language planning in iran: a historical review

Language planning in Iran:a historical review

ALI ASHRAF SADEGHI

Abstract

Language planning in Iran has been predominantly aimed at the modern-ization of Persian through word coinage. The process of modernization inPersian started in the 1920s and has continued up to the present time.Although thousands of Persian equivalents have been coined for loan wordsduring the past several decades, Persian certainly needs many more nativeequivalents for new foreign terms.

1. Introduction

With the Arab conquest of Iran in the seventh century A.D. the o�cialand written language of Iranian Empire, Pahlavi orMiddle Persian, whichhad already become di�erentiated from the spoken language, Dari,gradually fell into disuse and was replaced by Arabic. During the twocenturies of Arab domination, the common language of Iranian people,apart from local and regional dialects, was theDari language. When in thetenth century Dari was promoted as the written language of Iran, it hadalready lost a signi®cant part of its Pahlavi vocabulary. During thisperiod, a substantial number of the scienti®c, philosophical, and culturalterms of Pahlavi had become obsolete or totally forgotten and, on theother hand, a number of general, religious, and administrative Arabicwords had entered spoken Persian.

Iranian scholars who used to write in Arabic began to use Persian intheir writings. They didn't try to ®nd Pahlavi terms or to coin new Persianwords, because of the availability of the Arabic scienti®c words. Thus,a considerable number of Arabic words and expressions, mostly ofscienti®c origin were borrowed into Persian. The ®rst attempt at coiningPersian equivalents for Arabic terms was taken by Avicenna in hisPersian D�anisÏn�ama-i `Al�a'�i, an encyclopedia of physics, metaphysics, and

0165±2516/01/0148±0019 Int'l. J. Soc. Lang. 148 (2001), pp. 19±30# Walter de Gruyter

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logic. However, his attempts were not fruitful and no other scholarfollowed him.

With the Mongolian invasion in the thirteenth century and theirdomination in our country for more than a century and a half, a numberof Mongolian and Turkish loans slipped into Persian, as most of theMongol troops were Turks. The subsequent rulers of Iran were Turks, afact that contributed to the penetration of Turkish administrative andmilitary words into Persian.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran was situated betweenthree large countries: Tsarist Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and India. The®rst contacts of Iranians with Western civilization and modern scienceand technology were through Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and to alesser degree through India.Automotive, food, printing, andmilitary termswere borrowed from Russian. A number of civil and military terms werealso borrowed from Turkish. Examples of Russian loan words in thesedomains include the following:

(1) Printing terms: esÏpun, from Rus. sÏpon `lead, blank type', gaÃrse,Rus. kassa `composer's plate where type is kept',raÃn/mgaÃ, Rus. granka `galley, an oblong tray forkeeping composed type'

(2) Terms connected with the automobile: maÃsÏin, Rus. masÏina àuto-mobile', baÃk, Rus. bak`tank', aÃftaÃmaÃt, Rus. avto-mat `distributor (delco)'

(3) Terms relating to food: kaÃlbaÃs, Rus. kolbasa `sausage', borsÏ,Rus. borsÏcÏ `cabbage soup', piraÃsÏki,Rus. pirozÏoki plur, à kind of patty'

(4) Military terms: paÃgun, Rus. pagon `shoulder strap', vaÃksil (band),Rus. aksel'banty àiguillettes', ferenjÏ, Rus. frencÏ`military jacket'

(5) Examples of Turkish civil words: nazmiyye `police o�ce', baladiyye`municipality', adliyye `ministryof justice', tayyaÃre, Tur. from Ar.àirplane'

(6) Examples of military words of Turkish origin: tup, from Tur. tob`canon',baÃrut`gun-powder', xompaÃre`mortar'

In the nineteenth century, Iran came into contact with France.A number of Iranian students continued their higher education in

20 A.A. Sadeghi


France, and cultural relations between Iran and France graduallyincreased. The linguistic consequence was French cultural dominanceand a great number of borrowings from French, most of which are stillin use in contemporary Persian.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the idea of replac-ing foreign words with Persian equivalents grew among some menof letters and in some learned circles. This was the starting point ofa rudimentary form of language planning in Iran. These personal andcollective attempts ended by creating certain private and o�cial circlesdedicated to coining new words to replace foreign scienti®c, cultural,and civil terms. These activities were nearly simultaneous with thegrowth of nationalism in Iran. Nationalism awakened in some learnedcircles the idea of linguistic purism, the target of which was to coinPersian equivalents for western loan words, and for Arabic and Turkishloans as well. Thus, the center of language planning in Iran wasthe domain of vocabulary. This vocabulary-based concern for language,has dominated every activity in language planning in Iran up to thepresent day.

