Late Imperial China and the Women’s Late Imperial China and the Women’s MovementMovement

Readings:Readings:– Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in China, Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in China,

Schocken Books, New York, 1980, Ch. 2 & 3.Schocken Books, New York, 1980, Ch. 2 & 3.– Fangqin Du and Susan Mann, “Competing Claims on Fangqin Du and Susan Mann, “Competing Claims on

Womanly Virtue in Late Imperial China” in Women in Womanly Virtue in Late Imperial China” in Women in Confucian Cultures in Pre-modern China, Korea and Japan.Confucian Cultures in Pre-modern China, Korea and Japan.

– Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers, ed., Women and Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers, ed., Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape.Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape.

– Leutner, Mechthild and Spakowski, eds., “Leutner, Mechthild and Spakowski, eds., “Women’s Women’s Campaign for Suffrage in China: An OverviewCampaign for Suffrage in China: An Overview” in ” in Women Women in China, the Republican Periodin China, the Republican Period, 2005., 2005.

– Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change of Women's Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change of Women's Status in China”, in Journal of International Women’s Status in China”, in Journal of International Women’s Studies, Studies, April 03, 2001. April 03, 2001.

11

Late Imperial China and the Women’s Late Imperial China and the Women’s MovementMovement

Introduction Women in the Late Qing The Reform MovementThe Reform Movement

– Foot-bindingFoot-binding– Education of WomenEducation of Women– Revolution against the QingRevolution against the Qing– May Fourth MovementMay Fourth Movement

Women’s MovementWomen’s Movement– Women in the Republican Period (1911-1949)Women in the Republican Period (1911-1949)

SuffrageSuffrage MovementMovement MarriageMarriage ReformsReforms

IntroductionIntroduction

The Ming dynasty was The Ming dynasty was conquered by the Manchu conquered by the Manchu descendants of the Jurchen descendants of the Jurchen who had ruled northern China who had ruled northern China as the Jin (Gold) dynasty as the Jin (Gold) dynasty (1115–1234) .(1115–1234) .– The Jurchen had been The Jurchen had been

conquered by the Mongols conquered by the Mongols and pushed back to their and pushed back to their homeland in Manchuria.homeland in Manchuria.

The Jurchen renamed The Jurchen renamed themselves Manchu under the themselves Manchu under the founder of the Qing dynasty.founder of the Qing dynasty.

Introduction (2)Introduction (2) Qing Dynasty entered its golden age under Qing Dynasty entered its golden age under

the rule of Kangxi (the rule of Kangxi ( 康熙 康熙 ) () (1661-1722)1661-1722), , Yongzheng (Yongzheng ( 雍正 雍正 )) (r. 1723–1735) (r. 1723–1735) and and Qianlong (Qianlong ( 乾隆 乾隆 ) ) (r. 1735–1796)(r. 1735–1796). .

Kangxi Qianlong

Yongzheng

Introduction (3)

China prospered under these three emperors:– Society was stable and citizens had a sense of safety– Population: grew to more than 300 millions 20 times

of that of the early Qing. – Economy: Agriculture and handicraft industry

developed quickly– Taxes were very light compared to previous

dynasties, and were further reduced should there be famine. This improved farmers’ life; Reduced anti-Qing feelings among Han people Made Manchu rule more acceptable to the Chinese

population.

Introduction (4)Introduction (4)

During these reigns the emperors also During these reigns the emperors also decided not to trade with the West.decided not to trade with the West.

Kangxi wrote: Kangxi wrote: – "Westerners do not understand the Chinese "Westerners do not understand the Chinese

classics, and their opinions are ridiculous, classics, and their opinions are ridiculous, resembling those of Buddhist and Taoist resembling those of Buddhist and Taoist clergy and other heretics and cultists. clergy and other heretics and cultists.

– They shall no longer be welcome in China.“They shall no longer be welcome in China.“ Emperor Yongzheng said, Emperor Yongzheng said,

– ““Missionaries want to convert my people to Missionaries want to convert my people to Christianity so they will shift allegiance to Christianity so they will shift allegiance to foreign kings. Then thousands of your ships will foreign kings. Then thousands of your ships will invade us and China will fall." invade us and China will fall."

