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International Geology Review, Vol. 50, 2008, p. 781–809. DOI: 10.2747/0020-6814.50.9.781Copyright © 2008 by Bellwether Publishing, Ltd. All rights reserved.

Latest Cretaceous Collision/Accretion between the Caribbean Plate and Caribeana: Origin of Metamorphic Terranes in the

Greater Antilles ANTONIO GARCÍA-CASCO,1

Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Universidad de Granada, Avda. Fuentenueva sn, 18002 Granada, Spain and Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Granada-CSIC, Avda. Fuentenueva sn, 18002 Granada, Spain

MANUEL A. ITURRALDE-VINENT, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Obispo no. 61, Plaza de Armas, La Habana 10100, Cuba.and Departamento de Geociencias,

Instituto Superior Politécnico J.A. Echeverría, La Habana, Cuba

AND JAMES PINDELL Tectonic Analysis Ltd., Duncton, West Sussex GU28 0LH, UK and Deptarment of Earth Science, Rice University,

Houston, Texas 77002

Abstract

Metasedimentary complexes dispersed all along the northwestern branch of the Caribbeanorogenic belt between Yucatan and the Virgin Islands provide evidence for a major tectonic event oflatest Cretaceous (Late Campanian–Early Paleocene) age that played a key role in the evolution ofthe Caribbean realm. During the northeastward Cretaceous drift of the Caribbean plate from thePacific, the leading edge of the plate encountered a sedimentary prism that extended southeastwardinto the Proto-Caribbean realm from the southeastern edge of the Maya Block. Latest Cretaceoussubduction of this Mesozoic sedimentary suite, dubbed here “Caribeana,” formed metamorphiccomplexes (i.e., East Yucatán, Cangre, Pinos, Escambray, Guayabal, Asunción, Samaná, and PuertoRico Trench terranes). This latest Cretaceous subduction/accretion event triggered the interruptionor attenuation of the activity of the Cretaceous volcanic arc and the tectonic emplacement of ophio-lites and subduction channel complexes along the leading edge of the Caribbean plate. Flat subduc-tion of the Proto-Caribbean ensued during the Maastrichtian–Eocene in the western segment of theleading edge of the Caribbean plate, whereas normal-angle subduction and volcanic arc magmatismcontinued during the same time span in the eastern segment. The metamorphic complexes evolveddifferently since the Maastrichtian. As a consequence of the development of the Yucatan Basin inthe western part of the orogenic belt, the Pinos, Escambray, and probably the Guayabal terraneswere exhumed in an intra-arc environment, whereas the East Yucatan(?), Cangre, Asunción,Samaná, and Puerto Rico Trench terranes were exhumed in a fore-arc setting.

Introduction

TECTONIC UNITS OCCUR onshore and offshoreYucatan Peninsula, Cuba, Dominican Republic,Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands that are com-posed of Jurassic–Cretaceous siliciclastic and car-bonate sedimentary protoliths deposited in variableenvironments within the Proto-Caribbean oceanbasin and/or its margins. The rocks were tectoni-cally emplaced in the northern Caribbean orogenicbelt during the latest Cretaceous to Eocene. Some ofthese units are unmetamorphosed and formed in the

original borderlands of the Bahamas (i.e., Placetas,Camajuaní, Remedios, and Cayo Coco belts ofnorthern-central Cuba) and the Maya Block (LosÓrganos and Rosario belts of western Cuba). How-ever, other allochthonous terranes made of similarshallow to deeper marine sedimentary successionswere metamorphosed at high-to-intermediate pres-sure and low-to-medium temperature conditionstypical of subduction zones during the latest Creta-ceous (e.g, Escambray and Samaná terranes of Cubaand Hispaniola, respectively). Explaining sucha contrast in the metamorphism of sedimentarypiles deposited in the Proto-Caribbean realm andaccreted to the Antilles Arc is fundamental to1Corresponding author; email:[email protected]

7810020-6814/08/1015/781-29 $25.00

782 GARCÍA-CASCO ET AL.

understanding the plate tectonic evolution of theregion.

Although the debate continues regarding the ori-gin and evolution of the Caribbean realm (Iturralde-Vinent and Lidiak, 2006; Pindell et al., 2006),magmatic, metamorphic, sedimentary, and tectonicevents allow the plate tectonic evolution of theCaribbean to be constrained as follows (cf. Pindellet al., 2005): (1) Jurassic–latest Cretaceous develop-ment of the Proto-Caribbean oceanic basin betweenNorth and South American plates as a result of thebreak-up of Pangea and sea-floor spreading; (2)Aptian initiation of southwest-dipping subduction ofthe Proto-Caribbean oceanic lithosphere below thePacific Plate lithosphere that would become theCaribbean Plate; (3) latest Cretaceous–Present dia-chronous collision of the leading edge of theCaribbean plate with the continental margins ofNorth and South America; (4) Maastrichtian–MiddleEocene fragmentation of the northwestern Carib-bean plate and Late Eocene suturing of Cuba withthe Bahamas; and (5) Eocene to Recent relativeeastward drift of the Caribbean plate between theAmericas. Here we review present evidence anddemonstrate that a latest Cretaceous collision/accre-tion event represents a major transitory step in theevolution of the region that has never been recog-nized for all its implications. We will show that thisevent was triggered by the subduction and collision/accretion of a major submarine but buoyant featureof the Proto-Caribbean that we have dubbed “Cari-beana” (Iturralde-Vinent and García-Casco, 2007).

Latest Cretaceous–Early Paleocene Paleotectonic/Paleogeographic Setting

of the Caribbean Realm

It has long been known that collision of Carib-bean lithosphere with the North American plate tookplace during the latest Cretaceous in central Guate-mala (southern Maya Block). Some authors (e.g.,Anderson et al., 1985; Donnelly et al., 1990)consider that this collision occurred between theChortis and Maya blocks, but the oceanic nature ofthe obducted forearc rocks in the suture zone (e.g.,El Tambor and Santa Cruz complexes) has causedothers to consider that the collision occurredbetween an intra-oceanic arc and the Maya Block(Pindell and Dewey, 1982; Rosenfeld, 1993).Indeed, if we accept offset values of ~1000 km onthe Cayman Trough (Mann and Burke, 1984; Rosen-crantz, 1990), then the Chortis Block restores well to

the west of the Maya Block for Cretaceous times,and therefore was probably not involved in the colli-sion. The timing of this Caribbean plate–MayaBlock collision is dated by the Maastrichtian age ofoverthrusted ophiolite-rich olistostromes of theSepur Formation (Rosenfeld, 1993), and by theCampanian–Maastrichtian acceleration of forelandbasin subsidence history in northern Guatemala(Pindell et al., 1988). In addition, in the Rabinal–Salamá area of central Guatemala, kinematic andage data are consistent with latest Cretaceous–Paleocene uplift and exhumation of the ChuacúsComplex and obduction of the Baja Verapaz Ophio-lite onto Paleozoic basement rocks of the Mayanmargin (Ortega-Obregón et al., in press). Further, inthe serpentinite mélanges north of the Motagua faultzone, phengite Ar/Ar ages of 77–65 Ma from high-pressure (HP) blocks record subduction related toMaastrichtian collision of an oceanic terrane withthe Maya Block (Harlow et al., 2004). A similarpicture arises in Ecuador and Colombia (e.g., Escal-ante, 1990). Collision between 75–65 Ma of theUpper Cretaceous Caribbean plateau and arc withthe northwest South American plate margin causedcessation of subduction-related magmatism, defor-mation, and synchronous accelerated surface upliftand exhumation (e.g., McCourt et al., 1984; Vallejoet al., 2006).

Based on these and other evidence for latestCretaceous tectonic interaction between the north-eastern and southeastern extremities of the Carib-bean plate with the southern Maya Block andnorthwestern South America, respectively, currentpaleotectonic and paleogeographic models for theCaribbean realm locate the Caribbean volcanic arcat a position similar to the present-day CentralAmerican Arc between the Americas (e.g., Pindellet al., 1988, 2005; Pindell, 1994; Mann, 1999).Consequently, these models do not show a scenarioof general collision during the latest Cretaceous inthe intra-oceanic parts of the Caribbean’s AntilleanArc. However, a latest Cretaceous orogenic event inthe Caribbean realm has been suggested by someauthors (e.g., Khudoley and Meyerhoff, 1971;Iturralde-Vinent, 1998; Iturralde-Vinent et al.,2006). Evidence provided below allows us to recon-cile these contrasting ideas. We propose a major col-lision/accretion event of latest Cretaceous–earlyPaleocene age affecting the entire leading edge ofthe Caribbean plate, including intra-oceanic arclocations in the Antilles as far east as the VirginIslands. To accommodate this event in current

ORIGIN OF METAMORPHIC TERRANES 783

paleotectonic and paleogeographic models, a hypo-thetical sedimentary basin (Caribeana) locatedbetween the Americas within the Proto-CaribbeanBasin must be defined.