2. The ®rst society for word coinage

The ®rst society for coining words for foreign terms was a society patron-ized by the ministry of war (defense) in 1303 A.H./1924. This society,whose members were ten, was not active more than a decade. During thisperiod it succeded in coining terms such as havaÃpeymaÃ àirplane', forudgaÃhàirport', xalabaÃn `pilot', vaÃbaste-ye nezaÃmi `military attacheÂ ', etc.(cf. Sadiq 1322 A.H./1943: 3; Badrei 1355 A.H./1976: 10), which graduallygained ground and ousted their French, Arabic, or Turkish equivalents.This organization's activities were absolutely dominated by nationalisticintentions. No linguist or serious grammarian or man of letters wasamong the members of this group. Their products were severely criti-cized by some scholars, partly because they were either clumsy orwrong from the etymological point of view. For example the formationof the word artesÏ àrmy' was the result of a wrong analysis of theunanlyzable obsolete word arte:sÏdaÃr à military' into arte:sÏ (artesÏ) anddaÃr (the present stem of the verb daÃsÏtan `to have'), meaning `holder,keeper' in complex words, such as ketaÃb-daÃr `librarian', litterally `keeperof books'.

The second society of the kind, named ``the society for coining scienti®cterms,'' was established in 1311 A.H./1932 in the ``school for teachertraining,'' the activities of which lasted until 1319/1940. In the weekly

Language planning: a historical review 21


sessions of the society, some 25 to 50 students and a professor took part,presenting and de®ning foreign terms for which Persian equivalentswere to be chosen. The process of coining new Persian words was based onfour principles (see Sadiq 1322/1943: 4; Badrei 1355/1976: 14±15):

1. conformity to the rules of Persian grammar;2. simplicity and brevity;3. conservation of existing terms, unless they were wrong, or more

appropriate terms could replace them;4. preservation of terms that could be considered international.The society comprised six sections, for natural sciences, mathematics,

physics, chemistry, philosophy, and literature. The new Persian wordssuggested by each section were to be sent to the board of the societyfor their approval and/or rejection. The approved words were ®rstannounced at the board and then sent to a number of scholars andwriters to obtain their opinions. The ®nal sanction was announcedafter the collection and consideration of the scholars' and writers'opinions. During the eight years activity of this society, 3000 termswere coined, some 400 of which entered textbooks (Sadiq 1322/1943;Badrei 1355/1976).

In 1313/1934 the ministry of public education planned to found a smallnumber of societies composed of scholars of di�erent branches of science,the main goal of which was to coin new terms. Following this decision, theMedical Academy was founded, which held a few sessions in which anumber of physicians took part. In one of the Academy's sessions theterm farhangestaÃn was suggested for French word acadeÂmie. In MiddlePersian, this word means `school'. It is composed of farhang `education'and `culture' and the su�x -estaÃn meaning `place'.

3. The Iranian Academy

According to the charter of the Medical Academy, coining Persianmedical terms and compiling textbooks were the main objectives ofthis institution. However, in 1314/1935, before the rati®cation of theAcademy's statues, RezaÃ Shah Pahlavi appointed M.A. Foroughi, thethen prime minister, to unify these scattered societies into a singleauthoritative language-planning organization. One of the main objectivesof this institution, called the Iranian Academy, was to remove loan wordsfrom Persian. In a letter to the ministry of public education, Foroughiwrote, ``Seeing that some people try these days to coin words for newconcepts for which Persian has no means of expression, and seeingthat these people's methods are unfounded and do not conform to good

22 A.A. Sadeghi


taste, it is incumbent upon the ministry of public education to ponderon the idea of the establishment of such a society'' (see Badrei 1355/1976: 18).

