language & language based codes

8/12/2019 Language & Language Based Codes

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Languageand Language-based

CodesA Seminar in Semiotics

2013 Submitted bySafwan A. Aziz

Course Instructor

Prof.

Dr. Anis B. Naoum


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Language in a semiotic frame:The aim is to investigate language inrelation to semiotics. This in turn, leads to the question of the scope of

linguistics. Explicitly semiotic approaches to language aim atextending the scope of linguistics in order to account for the relationbetween language and other sign systems. The relation betweenlinguistics and semiotics is mutually exclusive, one part-wholerelationship, one of interpretation, and one of heuristic (investigative)

relevance. The former relation, (mutually exclusive is the leastbeneficial.

Semiotics as a Part of Linguistics: Barthes and also Hjelmslev bothprovocatively proposed a theory of semiotics as a branch of

linguistics .In this view; linguistics is extended to include the level ofthe text i.e. semiotics is reduced to the study of textual structuresonly. Hjelmslev argues that language is a semiotic into which allother semiotics may be translated". However, it should be mentionedhere that Hjelmslev in this context, he referred to semiotic systems in

general rather than natural languages, but this view has been rejectedfrom the oint of view of eneral semiotics.

Verbal Communication


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Perspective Interpretation: If semiotics is accepted as the general theory of signs, such theoretical

perspective can be applied to every field of language. However, core fields oflinguistics such as morphology, lexicology and syntax have a tradition which islargely independent of general semiotics. But there are fields which arenaturally dependent on semiotics and require semiotic extension; these fields

are semantics and pragmatics. Linguistics as the Pilot Science of Semiotics

It has been argued that Linguistics as a discipline has a higher degree ofdevelopment than semiotics and therefore need to be used as a guideline in themore recent field of semiotics. Those who follow this perspective are:

Saussure, deems language as the patrongeneral for the study of other signsystems.

Bloomfield represents the view that linguistics is the chief contributor tosemiotic

Weinreich refers to natural language as the semiotic phenomenon parexcellence.

Structurally, Benvenistestates threeaspects in which language contributes tosemiotic:

Generative relationship, i.e. language generates other semiotic sign systems. Homology (isomorphism) Interpretance (i.e. language is the interpreting system of all other semiotic

systems).


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Semiotic Extensions of LinguisticsThis topic includes foundations for the extension of traditionallinguistics as a semiotic approach to language, it includes sevencategories:Semiotics as the theory of language(In traditional logic semioticis a philosophical theory of language).Sign theoretical foundations of language (semiotic linguistics isconcerned with the structure of the language sign).

The pragmatic framework of linguistics (i.e. relating signs totheir interpreters).The text semiotic extensions of Linguistics(the semiotic approachto language begins with text semiotics).

The cultural framework of language (extending the study toinclude the cultural framework).The study of Non-vocal languages (extension from vocal to Non-vocal languages as a major concern in semiotic linguistics).Semio-genesis and Language (study of the evolutionary roots of

language).


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Semioticians in Linguistics and Linguists in Semiotics:Pierce is considered as the major figure in semiotics whose work is influentialin linguistics. Saussure, on the other hand, along with Hjelmslev, Jakobson andKarl Buhler, their works are considered semiotic. Halliday and Shaumyan have

proposed a semiotic approach to language. For Halliday, his studies aresociosemiotici.e. language is a product of a social process .Shaumyan proposesA Semiotic Theory of Languageusing Universal Grammar.Design Features (DF) of Language: Semiotics draws the attention of linguiststo the new frontier of a theory "capable of explaining the characteristics ofhuman language". Several attempts have been made to achieve this goal bycontrasting human language with nonlinguistic semiotic systems. The mostinfluential proposal in this context is Hockett's list of design features.Hockettdeveloped a list of 16 design features of language, by comparing languageswith communicative systems of various animal species; He divided thesefeatures according to their semiotic features:

DFs Relating to the ChannelDF 1:Vocal/Auditory Channel: Language is produced by means of the vocaltract. The signals are received through the ears.DF 2: Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: Sound moves in alldirections from its source and can pass around obstacles. The receiver is able

to locate the direction of the source of speech.


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DF 3: Rapid Fading: Spoken signals vanish quickly, leaving the channel free forfurther messages.DFs of the Pragmatic DimensionDF 4: Interchangeability. Adult members of a speech community can be bothsenders and receivers of messages.DF 5: Complete Feedback. The speaker can hear immediately, and thus monitorby feedback, his or her own message. Together with DF 4, total feedback hasalsoa social dimension.DF 6: Specialization. The act of speaking is specialized to the communicative

functions of language. Speaking does not serve any additional physiologicalfunctions. It requires little physical effort, and its energetic consequences arebiologically irrelevant. The speaker is free to perform other activities whilespeaking.

DFs of the Semantic DimensionDF 7:Semanticity. In his view, human language is a semantic system ofcommunication because its elements have "associative ties with things andsituations, or types of things and situations, in the environment of its users."DF 8:Arbitrariness. The signal - object relationship is arbitrary and not iconic.