Definition of Caribeana

Joyce (1983, 1991), referring to marbles in theSamaná subduction complex of northern DominicanRepublic, suggested that a carbonate bank of inde-terminate provenance subducted during the LatestCretaceous. Montgomery and Pessagno (1999),referring to a Campanian or Maastrichtian limestoneboulder associated with the San Juan subductioncomplex (Dominican Republic), suggested that theAntillean Arc “…apparently encountered and sub-ducted part of a carbonate platform (too early to beBahamas platform?) during the latest Cretaceous.”This seed of insight is the scenario we propose hereon a regional scale for the concept of Caribeana,although the ages for HP metamorphism of Cari-beanan terranes preclude the Bahamas as the site ofCaribeana. Before full evidence is presented, wedefine Caribeana.

Caribeana is a conceptual paleogeographicdomain characterized by Mesozoic sedimentarypiles that occupied a portion of the Proto-Caribbeanoceanic domain. The nature of these sedimentarypiles is similar to that of sedimentary piles formedalong the margins of North America (e.g., Mayaand Bahamas borderlands). Thus, we envisageCaribeana as a NW-SE–elongated submarine prom-ontory with oceanic to stretched continental base-ment, projecting off the southeastern edge of theMaya Block, very similar in shape to the Bahamassubmarine promontory off Florida (Fig. 1A). How-ever, in contrast to those of the Bahamas, Cari-beanan sedimentary piles were metamorphosed in asubduction environment during latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary time (Fig. 1B). The metasedimen-tary complexes were later fragmented into severalterranes and dispersed along the northern segmentof the circum-Caribbean orogenic belt over morethan 2500 km (Fig. 2). Most of the descriptions thatfollow are based on published material, and theassessment of various problems important for theclarification of our proposal is presented in parallel.

Fragments of Caribeana

Fragments of Caribeana are identified asmetasedimentary complexes occurring onshore and

offshore along the northern branch of the Caribbeanorogenic belt (Fig. 3). The onshore fragments occurin Cuba and Hispaniola; from west to east, theseinclude the Cangre, Pinos, Escambray, and Asun-ción terranes in Cuba, and the Samaná terrane inHispaniola. Geophysical evidence also exists for aconcealed terrane in southern Camagüey Province(central Cuba), termed here the Guayabal suspectterrane. Furthermore, marine geophysical researchand samples dredged from different locations havealso proved the existence of metasedimentary com-plexes offshore the eastern Yucatan Peninsula,termed here the East Yucatan terrane, and offshorethe eastern Dominican Republic, northern PuertoRico, and the northeastern Virgin Islands, collec-tively termed here the Puerto Rico Trench terrane.

The term “terrane” has been used with variablemeaning in the Caribbean realm (see Iturralde-Vinent and Lidiak, 2006). Here it is applied todescribe fragments of Caribeana because thefragments represent distinct tectonostratigraphicelements bounded by faults and characterized by ageologic history that differs from that of neighboringrocks (Howell, 1985). However, differences in com-position can be recognized within these terranes.For example, the Cangre, Pinos, and Asunciónterranes are made of coherent metamorphic com-plexes. This is not the case for the Escambray,Samaná, and Puerto Rico Trench terranes, whichconsist of mixtures of Caribeana metasedimentaryrocks and of oceanic (volcanic arc, forearc, trench,and mid-ocean) complexes. To describe these, weuse the term “composite terranes” to embrace thedifferent histories of the various elements prior totheir amalgamatation during the latest Cretaceous–Tertiary, after which they shared the same geologichistory. A terranes identified by geophysicalevidence only (Guayabal terrane) is termed a“suspect terrane.”

The Mesozoic (meta)sedimentary piles of Cari-beana may have been deposited on top of stretchedcontinental and/or oceanic basement. Continentalbasement rocks have not been described in Cari-beanan complexes. However, fragments of Protero-zoic (Grenvillean) continental basement rocks cropout in the Socorro and La Teja complexes within thethe Placetas belt of Cuba, as boulders within theSan Adrián and other gypsum diapirs, and aspebbles within arkosic conglomerates of the (UpperJurassic–Lower Cretaceous) Constancia Formation(Meyerhoff and Hatten, 1968; Pardo, 1975;Somin and Millán, 1981; Pszczolkowski, 1986a;


Pszczolkowski and Myczynski, 2003; Renne et al.,1989). Furthermore, gneiss pebbles of ~400 Ma age(zircon Pb-Pb; Millán and Somin, 1985b) and/or250–220 Ma old (zircon U-Pb SHRIMP-II; Somin etal., 2006) occur in the Eocene El Guayabo conglom-erate of the Pinar del Río region of western Cuba.The source region of these rocks is unknown and hasbeen identified with pre-Jurassic basement rocks

(Somin and Millán, 1981) of unknown location but,inasmuch as zircon rims from these pebbles haveages of 72 ± 1 Ma (Somin et al., 2006), they mayrepresent the (stretched) continental basement ofCaribeana (see below). In the following paragraphs,the occurrences of Caribeanan complexes aredescribed from west to east.

FIG. 1. Paleogeographic sketches of the Caribbean region for mid- and latest-Cretaceous times (based on Iturralde-Vinent, 2006), showing the inferred position of Caribeana (denoted by the Cangre, Escambray, and Samaná terranes)relative to the Mayan and Bahamian borderlands and the Greater Antilles arc. In B, Caribeana (hatched pattern) is inthe course of subduction. The trace of cross-sections of Figure 8 is shown in B.


East Yucatan terrane

Dredge hauls offshore Yucatan Peninsula andwestern Cuba recovered metasedimentary rocks(Pyle et al., 1973, and references therein). Basically,the topographic and structural elements offshoreYucatan between Cozumel and western Cubainclude a 40 km wide sediment-filled trough, a ridgeof similar width, and a steep slope extending downto the Yucatan abyssal plain (Rosencrantz, 1990).Pyle et al. (1973) dredged metamorphic rocks at site955, but they cite other sites in the area wheresimilar rocks were dredged by the U.S. GeologicalSurvey in 1971, and Eastward cruise E-31 F-71(B.C. Heezen, Chief Scientist) in 1972 (Fig. 3A). Allthese samples are considered by Pyle et al. (1973) torepresent a significant component of the rocks in thebasement of the ridge, suggesting the presence of ametamorphic terrane in this region. This terrane istermed here the East Yucatan terrane.

The dredged metasediments include slightlymetamorphosed shale, siltstone, and quartzite. Pyleet al. (1973) recognized similarities with the Juras-sic San Cayetano Formation of western Cuba. Therocks are cataclastic, and show low-grade metamor-phism with development of chlorite. Whole-rock K-Ar determinations in these rocks yielded 33, 38, and63-68 Ma, but Pyle et al. (1973) considered that thegreatest age, although still minimal, is likely to bethe most nearly correct. This led these authors tocorrelate these rocks with metasediments of thePinos terrane characterized by 73–78 Ma K-Ar ages(Meyerhoff et al., 1969; Khudoley and Meyerhoff,1971).

Cangre terrane

Millán (1972) defined the Cangre “belt” of theSierra de los Organos (western Cuba) as a strip ofmetamorphosed sedimentary and intercalated mafic

FIG. 2. Regional plate boundary map showing the location of metamorphic terranes discussed in this paper and otherimportant geological features (simplified after Pindell et al., 2005).


igneous rocks adjacent to the Pinar Fault (Fig. 3A).Along with the non-metamorphic Sierra de los Órga-nos and southern and northern Sierra del Rosariobelts (Fig. 4), the Cangre Belt has been groupedin the Guaniguanico terrane of western Cuba (Itur-ralde-Vinent, 1994; Pszczolkowski, 1999). How-

ever, the Cangre belt is renamed here as a terrane toemphasize its distinct geologic history relative to itsneighboring non-metamorphic belts of the Guan-iguanico terrane.

The Cangre terrane has been subdivided intothree tectonic thrust sheets: the larger Pino Solo and

FIG. 3. Caribeanan terranes (ruled). Ophiolitic bodies delineate the Caribbean–North America suture.


the smaller Mestanza and Cerro de Cabras thrustsheets (Piotrowska, 1975, 1987; Fig. 4). All threeunits rest on top of the non-metamorphic San Cay-etano Formation, which belongs to the Alturas dePizarras del Sur thrust sheet of the Sierra de losOrganos belt, and the Pino Solo and Cerro Cabrasunits override the Mestanza thrust sheet. The gen-eral attitude of foliation is SW-NE, dipping to theSE. The protolithic stratigraphy of this terrane issimilar to the Jurassic section of the Los Organosbelt (Fig. 5A). The Pino Solo unit consists mostly ofthe Arroyo Cangre Formation (Piotrowski, 1987),with predominantly siliciclastic metasediments andintercalated (mostly at the base) metacarbonate andmetamafic igneous rocks. The sedimentary age ofthis formation is unknown but general stratigraphicanalogies suggest correlation with the pre-middleOxfordian (Lower? to Upper Jurassic) San CayetanoFormation (Hatten, 1957; Rigasi-Studer, 1963;Pszczolkowski, 1978, 1999; Fig. 5A). However,Piotrowski (1987), while accepting this age correla-tion, considers that the amount of metacarbonatesmostly at the base of the formation along with themafic material (meta-gabbros, -basalts, and -tuffs)prevents direct correlation of this unit with the SanCayetano units. In our view, these aspects suggest a

more marine (distal) position of the Arroyo CangreFormation with respect to the San Cayetano. ThePino Solo unit locally contains metacarbonates andshales that have been correlated with the UpperJurassic to Lower Cretaceous Jagua and Guasasaformations of the Los Órganos belt (Pszczolkowski,1978, 1999; Piotrowski, 1987). The Cerro de Cabrasunit is made of the Arroyo Cangre unit, whereas theMestanza unit has a sedimentary section that corre-lates with the San Cayetano, Jagua and Guasasaformations (Pszczolkowski, 1978; Piotrowski, 1987).Pszczolkowski (1985, 1999) identified the Paleo-cene–Lower Eocene Ancón and Manacas formationsin the Mestanza unit. Piotrowski (1987), Piotrowska(1987), and Millán (1997a) indicate gradual transi-tions between the Arroyo Cangre, Jagua, andGuasasa formations in the Mestanza unit.

