wor sen unemployment prob lems ,
a nd c ou ld r e su l t i n s w e r e environmental
problems
.
Growth lea ds i n one dir ec-
Energy
T o
acceptandpromulga
a system
of
a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p -
t
ment that i s heavily dependent upon non-
renewable energy
i s
t o assume t h at con-
s i s t e n t a nd a de qua te supp l i e s o f e ner gy
c an be a s su r e d . R ec en t s t ud ie s i n d i c a t e
such ass ura nce s cannot be assumed. The
f u t u r e de p le t ion o f i na n ima te e ne rgy
supp l i e s ha s be e n
w e l l
documented by the
Meadows gro up, Ophuls, and Lov ins . I n
u t i l i z i n g p r o j e c t i o n s by Lo vi ns , B u t t e 1
sugges ts supply
c r i ses w i l l
oc c u r w i th in
th e next two decades. Any ag r i cu lt ur e
t h a t depends upon th es e resourc es does
n o t s t a nd i n i s o l a t i o n f rom t h e s e t r e n d s J 6
Only 60 percent
of Paki s ta n ' s inanima
energy needs
are
produced within
i t s
bor de r s . 7 The th r e e major components of
inanima te energy consumption i n
a
mod-
e r n i z e d ' ' a g r i c u l t u r e
a r e
running machines,
manufac tur ing fe r t i l i z e r s , and manufac-
tu r i ng pe st ic id es . (Oelhaf 1976) The
c ont inue d use of t he se inp u t s i n P a k i s t a n
and e lsewhere can only be i n th e f ace of
inc r e a s ing ly h ighe r p r i c e s . A s t h e s e
p r i c e s c o n t i n u e t o r i s e , o n ly t h e l a r g e s t
farmers w i l l b e a b l e t o a f f o r d t o p ur ch as e
them. The be ne f i t s of h igher y i e l ds f rom
t h e s e i n p u t s
w i l l
l i ke wise be c onc e n t r a t e d
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on t h e up pe r en d o f t h e s i z e s c a l e . The
l a r g e r f a r m s w i l l b e a b l e t o g r o s s more w h i l e s c a r c e r , e x p o r t c r o ps i n c r e a s e w h i l e
t h e smaller farms w i l l c o n t in u e t o s t r u g g l e
t o e ke o u t a n e x i s t e n c e . T h i s
i s
g e n e ra l l y Me c ha n iz a ti o n i n p u t s t h e ms e l ve s
t h e ca se pr es en t l y i n devel oping na t i on s . worsen unemployment problems. Mechani-
A s non-renewable energy re so ur ce s become
more and more people may go hungry .
A g r i c u l t u r a l m o de r n iz a t io n
i s
developing
i n a very unequa l manner. In s tea d o f
p r i ma r i l y b e n e f i t t i n g t h e l a r g e masses
of poor fa rmers , i t i s l e a di n g t o t h e
e n ri c hm e nt o f t h e r i c h p e a s a n t s an d t h e
g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power i n t h e i r
hands and th os e of o t he r groups which
now c o n t r o l n o t o n l y t h e l a n d b u t a
g r e a t p a r t o f t h e c a p i t a l i n ve s te d i n
t h e l a n d
as
a consequence of modernization. , ,
a gap i s s tead i ly g rowing be tween subs i s -
t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e ha nds o f
small
f a rm e rs a nd c om me rc ia l a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e
hands
of
r i c h l and owners who co n t ro l
l an d , c r e d i t , and t echno logy . (Almeida ,
e t a1 1974, 25)
In a n i m a t e e n e rg y s h o r t a g e s are e x pe c te d t o
s im pl y p u l l c u r r e n t c o n d it i o ns i n t o
c a r i c a t u r es of t h e i r pa s t selves .
p r i c e d . P ro d u c t io n i n c r e a s e s f ro m t h e a p-
p l i c a t i o n o f G re en R ev o l ut i o n t e c h n o l og i e s
h a ve a l r e a d y l e v e l e d o f f . H ig he r p r i c e d i n-
pu ts may f or c e some producer s
t o
r e v e r t b ac k
t o t r a d i t i o n a l m et ho ds t h e re b y r e d uc i n g fo od
s u p p l i e s . F u r t h e r , A lm ei da ,
e t a l . ,
sugges t
t h a t i n c o u n t r i e s where t h e r e i s a high con-
ce n t ra t i on o f income, food p roduc ing l and i s
o f t e n co n v e r t e d t o t h e p rod u c t i o n o f e x p o r t
c a s h c ro p s . H un gry p e o p l e c a nn o t a f f o rd t o
buy t h e fo od t h e y n e e d. Th i s i n f l u e n c e s t h e
a t t i t u d e s a nd ec on om ic i n c e n t i v e s o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r od uc e rs .
Food w i l l be
e v e n d e a re r a n d h i g h e r
Low income
of
the consumer popu la t ion
a n d u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s income..
a f f e c t s t he deve lopmen t o f t he marke t. .
