large hadron collider.pdf

8/10/2019 Large Hadron Collider.pdf

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Large Hadron ColliderExperiments, Technology, Theory and Future


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Contents

1 Overview 1

1.1 CERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.2 Particle accelerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.1.3 Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1.4 Participation and funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1.5 Public exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1.7 Associated institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2 Large Hadron Collider. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2.4 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.5 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.6 Proposed upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2.7 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2.8 Computing resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2.9 Safety of particle collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.10 Operational challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.11 Construction accidents and delays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.12 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.2.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.2.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Experiments 23

2.1 List of Large Hadron Collider experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.1 Large Hadron Collider experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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ii CONTENTS

2.1.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 A Large Ion Collider Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.2.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2.3 Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.4 The ALICE detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.5 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.2.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.2.7 Future Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.3 ATLAS experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.3.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.3.3 Physics program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3.4 Micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.3.5 Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.3.6 Data systems and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.3.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.4 Compact Muon Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4.2 Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4.3 Detector summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4.4 CMS by layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4.5 Collecting and collating the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.4.6 Milestones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482.4.7 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.5 VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.5.1 Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.5.2 The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
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2.5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6 LHCf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522.6.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.7 FP420 experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.7.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.7.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.7.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.8 TOTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.8.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.8.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.8.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Technology 53

3.1 Beetle (ASIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.1.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.2 LHC Computing Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.2.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.3 LHC@home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.3.1 SixTrack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.3.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.3.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.4 Proton Synchrotron Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.4.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.4.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.5 VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.5.1 Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.5.2 The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4 Theory 58
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4.1 Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4.1.1 Historical background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4.1.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.1.3 Particle content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.1.4 Theoretical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614.1.5 Tests and predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.1.6 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.1.8 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2 Particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.2.1 Subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.2.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.2.3 Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.2.4 Experimental laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.2.5 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.2.6 Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.2.7 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3 Superpartner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3.1 Theoretical predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3.2 Recreating superpartners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.4 Supersymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.4.2 Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.4.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.4.4 General supersymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4.5 Supersymmetry as a quantum group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4.6 Supersymmetry in quantum gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4.7 Falsifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.4.8 Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.4.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-


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4.4.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5 Higgs boson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5.1 A non-technical summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.5.2 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804.5.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.5.4 Theoretical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.5.5 Experimental search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.5.6 Public discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4.5.7 Technical aspects and mathematical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.5.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

4.5.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

4.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4.5.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004.5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5 Safety 103

5.1 Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.1.2 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5.1.3 Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.1.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5.2 Micro black hole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5.2.1 Minimum mass of a black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5.2.2 Stability of a micro black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.2.3 Primordial black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.2.4 Manmade micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.2.5 Black holes in quantum theories of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.2.6 Micro black holes in fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.2.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135.2.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.2.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.3 Strangelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.3.1 Theoretical possibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.3.2 Natural or artificial occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.3.3 Dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5.3.4 Debate about the strange matter hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5.3.5 In fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
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vi CONTENTS

5.3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.3.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6 Future 119

6.1 Super Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.1.1 Injector upgrade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.1.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.1.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.2 Very Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.2.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6.2.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 121

7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
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Chapter 1

Overview

1.1 CERN

For the company with the ticker symbol CERN, seeCerner. For the rocket nozzle, seeSERN.

Coordinates: 461403N 60310E / 46.23417N6.05278E

The European Organization for Nuclear Research(French: Organisation Europene pour la Recherche Nu-claire), known as CERN(/srn/; French pronunciation:[sn]; derived from Conseil Europen pour la RechercheNuclaire; see History) is aEuropeanresearch organi-zation whose purpose is to operate the worlds largestparticle physicslaboratory. Established in 1954, the or-ganization is based in the northwest suburbs ofGenevaon the FrancoSwiss border, (46143N 6319E /46.23417N 6.05528E) and has 21 Europeanmemberstates. Israel is the first (and currently only) non-European country granted full membership.[3]

The term CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory,which in 2013 counted 2,513 staff members, and hostedsome 12,313 fellows, associates, apprentices as well asvisiting scientists and engineers[4] representing 608 uni-versities and research facilities and 113 nationalities.

CERNs main function is to provide theparticle accel-eratorsand other infrastructure needed for high-energyphysics research as a result, numerousexperiments havebeenconstructed at CERN following international collab-

orations.CERN is also the birthplace of theWorld Wide Web.The main site atMeyrinhas a large computer centre con-taining powerfuldata processingfacilities, primarily forexperimental-data analysis; because of the need to makethese facilities available to researchers elsewhere, it hashistorically been a majorwide area networkinghub.