The metamorphic grade in the Cangre terrane islow (to very low, in the Mestanza unit). The meta-morphic assemblages of metasediments (phyllitesand impure metapsammites) and metabasites of theArroyo Cangre Formation consist of combinations ofquartz, phengite, albite, and chlorite, and of horn-blende, glaucophane, actinolite, (clino)zoisite,epidote, albite, pumpellyite, chlorite, quartz, andphengite, respectively (Somin and Millán, 1981;

FIG. 4. Basic structural map of western Cuba (compiled after Piotrowska, 1987; Pszczólkowski, 1999; and Iturralde-Vinent, 1998) with indication of the tectonic units of the Cangre terrane and structural arrangement of the region. Alsoshown is location of the El Guayabo conglomerate (Palacios Basin) with gneiss pebbles that probably represent theeroded basement of Caribeana.


Millán, 1988; Cruz-Gámez et al., 2007). The meta-basites commonly show relict magmatic clinopyrox-ene and plagioclase and the metasiliciclasticscontain detrital mica, which attest to incomplete

recrystallization during low-grade metamorphism.High-pressure, low-temperature conditions typicalof subduction are attested to by glaucophane-bear-ing assemblages in the Arroyo Cangre metabasites.

FIG. 5. A. Jurassic–Eocene columnar section of Mayan and Bahamian borderlands compared to the reconstructedstratigraphy of Caribeanan terranes (modified after Iturralde-Vinent, 1998). B. Pressure/depth–temperature evolution ofrocks from the Pinos, Escambray, and Samaná terranes (after García-Casco et al., 2001, 2006; Schneider et al., 2004,Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún, 2006, and Stanek et al., 2006). C. Time–depth/pressure diagram of rocks from thePinos, Escambray, and Samaná terranes is inferred from P-T and age data referred in the text. Several geologic eventsdiscussed in the text are indicated. Geologic time scale after Gradstein et al. (2004).


Cruz-Gámez et al. (2003, 2007) suggested tempera-tures of 450ºC and pressures of 6 kbar based on thecomposition of amphibole. Rocks of the Pino Soloand Cerro de Cabras units have clearly been sub-ducted, pointing to a paleogeographic-paleotectonicposition that is distinct from the tectonic units of theGuaniguanico terrane, which lack evidence of sub-duction in units bearing similar (non-metamorphic)lithologies both in the Sierra de los Órganos (e,g.,Alturas de Pizarras del Sur) and Sierra del Rosario(e.g., Loma del Muerto and La Paloma thrust sheetsof Pszczolkowski, 1999) and, perhaps also, theMestanza unit.

The age of subduction of the Pino Solo and CerroCabras units is uncertain. Somin et al. (1992)reported a K/Ar whole-rock date of 113 ± 5 Ma for aphyllite of the Pino Solo unit. Rather than a meta-morphic age, this figure is best explained as a mix-ture of ages of detrital and metamorphic ages, asdemonstrated by the existence of Paleozoic andolder micas in the contemporaneous San CayetanoFormation (cf. Hutson et al., 1998). On the otherhand, Pszczolkowski (1985, 1999) suggested post–Early Eocene metamorphism based on the identifi-cation of the Ancón and Manacas formations in theMestanza unit. However, HP metamorphism in theseformations has not been demonstrated, and therecrystallization noted by Pszczolkowski (1985) mayrelate to Tertiary deformation and thrusting in theregion. This suggests that Mestanza unit is not partof the Cangre belt, but more work is needed in theregion to solve these problems.

The metamorphic phyllites of the Cangre and thePinos terranes (see below) are very similar. Thismakes lithostratigraphic correlation between theseterranes plausible (Millán, 1997a). If this correla-tion proves certain, the latest Cretaceous age ofhigh-pressure metamorphism in the Pinos Terrane(see below) probably pertains to the Cangre terraneas well, and rules out the Paleocene–Eocene colli-sion of the Guaniguanico terrane as a cause for theHP metamorphism in the Cangre terrane (cf.Piotrowska, 1993). This, in turn, would indicate thatthe emplacement of the Cangre terrane on top of thenon-metamorphic Los Organos belt should haveoccurred during the Paleocene–Middle Eocene col-lision with the Guaniguanico terrane, and allowsconsidering the Cangre terrane as allochthonouswith respect to the Guaniguanico terrane.

Pinos terrane

The Pinos terrane crops out on the Island ofYouth (formerly Island of Pines), located southwestof Cuba (Fig. 3A). The terrane tectonically underliesCretaceous volcanic arc rocks of the Sabana GrandeFormation (Fig. 6A). This tectonic arrangement issimilar to that of the Escambray terrane (see below).However, the Pinos terrane does not show such acomplex tectonic structure as the Escambray, andthe metasedimentary sections are not amalgamatedwith subducted oceanic material. Millán (1981,1997b) subdivided the Pinos terrane into severalfault-bounded synforms and antiforms formed by anumber of folded tectonic slivers. Four main phasesof deformation have been identified. The mainphase D2 is syn-metamorphic and developed a NW-trending stretching lineation. García-Casco et al.(2001) considered D2 related to exhumation in anextensional setting.

The major lithological features of the Pinos ter-rane include (Kuman and Gavilan, 1965; Millán,1981, 1997b; Somin and Millán, 1981; Pardo andMoya, 1988; Pardo, 1990; Babushkin et al., 1990)graphite-bearing siliciclastic and carbonatemetasediments with rare metabasite intercalations(i.e., Daguilla amphibolites; Figs. 5A and 6A). Somesections (Cañada and Agua Santa Formations) aredominated by siliciclastic rocks bearing similaritieswith the Jurassic San Cayetano unit of the Guan-iguanico terrane. The depositional ages of thesesections are not known, but fossils found in marblemembers of the Playa Bibijagua unit overlying thesiliciclastic sections suggest a Mesozoic age and apossible correlation with the Upper Jurassic–Creta-ceous section of the Guaniguanico terrane (Fig. 5A).The Daguilla amphibolites, on the other hand, corre-late with basaltic magmatism in the passive marginof San Cayetano and related formations of the Guan-iguanico terrane (Iturralde-Vinent, 1988; Millán,1997a). Based on these correlations Millán (1981,1997b), Somin and Millán (1981), and Iturralde-Vinent (1994, 1998, 2006) have suggested an off-shore Yucatán (Maya Block) origin for this terrane.

Metamorphism in the Pinos terrane spans low- tohigh-grade conditions. Low-grade phyllites are sim-ilar to those of the Cangre terrane, bearing chlorite,phengite, albite, and quartz. Maximum Si contentsof 6.95 Si atoms per 22 oxygen in pre-D2 phengite(García-Casco, unpubl. data) indicate formation at aminimum pressure of ~11 kbar (at 400ºC; Fig. 5B).These conditions translate into an apparent gradientof 36ºC/kbar (i.e., 11–12ºC/km) typical of subduc-


tion-related environments. In the medium-grademetapelites and high grade migmatitic metapelitespre-D2 garnet+kyanite-bearing assemblage devel-oped at pressures of >12 kbar at 600–650ºC and700–750ºC, respectively (García-Casco et al., 2001,2003, and unpubl. data; Fig. 5B). This characterizespre-D2 metamorphism as of relatively high pres-

sure, although maximum apparent gradients of 54and 62.5ºC/kbar (16 and 19ºC/km), respectively,suggest a heating event after subduction. In theserocks, sillimanite defines the main foliation S2, andandalusite formed after D2. Metamorphic and struc-tural relations indicate intense near-isothermaldecompression during D2, from >12 kbar down to

FIG. 6. A. Geologic map of the Isle of Pines with indications of formations and reconstructed stratigraphy (afterMillán, 1997b). B. Geologic-tectonic map of the Escambray terrane and Mabujina complex (after Millán, 1997c) withindication of major tectonic units, serpentinite mélanges and amphibolite and eclogite bodies within unit III.


~3 kbar (Fig. 5B), likely caused by tectonic exten-sion (García-Casco et al., 2001).