The Ministry invited a number of scholars and held some sessions inwhich the charter of the Iranian Academy was codi®ed. The chartercomprised 16 paragraphs; the ®rst paragraph indicates that the IranianAcademy is being founded for the maintenance, development, andpromotion of the Persian language. The second paragraph, which dealswith the tasks of the Academy, states that the Academy should pruneincongruous foreign words from the language and coin Persian terms andexpressions for every branch of life, using, as far as possible, Persian (andnot Arabic or Turkish) roots and words.

Other tasks of the Academy include (1) the reform of the Persian writingsystem; (2) the writing of the Persian grammar; (3) the establishmentof principles for coining words and accepting or rejecting foreignterms; (4) the collection of artisans' terms and expressions; (5) thecollection of words and expressions from old texts (see Badrei 1355/1976: 19±20).

At its inception, the Academy comprised seven committees, but aneighth committee, responsible for changing foreign (i.e. Arabic and Turco-Mongol) toponyms into Persian ones, was established later. The othercommittees were

1. committee for general administrative terminology;2. committee for legal terminology;3. committee for scienti®c terminology;4. committee for Persian grammar;5. committee for compiling a Persian dictionary;6. committee for the guidance of public thoughts and collecting local

hymns, tunes, and words and expressions;7. committee for studying medical terms.By 1316/1937, around 600 terms and place names had been coined.

This ®gure reached 1700 in 1319/1940 and amounted to some 2000 by1320/1941.

To have an idea of the achievements of the Academy, it would be usefulto mention some examples of its creations: zir-daryaÃ-i `submarine',lit. ùnder sea' relative su�x; do-zist àmphibian', lit. `two-life'; sabz-ine`chlorophyl', lit. `green' relative su�x; fesÏaÂr-sanjÏ `manometer', lit.`pressure-measuring'; govaÃhi-naÃme `certi®cate', lit. `witness-book'; kaÃr-daÃr `chargeÂ d'a�aires', lit. à�air-having'; mardom-sÏenaÃsi ànthropology',lit. `people-knowing'; mohre-daÃr-aÃn `vertebrates', lit. `vertebra-having';paÃrine-sang-i `paleolithic', lit. òld stone' relative su�x (cf. FarhangestaÃ n-eIran 1319/1940).



When RezaÃ Shah abdicted in 1320/1941, the pressure for the useof the Academy's coinings gradually languished, so that a sessionwas held in 1321/1942 during which the following principles wereapproved:

1. Arabic words that have been accepted into Persian and used bygreat poets and writers are permitted to be used in formal and informalwritings;

2. unfamiliar Arabic words, even though they have been used by somewriters, should not be used;

3. the Academy's task is not to coin words, but it can accept or rejectterms coined for concepts lacking means of expression in Persian (seeBadrei 1355/1976: 49±50).

The Academy held sessions until 1322/1943 but had stopped coiningwords. Its other activities also diminished until, with the death of itsdean, H. Samii, in 1332/1953, and the rise of new political conditions inthe country, it was shut down.

4. Uno�cial societies for coining words

With the diminishing and suspension of the activities of the IranianAcademy, some social and cultural circles decided to coin words thatPersian needed for the expression of some concepts of modern life. Onesuch circle was the society for coining terms and expressions neededto be used in daÃ'erat-ol ma'aÃref-e faÃrsi, a Persian encyclopedia edited byGh. MosaÃ heb, a Persian mathematician (1959±1995). The same circlepublished in 1338/1959 a booklet comprising some 700 geographical,geological, and meteorological terms coined by Gh. MosaÃ heb, A. AÃ raÃ m,S. As®aÃ , M. Moqarrabi, and H. Gol-e golaÃ b.

The Iranian Cultural Foundation published a number of bilingual(English-Persian) scienti®c dictionaries whose authors had tentativelytranslated English scienti®c terms into Persian.

Some individual authors and translators also tried to coin Persianwords, especially in the human sciences, in their works. We should men-tion here A.-H. AÃ riaÃ npur, who in his Persian translation of M. Iqbal's TheDevelopment ofMetaphysics in Persia, coined some 2000 Persian words forEnglish philosophical terms. Another author active in coining Persianwords during the last decades is D. AÃ shuri, who has published an English-Persian dictionary for the human sciences (AÃ shuri 1374/1995). Thisdictionary comprises some 12,000 Persian equivalents, a great number ofwhich were coined by the author.