DF 9: Displacement. The language sign can refer to objects remote in time andspace.


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DF 10: Prevarication. We can say things that are false or meaningless. Ecoconsiders this feature to be characteristic of semiosis in general.DF 11:Reflexiveness. Language can be used to communicate about language.This is Jakobson's metalinguistic function.Semio-genetic FeaturesDF 12: Tradition.The conventions of language are passed down by teachingand learning, not through the germ plasm. Language is thus acquired byculture, not by nature.DF 13: Learnability. The speaker of one language can learn another language.

Characteristics of the CodeDF 14: Discreteness. The sign repertoire consists of discrete and recurrent units.There is no gradation of linguistic elements in terms of more or less. The unitsof language are not continuous.DF 15: Productivity or Openness: "New linguistic messages are coined freely

and easily, and, in context, are usually understood." Productivity is primarilydue to the syntax of language. New messages are generated by the creativecombination of linguistic signs.DF 16: Duality of Patterning. This is the feature which semioticians, followingMartinet (1949), also refer to by the term double articulation. The discussion of

this key concept of linguistics and the semiotic theory of codes requires aseparate paragraph.


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Design features of

language (Hockett1960)

According to

Channel

According to

Pragmatic

Dimension

According to

Semantic

Dimension

According to

Semiogenetic

features

Vocal -auditory Interchangeability

Broadcast

Transmission

and

DirectionalReception

ArbitrarinessComplete

Feedback

Semanticity Tradition

Prevarication

Displacement

Specialization

Reflexiveness

Learnability

Characteristics

of the code

Duality ofPatterning

Productivity

(Openness)

Discreteness

Rapid Fading


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Of the previous 16 DFs, Hockettregards only fourcan be consideredcentral and to some extent unique of human languages, these are: openness,displacement, duality, and traditional transmission.In an anthropo-semiotic framework,Mouninspeaks of six features of

human language: Function of Communication. Arbitrariness. Being a system. Linearity.(unlike visual communication)

Discreteness. Double articulation.Osgood(1980) proposes as system of defining characteristics of languagesrelying on theoretical, behavioristic and comparative linguisticconsiderations.

Language as a CodeTwo important directions of influence between semiotics of language andthe theory of codes are discussed. The first is that double articulation has

become essential for the study of other semiotic systems; the other is that"language as a code", has led to the belief that language is derived from

more general theories of codes and information, since codeis synonymousto system.


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Double Articulation: This principle has often been considered as thesingle distinguishing feature of human language. Martinet's theorystates that articulation means structuring which involves two levels: 1starticulation, a message is structured into meaningful units consisting

of the signifierand the signified(monemes), 2ndarticulation, structuringthe phonetic signifiers of the monemes into non-signifying butdistinctivephonemes. Some other scholars proposed rather differentapproach which can be illustrated as follows:

The language Code:Code and system are used interchangeably inlinguistics; Saussure once spoke of language as a code in his dichotomyof langue/parole. Jakobson proposed to restate these concepts in termsof message /code. Several scholars rejected the term language Codeemphasizing the difference between natural languages and artificial

codes. Codeimplies psycholinguistic processes of encoding, storage,and decoding of language.

Duality of patterning

1stArticulation 2ndArticulation

Martinets Monemes Phonemes

Hocketts Morphemes Phonemes

Hjelmslevs Plereme Ceneme


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The Language Code as Sign RepertoireAs sign repertoires, codes consist of a homogenous and closed set ofunambiguous symbols. Language however, is an open system ofsemantically flexible signs. To overcome these implications, Jacobson

have introduced two modifications of the concept of code inlinguistics. He proposed the Dynamic view of language, as adiversified code, its overall code includes a set of sub- codes. The sub-codes of languages are its functional varieties (dialects, idiolects,styles, etc.).

Bernstein's sociolinguistic "code theory" of the 1960s distinguishesbetween the "general code" and the "speech codes" of individuals of socialgroups.

Codes as Rules of Semiotic Transformation: Jacobson describedencoding as a transformation of meanings (signata) into sounds(signantia). It is a true principle that, in semiotics, expression/content,signifier/signified are inseparable. One can neither divide sound fromthought nor thought from sound.


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Arbitrariness and Motivation :In Saussureswords, the linguistic sign is arbitrary, Hockett considersarbitrariness as the defining feature of language. The thesis ofconventionalityof words is precursor to Saussureandogma. Socrates

admitted that words cannot be completely arbitrary, since, in naming,we cannot follow our own will. Such conventionality is discussed as apragmatic dimension regarding its role in social semiotic behavior.Wittingstein argues that if language is to be a means ofcommunication, there must be agreement, language is founded on

convention. And grammatical rules are based on grammaticalconventions. Social agreement is not agreement in opinions but in formof life.Austin distinguishes only illocutionary acts (promising, commandingand baptizing) as conventional. Searle, on the other hand, distinguishesbetween conventions and rules, while he further divides rules intoRegulative (etiquette or clothing) and Constitutive (like the rules ofchess or football).