1.1.1 History

The convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29

September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe.[1]The acronym CERN originally stood in French forCon-seil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire(European

The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954


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2 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

scribes the research being performed there.

Scientific achievements

Several important achievements in particle physics have

been made during experiments at CERN. They include:

1973: The discovery of neutral currents in theGargamellebubble chamber;[6]

1983: The discovery ofW and Z bosonsin theUA1andUA2 experiments;[7]

1989: The determination of the number of lightneutrino families at the Large ElectronPositronCollider(LEP) operating on the Z boson peak;

1995: The first creation ofantihydrogenatoms in

thePS210 experiment;

[8]

1999: The discovery of directCP violationin theNA48 experiment;[9]

2010: The isolation of 38 atomsof antihydrogen;[10]

2011: Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15minutes;[11]

2012: Abosonwith mass around 125 GeV/c2 con-sistent with long-soughtHiggs boson.[12]

The 1984Nobel Prize in physicswas awarded toCarlo

RubbiaandSimon van der Meerfor the developmentsthat led to the discoveries of the W and Z bosons. The1992 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to CERN staffresearcherGeorges Charpakfor his invention and devel-opment of particle detectors, in particular themultiwireproportional chamber.

Computer science See also: History of the WorldWide Web

TheWorld Wide Webbegan as a CERN project called

ENQUIRE, initiated byTim Berners-Leein 1989 andRobert Cailliau in 1990.[13] Berners-Lee and Cailliauwere jointly honoured by theAssociation for ComputingMachineryin 1995 for their contributions to the develop-ment of the World Wide Web.

Based on the concept ofhypertext, the project was aimedat facilitating sharing information among researchers.Thefirst website went on-line in 1991. On 30 April 1993,CERN announced that the World Wide Web would befree to anyone. A copy[14] ofthe original first webpage,created by Berners-Lee, is still published on theWorldWide Web Consortium's website as a historical docu-

ment.Prior to the Webs development, CERN had been a pio-neer in the introduction of Internet technology, beginning

in the early 1980s. A short history of this period can befound at CERN.ch.[15]

More recently, CERN has become a centre for the devel-opment ofgrid computing, hosting projects including theEnablingGrids for E-sciencE (EGEE)andLHC Comput-

ing Grid. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point(CIXP), one of the two maininternet exchange pointsinSwitzerland.

Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly

Main article:Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly

On 22 September 2011, theOPERA Collaborationre-ported the detection of 17-GeVand 28-GeV muon neu-trinos, sent 730 kilometers (450 miles) from CERN nearGeneva,Switzerlandto theGran Sasso National Labo-

ratoryinItaly, traveling apparently faster than light by afactor of 2.48105 (approximately 1 in 40,000), a statis-tic with 6.0-sigma significance.[16] However, in March2012 it was reported by a new team of scientists forCERN, Icarus, that the previous experiment was mostlikely flawed and will be retested by scientists of both theOpera and Icarus teams;[17] on 16 March, CERN statedin a press release that the results were flawed due to anincorrectly connectedGPS-synchronization cable.[18]

1.1.2 Particle accelerators

Current complex

CMS

ATLAS

LHC-bALICE LHC

PS

SPS

BOOSTER

AD

CTF3LINAC 2

LINAC 3

CNGS

ISOLDE

West Area

East Area

North Area

Towards

Gran Sasso

n-TOF

TI2

TT10

TT60

TT2

TI8

protons

ions

neutrons

antiprotons

electrons

neutrinosLHC Large Hadron ColliderSPS Super Proton SynchrotronPS Proton Synchrotron

CNGS CERN Neutrinos Gran Sasson-TOF Neutron Time Of FlightAD

Antiproton Decelerator

CTF3 CLIC TestFacility 3

Map of the CERNacceleratorcomplex

CERN operates a network of six acceleratorsand a decel-erator. Each machine in the chain increases the energy ofparticle beams before delivering them to experiments orto the next more powerful accelerator. Currently activemachines are:

Twolinear acceleratorsgenerate low energy parti-cles. Linac2 accelerates protons to 50MeVfor in-

jection into the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB),and Linac3 provides heavy ions at 4.2 MeV/uforinjection into the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR).[19]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NA48_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass_unithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaelectronvolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_acceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sassohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sassohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genevahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPERA_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light_neutrino_anomalyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_pointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_Internet_Exchange_Pointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC_Computing_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC_Computing_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enabling_Grids_for_E-sciencEhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://www.w3.org/History/19921103-hypertext/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machineryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machineryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Leehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENQUIREhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Webhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Webhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Webhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiwire_proportional_chamberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiwire_proportional_chamberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Charpakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Rubbiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Rubbiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NA48_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_violationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS210_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA2_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA1_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_and_Z_bosonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargamellehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_current


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Map of the Large Hadron Collidertogether with the Super ProtonSynchrotronat CERN

TheProton Synchrotron Boosterincreases the en-ergy of particles generated by the proton linear ac-celerator before they are transferred to the other ac-celerators.

The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) accelerates theions from the ion linear accelerator, before trans-ferring them to theProton Synchrotron(PS). Thisacceleratorwas commissioned in 2005, after hav-

ing been reconfigured from the previous Low En-ergy Antiproton Ring(LEAR).

The 28GeV Proton Synchrotron(PS), built in 1959and still operating as a feeder to the more powerfulSPS.

TheSuper Proton Synchrotron(SPS), a circular ac-celerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built ina tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It wasdesigned to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and wasgradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As well as hav-ing its own beamlines for fixed-target experiments

(currentlyCOMPASSandNA62), it has been oper-ated as aprotonantiproton collider(the SppS col-lider), and for accelerating high energy electronsandpositronswhich were injected into the LargeElectronPositron Collider(LEP). Since 2008, ithas been used to inject protons andheavy ionsintotheLarge Hadron Collider(LHC).

TheOn-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE),which is used to studyunstable nuclei. The radioac-tive ions are produced by the impact of protons at anenergy of 1.01.4 GeVfrom theProton SynchrotronBooster. It was first commissioned in 1967 and wasrebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.

TheAntiproton Decelerator(AD), which reduces

thevelocityofantiprotonstoabout10%ofthe speedof lightfor research intoantimatter.

TheCompact Linear ColliderTest Facility, whichstudies feasibility issues for the future normal con-ducting linear collider project.

Large Hadron Collider Main article: Large HadronCollider

Most of the activities at CERN are currently directed to-wards operating the newLarge Hadron Collider(LHC),and the experiments for it. The LHC represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific cooperation project.

Construction of theCMSdetector forLHCat CERN

The LHC tunnel is located 100 metres underground, in

the region between theGeneva International Airportandthe nearbyJura mountains. It uses the 27 km circumfer-ence circular tunnel previously occupied byLEPwhichwas closed down in November 2000. CERNs exist-ing PS/SPS accelerator complexes will be used to pre-accelerate protons which will then be injected into theLHC.

Seven experiments (CMS, ATLAS, LHCb,MoEDAL,[20] TOTEM, LHC-forward and ALICE)will run on the collider; each of them will study particlecollisions from a different point of view, and with dif-ferent technologies. Construction for these experiments

required an extraordinary engineering effort. Just as anexample, a specialcranehad to be rented from Belgiumin order to lower pieces of the CMS detector into its
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane_(machine)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Large_Ion_Collider_Experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOTEMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoEDAL_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron-Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_mountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_International_Airporthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Linear_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiproton_Deceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Isotope_Mass_Separatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_ionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiprotonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NA62_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMPASS_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigaelectronvolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Energy_Antiproton_Ringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Energy_Antiproton_Ringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_Synchrotron_Boosterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider


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underground cavern, since each piece weighed nearly2,000 tons. The first of the approximately 5,000 magnetsnecessary for construction was lowered down a specialshaft at 13:00GMTon 7 March 2005.

This accelerator has begun to generate vast quantities of

data, which CERN streams to laboratories around theworld for distributed processing (making use of a spe-cializedgrid infrastructure, theLHC Computing Grid).In April 2005, a trial successfully streamed 600 MB/s toseven different sites across the world. If all the data gen-erated by the LHC is to be analysed, then scientists mustachieve 1,800 MB/s before 2008.

The initial particle beams were injected into the LHCAugust 2008.[21] The first attempt to circulate a beamthrough the entire LHC was at 8:28 GMT on 10 Septem-ber 2008,[22] but the system failed because of a faultymagnet connection, and it was stopped for repairs on 19

September 2008.The LHC resumed operation on Friday 20 November2009 by successfully circulating two beams, each with anenergyof 3.5 trillionelectron volts. Thechallenge that theengineersthenfacedwastotrytolineupthetwobeamssothat they smashed into each other. This is like firing twoneedles across the Atlantic and getting them to hit eachother according to the LHCs main engineer Steve My-ers, director for accelerators and technology at the Swisslaboratory.