24 A.A. Sadeghi


5. Iranian Academy of Language

Fifteen years after the closing of the IranianAcademy,M.-R. Shah Pahlaviissued an order for the establishment of the Iranian Academy of Language(1968). Protection of the national language and its preparation forsupplying the ever-increasing scienti®c and technical needs of the countryare insisted upon in the Shah's order. It is also emphasized that the newacademy will be the continuation of the Iranian Academy. On the basis ofthis decree, the Iranian Academy of Language was founded in 1349/1970with eleven members and objectives that include

1. Preparing Persian for adequately expressing various new scienti®c,technical, and cultural concepts.

2. Carrying out studies in all past and present languages and dialects ofIran, particularly in order to get a better knowledge of Persian and topromote it (see Gol-e golaÃ b and KiaÃ 1355/1976: 20).

In the Academy's organization charter, the following four departmentswere provided for:

1. Department of word selection and coining;2. Department of the study of Persian vocabulary;3. Department of the study of Persian grammar and writing system;4. Department of ancient, middle, and modern Iranian languages and

dialects (Gol-e golaÃ b and KiaÃ 1355/1976: 20).With the expansion of the activities of the Academy, the fourth

department was divided into two separate departments, one for modernIranian dialects, the other for the study of ancient and middle Iranianlanguages; a new department for studying the relations and contactsbetween Iranian languages and other languages was also founded.

The task of the department of word selection and coining was to choosePersian equivalents for foreign terms used in Persian. This was consideredthe main goal of the Academy.

The following 20 committees for various branches of science, tech-nology, and art were selected, each composed of a number of specialistswho were invited to collaborate with linguists in word selection:

1. education and psychology;2. economics and commerce;3. informatics;4. medicine;5. geography;6. language and literature;7. chemistry;8. social and political sciences;9. law and administration;



10. mathematics;11. natural sciences,12. physics;13. cartography;14. library science;15. scienti®c textbooks;16. agriculture and animal husbandry;17. music;18. engineering and industry;19. toponymy;20. ®ne artsThe academy of language published and distributed to specialists

booklets giving English technical terms for each branch of science andtheir de®nitions in Persian. Specialists were requested to suggest Persianequivalents for these terms.

Up to 1355/1976, almost 35,000 Persian words were proposed by thecommittees for over 15,000 English terms.1 These words were to be dis-cussed in the high council of the academy, and the words accepted werereported to Shah for ®nal sanction.

In a pamphlet titled Iranian Academy and Iranian Academy of Languageby H. Gol-e golaÃ b and S. KiaÃ (1355/1976), KiaÃ , the head of the IranianAcademy of Language, states, ``The Iranian Academy of Language triesto replace as soon as possible new foreign words with Persian equivalents.In so doing, it gives priority to words needed by various organizations;then it tries to replace the most necessary words from the point of viewof di�erent departments of the Academy'' (1976: 26). In connection withthe methods of choosing words, he adds,

This Academy tries to choose new words as much as possible from among

commonly used words or from literary Persian or the combination of such words.If appropriate words could not be found in common or literary language, thechoice would be made from other Iranian languages and dialects. These words,

if chosen, should be Persianized. In coining new words and compounds, theIranian Academy of Language endeavors not to harm the beauty and harmonyof the Persian vocabulary. It selects new terms in such a manner that the ties

between modern Persian and its past should be strengthened (Gol-e golaÃ b andKiaÃ 1976: 27).

This academy had also planned to compile a dictionary for standardPersian in which the received pronunciation of words would be recorded.The compilation of a grammar for written Persian (on the basis of 100books, journals, and newspapers), and the compilation of dictionaries for

26 A.A. Sadeghi


all Persian dialects were other programs of the Iranian Academy ofLanguage.

