Language I: Structure

Defining language: symbolic, rule-based system of communication shared by a communityElements of language:Phonemes: smallest units of sound (gesture)Morphemes: smallest units of meaningSyntax or grammar: rules of constructionProperties of language:ArbitrarinessGenerativitySemanticityGenerational transmissionDisplacement

Neuroscience of language• Broca’s area/Wernike’s area• Left anterior frontal (adjacent to Broca’s): semantic

associative • Angular gyrus: important in phonological storage;

written words – internal speech

Language I

• Chomskyian approach to language: reaction to inadequacies of behavioral approach, argued for large ‘innate’ element to language development

• Problems with behaviorist view: • Imitation and differential reinforcement –

neglects creative use of language of ‘failures of reinforcement

• Deep structure, surface structure and transformational rules to connect each. Trans. Grammar too complicated to be learned.

Deep/surface structure and transformational grammar

Language II: Reading and text comprehension

Saccadic eye movement studies indicate that reading must take place in less than 50msecHow can processing be so efficient?Word superiority effect: letters in words more quickly processed than unconnected letters or letters presented alone Rayner’s (1975) text change studies: found that semantic changes affected text processing with 1-6 characters spaces while only graphic changes noticed 7-12 spaces away. Important point – planning of next saccade based on ‘predictions’ of upcoming text.Priming studies: show semantic spread of activation; further aiding predictive process. Studies with poor readings show deficiencies in saccade planning.

Word superiority effect

Rayner’s text-change studies

• the butter is jiggling• the butler is jiggling (semantic change)• the butter is giggling (semantic change)• the butter is wiggling (graphic change)

Eye movements during reading

Lexical Decision Task

• Word or non-word RT measure• FORK = word; DXMZ = non-word• SIGN – FORK• DXMZ – FORK• SPOON – FORK (sig reduction in rt)• Conclusion: related words stored more closely

together in memory

Language II: Text comprehension

• Brandsford & Franks: sentence processing study showed that propositional content of sentences retained in LTM, not verbatim record. Note: new unrecognized sentences retained words from original sentences. • The ants were in the kitchen; Ants ate the jelly. Jelly on the table; The ants in the

kitchen ate the jelly on the table; Jelly was in the kitchen. • Bartlett ‘war of the ghosts’ study: schematic processing of text

narrative• Schema: representation used to encode, organize, interpret and

recall information• Kintch’s model of reading:

– prop content of sentence encoded into STM– Prop content of next sentence encoded and connected– If match, continue; if no match, search LTM for bridging assumption– Activation of goal schemata to guide encoding process– Increasing bridging assumptions complicates encoding process

Kintch’s model of text comprehension

Rocky Raccoon (Lennon/McCartney)

Now somewhere in the black mountain hills of DakotaThere lived a young boy named Rocky RaccoonAnd one day his woman ran off with another guyHit young Rocky in the eye Rocky didn't like thatHe said I'm gonna get that boySo one day he walked into townBooked himself a room in the local saloon

Rocky Raccoon checked into his roomOnly to find Gideon's bibleRocky had come equipped with a gunTo shoot off the legs of his rivalHis rival it seems had broken his dreamsBy stealing the girl of his fancyHer name was Magil and she called herself LilBut everyone knew her as NancyNow she and her man who called himself DanWere in the next room at the hoe downRocky burst in and grinning a grinHe said Danny boy this is a showdownBut Daniel was hot, he drew first and shotAnd Rocky collapsed in the corner, ah

Now the doctor came in stinking of ginAnd proceeded to lie on the tableHe said Rocky you met your matchAnd Rocky said, doc it's only a scratchAnd I'll be better I'll be better doc as soon as I am able

And now Rocky Raccoon he fell back in his roomOnly to find Gideon's bibleGideon checked out and he left it no doubtTo help with good Rocky's revival, ahOh yeah, yeah

Language II: PDP model of reading

• PDP model characteristics: weighted connections between nodes; spreading activation; excitatory and inhibitory connections

• Both stimulus properties and top-down processes affect patterns of activation

• Text exists at 3 interconnected levels– Feature – Letter– WordNeurocognitive studies show frontal activation for

semantic task; only occipital activation for visual tasks.

Connectionist or PDP model of memory

Language III: Evolution

• Animal studies of language suggest some linguistic capacity present in other species

• Honeybees – displacement• Vervet monkey alarm calls – referential capacity

(precursor to words)• Ape language studies (primitive grammar), no

speech, but manual language• Pidgin to creole studies• Evolution – possible manual to protolanguage to

full-blown language progression

Studies in Animal Language

• A number of species have been studies: dolphins, parrots, whales, etc

• Most studies have involved nonhuman apes: Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Bonobos

• Why: close relatives of humans, big brains, highly social

History of Ape language studies

• Cross-fostering: raising an ape as a human baby

• 1950’s Keith and Cathy Hayes: Viki project, teaching a chimpanzee to speak. Big disaster.

• Beatrix and Alan Gardner: Washoe project, teaching an ape sign language

History of Ape language studies• Francine Patterson and Koko:

A gorilla learns sign language• Herb Terrace and Nim

Chimpsky

History of Ape language studies

• Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the bonobo Kanzi

What do apes know about language?

• Some elementary syntax• Some evidence of displacement• 100-200 word vocabulary• Use is primarily utilitarian, not for sharing

experience; 90% of Kanzi’s utterances are requests/commands

• About at level 2.5 child