At 1200 BST on Tuesday 30 March 2010 the LHC suc-cessfully smashed two proton particle beams travelling

with 3.5 TeV (trillion electron volts) of energy, resultingin a 7 TeVevent. However, this was just the start of theroad toward the expected discovery of theHiggs boson.When the 7 TeV experimental period ended, the LHCrevved up to 8 TeV (4 TeV acceleration in both direc-tions) in March 2012, and soon began particle collisionsat that rate. In early 2013 the LHC was shut down fora two-year maintenance period, to strengthen the hugemagnets inside the accelerator. Eventually it will attemptto create 14 TeV events. In July 2012, CERN scien-tists announced the discovery of a new sub-atomic par-ticle that could be the much sought after Higgs boson be-

lieved to be essential for formation of the Universe.

[23]

InMarch 2013, CERN announced that the measurementsperformed on the newly found particle allowed to con-clude that this is a Higgs boson. [24]

Decommissioned accelerators

The original linear accelerator (LINAC 1).

The 600 MeVSynchrocyclotron(SC) which startedoperation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991.

TheIntersecting Storage Rings(ISR), an early col-lider built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until1984.

TheLarge ElectronPositron Collider(LEP), whichoperated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest ma-chine of its kind, housed in a 27 km-long circulartunnel whichnow houses the Large Hadron Collider.

TheLow Energy Antiproton Ring(LEAR), com-missioned in 1982, which assembled the first piecesof trueantimatter, in 1995, consisting of nine atomsofantihydrogen. It was closed in 1996, and super-seded by theAntiproton Decelerator.

1.1.3 Sites

CERNs main site, fromSwitzerlandlooking towardsFrance

Interior of office building 40 at the Meyrin site. Building 40 hosts

many offices for scientists from the CMS and ATLAS collabora-

tions.

Thesmaller acceleratorsareon the main Meyrin site (alsoknown as the West Area), which was originally built in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiproton_Deceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Energy_Antiproton_Ringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersecting_Storage_Ringshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrocyclotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINAC_1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(particle_physics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC_Computing_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT


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1.1. CERN 5

Switzerland alongside the French border, but has beenextended to span the border since 1965. The French sideis under Swiss jurisdiction and there is no obvious borderwithin the site, apart from a line of marker stones. Thereare six entrances to the Meyrin site:

A, in Switzerland, for allCERN personnel at specifictimes.

B, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel at alltimes. Often referred to as the main entrance.

C, in Switzerland, for allCERN personnel at specifictimes.

D, in Switzerland, for goods reception at specifictimes.

E, in France, for French-resident CERNpersonnel atspecific times. Controlled by customs personnel.[24]Named Porte Charles de Gaulle in recognition ofhis role in the creation of CERN.[25]

Inter-site tunnel, in France, for equipment transfer toand from CERN sites in France by personnel with aspecific permit. This is the only permitted route forsuch transfers. Under the CERN treaty, no taxes arepayable when such transfers are made. Controlledby customs personnel.[24]

The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are almost entirely out-

side the main site, and are mostly buried under Frenchfarmland and invisible from the surface. However, theyhave surface sites at various points around them, eitheras the location of buildings associated with experimentsor other facilities needed to operate the colliders such ascryogenic plants and access shafts. The experiments arelocated at the same underground level as the tunnels atthese sites.

Three of these experimental sites are in France, with AT-LAS in Switzerland, although some of the ancillary cryo-genic and access sites are in Switzerland. The largest ofthe experimental sites is thePrvessinsite, also known

as the North Area, which is the target station for non-collider experiments on the SPS accelerator. Other sitesare the ones which were used for theUA1,UA2and theLEP experiments (the latter which will be used for LHCexperiments).

Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most are offi-cially named and numbered after the site where they werelocated. For example,NA32was an experiment look-ing at the production ofcharmedparticles and locatedat thePrvessin(North Area) site whileWA22used theBig European Bubble Chamber(BEBC) at the Meyrin(West Area) site to examine neutrino interactions. The

UA1andUA2experiments were considered to be in theUnderground Area, i.e. situated underground at sites onthe SPS accelerator.