Introduction (5)Introduction (5)

At the beginning of Qianlong's reign, China was by far At the beginning of Qianlong's reign, China was by far the richest nation in the world.the richest nation in the world.– However, during his reign, the West made giant However, during his reign, the West made giant

leaps due to the Industrial Revolution while Chinese leaps due to the Industrial Revolution while Chinese technology did not progress.technology did not progress.

In 1792, the British envoy, George McCartney, led a In 1792, the British envoy, George McCartney, led a delegation of several hundred scientists, delegation of several hundred scientists, mathematicians, artists, and medical doctors to China. mathematicians, artists, and medical doctors to China. – They carried 600 crates of gifts including scientific They carried 600 crates of gifts including scientific

instruments, paintings, military supplies, and instruments, paintings, military supplies, and models of vehicles and ships.models of vehicles and ships.

– But, Qianlong said that China had no need of But, Qianlong said that China had no need of western goods.western goods.

– continued to decide not to trade with the West.continued to decide not to trade with the West.

77

Introduction (6)Introduction (6)

The huge demand in Europe for Chinese goods The huge demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as silke, tea, and ceramics had to be paid by such as silke, tea, and ceramics had to be paid by silver. silver.

By the late 1830s, the governments of Great By the late 1830s, the governments of Great Britain and France were deeply concerned about Britain and France were deeply concerned about their dwindling stockpiles of precious metals and their dwindling stockpiles of precious metals and tried to find different ways of selling goods to the tried to find different ways of selling goods to the Chinese.Chinese.

This began the smuggling of opium into China.This began the smuggling of opium into China. When the Qing regime tried to ban the Opium When the Qing regime tried to ban the Opium

Trade in 1838, Great Britain declared war on Trade in 1838, Great Britain declared war on China.China.

88

Introduction (7)Introduction (7) Towards the late Qing, the country ran into many Towards the late Qing, the country ran into many

problems:problems:– The population had grown and the country was not able The population had grown and the country was not able

to feed all its people.to feed all its people.– There were rebellions, bandits, and natural disasters.There were rebellions, bandits, and natural disasters.– Economically, China was broke as the people had used Economically, China was broke as the people had used

their money to pay for opium.their money to pay for opium. China was politically weak and suffered defeats in wars China was politically weak and suffered defeats in wars

with foreign powers and was forced to give:with foreign powers and was forced to give:– Unrestricted access to trade. Unrestricted access to trade. – Extra-territorial rights – the right of a foreigner not to Extra-territorial rights – the right of a foreigner not to

be judged by the laws of China but by the laws of be judged by the laws of China but by the laws of his/her own country.his/her own country.

– Control over residential areas of the main cities given Control over residential areas of the main cities given over to foreigners.over to foreigners.

99

Introduction (8)Introduction (8)

The Qing dynasty ended in 1911 and the Republic of China began in 1912.– This began a period of warlords fighting for

domination until the Kuomingtang (KMT 国民党 ) took over in 1928.

– The War of Resistance against Japan from 1937 to 1945 stopped most nation-building efforts.

– The differences between the KMT and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) made a coalition government impossible, causing a civil war.

Women in the Late QingWomen in the Late Qing Economic problems during the late Qing drove millions Economic problems during the late Qing drove millions

of Chinese, mostly men from poor villages, to of Chinese, mostly men from poor villages, to Southeast Asia, the Americas (railroad building and Southeast Asia, the Americas (railroad building and mining) and Africa (1840s and 1890s).mining) and Africa (1840s and 1890s).

Women were not allowed to emigrate and so there Women were not allowed to emigrate and so there were:were:– Too many women in parts of China, andToo many women in parts of China, and– Too many men among overseas Chinese.Too many men among overseas Chinese.

Example: Example: – In Hong Kong, the ratio of Chinese men to In Hong Kong, the ratio of Chinese men to

women was 7 men to 2 women in 1872; women was 7 men to 2 women in 1872; When families were allowed to come to When families were allowed to come to

Hong Kong, the ratio became 4 men to 3 Hong Kong, the ratio became 4 men to 3 women (1931).women (1931).

1111

Women in the Late Qing Women in the Late Qing (2)(2)

When emigration of women from China became When emigration of women from China became legal (1911), thousands of women and girls were legal (1911), thousands of women and girls were exported overseas to become:exported overseas to become:– Prostitutes for the male migrants working abroad.Prostitutes for the male migrants working abroad.– Maids (slave girls) -- Mui tsai Maids (slave girls) -- Mui tsai 妹仔 妹仔 (( 丫头丫头 ).).