( an d l e a d s t o a n )... mbalance between
r e a l
needs and th e ways i n which re-
s o u r c e s a r e used ... t o t h e po i nt t h a t
p r e f e r e n c e i s o f t e n g i v e n
t o
producing
u n e s s e n t i a l c o mm od it ie s f o r e x p o r t t o
c o u n t r i e s t h a t c an a f f o r d t o pa y f o r t hem
r a t h e r t ha n t o u si n g a v a i l a b l e r e s o ur c e s
( b ot h l a n d and c a p i t a l ) f o r pr o du c in g
b a s i c f o o d s t u f f s . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of
the coun t ry needs t o overcome ch ron i c
undernourishment.(Almeida,
e t a1.1974,25)
z a t i o n d e f i n i t i o n a l l y d i s p l a c e s human
energy,
i . e .
human labor , wi th inan imate
energy. I t a l s o a l lo ws t h e l a r g e r f a r -
mers,
th e ones who can a f f o r d i t , t o
c o n t ro l a n d
t ll
e ve n l a r g e r a c r e a g e s .
Ene rg y s h o r t a g e s c a n o n l y e m p ha si ze t h i s
t r e n d .
A s
a
c a v ea t t o t h e f o r e go i ng , t h e
a u t h o r s w is h t o o f f e r a few comments on
OPEC. Some l e a d e r s of the Third World
hav e h e r a l de d OPEC as prov id ing a b a s e
f o r a ''new in te rn a t io na l o rder and a
g l o b a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l th . ( Gi rv en
1975, 145-48) Hammarlund and Lindberg
s u g g e s t t h i s s u p p o r t h a s n o t a nd w i l l n o t
be for thc omi ng Most OPEC n a t i o n s have..
r e j e c t e d a l l p r o p os a l s f o r g ua r an te e d o i l
s u p p l i e s t o t h e most e n e r g y - d e f i c i e n t
d e v el o pi n g n a t i o n s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
a t w o - t i e r e d p r i c i n g s y s te m ,
and s imi la r
measures th a t wou ld go beyond th e t ra d i -
t i o n a l a i d programs. (Hammarlund 1976)
I t i s p r e c i s e l y w it h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a i d
p rograms , e .g . In te rn a t io na l Monetary
Fund, The World Bank, and a s i m i l a r OPEC
loa n agency, where a l a r g e p r o p or t i o n o f
OPEC as s i s t an ce d o l la r s have gone .
( W i l l i a m s 1976, 309-23) The amount
of
t h e s e f u nd s h a s b ee n c i t e d
as
d i s a p p o i n t -
in g, (F ar ns wo rt h 1976) Hammarlund makes
t h e c a s e t h a t t h e ma jo r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o u t-
l e t f o r p e t ro - d o ll a r s i s i n t he West.
The West i s t h e ma jo r s o u r c e o f i n d u s t r i -
a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , a nd m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s .
Furthermore, OPEC i s dependent upon the
c o n ti n u ed h e a l t h of t h e West t o t u rn o i l
dep os i t s i n t o o i l revenues. (Hammarlund
1976, 176) Whe the r OPEC
w i l l
b e t h e h ar -
b i n g e r o f t h e d e v el o pe d w o r l d ' s v a r i o u s
e c o - p o l i t i c a l a d v an t a ge s a nd t h e s a v i o r o f
the Third World i s h i g h l y q u e s t i o n a b l e .
The a u t h o r s r e a l i z e t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s
fo r e i g n e x ch an ge i s s u e s i n v o l v e d w i t h i n -
c r ea se d p r i c e s of o i l , f o od , a g r i c u l t u r a l
i n p u t s , a nd o t h e r mater ia l s . Space does
n o t p e rm i t u s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s
here. However, w e d o s u g g e s t t h a t t w i l
b e d i f f i c u l t f o r r e s o u r c e p oo r n a t i o n s
n o t t o c o n ti n ue t o move i n a d e f i c i t
d i r e c t i o n .
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Theaut hor shope t o have i ndi cat ed
t hat an agr i cul t ur al syst embased on ener gy
i nt ensi ve i nput s i s t enuous at best . The
cont i nued avai l abi l i t y of t hese i nput s can-
not be assured. The degr ee t o whi ch i nput s
ar e or ar e not avai l abl e wi l l ef f ect di spar -
i t i es bet ween r i ch and poor . These i nput s
al so af f ect the envi r onment . Probl ems f r om
t he appl i cat i on of t hese i nput s i ncl ude:
1.
decl i ne
of
soi l st r uctur e, organi c
mat t er cont ent , and m crobi ot i c soi l
l i f e,
2.
i ncreased pol l ut i on f romr un- of f ,
3 .
poi soni ng of f ood, soi l , and peopl e,
4 .
i ncreased r i sk of car ci nogeni cef f ect s,
5 monocul t ur i ng t hat aggravates pest
pr obl ems, soi l er osi on, and soi l
s ter i l i ty . (But t e1
1978)
I n summar y, energy shor t ages suggest t hat
unempl oyment , povert y, and hunger wi l l al l i n-
crease. Under t hese condi t i ons, i t i s l i kel y
t hat publ i c quest i oni ng of t he l egi t i macy of
t he st at e wi l l occur , as wel l as quest i oni ng
of t he nat ur e of econom c or gani zat i on; or
t o expr ess t hi s t hought more emphat i cal l y,
t her e may be consi der abl e soci al unr est . We
suggest t hat OPEC cannot be r el i ed upon as a
saf ety val ve. The OPEC nat i ons have al r eady
r ej ect ed a pr oposal t o pr ovi de oi l on l ong
t er m credi t i n cri si s si t uat i ons. ( Hammar l und
1976, 172)
si de ef f ect s of Gr een Revol ut i on t echnol ogi es
cannot be i gnored. The l onger t he t i me span
bef or e ener gy cr i ses occur , t he br oader wi l l
be the appl i cat i on of such i nput s as ar t i f i -
ci al f er t i l i zer s and pest i ci des, and t he mor e
per vasi ve t he envi r onment al damage. A con-
densat i on of t hese envi r onment al probl ems
and t he energy r el ated probl ems seems t o sug-
gest a maj or change i n soci al or gani zati on
i s i n the of f i ng.