Most of the roads on the CERN campus are named af-ter famous physicists, e.g.- RichardFeynman, Niels Bohr,Albert Einstein.

1.1.4 Participation and funding

Member states and budget

Member states of CERN and current enlargement agenda

CERN members

Accession in progress

Declared intent to join

Since its foundation by 12 members in 1954, CERN reg-ularly accepted new members. All new members haveremained in the organization continuously since their ac-cession, except Spain and Yugoslavia. Spain first joinedCERN in 1961, withdrew in 1969, and rejoined in 1983.Yugoslavia was a founding member of CERN but leftin 1961. Initially onlyWest Germanywas a (found-ing) member of CERN. Of the twenty members, 18 areEuropean Union member states. Switzerland and Nor-way are not. Israel joined CERN as a full member on 6January 2014,[26] becoming the first (and currently only)non-European member.[27]

As of 2014, CERN receives contributions from stateswith a total population of about 517 million people. Av-eraged across those states, the contribution per person in2014 is about 2.2CHF/year.

[1] Based on the population in 2014.[28]

[2] 12 founding members drafted the Convention for theEstablishment of a European Organization for Nuclear

Research which entered into force on 29 September1954.[29][30]

[3] Acceded members became CERN member states uponsigning an accession agreement.[31]

[4] Additional contribution from Candidates for Accessionand Associate Member States.[31]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_franchttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_member_statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA2_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA1_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_European_Bubble_Chamberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WA22_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9vessinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_quarkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NA32_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA2_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UA1_experimenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9vessin


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Enlargement

Associate Members, Candidates (note that dates are ini-tial signature, not of ratification):

Romania, first approved by CERN Council inDecember 2008,[41] became a candidate for acces-sion to CERN on 11 February 2010[32] and will be-come a full member in 2015.[42]

Serbia became a candidate for accession toCERN on 19 December 2011, signed an associationagreement on 10 January 2012[43][44] and becamean official Associate Member in the pre-stage toMembership on 15 March 2012.[33]

Cyprus became an associate member on 5 Oc-tober 2012.[34]

Ukraine becamean associatemember on 3 Oc-tober 2013.[35]

Brazil was approved by CERN Council on 13December 2013[45] to become the first Latin Amer-

ican associate member. As of July 2014, Brazil stillneeds to sign and ratify its accession agreement. [46]

Turkey became an associate member on 12May 2014.[36]

Pakistan became an associate member on 19June 2014. [37]

More countries have confirmed their wish to becomemembers and are awaiting approval from the CERNCouncil:[47]

Slovenia, which cooperates scientifically withCERN since 1991, applied for membership in2009.[48]

Russia, working with CERN in practice since

1959 (as the former Soviet Union) and currently anobserver state, formally applied for membership in2012.[49]

International relations

CERN member states: 21 c.Accession in progress: 3 c.Declared intent to join: 2 c.Observers: 4 c. + EUCooperation agreement: 35 c. + Slovenia, Cyprus,TurkeyScientific contacts: 19 c.

Four countries have observer status:[50]

Russia since 1993

Japan since 1995 United States since 1997 India since 2002

Also observers are the following international organiza-tions:

UNESCO since 1954 European Commission since 1985

Non-Member States (with dates of Co-operation Agree-ments) currently involved in CERN programmes are:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO


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1.1. CERN 7

Algeria

Argentina 11 March 1992 Armenia 25 March 1994

Australia 1 November 1991

Azerbaijan 3 December 1997 Belarus 28 June 1994 Bolivia Brazil 19 February 1990 & October 2006 Canada 11 October 1996 Chile 10 October 1991 China 12 July 1991, 14 August 1997 & 17

February 2004 Colombia 15 May 1993 Croatia 18 July 1991

Cyprus 14 February 2006

Ecuador Egypt 16 January 2006

Estonia 23 April 1996

Georgia 11 October 1996 Iceland 11 September 1996 Iran 5 July 2001 Jordan - 12 June 2003.[51] MoU with Jor-

dan andSESAME, in preparation of a cooperationagreement signed in 2004.[52]

Lithuania 9 November 2004 Macedonia 27 April 2009[53]

Malta 10 January 2008[54][55] Mexico 20 February 1998 Montenegro 12 October 1990

Morocco 14 April 1997 New Zealand 4 December 2003 Peru 23 February 1993

Romania 1 October 1991. Since 12 Decem-ber 2008 it has the Status of Candidate for Acces-

sion to Membership.