Thousands of Chinese emigrated to Hong Kong and Thousands of Chinese emigrated to Hong Kong and to Singapore (after it came under British rule in to Singapore (after it came under British rule in 1821).1821).

The British had decided to let the Chinese be The British had decided to let the Chinese be governed according to their own laws and customs governed according to their own laws and customs except that the Chinese were forbidden the use of except that the Chinese were forbidden the use of torture.torture.

1212

Women in the Late Qing (3)Women in the Late Qing (3)

Since Hong Kong was on the border of China the Since Hong Kong was on the border of China the smuggling of women as prostitutes to Southeast smuggling of women as prostitutes to Southeast Asia went through Hong Kong.Asia went through Hong Kong.– Many of these women had been kidnapped, Many of these women had been kidnapped,

Others had been bought from their families.Others had been bought from their families. Many on the pretense that they would be Many on the pretense that they would be

found good homes.found good homes.– In the 1860s there was so much kidnapping of In the 1860s there was so much kidnapping of

girls on their way to school in Hong Kong that girls on their way to school in Hong Kong that every day, posters offering rewards for every day, posters offering rewards for missing girls were seen in the streets.missing girls were seen in the streets.

1313

Women in the Late Qing (4)Women in the Late Qing (4) Wives, concubines and widows were sometimes attracted Wives, concubines and widows were sometimes attracted

to leave their homes by promises of:to leave their homes by promises of:– Higher wages or;Higher wages or;– Help to find their husbands who were working abroad.Help to find their husbands who were working abroad.

The women would then be sold as prostitutes.The women would then be sold as prostitutes. Wives and concubines were also sold by their husbands.Wives and concubines were also sold by their husbands.

– Concubines could be sold if the man needed money.Concubines could be sold if the man needed money.– A wife who has committed adultery could be sold.A wife who has committed adultery could be sold.– The wife could be sold by her husband if he was The wife could be sold by her husband if he was

financially desperate; but,financially desperate; but, She must first be offered for sale back to her own She must first be offered for sale back to her own

family.family.

1414

Women in the Late Qing Women in the Late Qing (5)(5)

Girls, sold as maids, could be resold; some girls Girls, sold as maids, could be resold; some girls were sold 6 or 7 times.were sold 6 or 7 times.– The sold girls could be badly treated by her The sold girls could be badly treated by her

owners and sometimes forced to become the owners and sometimes forced to become the owner’s concubine.owner’s concubine.

Former prostitutes would buy young girls, bring Former prostitutes would buy young girls, bring them up as “daughters”, and live off their them up as “daughters”, and live off their earnings as prostitutes.earnings as prostitutes.– The girls might also be resold to the brothels.The girls might also be resold to the brothels.

Po Leung KukPo Leung Kuk 保良局 保良局 was established in HK in was established in HK in 1878 to help the girls who r1878 to help the girls who raan away from their n away from their abusive employers.abusive employers.

1515

The Reform MovementThe Reform Movement By the early 20By the early 20thth century, China was seen as the “Sick Man century, China was seen as the “Sick Man

of East Asia” and a place for the western powers to carve up of East Asia” and a place for the western powers to carve up into different colonies.into different colonies.

The Chinese decided that changes had to be made – The Chinese decided that changes had to be made – westernize and modernize – in order to strengthen the westernize and modernize – in order to strengthen the country.country.

The reformers felt that China was weak due to the:The reformers felt that China was weak due to the:– Physical weakness of the children born of the women with bound Physical weakness of the children born of the women with bound

feet;feet;– Illiteracy and ignorance of affairs of the world by the women.Illiteracy and ignorance of affairs of the world by the women.

The westerners were strong as they did not bind their women’s The westerners were strong as they did not bind their women’s feet and both boys and girls were educated.feet and both boys and girls were educated.

The reformers addressed different issues such as:The reformers addressed different issues such as:– Foot-bindingFoot-binding– Education of Women.Education of Women.– Revolution against the Qing.Revolution against the Qing.