sweepi ng l and r ef orm coul d i ncr ease pr oduc-
t i on. Dobb echoes thi s sent i ment i n a di st
cussi on on devel opment and gr owt h/ savi ngs/
di st r i but i on i ssues. He makes t he case t hat
concept ual i zi ng devel opment as l i m t ed
Whi l e l ess obvi ous, t he envi r onment al
We have pr evi ousl y suggest ed t hat a broad
by t he si ze of act ual savi ngs onl y makes
sense on t he assumpt i on that t he margi n
bet ween product i on and consumpt i on can
onl y be enl arged by l ower i ng consumpt i on
and cannot be enl arged. . . by
enl ar gi ng t ot al pr oducti on.
As
soon
as we dr op thi s assumpt i on and al l ow
t he possi bi l i t y of an i ncrease i n
t ot al pr oducti on, t he l i m t upon
devel opment l oses i t s absol ut e char -
acter. ( St i vers
1976)
I ncreased pr oduct i on can come about wi t h-
out savi ngs f i r st but r at her wi t h t he
f ul l er ut i l i zat i on of exi st i ng resources.
( Dobb
1967, 73)
A broad sweepi ng l and
r ef or mwoul d al l ow ut i l i zat i on of t he
massi ve amount s of underut i l i zed l abor
and l and i n r ur al Paki st an.
We have previ ousl y documented t he
gr eat er product i vi t y of smal l er f ar ms.
A br oad sweepi ng l and r ef or m nr i ent ed
t owar d a l abor i nt ensi ve agr i cul t ur e
woul d cont r i but e di r ect l y t o meet i ng
human needs.
pl oyed, and more f ood product i on coul d
r esul t . The cr i t i cal probl ems of peopl e
f eedi ng t hemsel ves do not r evol ve ar ound
t he absol ut e abi l i t i es of i ndi vi dual s i n
t he Thi r d Worl d. Rat her , as Lappe and
Col l i ns st at e, most peopl e i n the Thi r d
Worl d cannot f eed themsel ves adequat el y
because t hey l ack cont r ol over f ood pr o-
duci ng r esour ces. ( Ham d
1976,
4 8 )
To address more di r ect l y t he energy
pr obl em smal l scal e, l abor i nt ensi ve
agr i cul t ur e does not r equi r e l arge, f uel
i nef f i ci ent machi nes. Wher e l arge scal e
mechani zat i on has occurr ed, a l and ref or m
coul d, i n ef f ect , subst i t ut e human ener gy
f or i nani mate energy. The aut hor s do
not suggest a t otal demechi ni zat i on but
r at her t he ut i l i zat i on of smal l scal e
machi nes, possi bl y hand- hel d gar den t r ac-
t or s. By reduci ng t he scal e of t he ma
chi ner y, one i ncreases t he amount of
l abor ener gy ut i l i zed and r educes i nani -
mate energy demands. Si mul t aneousl y,
smal l - scal e machi ner y r etai ns some of
t he work- l i ght eni ng advant ages
of
mechani zat i on.
Art i f i c i al f ert i l i zers have i ncreased
pr oduct i on i n t he Thi r d Wor l d.
Ear l i er i n thi s paper , we advocat ed thei r
ut i l i zat i on on smal l er f ar ms to i ncrease
out put . I n t he cont ext of a sust ai nabl e
soci et y, t hi s woul d be a t emporar y meas-
ure. Art i f i c i al f ert i l i zers ar e energy
Mor e peopl e woul d be em
4
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9/17
in te ns iv e ,and cont inuous u se causes seve re run-
of f and s o i l composit ion problems. There are
var ious replacements based on renewable re-
sour ces. Blobaum has provided an ex ce ll en t
summary of t h e case i n China . In th a t coun-
t r y ,
a
treme ndou s amount of human, an im al ,
a nd p l a n twa s t e s are rec ycl ed . Canal, pond,
and r i v e r bot toms
a re s cr ap ed t o c o l l e c t
o r ga n ic material t o s p r e ad on po or s o i l .
S i l t e roded f rom th e l and d ur ing th e monsoon
i s c o l l e c t e d
as
w e l l . Garbage from c i t i e s i s
co l l ec te d , composted, and used as f e r t i l i z e r .
Hogs p l a y an im p or t an t r o l e i n f e r t i l i z e r
produc t ion . Hog fe ed lo ts
are
l oc a t e d c on t i -
guous to food process in g p la n ts . The wastes
f r o m t h e s e p l a n t s , of te n supplemented wi th
some grains,
a re
used as hog fee d. The hog
waste
i s ,
i n t u r n , u se d
as
f e r t i l i z e r . I n-
d u s t r i a l
waste
water
i s used
as
w e l l .