The tectonic interpretation of the heating eventof medium- and high-grade rocks is not straightfor-ward. However, it compares well with the thermalevolution of subduction-related metamorphic core-complexes such as those of the Aegean (Jansen andSchuiling, 1976; Avigad, 1998; Ring and Layer,2003; van Hinsbergen et al., 2005). In these com-plexes, subduction-related HP/LT metamorphismwas followed by (Barrovian-type) medium-pressure,medium- to high-temperature metamorphismcaused by extension during the retreat of theHellenic subduction zone. This thermal evolutionwas caused by asthenospheric flow associated withsubduction-zone retreat, which increased the geo-thermal gradient in the region being extended.Exhumation of hot footwall material along large-scale normal-fault detachments took place while thehanging wall material was barely heated. Thismechanism explains the amalgamation of unheatedlow-grade phyllites and heated medium-to high-grade rocks of the Pinos terrane.

K/Ar ages from metamorphic rocks of the Pinosterrane range from 78 ± 4 to 49.3 ± 3.8 Ma (seeIturralde-Vinent et al., 1996, for review). Late-felsicsubvolcanic rocks postdating metamorphism yieldK/Ar ages of 68–60 Ma (Buguelski et al., 1985).Unpublished Ar/Ar data from micas and amphiboleby P. Monié give 72–50 Ma. The Ar/Ar ages ofphengite from low-grade phyllites yield ~72 Ma,suggesting (pre-D2) high-pressure metamorphismduring the latest Cretaceous. The Ar/Ar ages of bio-tite and muscovite from medium- and high-grademetapelites give consistent 68 ± 2 Ma. This age isinterpreted as a cooling age and indicates latestCretaceous exhumation due to extension shortlyafter subduction (Figs. 4B and 4C; García-Casco etal., 2001). The D2 NW-SE extension and exhuma-tion of the Pinos terrane probably pertains to LateMaastrichtian–Paleocene opening of the YucatanBasin and core-complex formation (Pindell andBarrett, 1990; García-Casco et al., 2001; Draper,2001; Pindell et al., 2005).

Escambray composite terrane

The Escambray terrane is located to the south incentral Cuba (Fig. 3). It crops out as two domesnamed Trinidad to the west and Sancti Spiritus tothe east, forming a tectonic window below the Mabu-jina complex, which represents the deepest exposedsection of the Cretaceous volcanic arc and its oce-

anic basement in Cuba (Somin and Millán, 1976,1981; Dublan and Alvarez, 1986; Millán, 1996b,and references therein). The footwall of the Escam-bray terrane is unknown. The Escambray terranecan be interpreted as an accretionary complex con-taining subduction-related metamorphic oceanicand platform-like sedimentary rocks that were tec-tonically assembled in the subduction environment(Millán, 1997c; Iturralde-Vinent, 1998; Stanek etal., 2006). The composite terrane started exhuma-tion in the latest Cretaceous and reached the Earth’ssurface by 45 Ma, as documented by pebbles of HProcks in Eocene conglomerate deposits (Kantchev,1978).

Millán (1997c) identified four major tectonicunits named (bottom to top) I, II, III, and IV, whichare subdivided into smaller tectonic units andslivers (Fig. 6B). Stanek et al. (2006) have recentlyproposed a different structural arrangement of theSancti Spiritus dome. These authors identified thePitajones, Gavilanes, and Yayabo tectonic units.The Pitajones roughly corresponds with unit II, andGavilanes and Yayabo with unit III of Millán(1997c). Unit III (or Gavilanes) is interpreted as amega-mélange made of rocks of a subducted passivemargin and fragments of subducted oceanic litho-sphere (Millán, 1997c; Stanek et al., 2006). Sub-ducted oceanic rocks form strips of serpentinitemélanges which contain blocks of MORB-derivedeclogite and blueschist (Somin and Millán, 1981;Millán 1997c, Schneider et al., 2004; García-Cascoet al., 2006; Stanek et al., 2006). Similar strips ofoceanic serpentinite mélanges are also present inunit II and I. Massive garnet-epidote amphibolites(Yayabo unit) present in the Sancti Spiritus domemay represent mid-oceanic (Millán, 1997c) or fore-arc (Stanek et al., 2006) material. This Yayabo unitwas considered by Millán (1997c) to form part of hismajor unit III, though Stanek et al. (2006) consid-ered it a different unit.

The metamorphic structure is inverted, withgreenschist facies in the lowermost unit I, green-schist and lawsonite blueschist facies in intermedi-ate unit II, and epidote-blueschist and eclogitefacies in the upper unit III (Millán, 1997c; Fig. 6B).The uppermost unit IV (greenschist-blueschistfacies) diverges from this pattern as a probableeffect of the tectonic emplacement of the arc-relatedMabujina complex on top of the Escambray (Millán,1997c; Stanek et al., 2006). Variable P-T conditionsof units I to III indicate subduction to variabledepths. Tectonic amalgamation took place during


subduction and exhumation. A number of tectonicphases have been described, although the generalvergence of main structures indicates top-to-the-NEtransport, probably related to exhumation ratherthan to burial during subduction (Stanek et al.,2006).

A number of lithostratigraphic formations havebeen identified. The dominant rock assemblages aregraphite-bearing siliciclastics, carbonates (lime-stone, dolostone, carbonate-pelites) and local maficrock intercalations. The protolithic stratigraphy ofthese tectonic units has been correlated with theJurassic–Cretaceous sections of the non-metamor-phic Guaniguanico terrane in western Cuba (Millánand Myczynski, 1978, Millán and Somin, 1981, Mil-lán, 1997a, 1997c; Fig. 5A). This correlation hasbeen the basis for relating the origin of this complexto the passive margin of the Maya Block (Iturralde-Vinent, 1994, 1998, 2006; Pszczolkowski, 1999).However, Somin and Millán (1976) and Stanek et al.(2006) suggested a Bahamas Platform origin, Push-charovski (1988) and Pushcharovski et al. (1989)suggested a South American origin, Cobiella-Reguera (2000, 2005) locate it in the Proto-Carib-bean to the South of the volcanic arc, and Pindelland Kennan (2001) and Pindell et al. (2005, 2006),acknowledging Albian ages of HP rocks (see below),suggested an origin from along the eastern margin ofthe Chortis Block, which may have been near theCuban portion of the Antillean Trench at that time.

Most geochronological data from different rocktypes in the Escambray terrane obtained using dif-ferent methods cluster at 72–65 Ma (Iturralde-Vinent et al., 1996; Millán, 1996a, 1997c; Sch-neider et al., 2004; García-Casco et al., 2006;Stanek et al., 2006; Stanek and Maresch 2007, andreferences therein; Fig. 5C). Schneider et al. (2004)and García-Casco et al. (2006) noted that a ~70 Maexhumation age for eclogites from serpentinitemélanges and associated metasediments of unit IIIcorresponds with near-peak subduction-relatedmetamorphic conditions, and suggested that theonset of terrane-trench collision took place shortlybefore 70 Ma. This is in agreement with recent Lu-Hf age data of Stanek and Maresch (2007). Cold P-Tpaths during retrogression characterize eclogitesfrom unit III (Schneider et al., 2004; García-Cascoet al., 2006; Stanek et al., 2006; Fig. 6B). Thesepaths are typical of exhumation while subduction isstill active, and indicate that subduction didnot fully arrest during terrane-trench collision/accretion.

Pre-latest Cretaceous ages have been deter-mined in oceanic mafic rocks of the Escambray.Eclogite samples from unit III have yielded 100,102, and 105 Ma based on U-Pb zircon dating(Hatten et al., 1988, 1989; Fig. 4B). Also, a 90 ± 5Ma 40Ar/39Ar age of pegmatoid hornblende from aneclogite block has been determined by P. Renne(unpubl., cited in Draper and Nagle, 1991). Thedescription of the outcrops by Millán (1996a,1997c, pers. commun., 2007) suggests that thedated rocks represent exotic blocks within strips ofserpentinite mélanges. Pindell et al. (2005) andStanek et al. (2006) used these ages to constrain thesubduction history of the Escambray terrane. How-ever, in our view these blocks represent the sub-ducted Proto-Caribbean oceanic basement that wasincorporated into the subduction channel above theProto-Caribbean slab during the Early Cretaceous,and were amalgamated with the metasedimentarypiles of the Escambray during the latest Cretaceouswhen Caribeana was deeply buried into the subduc-tion zone. Therefore, although these older ages attestto the Aptian–Albian age of the initial subductionzone, they do not constrain the subduction history ofthe continental-margin– and platform-like sedimen-tary piles of the Escambray terrane.

Guayabal suspect terrane

Geophysical data led Pardo (1991, 1996) andPardo et al. (1990) to propose that a longitudinalbelt of low gravity values and a smooth magneticfield where negative values dominate in the south-ern flank of Cuba was a chain of “isostatic domes”covered by volcanic-arc rocks. This belt encom-passes the Pinos and Escambray terranes and a con-cealed dome structure south of Camaguey near thetowns of Santa Cruz del Sur and Guayabal, west ofthe Cauto basin (Figs. 2 and 3A). The “isostaticdomes” conforming this belt are best described ascore complexes. Following this interpretation, weconsider the Guayabal dome is a concealed “suspectterrane,” which represents a fragment of Caribeanasimilar to the Escambray and Pinos terranes.