1616

Foot-bindingFoot-binding When westerners and missionaries worked in China in the When westerners and missionaries worked in China in the

late 1800s they thought foot-binding was cruel.late 1800s they thought foot-binding was cruel. Beginning in the 1890’s radical Chinese intellectuals Beginning in the 1890’s radical Chinese intellectuals

thought foot-binding was old-fashioned, was crippling half thought foot-binding was old-fashioned, was crippling half of the population, and was causing loss of “international of the population, and was causing loss of “international face” in front of the west.face” in front of the west.

Kang Youwei Kang Youwei 康有为康有为 , the leader of the reform movement, , the leader of the reform movement, said:said:– ““There is nothing which makes us objects of ridicule as There is nothing which makes us objects of ridicule as

much as foot-binding….much as foot-binding….– ……. The Europeans and Americans are strong and . The Europeans and Americans are strong and

vigorous because their mothers do not have bound feet vigorous because their mothers do not have bound feet and therefore have strong offspring.and therefore have strong offspring.

– Now that we must compete with other nations, to have Now that we must compete with other nations, to have weak offspring is dangerous.”weak offspring is dangerous.”

1717

Foot-binding (2)Foot-binding (2)

In 1898, Kang Youwei submitted a memorial to the In 1898, Kang Youwei submitted a memorial to the emperor criticizing foot-binding:emperor criticizing foot-binding:– The poor were inconvenienced in their workThe poor were inconvenienced in their work– The rich had weak offsprings.The rich had weak offsprings.

The need to prohibit foot-binding and to have a The need to prohibit foot-binding and to have a system of penalties. system of penalties.

Foot-binding was outlawed by the Qing Government Foot-binding was outlawed by the Qing Government in 1902.in 1902.– The Manchus had tried to ban footbinding in the The Manchus had tried to ban footbinding in the

early Qing but the effort had failed.early Qing but the effort had failed.– Manchu women were always forbidden to bind Manchu women were always forbidden to bind

their feet.their feet.

1818

Foot-binding (3)Foot-binding (3)

Anti-foot-binding societies were formed.Anti-foot-binding societies were formed.– Members vowed that they would:Members vowed that they would:

Not bind their daughter’s feet.Not bind their daughter’s feet. Not allow their sons to marry girls with Not allow their sons to marry girls with

bound feet.bound feet. Influence other parents not to do so as well.Influence other parents not to do so as well.

As a result, the proportion of girls with normal As a result, the proportion of girls with normal feet (in an area outside of Beijing) rose from feet (in an area outside of Beijing) rose from 18.5% in 1900 to 40.3% in 1905-9.18.5% in 1900 to 40.3% in 1905-9.

1919

Education of WomenEducation of Women

The western missionaries had opened schools for The western missionaries had opened schools for girls and elite Chinese sent their daughters to girls and elite Chinese sent their daughters to these schools.these schools.– The most famous is the Methodist McTyeire The most famous is the Methodist McTyeire

School School 中西中西 of Girls in Shanghai (the alumni of Girls in Shanghai (the alumni still meet annually in different parts of the still meet annually in different parts of the world).world).

Reformers and officials also established a Chinese Reformers and officials also established a Chinese school for girls.school for girls.– For admission, parents had to promise not to For admission, parents had to promise not to

give the girls as concubines in order to avoid give the girls as concubines in order to avoid damaging the reputation of the school.damaging the reputation of the school.

2020

Education of Women (2)Education of Women (2) When the Empress Dowager Cixi When the Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧 慈禧 tried to get rid of the tried to get rid of the

reformers, some of the schools were forced to close in 1898.reformers, some of the schools were forced to close in 1898. After the Boxer Uprising (1901), she reversed her policies After the Boxer Uprising (1901), she reversed her policies

and permitted the opening of girls’ schools.and permitted the opening of girls’ schools.– A large Lama convent in Beijing was transformed into a A large Lama convent in Beijing was transformed into a

school for girls.school for girls.– Many of the Manchu princesses opened schools for girls.Many of the Manchu princesses opened schools for girls.

TheThe imperialimperial consort,consort, Wenxiu,Wenxiu, of the lastof the last QingQing emperor emperor Puyi, received aPuyi, received a divorcedivorce (1931)(1931) andand used her alimony to used her alimony to open a primary school and ran it herself as its open a primary school and ran it herself as its principal.principal.