Tech-
niques have been developed and are u s e d t o
remove t h e heavy
metals .
Blobaum makes t h e
case t h a t 75 p e rc en t of C h in a' s f e r t i l i z e r
su pp ly comes from or ga ni c, human, an imal ,
a n d p l a n t
wastes.
Ac co rd in g t o USDA estimates,
t h i s h a s b ee n do ne i n a c o u n t r y t h a t i s pro-
ducing
as
much grain as modernized U . S .
fa rmers . Fur th e r , Chinese fa rmers are r a i s i n g
t h r e e
t i m e s
as many go at s and sh ee p. (Lappe
a nd C o l l in s
1976
O th er l i t e r a t u r e d e a l in g
w it h a l t e rn a t i v e s t o s y n t h e t i c f e r t i l i z e r s
inc l ude He iche l and Fr ink , P imetha l , and
All aby and Al len . (Blobaum, 1975)
Pe s t ic id e use may be
r e duc e d o r e l im ina te d
t hr ou gh t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f va r i o u s
less
eco-
l o g i ca l l y damaging methods. Belden and For te
s u g g es t c r o p r o t a t i o n s a nd i n t e r c r o p p i n g i m -
pr ove e c o l og ic a l d i ve r s i t y a nd na rr ow e c o-
l o g i c a l n i c h e s f o r s p e c i f i c p e s t s an d w ee ds .
Th i s p r e ve n t s e xp los ive pe s t p roblem s th a t
are
i n t r i n s i c
t o monocultur ing. Other
a ppr oac hes inc lude b io lo g i c a l c on t r o l , m ic ro -
b i a l c o n tr o l , s t e r i l e i n s e c t c o nt ro l , t i l l a g e
m a n ipu la t ions , p l a n t ing t i m e adjus tments , use
of
t r a p s t o a t t r a c t i n s e c t s , p ru ni ng , t hi nn in g,
a nd c u t t i ng . l8
A l l of
t h e fo reg oin g methods can improve
s o i l c o n d i t i o n s an d
i t s
a b i l i t y t o p ro du ce
and r e pr oduc e. The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r
i s
t h e
o n ly s e c t o r t h a t ca n c r e a t e e ne rg y . I f
i t i s
go ing t o c on t inue
t o produce energy
of
v a r i o u s
forms,
the d e l ic a t e agro-ecosys tems must be
p r o te c t e d .
Given pro jec ted energy r ises , t h e
ex ac er ba ti on of unemployment, o f income
d i s t r i bu t i on , a nd food p rob le ms , as w e l l
as environmental stresses, w e hope t o
have provided some rudimentary suggest ions
t o a n a l t e r na t i ve socio- ec onom ic o r ga ni -
z a t ion . Obvious ly ,m ajo r so c i a l - p o l i t i c a l -
economic fo rce s , bo th na t io na l l y and in-
t e r n a t i o n a l l y ,
w i l l
come in to p l a y be f o r e
any major changes i n development or ien -
t a t i on c a n oc c u r. The a u tho r s are pes-
s i mi s t i c
t ha t any volunta ry consensua l
movements w i l l br i ng t h i s about . Hope-
fu l l y , some pos i t iv e changes can be made
b e f o r e t h e h ar s h l o g i c o f n e a r t o t a l de-
p l e t i on o f i na n im a te ene rgy r e sou r ce s
i s
upon us, and class s t r u g g l e t a k e s i t s
m os t v io l e n t
form.
FOOTNOTES
1See
Hung-Chao T a i , Land Reform and
P o l i t i c s , p. 111, where the re i s a com-
p a r is o n o f l a nd p r o d u c t i v it y i n B r a z i l ,
Colombia, Ecuador, In di a, and Mexico.
The range of r e l a t i v e l a nd p r o d u ct i v i t y
ranged from a minimum of
seven pe rcent
for la rg e fa rms i n Colombia t o 130 pe r -
c e n t f o r a fami ly fa rm, wi t h t he sub-
fami ly ( sm al les t ) un i t be ing th e bench-
mark of 100 pe r c e n t . S ee a l so p . 311,
where th e e f fe c ts of land re form on ag-
r i c u l t u r a l p r o du ct io n are c i t e d . F o r
o t h er s t u d i e s , see Pe te r Dorner , The
Economic
Case
f o r Land Reform: EmDlov-
ment, Income, and Pr od uc ti on , Fao, Rome,
No. 1 , 1971, p. 21. T h e r e s u l t s were
con s is ten t wi th th e above s tudy . Another
s tudy
w a s
conducted by John
W.
Mellor
and c i t e d i n hi s book, The Economics
of
Agr icu l tu ra l Deve lopment, I th aca ,
New York, 1 9 6 6 , p. 136-144.
This
s tudy ,
c onduc ted i n I nd ia
( 1959 ) ,
f ound tha t
y i e l d s
were
much h ig h er on two far ms
of
s i z e s 8 and 13
acres as
compared t o two
o t h e r s
of
c am par ab le s o i l c ond i t i ons a nd
ranging i n s i z e from 30-33
acres .