Asunción terrane

The Asunción terrane is a metasedimentary com-plex located in easternmost Cuba (Figs. 2 and 3B).Millán and Somin (1985a, 1985b) correlated thisterrane with the Escambray terrane. It consists oftwo lithologic units outcropping as N-S–elongatedstrips (Somin and Millán, 1972; Cobiella et al.,1977, 1984; Gyarmati, 1983; Millán and Somin,


1985a, 1985b; Millán et al., 1985; Millan, 1997a;Fig. 7A). The Chafarina Formation forms the easternstrip, consisting mainly of calcitic and dolomiticmarbles, commonly bearing graphite (black mar-bles), with rare micaceous material. Based on lithol-ogy, sedimentary facies, and paleontological data,the Chafarina has been correlated with the UpperJurassic and Cretaceous calcareous sections of theGuaniguanico terrane (Millán et al., 1985; Millán,1997a) and with the isochronous sections of theRemedios–Camajuaní belts of the Bahamas border-land (Iturralde-Vinent, 1998). The Sierra VerdeFormation forms the western strip, composed ofimpure quartzites and phyllites rich in graphite,with some intercalations of metabasalts, greymarbles, and metaradiolarites. Locally preservedradiolaria and benthic foraminifera in the marbles of

the Sierra Verde unit define its depositional agebetween the Tithonian and the Early Cretaceous(Millán et al., 1985; Millán and Somin, 1985a,1985b). Millán (1997a) has suggested that theprotolith of the Sierra Verde Formation is youngerthan that of the Chafarina Formation.

The internal structure of the Asunción terrane isuncertain. Cobiella et al. (1984) indicated that bothformations are in fact distinct tectonic units, withthe Chafarina unit on top of the Sierra Verde. Themajor tectonic displacements in the region are NW-directed thrusts (Cobiella et al., 1984; Quintas,1987, 1988; Nuñez Cambra et al., 2004). Thesedirections are mostly related to the emplacement ofthe Moa–Baracoa ophiolitic body during the latestCretaceous and early Danian (Iturralde-Vinent etal., 2006). Cobiella et al. (1984) indicated that the

FIG. 7. Geologic map of (A) eastern Cuba and the Asunción terrane (Cobiella et al., 1984; Pushcharovsky, 1988) and(B) northeastern Hispaniola and the Samaná terrane (Gonçalves et al., 2000; Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún, 2006),with indication of the tectonic units and structural arrangement of the regions.


Asunción terrane overrides the Cretaceous volca-nic-arc suite (i.e., Purial complex) and the Güira deJauco amphibolites. Our field observations suggest,instead, that the Asunción complex is the lowesttectonic unit in the region. The Moa–Baracoa ophio-lite thrust sheet overrides the Purial (meta)volcanicarc complex, whereas the syntectonic foredeep-related Maastrichtian–lower Danian olistostromalPicota Formation occupies an intermediate discon-tinuous tectonic position below the Moa–Baracoaophiolite thrust sheet (Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006;Fig. 7A). The major tectonic event (thrusting) in theregion is of latest Maastrichtian to early Danian inage (Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006).

The metamorphic assemblages of the phyllitesand the metabasaltic rocks of the Sierra VerdeFormation contain lawsonite and glaucophane (Mil-lán, 1997a), indicating subduction-related HP/LTmetamorphism. Detailed petrologic analysis, P-Testimations, and geochronologic determinations arelacking, but a pre–early Danian metamorphic agewas suggested by Iturralde-Vinent et al. (2006)based on stratigraphic arguments. This is consistentwith the age of metamorphism of the Purial metavol-canic arc complex. This Campanian and oldervolcanic arc complex is metamorphosed to similarblueschist-facies conditions (Boiteau et al., 1972;Cobiella et al., 1977; Somin and Millán, 1981; Mil-lán et al., 1985) and its metamorphic cooling agehas been dated as latest Cretaceous (75 ± 5 Ma,K-Ar whole-rock, Somin et al., 1992; and 75–72 Mabased on stratigraphic-paleontological arguments,Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006). These data point to alatest Cretaceous timing for subduction of the Asun-ción terrane, similar to the other sedimentary pilesdescribed so far.

Samaná composite terrane

The Samaná composite terrane is located in theSamaná Peninsula, northeastern Hispaniola (Figs. 2and 3A). It faces the left-lateral, south-dippingstrike-slip Puerto Rico Trench to the north, and isbounded by the high-angle, left-lateral Septentri-onal fault zone to the south (Fig. 7B). The complex isconsidered a syn-subduction accretionary complexdeveloped during the Late Cretaceous to MiddleEocene (Joyce, 1983; 1991; Mann et al., 1991; Gon-çalves et al., 2000). It is one of the several pre–LateEocene basement complexes of the island, but thesecomplexes do not outcrop in the peninsula so thattheir respective structural relations are unknown.

Three main geologic bodies are distinguished(Joyce, 1991): El Rincón marble, Santa Bárbaraschists, and Majagual marble (Fig. 7B). The internalstructure of the Santa Bárbara schists consists of animbricate stack of discrete thrust sheets with top-to-NNE sense of shear developed during D2, the phaseof exhumation in the accretionary complex (Joyce,1991; Gonçalves et al., 2000; Escuder-Viruete andPérez-Estaún, 2006). Joyce (1991) considered thehigher grade (eclogitic) Punta Balandra zone of theSanta Bárbara schists as a discrete metamorphiczone that graded through a transitional lawsonite-actinolite-glaucophane–bearing schist (zone II) tothe lower grade lawsonite-albite–bearing schists(zone I). Gonçalves et al. (2000), however, suggestedthat the Punta Balandra zone is a discrete thrustsheet overriding the lower grade schists (Fig. 7B).The structural relations among the Santa Bárbara–Punta Balandra stack of thrusts and the Majagualand Rincón marbles are less certain. Gonçalves etal. (2000) suggested that the contact with theRincón marbles would also be interpreted as athrust structure, which would make these marblesthe lowermost tectonic element of the complex,whereas Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún (2006)showed the Majagual marbles overriding the SantaBárbara unit (Fig. 7B).

The tectonic units of the Samaná compositeterrane are characterized by different proportions ofthe same types of rock—i.e. metamorphosed pelitic,carbonate, and mafic rocks—and with commontransitional rock types (Joyce, 1991). Mafic rockshave oceanic geochemical signatures (Joyce, 1991;Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún, 2006), andvolcanic-arc components have been distinguishedin metasedimentary trench deposits (Perfit andMcCulloch, 1982; Perfit et al., 1982; Joyce, 1991).The metapelitic rocks are meta-mudstone, -wacke,-chert and -arenites, whereas the metacarbonatesare metacalcilutites and dolomitized interbeddedmetacalcarenites and metacalcilutites (Joyce,1991). The presence of ooliitic metadolomites andthe abundance of carbonates were considered byJoyce as indicating tectonic intercalation of carbon-ate banks developed on seamounts or aseismicridges with their underlying ocean floor rocks andwith trench sediments during subduction.

The age of the protoliths is not known. A singleCampanian or Maastrichtian fossil age from the Maj-agual marble is available (Weaver et al., 1976).Joyce (1991) suggested a generalized Late Creta-ceous depositional age, though he did not exclude


Tertiary material. Subduction and accretionaryprism formation spanning the Late Cretaceous toMiddle Eocene (Mann et al., 1991) constrains thesubducted material to pre-Middle Eocene in age.Cretaceous ages for the sediments of the SantaBárbara and Punta Balandra units are expected, forthey are considered oceanic sediments and thesubducted mafic oceanic crust was probably ofCretaceous age (Joyce, 1991; Escuder-Viruete et al.,2004; Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún, 2006).Based on the available timing constraints, wehypothesize that the carbonate banks of Joyce(1991) and perhaps also some of the other types ofmetasediment in Samaná formed part of Caribeana.

Isotopic Sm-Nd, K-Ar, and Ar/Ar age data fromthe Samaná composite terrane indicate a long his-tory of subduction and exhumation. Most of thesedata (if not all) pertains to rocks of probable oceanicorigin, making most of the comments that follow notapplicable to processes affecting Caribeana. Twovery imprecise Sm-Nd ages of 84 ± 22 and 86 ± 47Ma are reported by Perfit and McCulloch (1982) andEscuder-Viruete et al. (2004). A similarly impreciseglaucophane K-Ar age of >100 Ma was reported byJoyce and Aronson (1987). These data have beenconsidered indicative of Late Cretaceous metamor-phism of oceanic material (Joyce, 1991; Gonçalveset al., 2000; Escuder-Viruete and Pérez-Estaún,2006). We stress that these pre-latest Cretaceousages do not constrain the subduction history of thesedimentary piles of the El Rincon and Majagualmarbles.

Additional K-Ar and Ar/Ar ages reported fromoceanic rocks of the complex range from 48.9 to24.7 Ma (Joyce and Aronson, 1987; Catlos andSorensen, 2003; Escuder-Viruete et al., 2004).These ages are considered as cooling ages related touplift during the Eocene to Oligocene oblique colli-sion with the Bahamas bank and ensuing left-lateraltranspressional motion of the Puerto Rico trenchfault zone. It merits mention, however, that Catlosand Sorensen (2003) emphasized that Ar/Ar ages ofphengites of eclogitic blocks from the Punta Balan-dra unit indicate 25 million years of residence timewithin the subduction environment. Because therock studied by these authors started exhumation at600 ± 60 ºC (at minimum pressure of 9.6–9.9 ± 0.1kbar) and the Ar/Ar isotopic clock in phengites doesnot record ages at temperatures higher than 400–450 ºC, such residence time must be considered aminimum estimate. Taking into account the Sm-Nd,K-Ar, and Ar/Ar age data, the total residence time in

the subduction environment of subducted oceanicrocks would have been longer than 75 Myr, whileexhumation in the subduction environment (i.e., inthe subduction channel and accretionary prism)would have taken more that 60 Myr.