– A number of schools were founded by radical intellectuals A number of schools were founded by radical intellectuals and officials to educate the women of their families and officials to educate the women of their families (especially in Beijing and Shanghai).(especially in Beijing and Shanghai).

2121

Education of Women (3)Education of Women (3) The expansion of education meant the need for teachers.The expansion of education meant the need for teachers.

– Many of the teachers were women who had had a Many of the teachers were women who had had a classical education at home and then had gone for classical education at home and then had gone for additional education in Shanghai or Japan.additional education in Shanghai or Japan.

– Others had just graduated from secondary school.Others had just graduated from secondary school. In schools, the girls came into contact with Sun Yat-sen’s In schools, the girls came into contact with Sun Yat-sen’s

ideas of the “Three Principles” ideas of the “Three Principles” 三民主义 三民主义 –– nationalism, nationalism, democracy and improving peoples’ livelihood.democracy and improving peoples’ livelihood.– They were asked to rise against the Manchus.They were asked to rise against the Manchus.– Many of these girls’ schools became the centers of Many of these girls’ schools became the centers of

revolution with the teachers or principals as leaders.revolution with the teachers or principals as leaders.– During “physical education” classes, girls were trained During “physical education” classes, girls were trained

in military activities.in military activities.

2222

Education of Women (4)Education of Women (4)

Education gave the women revolutionary ideas such Education gave the women revolutionary ideas such as “feminism” and the “right to vote” from Western as “feminism” and the “right to vote” from Western literature.literature.– Many women:Many women:

Discussed the problem of opium smoking in Discussed the problem of opium smoking in mass meetings; at one meeting there were 600 mass meetings; at one meeting there were 600 women.women.

Published magazines.Published magazines. Took part in street demonstrations to boycott Took part in street demonstrations to boycott

American and Japanese goods in 1905 and 1908.American and Japanese goods in 1905 and 1908. Joined secret revolutionary societies and Joined secret revolutionary societies and

participated in revolutionary incidents.participated in revolutionary incidents.

2323

May Fourth MovementMay Fourth Movement

The Western countries had taken control of many areas The Western countries had taken control of many areas in China during the Qing:in China during the Qing:– 11 foreign concessions in Tianjin 11 foreign concessions in Tianjin 天津天津– Shanghai International Settlements (governed by Shanghai International Settlements (governed by

Council of Council of Britons, Americans, New Zealanders, Britons, Americans, New Zealanders, Australians, Danes, and JapaneseAustralians, Danes, and Japanese ）） ..

– Hong Kong: 1842-1997 (Ceded and leased):Hong Kong: 1842-1997 (Ceded and leased): Britain Britain – Weihaiwei Weihaiwei 威海衛威海衛 , in Eastern Shandong:, in Eastern Shandong: 1898-1930 ( 1898-1930 (

Leased area ):Leased area ): BritainBritain– Kwangchowan, Guangdong: 1898-1946 ( Leased area Kwangchowan, Guangdong: 1898-1946 ( Leased area

):): France France – Qingdao, Shangdong: 1898-1914 :Qingdao, Shangdong: 1898-1914 : Germany;Germany; thenthen

occupied by Japan 1914 until 1922occupied by Japan 1914 until 1922

2424

May Fourth MovementMay Fourth Movement (2) (2)

– Port Arthur, Liaodong, 1898-1905: ( Leased area ) :Port Arthur, Liaodong, 1898-1905: ( Leased area ) : Russia Russia

– Macau 1557-1999:Macau 1557-1999: Portugal Portugal – Taiwan 1895-1945:Taiwan 1895-1945: Japan Japan

After the Qing government abdicated in 1911 China was After the Qing government abdicated in 1911 China was governed by Yuan Shikai governed by Yuan Shikai 袁世凯 袁世凯 and other warlords.and other warlords.

In 1914, Japan seized the German concessions in Shandong In 1914, Japan seized the German concessions in Shandong and, a year later, made 21 demands for special rights in the and, a year later, made 21 demands for special rights in the Shandong province.Shandong province.

At the end of World War I, the Chinese had hoped that the At the end of World War I, the Chinese had hoped that the German controlled areas in Shandong would be returned to German controlled areas in Shandong would be returned to China.China.– But the Conference held at Versailles, France, at the end But the Conference held at Versailles, France, at the end

of the War, gave them to Japan.of the War, gave them to Japan.