44
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2There i s s t rong ev idence f rom s tud ies
t h a t t h e smaller farms have gre a t er a l l o -
ca t ive e f f i c i en cy t han l a r ge r f a rms, no t on l y
i n f arm ing p r a c ti c e s b ut a l s o i n b e t t e r u t i l -
i z a t i o n o f land . Under and / or unu t i l i ze d
land i s a commonphenomenonon l a r g e
farms
o r
es ta te s .
Solon Barraclough, Agr arian Struc -
t u r e i n L a ti n
America,
Lexington, Lexington
Books, 1973.
3Gunnar Myrdal, Asian
D r a m a
(New York:
Pantheon, 1968 ), p. 1255. I f Japanese methods
of l a b o r i n t e n s i v e r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n were
em-
p loyed i n In d i a , l abo r i np u t s would i nc reas e
by f i f t y pe rc ent and output by 100-200 per -
cen t . However, t h e c r i t i c a l i s s ue o f
mar-
k e t a b l e s u r p l u s i s imp orta nt. This may o r
may no t show a perc ep t i b l e i nc reas e dependi ng
on va r i ous f ac t o r s ,
i . e .
l and p roduc t i v i t y ,
on-farm consumption, s i z e o f ho ld ings , s o i l
cond i t ion s , government suppor t serv ice s ,
e tc .
4World Bank, Land Reform (Washington,
D.C. : July,1974), p . 6 .
See
a l s o Dale W.
Adams, The Economics of Land Reform, Food
R es ea rc h I n s t i t u t e S t u d ie s i n A g r ic u l t ur e ,
Economics, Trade, and Development, Vol.
X I I ,
No. 2 , 1973, p. 134.
5The cases of Taiwan, Japan , and Peo ple 's
Rep ublic of China pro vid e good examples.
6For
a
more de t a i l ed p ersp ect i ve of t enure
cond i t i ons i n Ind i a and Pak i s t an , r e f e r
t o ( a ) D an ie l T ho rn er , b r a r i a n Pr os pe c t i n
Ind ia (Delhi : 1956); (b)
C .M .
Elk ing ton ,
Land Reform i n Pak is tan , Aid S pr ing Review,
1970, p.
6 ;
(c) Government of Pakistan,
Rep ort of t h e Land Reforms Commission fo r
West Pak is ta n (Lahore: Januar y, 1959),
pp. 9-19.
7Herbert Feldman, Revolut ion i n Pakis tan :
A
Study of t he
Martial Law
Adminis t ra t ion
(London: Oxford Un iv er si ty
Press ,
1967).
Approximately 70 perce nt of the p arl iam ent
w a s
c o n t r o l l e d by l an de d i n t e r e s t s a nd t r i b a l
ch i e f s be fo re and a f t e r t he coup.
8Most of th e Mi li ta ry Cadre were drawn
from medium-large s i z e landholding fam il i es
(500-1000
acres per holding) which Ayub Khan
c ou ld n o t a f f o r d t o a l i e n a t e .
gGovernment of Pakistan, Land Reforms
f o r
West
Pakis tan, pp.
24-74 .
T w e l v e acres
w a s cons idered a
s ubs i s t ence l ev e l f a rm p l o t , a s de f i ned bv
t h e Land Reforms Commission of
West
Pak i s t an .
During th e 1950's the populat ion
growth
r a t e w a s 2 . 3
percen t wi th ou tpu t
i n c r e a s i n g a t a
1.8
percent growth ra te .
In th e 1960 's, however, outpu t expanded
a t
a
r a t e of 3 .91 percen t whi l e popula t ion
i nc reas ed
a t
a ra te of t h ree pe rcen t .
U S A I D Sp ri ng Review, p. 13.
12Since 1968169 t o 1978, acr eag e under
wheat
HYV's
alone has in cre ase d from seven
m i l l i o n acres t o 11 .9 mi l l i on acres. The
Pak i s t an
T i m e s ,
Imported Wheat Seed Sown
i n
T i me ' ' ,
December
30,
1978.
l3See a l s o F.R. Fra nke l and
Karl
von
Vorys , The P o l i t i c a l Chal lenge of t he
Green Revolut ion: Sh if t i ng
Patterns
of
P e as an t P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n I n d i a and P a k i s ta n
(Pr ince ton Univers i ty : Center o f In terna -
t i on al Stud ie s , March, 1972) ,
#38, p . 30
(R2 of 0.77).
14Government of Pakistan, Fourth Five-
Year
Pl an , 1970-75, p. 341. The Ru ra l
Works Program red uced r u r a l unemployment
by f i ve percen t . On average s in ce then ,
only 1-2 pe rce nt
of
the government budget
h a s b ee n a l l o c a t e d t o
i t , a
f a r c ry from
t h e
1-2
percen t o f na t ional income tha t
sho uld be used. Off -f a r m Employment ,
Rura l
A s i a
(New York: P raege r , 1978)
-
Asian Development Bank.
I5S.M. Naseem,
Mass
Pover t y i n
Pa kis ta n: Some Pre lim ina ry Findings ,
The Pa ki st an Development Review, Vol.
12,
No. 4, Win te r, 1973, p.
3 2 2 .
No ho us eh ol d
had consumption of under
R s .
250.00
as
such
R s .