Saudi Arabia 21 January 2006

Slovenia 7 January 1991

South Africa 4 July 1992

South Korea 25 October 2006.

Ukraine 2 April 1993

United Arab Emirates 18 January 2006

Vietnam

CERN also has scientific contacts with the followingcountries:[56]

Cuba

Ghana

Ireland

Latvia

Lebanon

Madagascar

Malaysia

Mozambique

Palestinian Authority

Philippines

Qatar

Rwanda

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Taiwan

Thailand

Tunisia

Uzbekistan

Venezuela

International research institutions, such as CERN, can aidin science diplomacy.[57]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Synchrotron-Light_for_Experimental_Science_Applications_in_the_Middle_East


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The Globe of Science and Innovationat CERN

1.1.5 Public exhibits

Facilities at CERN open to the public include:

TheGlobe of Science andInnovation, which openedin late 2005 and is used four times a weekfor specialexhibits.

TheMicrocosm museumonparticle physics andCERN history.

TheHindu deity,Shiva, a 2 metre statue styled onCholabronzes of the deity engaging in theNatarajadance ofChidambaram, parallelling the movementsordanceof subatomic particles.[58][59][60]

1.1.6 In popular culture

line 18 goes to CERN

CERNs Large Hadron Collider is the subject of a(scientifically accurate)rapvideo starringKatherineMcAlpinewith some of the facilitys staff.[61][62]

CERN is depicted in an episode ofSouth Park(Sea-

son 13, Episode6) called Pinewood Derby. RandyMarsh, the father of one of the main characters,breaks into the Hadron Particle Super Collider in

The statue of Shiva engaging in theNatarajadance presented by

theDepartment of Atomic EnergyofIndia.

Switzerland and steals a superconducting bendingmagnet created for use in tests with particle accel-eration to use in his son Stans Pinewood Derbyracer. Randy breaks into CERN dressed in dis-guise as Princess Leia from the Star Wars saga. Thebreak-in is captured on surveillance tape which isthen broadcast on the news.[63]

John Titor, a self-proclaimedtime traveler, allegedthat CERN would invent time travel in 2001.

CERN is depicted in thevisual novel/anime seriesSteins;Gateas SERN, a shadowy organization thathas been researching time travel in order to restruc-ture and control the world.

In a documentary entitledParticle Fever, CERNis explored throughout the inside, and depicts theevents surrounding the discovery of theHiggs Bo-sonin 2013

In Dan Brown's mystery-thriller novel Angels &Demons, a canister of antimatter is stolen fromCERN.[64]

In the popular childrens seriesThe 39 Clues, CERNis said to be an Ekaterina stronghold hiding the cluehydrogen.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_39_Clueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_&_Demonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_&_Demonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Brownhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Feverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steins;Gatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_novelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_travelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Titorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natarajahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Parkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_McAlpinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_McAlpinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_musichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thillai_Nataraja_Temple,_Chidambaramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natarajahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcosm_(CERN)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_of_Science_and_Innovationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_of_Science_and_Innovation


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1.1. CERN 9

In Robert J. Sawyer's science fiction novelFlashforward, at CERN, the Large Hadron Collideraccelerator is performing a run to search for theHiggs boson when the entire human race seesthemselves twenty-one years and six months in thefuture.

In season 3 episode 15 of the popular TV sitcom TheBig Bang Theorytitled The Large Hadron Colli-sion,LeonardandRajeshtravel to CERN to attenda conference and see the LHC.

The 2012 student filmDecay, which centers aroundthe idea of the Large Hadron Collider transform-ing people into zombies, was filmed on location inCERNs maintenance tunnels.[65]

The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN was used asthe basis for theMegadeth'sSuper Collideralbum

cover. In Denpa Kyoushi, the main character is scouted by

CERM

In Super Lovers, Haruko (Rens mother) worked atCERN, and Ren was taught by CERN professors

1.1.7 Associated institutions

Swiss National Supercomputing Centre

1.1.8 See also

CERN Openlab Fermilab Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk

Onderzoek

Science and technology in Switzerland Scientific Linux

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

World Wide Web Large Hadron ColliderWikipedia book

1.1.9 References

[1] CERN.ch. Public.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 20 Novem-ber 2010.

[2] http://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/Governance/composition.html

[3] The boycott movement is losing the battle - for now

[4] CERNAnnual Report 2013 - CERN inFigures. CERN.Retrieved 4 September 2014.