There is no estimation of the exhumation ratesfor the complex. Steady-state exhumation is improb-able given the variable (from near-frontal to left-lateral) kinematics affecting the wedge during theLate Cretaceous–Tertiary. For this reason, thedepth-time path diagram in Figure 5C, whichapplies to subducted oceanic rocks, is tentativelydrawn as being formed of five stages: (a) pre–85 Maoceanic subduction stage; (b) slow exhumation ofsubducted ocean blocks in the subduction environ-ment (85–75 Ma); (c) fast exhumation of theseblocks during subduction/collision of the carbonatebanks (i.e., Caribeana) (75–70 Ma); (d) slower exhu-mation during frontal subduction of the Proto-Carib-bean ocean (70–42 Ma); and (e) still slowerexhumation during collision with the Bahamas andonset of dominant strike-slip movement (post–42Ma). This history has been devised after consideringthe age data in the context of the sedimentary, tec-tonic, magmatic, and metamorphic events affectingthe cover and the accretionary and volcanic-arcbasement complexes, as described by Mann et al.(1991), Dolan et al. (1998), De Zoeten and Mann(1999), Gonçalves et al., 2000, and Escuder-Virueteand Pérez-Estaún (2006). Some of these events areindicated in Figure 5C.

The history of subduction of the “carbonatebanks” of Joyce (1991) is not known. This authorwrote that “the largely carbonate composition andthe metamorphic and deformational history of theSamaná Metamorphic Complex imply that the com-plex marks part of a collision zone between theGreater Antilles subduction zone and a carbonatebank. The question remains as to when and wherethe impact occurred” (Joyce, 1991, p. 74). Despiterecent work in the complex, this question stillremains unanswered. A possibility discussed byJoyce (1991) is that the metacarbonates represent asubduction-collision event of Cretaceous age. Thispossibility is consistent with the hypothesis of thecarbonate rocks being part of Caribeana.

Puerto Rico Trench composite terrane

Marbles and other metasediments similar to andpossibly correlative with those of the Samanáterrane have been dredged for ~400 km all along thesouthern wall of the Puerto Rico Trench, comprising


the Puerto Rico Trench terrane (Perfit et al., 1980;Heezen et al., 1985; Speed and Larue, 1991). It mayalso include possible submerged fragments of theNorth Slope terrane of northern Puerto Rico (Larueand Ryan, 1998), and an unnamed terrane northeastof the Virgin Islands (Figs. 2 and 3B).

The rocks recovered include marbles, calc-schist, mica schist, and greenschist (Perfit et al.,1980). They are dominantly, but not exclusively, ofisland-arc derivation (semipelitic sediments,graywackes, marls, island-arc volcanics, and/orvolcaniclastics and carbonates) amalgamated in anaccretionary wedge. Some magnesian schists andserpentinites document the incorporation of oceanicmaterial into the accretionary prism during subduc-tion. Although no eclogite and glaucophane schistwas recovered, some samples contain sodic amphi-bole (crossite) and needles of glaucophane, indicat-ing HP/LT metamorphism. Estimated conditions ofmetamorphism for samples are 400°C and 550°C at3 to 7 kbar, and K-Ar ages of a mica-epidote schistand muscovite from a greenschist are 63 ± 3 Maand 66 ± 6 Ma, respectively (Perfit et al., 1980),suggesting latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiarymetamorphism.

Metamorphism and exhumation of the PuertoRico Trench terrane during the latest Cretaceous–Early Tertiary is interpreted here as evidence for alatest Cretaceous subduction-collision event. Thus,the marbles recovered, at least at sites close to theSamaná Peninsula, are interpreted as fragments ofCaribeana, whereas much of the metasedimentaryrock recovered represents subducted fragments ofthe trench material derived from the Caribbeanplate.

Expression of the Latest Cretaceous Collision/Accretion of Caribeana

in the Upper Plate

Further evidence for a major latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary collision/accretion event is foundwithin rock complexes from the leading edge of theCaribbean plate. The main evidence is the LateCampanian termination of magmatic activity in thewest-central Cuban portion of the Antillean volcanicarc, and the concomitant occurrence of deformation,uplift, and erosion of the Cretaceous arc-volcanicand ophiolitic rocks. Latest Campanian–Maastrich-tian sedimentary rocks generally overlie with angu-lar unconformity the deformed Late Campanianand older volcanic-plutonic island-arc suites

(Pushcharovski, 1988; Pushcharovski et al., 1989;Iturralde-Vinent, 1994, 1998). In central Cuba,latest Campanian through Danian sedimentaryrocks overlying the Cretaceous arc suites yield fine-grained clastics derived from erosion of ophiolitesand Cretaceous volcanic-plutonic arc rocks (Bronni-mann and Rigassi, 1963; Albear and Iturralde-Vinent, 1985; Iturralde Vinent, 1976, 1977; 1995,1998; Tada et al., 2003). Ar/Ar data from granitoidsindicate cooling and uplift during 75–70 Ma (e.g.,Hall et al., 2004). These data indicate that the activ-ity of the volcanic arc in central and western Cubaended by the Campanian and was not renewed.

In eastern Cuba, ophiolite emplacement tookplace during the latest Cretaceous and was synchro-nous with deposition of olistostromes (La Picota Fm)associated with thrust tectonics and exhumation ofophiolites, volcanic-arc rocks, and metamorphiccomplexes (Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006). Theseauthors noted that this scenario closely correlateswith the geological history of the El Petén region ofGuatemala. In eastern Cuba, the activity of the vol-canic arc was interrupted in the latest Campanian(Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006), but resumed duringthe Paleocene (Iturralde-Vinent, 1976, 1977, 1994,1998), perhaps as a result of continued southwest-ward subduction of the Proto-Caribbean (Pindelland Barrett, 1990) or of the onset of northeastwardsubduction of the Caribbean plate (e.g., Iturralde-Vinent, 1994; Sigurdson et al., 1997; Rojas-Agra-monte et al., 2006; Pindell et al., 2006).

In Hispaniola, the Cretaceous Tireo Formation(volcanic arc) shows interruption of the volcanicactivity during the mid–Late Campanian. Non-volcanic Late Campanian–Maastrichtian sediments(Trois Riviere unit) cover the volcanics (Lewis et al.,1991), and latest Maastrichtian–Paleocene sedi-ments include coarse-grained, poorly sorted redterrestrial conglomerates (Don Juan unit), whichrecord the interruption of magmatic activity, anduplift and erosion of the volcanic arc. The LateMaastrichtian–Paleocene lower half of the ImbertFormation yields conglomerates and olistostromalrocks containing ophiolite-derived material (Pindelland Draper, 1991) similar to La Picota Fm of easternCuba (Iturralde-Vinent and MacPhee, 1999). Allthese rocks and relationships support the idea of atectonic phase as identified by Bowin (1966) andoutlined by Mann et al. (1991, “phase 4” therein)and Draper et al. (1994) affecting the island arcterrane of Hispaniola. Mann et al. (1991) pointed toa possible mid–Late Campanian flipping of subduc-


tion as the cause of this tectonic event, but LateCampanian to Paleocene collision and accretionof Caribeana would have had a similar tectono-sedi-mentary expression in the arc. Arc-related plutonicbodies with Maastrichtian–Eocene K-Ar coolingages (Kesler et al., 1991) formed due to residual orrenewed volcanic arc activity, probably related tothat occurring in eastern Cuba (Pindell et al., 2006).

In Puerto Rico, an important tectonic event andinterruption of magmatic arc activity are identifiedduring the latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary bymeans of an erosional hiatus embracing the LateMaastrichtian through Danian, which relates touplift and erosion of the Cretaceous arc (Jolly et al.,1998). The activity of the Cretaceous volcanic arcwas arrested at ~75 Ma in the Central VolcanicProvince, and renewed in the Latest Danian (~60Ma). The Western and Northeastern volcanic prov-inces of Puerto Rico show similar relations,although the initial interruption of volcanic activityis identified as taking place in the latest Maastrich-tian (~65 Ma). Further east, a Late Cretaceous arcdisruption event is recorded in St. Croix (Larue,1994).

In Jamaica, the volcanic arc section displays aninterruption of the volcanic activity along withuplift, thrust tectonics, and a latest Campanian–Eearly Maastrichtian hiatus, followed by depositionof Late Maastrichtian limestones and clastic rocks(Mitchell, 2006), and ophiolite obduction took placeduring the Maastrichtian (Wadge et al., 1982).Furthermore, Maastrichtian to Paleocene coarse-grained sedimentary rocks (Bowden Pen and MooreTown units) have been compared to the SepurFormation of Guatemala (Robinson, 1994).