300.00 has been used
as a
minimum
subs i s tence l eve l income.
l6Donella Meadows, e t
a l . ,
The L i m i t s
t o Growth (New York: Un ive rs e, 197 2);
W i l l i a m Ophuls , Ecology and th e P o l i t i c s
of
Sc ar ci ty (San Fr an cis co : Freeman, 1977)
45
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11/17
Amory Lovi ns, Energy St r ategy: The
Road Not Taken , Fal l ,
1976;
and Fred But t el ,
Agr i cul t ur e i n Tr ansi t i on t o a Sust ai nabl e
Soci et y ( Unpub1i shed paper f or Cornel l
Uni vers i t y, J anuar y,
1978).
I 7Uni t ed Nat i ons :
Handbook
of
I nt erna-
t i onal Tr ade and Devel opment St at i st i cs,
1979.
18G.
Hei chel , Ant i ci pat i ng t he Ener gy
Needs of Amer i can Agr i cul t ur e , J our nal of
Soi l and Water Conser vat i on,
30
J anuar y-
Febr uar y,
1975.
See al so Davi d Pi ment el ,
Food Pr oduct i on and t he Ener gy Cr i si s ,
Sci ence,
182,
November ,
1973;
and M chael
Al l ahy and Fl oyd Al l en, Robots Behi nd t he
Pl ow ( Emmaus, Pennsyl vani a: Rodal e Pr ess ,
1974).
BI BLI OGRAPHY
Adam Dal e W
1973
The Econqm , cs
of Land Ref or m
Food Research I nst i t ut e St udi es
I n Agr i cul t ur al Econom cs, Tr ade,
and Devel opment ,
Vol .
XI I ,
No.
2.
Al l auddi n, Tal at
1975
Mass Pover t y i n Paki stan' '
The Paki st an DeVehDment Revi ew
~~ ~ ~-
Vol. X I V , N o .
4 , Wnter.
Al mei da, Si l vi o, et al .
1974
Wor l d Hunger : Causes and Remedi es
Washi ngt on, D. C. : Transnat i onal
I nst i t ut e/ I nst i tut e f or Pol i cy
St udi es.
Bar r acl ough,
Sol on
1973
Agr ar i an St r uct ur e i n Lat i n
Amer i ca
Lexi ngt on: Lexi ngt on Books.
Burk i ,
S . J .
1973
Rapi d Popul at i on Gr owt h and
Ur bani zat i on: The Case
of
Paki st an -
Paki st an Econom c and Soci al
Revi ew, Vol . XI ,
0.3,
Aut umn.
But t el , Fr ed
1978 I
Agr i cul t ur e i n Tr ansi t i on
to
a Sust ai nabl e Soci et y
I t haca, New Yor k: Cor nel l
Uni vers i t y,
1978.
Unpubl i shed
paper .
Chaudhr y
M G o
1973
Rur al I ncome Di st r i but i on i n
Paki st an i n t he Gr een Revol ut i on
Per spect i ve
The Paki st an Devel opment Revi ew,
Vol . XI I , No.
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Dobb, Maur i ce
1967
Papers on Capi t al i sm Devel opment ,
ad - Pl anni ng, p. 73.
Lon on
Rout l edge and Kegan Paul .
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The Econom c Case f or Land Ref orm
Empl oyment , I ncome, and Pr oduct i o
No. 1.
Rome: FAO.
El ki ngt on, Char l es M
1970 Land Ref or m i n Paki st an
Agency
f o r
I nt er nat i onal
Devel opment . Spr i ng Revi ew.
Far nswort h, Cl aude
OPEC Set s up Ai d
of $800
M l l i on
New Yor k Ti mes, J anuar y 12.
1976
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Revol ut i on i n Paki st an: A Case
Studv
of
t he Mart i al Law
Adm ni str at i on.
London: Oxf or d Uni ver si t y Press.
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Fr ankel , F. R. and K. V. Vorys
1972 The Pol i t i cal Chal l enge of t he
Gr een Revol ut i on: Shi f t i ng
Myr dal , Gunnar
1968 Asi an Dr ama: An I nqui r y i nt o
t he Pover t v of Nat i ons
Pat t er ns of Peasant Par t i ci pat i on
i n I ndi a and Paki st an
Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y: Cent er of
I nt er nat i onal St udi es, Mar ch.
Hai der, A. S. and Fri t hj of Kuhnen
1974
Land Tenure and Rural Devel opment
i n Paki st an
Land Ref orm Land Set t l ement . and
Cooperat i ves, No. 1 /2 .
FA0
Ham d, Naved
1974
Her r i ng,
1974
Al t er nat i ve Devel opment St r at egi es
Mont hl y Revi ew, Oct ober .
Ronal d and Ghaf f ar
M
Chaudhry
The
1972
Land Ref orms i n Paki st an
and Thei r Econom c I mpl i cat i ons:
A Pr el i m nar y Anal ysi s
The Paki st an Devel opment Revi ew, 13,
No.
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Hi r sch, G. P.
1972
Some Fundament al s of Land Ref or m
Oxf or d Agr ar i an St udi es, Vol . 1,
No. 2.
J annuzzi , F. Tomasson
1974
Agr ar i an Cr i si s i n I ndi a: The Case
of Bi har
Aust i n: Uni ver si t y of Texas Pr ess.