2525

May Fourth Movement (3)May Fourth Movement (3) This set off nationalistic activities throughout This set off nationalistic activities throughout

China and women from all classes joined.China and women from all classes joined. On May 4, 1919, the students of Beijing held a On May 4, 1919, the students of Beijing held a

demonstration demanding the “indictment of the demonstration demanding the “indictment of the traitors” of the Versailles Treaty.traitors” of the Versailles Treaty.– When the Government officials did not take When the Government officials did not take

action, the frustrated students set fire to the action, the frustrated students set fire to the homes of these officials and beat the “traitors”.homes of these officials and beat the “traitors”.

When the news got to Tianjin the following day, When the news got to Tianjin the following day, the Tianjin students demonstrated on May 7 the Tianjin students demonstrated on May 7 shouting slogans such as “boycott of Japanese shouting slogans such as “boycott of Japanese Goods”, “Return Qingdao”, “Don’t sell the nation.”Goods”, “Return Qingdao”, “Don’t sell the nation.”

May Fourth Movement (4)May Fourth Movement (4)

– The Government then tried to repress the The Government then tried to repress the student demonstrations with the police using student demonstrations with the police using bayonets, bullets, fire hoses, fists and arrests.bayonets, bullets, fire hoses, fists and arrests.

On May 30, 1925, a British officer opened fire on On May 30, 1925, a British officer opened fire on students and workers who were demonstrating students and workers who were demonstrating outside a Japanese-owned textile factory in the outside a Japanese-owned textile factory in the British Concession (May 30th Incident) in British Concession (May 30th Incident) in Shanghai.Shanghai.– About 10 students were killed and many About 10 students were killed and many

wounded and the demonstrations quickly wounded and the demonstrations quickly spread to other cities.spread to other cities.

2727

Women’s MovementWomen’s Movement

The Chinese Women’s Movement began as part of the The Chinese Women’s Movement began as part of the reform movement by both men and women.reform movement by both men and women.

After the Qing dynasty was overturned (1911) and the After the Qing dynasty was overturned (1911) and the Kurmingtang (KMT) ruled China many changes were Kurmingtang (KMT) ruled China many changes were made to address the equal rights of women.made to address the equal rights of women.– These changes were brought over to Taiwan when the These changes were brought over to Taiwan when the

KMT Government retreated there (1949).KMT Government retreated there (1949). When the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) established the When the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) established the

People's Republic of China (PRC) they continued to People's Republic of China (PRC) they continued to address the question of equal rights.address the question of equal rights.– The United Nations (UN) has taken over the world-wide The United Nations (UN) has taken over the world-wide

effort to ensure equal rights (1946) and China signed effort to ensure equal rights (1946) and China signed and ratified the UN treaty agreeing to eliminate and ratified the UN treaty agreeing to eliminate discrimination against women.discrimination against women.

2828

Women’s Movement (2)

The women’s movement saw different phases and suffered internal divisions that reflect the social and political changes.– The early phase of women’s movement in the 19th

century was initiated by men. The “women” question was an important part of

the public discussion especially during the 1930s and ’40s.

The elite encouraged their daughters to participate in society to demonstrate their progressive thinking.

– Women in urban China have gained the most due to the effort to educate women and girls.

– Women in rural China also changed because of the invasion of Japan and of the spread of the revolution into the provinces.

Women’s Movement (3) At first, women did not have separate political At first, women did not have separate political

organizations but joined the regular revolutionary organizations but joined the regular revolutionary societies associated with the “Revolutionary Alliance” of societies associated with the “Revolutionary Alliance” of Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen 孙中山孙中山 ..

By 1922, two new organizations were formed on a By 1922, two new organizations were formed on a national scale on issues such as constitutional guarantee national scale on issues such as constitutional guarantee of the equal rights of women in education, husband-wife of the equal rights of women in education, husband-wife relations, inheritance, marriage, concubines, relations, inheritance, marriage, concubines, prostitution, slave trade, foot-binding, and labor pay.prostitution, slave trade, foot-binding, and labor pay.