The intensity of the latest Cretaceous collision/accretion event was sufficiently great that it wasmanifested by intense vertical movements affectingthe oceanic interior of the Caribbean plate. Forexample, Mauffret et al. (2001) indicated that LateCampanian uplift and prominent Maastrichtian (71–65 Ma) erosion took place in the northern part of theoffshore Beata Ridge, south of Hispaniola. In theSierra Bahoruco of southernmost Dominican Repub-lic, the oldest strata resting on Cretaceous basalticbasement and its terrigenous clastic intercalations(probable Dumisseaux Complex) are shallow-waterlimestones of Paleocene age (dated by E. Robinsonfor J. Pindell, pers. comm., 1983) recording a returnto submarine deposition in the Beata Ridge region(Pindell, 1985b).

Discussion

Timing of subduction of Caribeana

The evidence given above clearly points to amajor latest Cretaceous–earliest Paleocene tectonicevent all along the leading edge of the Caribbeanplate, which can be related to the concomitant met-amorphic events affecting the sedimentary piles ofCaribeana. This conclusion is particularly evidentfor the case of low-grade rocks (e.g., East Yucatán,Pinos, Puerto Rico Trench terranes), whose K-Arand Ar-Ar ages should not be interpreted as record-ing cooling during exhumation but to pertain to peakmetamorphic conditions (even though care shouldbe exercised in interpreting K-Ar whole-rock andmineral data). The same interpretation applies to the~70 Ma Lu-Hf ages of eclogites from the Escambrayterrane (Stanek and Maresch, 2007), which likelyrepresent subducted oceanic basement of Cari-beana, and to the 72 ± 1 Ma of zircon rims with a lowto very low Th/U ratio (0.002–0.005) from gneisspebbles from the Eocene El Guayabo conglomerateof the Pinar del Río region of western Cuba (Sominet al., 2006), which likely represent subducted con-tinental basement of Caribeana. In these pebbles,muscovite coexisting with zircon yields K-Ar ages of71 ± 3 and 70.5 ± 1.4 Ma (determined by M. M.Arakeliants and R. E. Denison, respectively; citedin Somin et al., 2006) suggesting low-grade or rela-tively fast exhumation, as in the Pinos and Escam-bray terranes (see above and Fig. 5). Thus, thesedata indicate that both basement and Mesozoiccover rocks in the region underwent a latest Creta-ceous–earliest Paleocene tectonometamorphicevent. Only in the case of slow exhumation ofmedium-grade rocks (e.g., Samaná) is there nodirect K-Ar and/or Ar/Ar geochronologic evidencefor latest Cretaceous subduction.

Timing of the Caribbean plate collision with the Bahamas

In order to establish the correct plate tectonicimplications of the metamorphic terranes discussedabove, it is essential to first clear up a dilemma con-cerning the timing of collision between the leadingedge of the Caribbean plate and the Bahamas Plat-form. Some authors have used the Late Campaniantermination of arc magmatism in central Cuba toinfer Late Cretaceous collision (e.g., Pardo, 1975).Another explanation for the termination of arc mag-matism is flattening of the subduction angle, whichwould have the same apparent effect in onshore


Cuba (the arc axis would shift to the south, offshore;Pindell et al., 2005). Stanek et al. (2006) presumedthat the Late Cretaceous accretion of the Pitajonesunit into the Escambray Complex must have per-tained to the arc’s collision with the BahamasPlatform. Likewise, Joyce (1983) considered mar-bles of the Samaná terrane in Hispaniola as possiblyBahamian, and Iturralde-Vinent (1994, 1998) sug-gested that the Asunción terrane in Cuba representsa metamorphic equivalent of the Bahamas platform.

However, several arguments clearly show thatCaribbean plate–Bahamas collision was Paleogene(Iturralde-Vinent, 1994, 1998 and referencestherein). First, the stratigraphic belts of the southernBahamas borderland were not deformed until thePaleocene–early Late Eocene, which is also the timeof primary olistostromal deposition, shallowing ofpaleo-water depths from abyssal to shelfal condi-tions normally associated with arc-continent colli-sion, and northward thrusting of ophiolite thrustsheets over foreland sediments as young as earlyLate Eocene (Meyerhoff and Hatten, 1968; Khudo-ley and Meyerhoff, 1971; Iturralde-Vinent, 1994,1998; Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2008). Second, to theeast in Hispaniola, similar arguments have beenused to show collision occurred in the Late Paleo-cene–Middle Eocene (Nagle, 1974; Pindell et al.,1988, 2005; Pindell and Draper, 1991; Dolan et al.,1998; De Zoeten and Mann, 1999). Third, the socalled “Maastrichtian carbonate megaturbidites” inCuba (Cacarajícara, Peñalver, and presumablyAmaro formations sensu Puscharovski et al., 1989)in fact represent the K/T boundary impact event(Pszczolkowski, 1986b; Iturralde-Vinent, 1992;Takayama et al., 2000; Kiyokawa et al., 2002; Tadaet al., 2002, 2003) and cannot be used to date theCuba–Bahamas collision. Fourth, the Bahamianforeland underwent forebulge formation and ensuingsubsidence in the Paleocene–Early Eocene (Itur-ralde-Vinent, 1998), and subsidence rates under-went a four-fold acceleration that would only beexpected if the collisional loading of the Bahamaswas Paleogene, rather than Late Cretaceous (Paulus,1972; Pindell, 1985a). Given the overwhelming evi-dence that the Caribbean plate–Bahamas collisionwas Late Paleocene–early Late Eocene, it is notvalid to ascribe Late Cretaceous aspects of northernCaribbean metamorphic complexes and arc-relatedgeology to collision with the Bahamas. In summary,the paleogeographic/paleotectonic position of theEscambray, Asunción, and Samaná metasedimentscannot be tied to the Bahamian borderlands.

Fragments of Caribeana vs fragmentsof the Maya borderlands

One concern here is distinguishing the originalpaleogeographic position of metamorphosed sedi-mentary piles relative to similar non-metamorphicsedimentary piles that formed part of the border-lands of the Maya Block, and possibly even theChortis Block. As described above, different authorshave demonstrated the general stratigraphic similar-ities of metamorphosed sediments in the Cangre,Pinos, Escambray, and Asunción terranes with non-metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of the Guan-iguanico terrane of western Cuba. Because theGuaniguanico terrane originated from the easternmargin of the Maya Block of the Proto-CaribbeanBasin (Pszczolkowski, 1978, 1999; Pindell, 1985a;Rosencrantz, 1990, 1996; Iturralde-Vinent, 1994,1998), these stratigraphic similarities are in turn thebasis for correlating the aforementioned metamor-phosed terranes with the Maya borderland. How-ever, in contrast to the terranes of Caribeana, thestratigraphic belts of the Guaniguanico terrane werenot tectonically disturbed during the latest Creta-ceous, but later during the Paleocene–early LateEocene (Pszczolkowski, 1978; Piotrowska, 1987;Gordon et al., 1997; Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent,1997). This diachroneity in margin deformation per-mits us to distinguish the paleogeographic positionof Caribeana and the Guaniguanico terrane, and tosuggest that Caribeana was approached by theCaribbean plate earlier (Fig. 1A).

Plate tectonic model

Figures 1 and 8 illustrate the paleogeographic/paleotectonic model devised here for the Late Creta-ceous–Middle Eocene Caribbean evolution. Themodel is designed to be consistent with the strati-graphic, metamorphic, and tectonic aspects pre-sented above. In particular, it takes into account twosets of metamorphic complexes: (a) one includingEast Yucatán, Cangre, Asunción, Samaná, and thePuerto Rico Trench represents a frontal trenchsetting; whereas (b) another including Pines,Escambray, and Guayabal(?) is associated with theopening of Yucatan intra-arc basin. The latter cameto the surface by low-angle normal detachmentbehind (south of) the arc–fore-arc nappes, and canbe characterized as core complexes.

Cretaceous pre-collision stage. Southwestwardsubduction of the Proto-Caribbean lithospherebelow the Caribbean plate occurred until LateCampanian time (Pindell, 1994; Pindell et al., 2005,


FIG. 8. Tectonic sketch cross-sections (see Fig. 1A for location) showing the proposed evolution of the northernmargin of the Caribbean plate, metamorphic terranes, and Mayan/Bahamian borderlands. Model for Yucatan intra-arcBasin adapted from Pindell et al. (2005). See text for details.


2006). This subduction stage is recorded in theEscambray and Samaná terranes as eclogites andblueschists, commonly embedded in serpentinitemélanges. Pre-latest Campanian ages for HPoceanic elements within these terranes suggest thatProto-Caribbean oceanic rocks were subductedbefore latest Cretaceous time, and were stored in thesubduction channel above the Proto-Caribbean slabuntil they were incorporated during the latest Creta-ceous into the composite terranes of Caribeana(Fig. 8A).

Judging from Aptian-Albian ages of high-pressure oceanic rocks around the Caribbean (e.g.,Stockert et al., 1995; García-Casco et al., 2002;Krebs et al., 2007), the west-dipping subductionstage began in the Aptian–Albian (Pindell, 1994;Pindell et al., 2005; García-Casco et al., 2008).During this stage, Caribeana occupied a midwaylocation within the Proto-Caribbean Basin extend-ing from the southern margin of the Maya Blocktoward the southeast (Fig. 1A). In between Cari-beana and the Bahamas, a northern branch of theProto-Caribbean Basin was filled with hemipelagicsediments such as those of the Placetas and Cama-juaní and the Rosario belts of central and westernCuba, respectively (Figs. 1A and 8A).