[5] The Name CERN. CERN. 30 September 2011. Re-trieved 16 August 2012.


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[10] Antihydrogen isolation. CNN. 18 November 2010.

[11] Jonathan Amos [6 June 2011]BBC 2011Retrieved

2011-06-06[12] CERN experiments observe particle consistent

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[64] Angels and Demons. CERN. Retrieved 31 January2012.

[65] Boyle, Rebecca (31 October 2012). Large HadronCollider Unleashes Rampaging Zombies. Retrieved 22November 2012.
http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-10/physics-students-film-zombie-movie-large-hadron-colliderhttp://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-10/physics-students-film-zombie-movie-large-hadron-colliderhttp://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/spotlight/spotlightaandd-en.htmlhttp://www.southparkstudios.com/full-episodes/s13e06-pinewood-derbyhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080910-odd-particl-AP.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j50ZssEojtMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52865-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52865-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-8156-43-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.fritjofcapra.net/shiva.htmlhttp://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2013/importance-international-research-institutions-for-science-diplomacyhttp://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2013/importance-international-research-institutions-for-science-diplomacyhttp://home.web.cern.ch/about/member-stateshttp://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20080111/local/malta-signs-agreement-with-cern.191318http://cds.cern.ch/journal/CERNBulletin/2008/06/News%2520Articles/1083445http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?mId=1&vId=64153836&lId=2&title=MACEDONIA+-+INTERNAL+AFFAIRS+http://international-relations.web.cern.ch/International-Relations/orgints/sesame.htmlhttp://international-relations.web.cern.ch/international-relations/nms/jordan.htmlhttp://library.web.cern.ch/library/Archives/archnet/isaarcern.htmlhttp://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/russia-officially-joins-cern-at-last/37013754http://international-relations.web.cern.ch/International-Relations/nms/slovenia.htmlhttp://www.interactions.org/cms/?pid=1030850http://www.interactions.org/cms/?pid=1030850http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/impresso,brasil-fara-parte-do-maior-laboratorio-de-fisica-do-mundo,1107939,0.htmhttp://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/impresso,brasil-fara-parte-do-maior-laboratorio-de-fisica-do-mundo,1107939,0.htmhttp://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/governance/Decisions169Dec13.htmlhttp://cms.web.cern.ch/news/serbia-expected-become-cern-associate-memberhttp://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2012&mm=01&dd=10&nav_category=1331&nav_id=572568https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21085118https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038%252Fnature09610https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.468..673Ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://international-relations.web.cern.ch/International-Relations/candidate/romania.htmlhttp://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/Observers.htmlhttp://cds.cern.ch/record/1637047/files/fc-e-5781_c-3087Final%2520Budget2014.pdfhttp://cds.cern.ch/record/1637047/files/fc-e-5781_c-3087Final%2520Budget2014.pdfhttp://dg-rpc.web.cern.ch/dg-rpc/Scale/MemberStatesContributions2014.htmlhttp://www.mofa.gov.pk/pr-details.php?prID=2050http://www.mofa.gov.pk/pr-details.php?prID=2050http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2014/05/turkey-become-associate-member-state-cernhttp://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/10/ukraine-become-associate-member-state-cernhttp://press.web.cern.ch/press-releases/2012/10/republic-cyprus-becomes-cern-associate-member-statehttp://press.web.cern.ch/press-releases/2012/10/republic-cyprus-becomes-cern-associate-member-statehttp://international-relations.web.cern.ch/International-Relations/assoc/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/42149http://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/MemberStates.htmlhttp://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/governance/Convention.htmlhttp://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/governance/Convention.htmlhttp://council.web.cern.ch/council/en/governance/Convention.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-9092-397-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1300/sp1300EN1.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_populationhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.557492http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.557492http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.557492http://international-relations.web.cern.ch/International-Relations/ms/il.html


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1.2. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER 11

1.1.10 External links

Official website of CERN: CERN Accelerating sci-ence

CERN at 50

CERN Courier International journal of high-energy physics

Israel may become first non-European member ofnuclear research group CERN

Big Bang Day: The Making of CERN, September2008, A BBC Radio program

1.2 Large Hadron Collider

LHC redirects here. For other uses, seeLHC (disam-biguation).

The Large Hadron Collider(LHC)istheworldslargestand mostpowerful particlecollider, built by the EuropeanOrganization for NuclearResearch (CERN)from1998 to2008.