They looked to both the CCP and the KMT for assistance.They looked to both the CCP and the KMT for assistance.– In 1923, the women from the Chinese Communist In 1923, the women from the Chinese Communist

Party (CCP) and the Kuomingtang (KMT) worked Party (CCP) and the Kuomingtang (KMT) worked together in the Women’s Department to organize together in the Women’s Department to organize women. women. Their main job was to educate women and to train Their main job was to educate women and to train

women leaders.women leaders.

The Women’s Movement (4)

Many of the leaders of the Department felt that Many of the leaders of the Department felt that national issues such as Revolution and Patriotism national issues such as Revolution and Patriotism were more important than the equal rights of women.were more important than the equal rights of women.

In 1924, Sun Yat-sen called a National Congress to In 1924, Sun Yat-sen called a National Congress to abolish the unequal treaties with foreign countries and abolish the unequal treaties with foreign countries and to prepare a permanent constitution but women were to prepare a permanent constitution but women were not invited to attend or to send representatives.not invited to attend or to send representatives.– Women, outside the Department, felt that a national Women, outside the Department, felt that a national

women’s rights association was needed to fight for women’s rights association was needed to fight for their participation on a national level.their participation on a national level.

Discussion Question: Is it a good idea to separate Discussion Question: Is it a good idea to separate women into a department to work on “women women into a department to work on “women issues”?issues”?

3131

Women’s MovementThe Suffrage Movement

The right to vote (Suffrage movement) was an important issue for the Women’s Movement.

The women’s suffrage campaigns were in several waves:– First wave: 1911-1913:

The organizations worked together to organize marches, letter writing, petitioning and lobbying.

The new constitution, at the end of March 1912, only gave men the right to vote.

– The women were angry and stormed the parliament, smashing windows, and assaulting security guards.

– When Yuan Shikai 袁世凯 became the first President of China he prohibited the women’s activities.

Women’s MovementSuffrage Movement (2)

Second Wave: Beginning late 1914– The women’s organizations linked themselves to

the Sun Yatsen government in Guangzhou.– They were successful in getting the right to vote in

several important provinces – Hunan (June, 1921) Zhejiang (September, 1921), Guangdong (December 1921), Sichuan (1923). But, during the 1920s, national reunification

was the major concern for most politically active Chinese.

– Chiang Kai-shek took control of the Government of the ROC in 1928 and excluded the CCP from government. The energies of the women’s movement were

divided between those who supported the CCP and those who remained within the KMT.

Women’s MovementSuffrage Movement (3)

Neither of the political parties wanted to alienate women supporters.

– KMT came out with equal rights for women in the constitution of the Republic of China (ROC) (1911-1949) of 1931 and formalized it in its Constitution of 1936.

– CCP also gave women equal rights in one of their controlled areas in 1931 – by 1933 this was true of all of their controlled areas.

Third Wave: 1930’s onwards– Women then fought for minimum quotas in

political participation.– In 1946, the Constitution of the ROC guaranteed

women a minimum of 10% of seats -- maintained in Taiwan.

Women’s MovementSuffrage Movement (4)

– Women stood for election briefly in the 1920s and 1946.

Women suffrage activists in China was successful as they linked their cause closely to the broader quest for “modernity”.

However, their victories were mainly theoretical as there was no democracy in either China Mainland or in Taiwan for decades.– Taiwan finally lifted martial law in 1987,

women can vote and can stand for election.

Women’s MovementMarriage Reforms

During the Republican Period (1911-1949), changes in the marriage law were made (1930s) placing all men and women directly under the law of the state rather than under the authority of the clan or the lineage.– The law:

Banned polygamy, concubinage, and the sale of women. Outlawed marriage without the consent of the partners. Women had the right to sue for divorce. Women had the right to own property. Women had the right to inherit. Women were guaranteed equal pay for work of equal

value .

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The People’s Republic of China and The People’s Republic of China and the Women’s Movementthe Women’s Movement

Readings:Readings:– Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in

China, Schocken Books, New York, 1980, Ch. China, Schocken Books, New York, 1980, Ch. 2 & 3.2 & 3.

– Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change of Women's Status in China”, in Journal of of Women's Status in China”, in Journal of International Women’s Studies, International Women’s Studies, April 03, 2001. April 03, 2001.

– Mechthild Leutner, Nicola Spakowski, eds, Mechthild Leutner, Nicola Spakowski, eds, 2005, Women in China: The Republican Period 2005, Women in China: The Republican Period in Historical Perspectivein Historical Perspective