Latest Cretaceous–Danian: Subduction-accretionof Caribeana. Subduction of Caribeana started inthe Late Campanian (Figs. 1B and 8B). Differentfragments of Caribeana reached variable depth,explaining the variability of recorded P-T conditionswithin and among terranes. Amalgamation of rockswith contrasting metamorphic grades occurred dur-ing subduction, with emplacement of higher graderocks on top of lower grade rocks and the develop-ment of inverted metamorphic gradients (e.g.,Escambray, Samaná). Locally, slivers of the volcanicarc/forearc were subducted and metamorphosed,attesting to local tectonic complexities (e.g., Samanáand Puerto Rico Trench, Perfit et al., 1980, 1982,Joyce, 1991; Purial Complex, eastern Cuba, García-Casco et al., 2006; Yayabo amphibolites, Escam-bray, Stanek et al., 2006). As a result of subductionof Caribeana, the activity of the Cretaceous volcanicarc was arrested all along the northern margin of theCaribbean plate (Fig. 8B).

In eastern Cuba, Cretaceous volcanic arc rockswere overridden during the Maastrichtian–Danianby ophiolitic sheets of back-arc environment(Marchesi et al., 2006; Proenza et al., 2006) andsynorogenic basins developed (i.e., La Picota andMícara formations, Iturralde-Vinent et al., 2006;

Fig. 8C inset). Ophiolite obduction and synorogenicbasin development also occurred further west inGuatemala (Santa Cruz ophiolite and Sepur unit;Rosenfeld, 1993). However, the most importantdevelopment during Maastrichtian time is the onsetof formation of the Yucatán Basin (Rosencrantz,1990, 1996), probably a consequence of a low-angleintra-arc detachment (Pindell and Dewey, 1982;Pindell et al., 2005; Fig. 8C). Slab-flatteningoccurred in the western segment of the leading edgeof Caribbean plate as a response to, or concomitantwith, collision, favoring onset of exhumation of foot-wall core complexes (Pinos, Escambray, Guayabal?)shortly after subduction (Fig. 8C). However, parts ofthe subducted Pinos terrane experienced significantheating, forming medium-high–grade rocks (García-Casco et al., 2001). We speculate that detachment ofparts of the accretionary wedge due to normal fault-ing during basin development allowed heat transferfrom the surrounding suprasubduction mantle to thedetached subducted sedimentary pile (Fig. 8C).Further extension amalgamated these detachedslices of high-grade rocks with non-heated low-grade phylites of the Pinos terrane and the non-sub-ducted Sabana Grande Cretaceous volcanic arcrocks.

To the southeast of Cuba (Hispaniola–PuertoRico–Virgin Islands) normal-angle subductioncontinued during the Maastrichtian, promoting arcmagmatism (Fig. 8F). Intra-arc basin developmentdid not occur, which prevented fast exhumation ofthe subducted Caribeanan terranes located in thesubduction environment. The Mayan and Bahamianborderlands of the Proto-Caribbean were, at thisstage, tectonically “quiet.”

Paleocene-Eocene: Flat subduction in Cuba andYucatan basin development. In central Cuba, NNEtectonic emplacement of the arrested Cretaceousvolcanic arc on top of probable forearc ophiolitictectonic sheets (i.e., northern ophiolite belt) andsynchronous thrusting of ophiolites on top of theBahamian borderlands took place during the Paleo-cene–early Late Eocene (Iturralde-Vinent, 1994,1998; Iturralde-Vinent et al, 2008; Figs. 8D and8E). During this stage, synorogenic basins datingcollision events developed in the Bahamian border-lands (Iturralde-Vinent, 1998) as the leading edge ofthe Caribbean plate moved north. The first develop-ment of synorogenic basins took place during thePaleocene in the more distal sequence of the Baha-mian borderlands (Placetas belt) that was depositedon top of the Proto-Caribbean (Fig. 8D). Synorogenic


basins developed during the Eocene in more proxi-mal environments (Camajuaní, Remedios, and CayoCoco belts; Fig. 8E). In western Cuba, the allochtho-nous arc and its accreted constituents began to con-verge with the northern Proto-Caribbean marginduring the Late Paleocene–Middle Eocene bymeans of northward thrusting of the allochthonousoceanic Cretaceous arc (Bahía Honda thrust sheet)and ophiolite (Cajálbana allochthon) along with thepara-autochthonous Guaniguanico terrane onto thenortheasternmost Maya margin (Pindell, 1985a;Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997).

Contemporaneous subduction complexes and/orvolcanic arc suites do not occur in either region,suggesting that subduction of the Proto-Caribbeanwas atypical during the Paleocene–Eocene. Assuggested by Pindell et al. (2005), we envisage ascenario of flat subduction of Proto-Caribbean crust(Figs. 8D and 8E). This development explains ces-sation of volcanic arc activity in the Cuban fragmentof the arc and the ensuing southward shift of volca-nic arc activity, as documented by Early Danian–Early Eocene volcanic activity in the Cayman Rise/Ridge (Perfit and Heezen, 1978; Sigurdsson et al.2000, Lewis et al., 2005) and its eastern continua-tion in the Sierra Maestra Tertiary volcanics of east-ern Cuba (Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2004 andreferences therein; Figs. 8D and 8E).

During this stage, fragments of Caribeana werefinally exhumed. In this scenario, the allochthonousarc-forearc system first completely overthrusted thefootwall trench system (Caribeana), allowingCaribeana to occupy a position adjacent to thedeveloping Yucatán Basin; later, the arc/fore-arccollided with and overthrusted the Mayan–Baha-mian borderlands and associated Paleocene–Eocene synorogenic basins (Figs. 8D and 8E).

Paleocene–Eocene: Normal subduction in His-paniola–Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands. Volcanic activ-ity in the eastern part of the leading edge of theCaribbean plate was interrupted during the LateCampanian due to the accretion of Caribeana in thesubduction zone, but it was renewed in the LateDanian (Figs. 8B and 8F). This renewed volcanicarc activity was fed either by: (a) continued normal-angle southwestward subduction of the Proto-Carib-bean (e.g., Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Jolly et al.,2006); (b) the onset of northeastward subduction ofthe Caribbean along the Muertos Trench–Peralta–Ocoa belt of southern Hispaniola-Puerto Rico (Itur-ralde-Vinent, 1994, 1998; Sigurdson et al., 1997;Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2006; Pindell et al., 2006);

or (c) both. Continued southwestward subduction isdepicted in Figure 8F, as suggested by recent geo-chemical evidence pointing to Atlantic pelagic sed-imentary component in Tertiary volcanics of theregion (Jolly et al., 2006).

Tertiary Caribbean plate fragmentation. The dis-tinct tectonic, magmatic, and geologic evolutions ofthe western and eastern regions of the leading edgeof the Caribbean plate during the Paleocene–Eocene were caused by the distinct styles of sub-duction (flat in the western part, normal-angle in theeastern part). These contrasting scenarios mustrelate to a plate tectonic reorganization and frag-mentation starting in the Maastrichtian, for whichdifferent models have been devised (cf. Mann et al.,1995; Iturralde-Vinent and MacPhee, 1999; Leroyet al., 2000; Pindell et al., 2005). During this stage,the Cuban portion of the arc drifted northeastwardby low-angle subduction, and as much as 1000 kmof Proto-Caribbean and Bahamian–Mayan border-lands were overthrusted (cf. Pindell et al., 2005)until it was sutured to North America in the LateEocene. The Hispaniola–Puerto Rico–VirginIslands portion of the arc, on the other hand, driftedtoward the northeast by normal subduction of theProto-Caribbean until the leading edge of the Carib-bean plate finally collided with the Bahamas banksduring the Eocene, followed by Oligocene andyounger transcurrent displacement thereafter.During this process, as much as 1000 km of Proto-Caribbean and 100 km of Bahamian borderlandcrust was subducted beneath Hispaniola (Dolan etal., 1998; Pindell et al., 2005).

Conclusions

Onshore and offshore geological evidence allalong the northwestern branch of the Caribbeanorogenic belt indicates that the leading edge of theCaribbean plate collided during the latest Creta-ceous–earliest Tertiary with Caribeana. This Meso-zoic terrane occupied a paleogeographic locationwithin the Proto-Caribbean Basin, was formed bysedimentary piles similar to those formed in theborderlands of the Bahamas and the Maya Block,and was subducted during the latest Cretaceous.This subduction-collision event affected geologicentities located as far east (relative to the Mayablock) as the Virgin Islands, and precedes the west-to-east progressive (diachronic) Tertiary collisionstage between the leading edge of the Caribbean


plate and the margins of the Maya Block and theBahamas.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate financial support from the Span-ish MEC project CGL2006-08527/BTE and CubanGEPROP Project PNCT 01301179. We thank P.Moine for providing unpublished Ar/Ar ages for theIsle of Youth and Douwe van Hinsbergen for com-ments on an early draft of the manuscript. This is acontribution to IGCP-546, “Subduction Zones of theCaribbean.”

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