Last Week…

We discussed specific aspects of motivation and leadership including some reference to theories related to both motivation and leadership. The information came primarily from chapters 5 and 7.

This week, we will do more application of both leadership and motivational theories and follow more closely the points made in chapters 6 and 8.

©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

Motivational Models

Drives and Needs• Herzberg’s hygiene factors• Maslow’s physiological and security needs• Alderfer’s existence needs

Expectancy and Valence• Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation

Behavior Modification• High instrumentality is desired

Equity• Cost-reward comparison

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The Importance of Pay

Pay relationships carry immense social value• Money is not a direct incentive• Motivation is encouraged by a complete reward

system

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A Complete Program

Many types of pay are required for a complete economic reward system• Base pay (jobs)• Performance rewards (individuals)• Profit sharing (the organization)

Non-incentive Pay Adjustments• Seniority pay• Pay for inconvenience• Pay for time not worked

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Rewarding Employees with Money

Money has Social Value• Status value when received• Status value when spent• Represents to employees what their employer

thinks of them• Indicates one employee’s status relative to that

of other employees• Has as many values as there are possessors

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Additional Money Considerations

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards• Money is less immediately satisfying than

intrinsic rewardsDifficult Integration

• Employees differ in amount of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards desired

• Payment of an extrinsic reward decreases the intrinsic satisfaction received

• Hard to administer intrinsic rewards on a systematic basis

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Additional Money Considerations

Compliance With the Law• Equal Pay Act of 1963• Comparable worth• Equal opportunity

Other Factors• Equality• Secrecy• Control• Flexibility

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OB and Performance Appraisal

Management by Objectives is a four-step, cyclical process…• Objective setting• Action planning• Periodic reviews• Annual evaluation

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OB and Performance Appraisal

Reasons For Employee Appraisal• Allocate resources in a dynamic environment• Motivate and reward employees• Give employees feedback about their work• Maintain fair relationships within groups• Coach and develop employees• Comply with regulations• Formal opportunity to express appreciation for

employee contributions• Compliance with state and federal laws

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Performance Feedback

Leads to improved performance and improved attitudes• If handled properly

Greatest chance for behavioral change if…• Feedback is desired by the employee• It is connected to job tasks• Receiver can choose a new behavior from

alternatives offered• It is provided on an ongoing basis

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360-Degree Feedback

Systematic data gathering from a variety of sources• Manager(s)• Peers• Subordinates• Customers or clients

Advantages• Can be compared across time• Rich feedback• Can aid in performance improvement

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Appraisal Problems

Management Problems• Lack of vital skills• Failure to gather data systematically• Reluctance to address difficult/sensitive topics• Failure to involve employees in assessment

process and discussion• Cynical about probability that changes will

occur in employees• Sees appraisals as a meaningless game• Intentional distortion of feedback and ratings

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Attribution

The process by which people interpret and assign causes for their own and others’ behavior

• Consistency – is behavior the same over time

• Consensus – is behavior similar to others

• Distinctiveness – is behavior the same across situations

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Nature of Attributions

Personal Versus Situational Attributions• Self-serving bias• Fundamental attribution bias• Perceptual set• Self-fulfilling prophecy

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Servant Leadership

Key Behaviors• Listen actively and empathetically• Engage in introspection to better understand

one’s own attitudes and feelings• Treat others as equals, with respect• Engage in dialogue/paraphrasing to ensure

understanding• Affirm the worth and contributions of others• Admit mistakes and ask for help• Build trust by articulating values and acting

consistently with them

Leadership Theories

Trait Theories• Personality

Situational and Behavioral Theories• Leadership styles and behaviors• Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

Contingency Approaches• Fiedler’s Contingency Model• Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership• Path-Goal

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©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved

The Impact on Managerial Power

Leader-Member Exchange• Reciprocal relationships develop• High-quality relationship results in greater

decision influence• Participative managers retain final authority

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The Participative Process

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Disempowerment

African-American participants in North Carolina (i.e., social context in which groups were predominately African-American) reported the highest levels of perceived offensiveness when the target of disempowerment was an African-American women (rather than a Caucasian man)

Further, men in North Carolina reported the highest levels of perceived offensiveness.

Demographic composition of groups may indeed have a strong influence on perceptions and behaviors

• Young, Vance, and Harris (2007) and Young, Vance, and Ensher (2003)

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Disempowerment

gender as a predictor of perceived offensiveness when observing disempowering acts

Other factors such as social context:• study examined perceived offensiveness

reported by people in the same ethnic group (i.e., African-Americans). Specifically, data from African-Americans observers from two different regions, one in which observers held a majority status (i.e., North Carolina) and one in which observers held a minority status (i.e., Southern California), were analyzed to determine differences based on social context.

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Disempowerment

Disempowerment

• negative workplace behaviors including bullying and incivility

• intentional and unintentional behaviors

• perceived offensiveness resulting from disempowerment can be direct or vicarious

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The Process of Empowerment

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Nature of Empowerment and Participation

Behavioral Tools• Mutual goal setting• Job feedback• Modeling• Contingent reward systems• Participative management

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Nature of Empowerment and Participation

Broad Approaches to Empowerment• Job mastery• Control• Role models• Social reinforcement and persuasion• Emotional support

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Nature of Empowerment and Participation

Powerlessness Causes Low Self-esteem• Imposter phenomenon

Empowerment is any process that provides greater autonomy to employees through:• Sharing of relevant information• Control over factors affecting job performance