Lappe, Frances Moor e and J oseph Col l i ns
Washi ngt on, D. C. : I nst i t ut e f or Food
and Devel opment Pol i cy.
1976
Food Fi r st
L i ppi t , Vi ctor D.
1974
Land Ref orm and Econom c
Devel opment i n Chi na
Whi t e Pl ai ns, New Yor k: I nt er nat i onal
Ar t s and Sci ences Press.
Mel l or , J ohn W
1966
The Econom cs of Agr i cul t ur al
Deve oDment
I t haca, New Yor k: Cor nel l Uni ver si t y
Press.
New York: Pant heon.
Naseem Muhammad
Cr edi t Avai l abi l i t y and t he
Vi abi l i t y of Smal l Far ms i n
t he Paki st ani Puni ab
~- ~~ ~
Acts Fi l e No.
646 .
Nul t y, Les l i e
1972
The Gr een Revol ut i on i n West
Paki st an. I mDl i cat i ons
of
Technol ogi cal Channe
New Yor k: Praeger Publ i shers.
Oel haf , Rober t
1976 The Econom cs of Or gani c
Far m ng
Unpubl i shed Ph. D. Di sser t at i on
Depar t ment of Econom cs,
Uni ver si t y of Mar yl and.
Paki st an, Gover nment of
1959
Repor t of t he Land Ref or ms
Comm ssi on f or West Paki st an
Lahor e: J anuar y.
Per el man, M chael
1977
Far m ng f or Pr of i t i n a Hungr y
Moncl ai r , New J er sey: Al l anhel d
Osmun.
Wor l d
St er n, J oseph J . and Wal t er P. Fal con
1970
Gr owt h and Devel opment i n
Paki st an
Har var d Cent er f or I nt er nat i onal
Af f ai r s , No.
23,
Apr i l .
St i ver s, Rober t L.
1976 The Sust ai nabl e Soci et y: Et hi cs
and Econom c Gr owt h
Phi l adel phi a: West m nst er Pr ess.
Tai , Hong- Chao
1974
Land Ref or m and Pol i t i cs:
A
Comparat i ve Anal ysi s
Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y of Cal i f or ni a
Pr ess.
47
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8/10/2019 Land Reform in Pakistan a Critical Issue for Future Development
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Thorner , Daniel
(Addend)
1956 A g ra r i a n P ro s p e c t i n In d i a
D e l hi : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .
Warriner, Doreen
1969 Land Reform: I n P r i n c i p l e and
P r a c t i c e
Oxford: Oxford Un ive rs i ty Press .
W i l l i a m s Maurice J .
The Aid Programs of t h e OPEC
Count r ies
F o rei g n A f fa i r s , J a n ua ry .
1976
Parsons , Kenneth H. (ed . )
1956
Land Tenure
Madison, Wisconsin.
S c h u l t z , T.W.
1964 Transfo rming Tr ad i t io na l
A g r i c u l t u r e
New Haven.
A Z I Z
and
GRAY
CONTINUED
(Tab les , p . 49-52)
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AZI Z and GRAY
TABLE 1
2,524
LANDOWNERSHI P PATTERN I N
PAKI STAN (1960 CENSUS) a)
WEST
PAKI STAN
/I
of Owners 000)
%
of
Owner s
Area Owned
000 Acres)
%
of Area Owned
PUN
JAB b)
/I of
Owner s
000)
%
of Owners
Ar ea Owned
000 Acres)
of
Ar ea Owned
NWFP
(c)
I of Owner s
000)
%
of Owners
Ar ea Owned
000 Acres)
of
Ar ea Owned
SI ND( ~)
/I
of Owner s 000)
%
of Owners
Ar ea Owned
% of
Ar ea Owned
3,266
64
7,427
15
2,312
67
4,332
16
7,700
70
2,506
32
93
30
343
3
1,452
29
15,438
32
968
28
10,285
39
237
22
1,984
25
142
45
1,786
18
25-100
Acr es
286
6
10,616
22
1 3 1
3.8
5,642
2 1
76
7
1,546
19
5 1
17
2,311
23
100-500
Acr es
57
1.2
7,671
16
17
0.5
3,493
13
11
1
854
10
23
8
I 25
Over
50(
Acr es
6
:
7,490
15.6
1.7
.
2,566
10
07
.
[
975
12
3
1
2,963
29
TOTAL
5,067
100
48,642
100
1,433,078
100
26,321
100
096,777
100
I 868,407
314
100
9,989
(a) Dat a compi l ed
by
t he Government of Paki st an, pl anni ng comm ssi on, and suppl i ed
(b)
Dat a f or
1954 /55
(c) Dat a f or 1955
d )
Dat a f or
1946 /47
SOURCE:
Lesl i e Nul t y, The Gr een Revol ut i on i n West Paki st an, New York: . Praeger ,
1972.