After the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1357/1979, allthe activities of the Academy stopped. Apart from a few pamphletscomprising a number of accepted and ®nally approved words, otherproposed words never appeared. However, the ®rst published bookletof the Academy's coinings provoked intense reactions on the part ofsome linguists and men of letters. For, contrary to the initial aims of theAcademy, to the e�ect that the Academy's ®rst priority is to choose andcoin equivalents for newly arrived foreign words, most of its e�orts wereto replace old Arabic or Western words. Moreover, most of its suggestedwords were opaque and unintelligible even for educated people. Thefollowing list includes examples of creations of the Iranian Academy ofLanguage, selected from two booklets comprising (1) Persian equivalentsfor English educational terms (1353/1974); (2) Persian equivalents fora part of the English terminology of the gas industry (1354/1975).

(1) Persian equivalents for English educational terms (1353/1974)

a. daÃnesÏ-yaÃb `bachelor', for Fr. loan lisaÃnsiye, from Per. daÃnesÏ`science'zyaÃb òne who ®nds'

b. far-nesÏin `chairman', for Ar. ra'is, from the obsolete Per. pre®xfar-`before'znesÏin òne who sits'

c. aÃmuz-gaÃh `classroom', for Fr. kelaÃs, from aÃmuz, present stem andverbal noun of the verb aÃmuxtan `to learn'z-gaÃh, a place su�x

d. aÃmuze `course', for Ar. dars, from the previous verbz -e, a su�xfor forming concrete nouns

e. peyvaste-kaÃr `full time', for Ar. tamaÃm-vaqt, from Per. peyvaste`continuous'zkaÃr `work'

(2) Persian equivalents for a part of the English terminology of the gasindustry (1354/1974)

a. ham-vastaÃr `connector', for Ar. ettesaÃl, from Per. ham `same'zvastaÃr `connecting', an obsolete form of the old active participleof the verb bastn `to tie'

b. fazaÃre `device', for Ar. vasile, from Per. fazaÃr, an old andanalogical form of afzaÃr `device'z-e, the concrete su�x

c. bar-jÏaÃ `®xed', for Ar. saÃbet, from Per. preposition bar òn,upon'zjÏaÃ `place'

d. aÃmizaÃne `mixer', for Arabo-Per. maxlut-kon, from Per. aÃmiz,present stem and verbal noun of the verb aÃmixtan `to mix' z -aÃne,a su�x for forming concrete nouns



e. gonaÃre `regulator', for Fr. reg(u)laÃtor, from the present stem andverbal noun of the inexistent Per. verb *gonaÃrdan, derived fromthe Middle Persian verb win�ardan `to arrange, to adjust'z-e su�x

From all the products of the Iranian Academy of Language only afew words, such as raÃyaÃne `computer', hamaÃyesÏ `congress', sÏomaÃrgaÃn`printing, tirage (Fr.)', etc., were more or less accepted in the commonlanguage.

6. Academy of Persian Language and Literature

In 1370/1991 a new institution, named the Academy of Persian Languageand Literature, with 25 permanent members, was founded. The thirdAcademy consists of seven departments, the most active of which isthe department of word selection. Other departments are department ofancient Iranian languages; Department of Iranian dialects; departmentfor editing classical Persian texts; department of Persian grammar andwriting system; department for the compilation of a comprehensive Persiandictionary; department for the compilation of an encyclopedia forPersian literature.

The main task of the department of word selection is to ®nd Persianequivalents for foreign words used both in common language and inscienti®c writings.

This department encompasses committees for di�erent disciplines.These committees hold regularmeetings with the collaboration ofmembersand researchers of the Iranian Academy of Sciences for selecting termsneeded in di�erent branches of science. Terms chosen in these committeeswill be proposed to the high council of the Academy for ®nal con®rma-tion. One of the works carried out by this department is the choice ofPersian equivalents for some 200 western loan words used in o�cialdocuments andwritings.The list of thesewordswasdrawnupby the Iraniangovernment and submitted to the Academy. These words were, after®nal con®rmation in the high council of the Academy, submitted to thepresident of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be communicated to thegovernment for use in o�cial correspondence, texts, etc. They arealso published in book form for the public.