Its aim is to allow physicists to test the predictions ofdifferent theories of particle physics and high-energyphysics, and particularly prove or disprove the existenceof the theorizedHiggs boson[1] and of the large family

of new particles predicted bysupersymmetric theories.[2]Thediscovery of a particle matching theHiggs boson wasconfirmed by data from the LHC in 2013. The LHCis expected to address some of theunsolved questionsof physics, advancing human understanding ofphysicallaws. It containsseven detectors, each designed for cer-tain kinds of research.

The LHC was built in collaboration with over 10,000 sci-entists and engineers from over 100 countries, as well ashundreds of universities and laboratories.[3] It lies in atunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as deepas 175 metres (574 ft) beneath theFranco-Swiss border

nearGeneva,Switzerland.As of 2014, the LHC remainsthe largest and most com-plex experimental facilityever built. Itssynchrotronisdesigned to collide two opposingparticle beamsof ei-therprotonsat up to 4teraelectronvolts(4 TeV or 0.64microjoules),or lead nuclei atanenergyof574TeV(92.0J) per nucleus (2.76 TeV per nucleon),[4][5] with ener-gies to be roughly doubled to around 7 TeV (14 TeVcollision energy) more than seven times any predeces-sor colliderby around 2015. Collisiondatawere alsoanticipated to be produced at an unprecedented rate oftens ofpetabytesper year, to be analysed by a grid-based

computernetwork infrastructure connecting 140 comput-ing centers in 35 countries[6][7] (by 2012 theLHC Com-puting Gridwas the worlds largestcomputing grid, com-

prising over 170 computing facilities in aworldwide net-workacross 36 countries[8][9][10]).

The LHC went live on 10 September 2008, with protonbeams successfully circulated in the main ring of theLHCfor the first time,[11] but nine days later afaulty electrical

connectionled to the rupture of aliquid heliumenclo-sure, causing both amagnet quenchand several tons ofhelium gas escaping with explosive force. The incidentresulted in damage to over 50superconducting magnetsand their mountings, and contamination of thevacuumpipe, and delayed further operations by 14 months.[12][13]

On November 20, 2009 proton beams were successfullycirculated again,[14][15] with the first recorded protonprotoncollisionsoccurring three days later at the injec-tion energy of 450 GeV per beam.[16] On March 30,2010, the first collisions took place between two 3.5TeV beams, setting a world record for the highest-energyman-made particle collisions,[17] and the LHC began its

planned research program.The LHC has discovered a massive 125 GeV boson(which subsequent resultsconfirmedto be the long-soughtHiggs boson) and several composite particles (hadrons)like the (3P) bottomoniumstate, created a quarkgluon plasma, and recorded the first observations of thevery rare decay of theB mesoninto twomuons(B0 +-), which challenged the validity of existing models ofsupersymmetry.[18]

TheLHCoperatedat3.5TeVperbeamin2010and2011and at 4 TeV in 2012.[19] Protonproton collisions are the

main operation mode. It collided protons with lead nucleifor two months in 2013 and used leadlead collisions forabout onemontheach in 2010, 2011 and2013. The LHCwent into shutdown for upgrades to increase beam energyto 6.5 TeV per beam, with reopening planned for early2015.[20]

1.2.1 Background

The termhadronrefers tocomposite particlescomposedofquarks held togetherby thestrong force(asatomsandmoleculesare held together by theelectromagnetic

force). The best-known hadrons are thebaryons protonsandneutrons; hadrons also includemesonssuch as thepionandkaon, which were discovered duringcosmic rayexperiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

Acollideris a type of aparticle acceleratorwith two di-rectedbeams of particles. In particle physics colliders areused as a research tool: they accelerate particles to veryhighkinetic energiesand let them impact other particles.Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives sci-entists good evidence of the structure of the subatomicworld and the laws of nature governing it. Many of thesebyproducts are produced only by high energy collisions,

and they decay after very short periods of time. Thusmany of them are hard or near impossible to study inother ways.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colliderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_forcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_forcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_forcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_particlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_B_mesonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottomoniumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collisionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beamlinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beamlinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_liquid_expanding_vapor_explosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_quenchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_heliumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_faulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_faulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC_Computing_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC_Computing_Gridhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petabytehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joulehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charged_particle_beamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_megaprojects#Science_projectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_megaprojects#Science_projectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genevahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Switzerland_borderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%2520Hadron%2520Collider#Detectorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics#High_energy_physics/particle_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics#High_energy_physics/particle_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_bosonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-energy_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-energy_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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