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TABLE 2
RESULTS OF LAND REDI STRI BUTI ON I N
WEST PAKI STAN
1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 5 )
THE 1 9 5 8
LAND REFORM
Uni t of Land: Acr e
Landowner shi p on t he eve of
Red i s r but on
Tot al of owner s
Tot al ar ea of owned l and ( acres)
Expect ed Cover age of Redistribution/Expropriation
Number of l andowner s
Ar ea of l and owned ( acres)
Act ual I mpact of
Redistribution/Expropriation
Number
of
owners act ual l y af f ect ed
Tot al ar ea of l and owned by af f ect ed owner s
Tot al ar ea of l and t r ansf er r ed t o hei r s/ dependent s
**Tot al ar ea of l and acqui r ed by government
Types of Gover nment - Acqui r ed Land
Cul t i vat ed l and
Uncul t i vat ed l anda
Di sposi t i on of Gover nment - Acqui r ed Land
Land l eased ( acres)
Land sol d t o t enant s ( acres)
Land auct i oned and sol d t o ot her s ( acres)
Tot al ar ea of l and r edi st r i but ed
Number of f ar mer s purchased l and
5 , 0 6 8 , 3 7 6
4 8 , 6 4 2 , 5 3 0
6 , 0 6 1
7 , 4 9 0 , 9 3 3
9 1 0
6 , 1 0 6 , 6 3 1
5 0 5 , 6 9 5
2 , 2 2 0 , 7 1 8
8 2 3 , 0 6 2
1 , 0 8 0 , 7 2 6
3 6 , 6 4 3
6 6 2 , 1 9 9
2 2 6 ,2 5 8
9 9 3 , 4 8 9
5 6 , 9 0 6
(a) I nc l udes uncul t i vabl ewast e, f or est , under r i ver .
SOURCE: Hung- Chao Tai , Land Ref or m and Pol i t i cs: A Comparat i ve Anal ysi s, Berkel ey:
Uni ver s i t y of Cal i f orni a Pr ess , 1 9 7 4 .
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TABLE
3
RESULTS OF LAND
REFORM
( 1972)
I N PAKI STAN, TO 31 MARCH 1974
Expect ed Cover age
of Expropriation/Redistribution
Number
of
Owner s
Act ual I mpact of
Expropriation/Redistribution
Number of Owner s
Area Owned by Owners ( acres)
Total Ar ea Acqui r ed by Gover nment ( acres)
Di sposi t i on of Government - Acqui r ed Land ( acres)
Tot al Ar ea Di sposed of (acres)
Number of f armers and t enant s
al l ot t ed l and
Tot al Ar ea Tr ansf err ed as a
of
Tot al
Cul t i vat ed Ar ea i n Paki st an
Tot al Ar ea Resumed
by
Gover nment as a
% of
Tot al Cul t i vat ed Ar ea i n Paki st an
I ncome Redi st r i but ed as
a
%
of Nat i onal
Agr i cul t ur al I ncome
11, 990
2, 048
1, 754, 926
850, 150
267, 989
40, 194
0.55
1. 7%
2. 0%
SOURCE: Uni t ed Nat i ons: Progr ess i n Land Ref orm 6th Report , New Yor k,
1976, pp. 70.
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TABLE
4
OUTPUT AND LABOR INPUT
P E R A CR E BY S I Z E OF HOLDINGS
I N P A K I S T A N
S I Z E
OF
HOLDING
S m a l l H o l d i n g
(0 - 1 2 . 5
A c r e s )
M e d i u m H o l d i n g
1 2 . 6 - 2 5 . 0
A c r e s )
Large
H o l d i n g
2 5 . 1
-
5 0 . 0
A c r e s )
V e r y L a r g e H o l d i n g
( A b o v e 5 0 . 0 A c r e s )
VALUE OF OUTPU T LABOR IN PU T (MAN-DAYS)
PE R CULTIVATED ACRE PE R CULTIVATED ACRE
( R U P E E S )
(MAN-DAY S
4 6 7 . 7 8 8 3 . 8
3 9 1 . 5 1 4 8 . 4
258.99 45 .6
134 . 5 --
S O U R C E : C h a u d h r y
and
H e r r i n g , op. c i t . , p p . 2 6 1 , 2 6 4 .
TABLE 5
D A I L Y P E R C A P I T A C A L O RI E I NT A KE I N
THE RURAL AREAS I N PAKISTA N
* D a t a t a ke n f r o m G u n n a r Myrdal ' s A s i a n D r a m a , N ew Y o r k :
Pantheon, 1 9 6 8 , p . 5 4 4 .
YEAR
AVERAGE CALORIE
INTAKE
( T o t a l R u r a l A r e a )
1 9 4 9 / 5 0 * 2 , 0 1 0
CALORIE INTAKE (AVERAGE)
BY POOR WITH INCOME
L E S S THAN R s .
250
P E R
A U M
--
1 9 5 7 / 5 9 * 1 , 9 8 0 --
1 9 6 3 / 6 4 1 , 9 8 8 1 , 8 97
1 9 6 8 1 6 9 1 , 9 7 4 1 , 8 5 7
1 9 6 9 / 7 0 1 , 9 8 3 1 , 8 15
1 9 7 0 1 7 1 1,950 1 , 8 1 0
1 9 7 1 / 7 2 1 , 8 9 8 1 , 73 6
SOURCE:
Tala t
A l l a u d d i n , M a s s
Pove r ty i n P a k i s t a n , P a k i s t a n
D e v e l o p m e n t
R e v i e w , V o l . X I V , N o .
4 ,
p .
4 4 4 .
Winter ,
1 9 7 5 .