The Academy's ®rst principle for choosing and coining words istransparency and intelligibility. Opaque words and dialectal and ancientforms are rejected as unintelligible for the public. Another principle is topreserve international words, such as raÃdio, post, televiziyon, etc. Phoneticconsiderations and simplicity are also taken into account. Considering

28 A.A. Sadeghi


all these facts, there is more chance for the Iranian Academy of Languageand Literature's products to ®nd favor.

Some examples of the chosen and coined words:

(3) a. payaÃm-gir `answering-machine', lit. `message-obtainer (receiver)'b. dur-negaÃr `fax', lit. `[from] afar painter (writer)'c. cÏeraÃqak `warmer', lit. `little lamp'd. payaÃm-negaÃr `E-mail', lit. `message-painter (writer)'e. ramzine `bar code', from ramz `mystery, code' z -ine, relative

su�x.

The main goal of the department of Persian grammar and writingsystem is, in addition to the study of Persian grammar in order to compilea comprehensive grammar for the students of Persian language andliterature, to study the Persian writing system in order to reform it. Theamendments are communicated to the ministry of education to be usedin primary and high school textbooks.

The Academy has a monthly newsletter in which newly chosen andcoined words are published to obtain the opinion of specialists outside theAcademy. Further, a quarterly journal is published by the Academy inwhich Academy members and researchers as well as outside scholarspublish studies connected with the Academy's sphere of interests.

7. Summary

Contacts between Iran and western countries in the middle of the nine-teenth century caused the introduction of Russian, French, and Englishwords into Persian. In the early twentieth century, some circles tried to getrid of foreign loan words, including Arabic and Turkish ones. The ®rstIranian Academy was founded in 1935 with the purpose of stopping theexcess of such circles. Since that time two other academies has beenfounded, all with the objective of preparing the Persian language forexpressing general and especially new scienti®c concepts by coiningPersian words for western terms. However, the rate of introduction ofwestern, and particularly English, loan words into Persian is such that anyattempt to stop them is almost doomed to failure. The number of wordscoined by three Iranian academies does not exceed 2000 items. Even ifterms and expressions selected by authors of scienti®c, artistic, and literaryworks are taken into consideration, this number cannot reach 10,000.The result is that many Persian textbooks in the ®eld of medicine andscience are swarming with English, and less frequently with French, words.



The fact that English scienti®c terms are mostly agreed upon, while theirPersian equivalents are not, has aggravated this process. In conclusion,one can say that language planning of the kind discussed here is notproportional to real needs, and the Persian language, like many otherlanguages of the contemporary world, is open to borrowings fromdominant languages.

Tehran University

Note

1. For di�erent ®gures, see Modarresi (1990: 3).

References

AÃ raÃ m, A.; et al. (1338/1959). Farhang-e estelaÃhaÃt-e JÏograÃ®yaÃõÃ [Dictionary of Geographical

Terms]. Tehran.

AÃ riyaÃ npur, A.-H. (1347/1968). Appendix to his translation of M. Eqbal's The Development

of Metaphysics in Persia. Publication 8. Tehran: Regional and Cultural Institute.

AÃ shuri, D. (1374/1995). Farhang-e olum-e ensaÃni [Dictionary of Human Sciences].

Tehran: Markaz.

Badrei, F. (1355/1976). GozaÃresÏ-i dar baÃre-ye farhangestaÃn-e Iran [A Report on the Iranian

Academy]. Tehran: Iranian Academy of Language.

FarhangestaÃ n-e Iran (1319/1941). VaÃzÏehaÃ-ye now ke taÃ paÃyaÃn-e saÃl 1319 dar farhangestaÃn-e

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1319 A.H./March 1941]. Tehran: Iranian Academy.

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Language.

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Equivalents of Some English Terms from the Gas Industry]. Tehran: Iranian Academy

of Language.

Gol-e golaÃ b, H.; and KiaÃ , S. (1355/1976). FarhangestaÃn-e IraÃn va farhangestaÃn-e zabaÃn-e

IraÃn [Iranian Academy and Iranian Academy of Language]. Tehran: Iranian Academy

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Modarresi, Y. (1990). Language problems and language planning in Iran. New Language

Planning Newsletter 5 (1), 1±6.

Sadiq, I. (1322/1943). Towzih dar taÃ rixcÏ e-ye farhangestaÃ n [Some notes on the history of

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