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Foundations of Arbitrariness:Precursors: Locke already used this term words signify by a perfectarbitrary imposition". Saussure took this thesis from Whitney who statesan internal and necessary tie between the word and idea is absolutely non-

existent for the learner. However, Saussurewarned that the choice of thesignifier is not left entirely to the speaker. Arbitrariness is not freedomof choice, but it means the unmotivated nature of the sign. In theSaussurean concept, arbitrariness indicates also the conventionalityofthe language system (the community is essential in the existence and

acceptance of signs).Against this principle, Benvenistepostulates the principle of necessityof the linguistic sign; it depends on the psychological associationbetween the two sides of the linguistic sign.


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Arbitrariness: Relation of Sense or Reference?In Saussurean principle, arbitrariness is a matter of senseonly, i.e. therelationship between the signifier and the signified.Arbitrariness in the Triadic Model of the sign is necessarily referential.

if the signifier is arbitrary with respect to the referent and if thesignified is necessarily linked to the signifier , the signified must alsobe considered arbitrary.

Absolute vs. Relative Arbitrariness: InSaussure terms, words such as

ten, sheep, or apple exhibit absolute arbitrariness, while compoundwords such as fifteen, shepherd, or apple tree are examples of relativearbitrariness. Besides, all rules of grammar restrict arbitrariness andintroduce motivation into the system of language.


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Paralanguage:As a branch of nonverbal communication, it is the study of vocalsignals beyond the verbal message in the narrower sense. In the

broadest sense, it comprises seven areas, the broadest of which are (1-non-human and human vocalizations, and 2-non-vocal as well as vocalfeatures of human communication).However, paralanguage in thenarrower sense will be adopted here, i.e.(human vocalizations only).Although dedicated to non-verbal communication, yet, Paralanguage

is not concerned with gestures for examples because gestures conveymessages independent of language. Paralanguage is communicationthat occurs with verbal messages. Paralinguisticmessages are supra-segmentaland thus not inherent in the words. From a linguistic pointof view, the borderline between linguistics and Para-linguistics is

expressed as follows:


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Paralinguistics

Prosody

Linguistics


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Historically, and from a purely semiotic point of view, paralanguagewas one of the steps in the extension of structural linguistics toward asemiotic theory of human communication. Rauch locates para-linguistics between linguistics and semiotics, since it is concerned with

indexical signs.

WritingWriting has been neglected in language studies, except for itshistorical dimension. Within a semiotic framework, writing hasfurther dimensions of interest to philosophy, cultural

anthropology, and mass media.As an evolutionary process, there are two basic options for thedevelopment of writing systems these can be best exemplified asfollows:

Linguistics Paralanguistics Semiotics


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In Hjelmslevs terminology, the semantic unit is Pleremicwriting while the phoneticunit is Cenemicone.

Defining Features of Spoken and Written Language

Spoken Written

Uses vocal-auditory channel Uses visual channel ( fails in the dark)

Broadcast transmission Directional reception

Less specialized in the treatment of

content.

Highly specialized, requires higher

energetic effort, more freedom in

editing and revising.

Rapid fading Permanent recording and information

storage.


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Writing and Speech:Autonomy vs. Heteronomy: The question of whether the grapheme isa sign or not depends heavily on the autonomy or heteronomy ofwriting. Therefore, for those who follow the autonomous view,written segments the size of a word or morpheme are signs ofwriting. While a heteronomous view considers the single letter ashaving the status of a sign which refers to a phoneme. The primacy ofwriting over spoken mode has been dealt with in terms of Phono-

centrismor Grapho-centrism.


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Universal language (ULs): To overcome the shortcomings of linguisticfeatures of arbitrariness and tradition, hundreds of UniversalLanguages have been proposed or developed during the history ofsemiotics. The roots of semiotic dimensions for ULs are simplified

below:

Ty olo y of UL (P io i a d Po te io i)


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Typology of ULs (Priori and Posteriori)Priori UL: Using artificial elements and structures invented independentlyfor any existing natural language.Posteriori UL: Composed of elements from one or several historical

languages with the goal of creating a simpler, more regular and easier tolearn language.Media proposed for ULs projects are speech; alphabetic writing andnumbers are the major, other means are also suggested like music andpictographs.

Sign LanguageSign languages (SLs) in the narrower sense are semiotic systems of gesturalcommunication with the communicative potential of a spoken language.Such gestural languages have been developed in contexts where speech isnot available (as in SL of the deaf), or where speech is forbidden (as in

monastic SLs), or as a universal language for people of different nativelanguages.In the very broad sense, SL is used as a synonym of semiotic systems ingeneral.SLs differ from spoken languages in that they are visu-centric and lackingthe ability to discuss in-depth abstract themes, while, spoken language isphono-centric, creative and expressive of abstract themes.

b


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Language SubstitutesLanguage substitutes are secondary codes whose signs are molded onthe form of primary linguistic code. Language substitutes includespeech surrogates such as drum and whistle languages, as derivatives

of speech. Such surrogates are utilized in contexts delimited bygeographical distribution and communicative function.

Alphabetic CodesExamples of Alphabetic Codes:

Morse code.Braille code.The binary code of the alphabet.

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