launching the new ship of state - hokes bluff high school€¦ · •1791 – 10 amendments passed...

Launching the New Ship of State

1789 – 1800

Troubled Times for US Government

• Americans distrusted authority and government – Had overthrown British and Articles of

Confederation • American finances in bad shape

– Little money coming in through taxes – Huge amount of public debt – Worthless paper money in circulation; metal money

scarce • Republican government over wide area

– 18th century political theory considered this impossible

Growing Pains

• Population – Doubling every 25 years – 1790 – 4 million people lived in US – Cities growing, although most people (90%)

lived in rural areas – Most people (95%) lived east of Appalachian

mountains

Growing Pains

• Trans-Appalachian population – Only 5% of the population – Concentrated in Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio

• First trans-Appalachian territories to become states (within 14 years)

– Not very loyal to US • Shipped agricultural products down Mississippi (mouth

controlled by Spanish) • Tempted by Spanish (and British) promises of

independence, if they broke with US

Washington for President

• George Washington – Unanimously elected president by electoral

college • Only nominee ever to be elected unanimously

– Preferred farming at Mount Vernon to being president

• Only president who did not want to be president– April 30, 1789 – took oath of office in New

York City (temporary capital of US)

Washington for President

• Washington’s cabinet– Constitution only says president “may require”

written opinions of heads of executive branch departments

– Cabinet evolved into group that held meetings and discussed policy under Washington

– Only 3 department heads under Washington• Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson • Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton • Secretary of War Henry Knox

The Bill of Rights

• Antifederalists had criticized Constitution because it didn’t have bill of rights

• Some states had supported Constitution with understanding that bill of rights would be included later

The Bill of Rights

• Amendments to the Constitution could be proposed in 2 ways– New constitutional convention requested by 2/3 of

states – 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress

• Madison chose to write amendments for bill of rights and propose them through Congress – Did not want to open new constitutional convention

when federalists had just barely won the last one

Amending the Constitution

The Bill of Rights

• 1791 – 10 amendments passed 3/4 of state legislatures and became law – Freedom of religion, speech, press– Right to bear arms – Right to trial by jury – Right to assemble and petition for redress of

grievances – Prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment – Prohibition of arbitrary government seizure of

private property

The Bill of Rights

• 9th Amendment – Guard against assumption that list of rights

were the only ones protected – Specification of certain rights did not “deny

or disparage” other rights “retained by the people”

The Bill of Rights

• 10th Amendment – Reserved all rights not explicitly delegated or

prohibited by the Constitution “to the States respectively, or to the people”

The Bill of Rights

• Judiciary Act of 1789 – Organized the Supreme Court with a chief

justice and 5 associate justices (6 total) – Organized federal district and circuit courts – Established the office of attorney general

Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

• Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton – Genius, but not fully trusted by many because

he openly favored aristocratic government – Interfered in others’ departments, especially

bitter rival Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state


• Hamilton’s financial goals for US – Fix economic problems from Articles of

Confederation – Favor wealthy groups so that they would lend

money and political support to government– Prosperity would trickle down from upper to

lower classes


• Hamilton strengthening the national credit– Believed US government needed confidence of people

(especially wealthy) – Pushed Congress to pay off entire national debt ($54

million) at face value• Speculators had bought bonds up at low prices• Government bonds had depreciated to .10 - .15 cents because

most didn’t believe government would be able to pay them back

– Pushed for Congress to assume states’ debts ($21.5 million) from Revolution


• Pushed Congress to pay off entire national debt ($54 million) at face value– Speculators had bought bonds up at low prices– Government bonds had depreciated to .10 - .15

cents because most didn’t believe government would be able to pay them back


• Pushed for Congress to assume states’ debts ($21.5 million) – Justifiable since they had been incurred while

fighting Revolution – Hamilton primarily wanted to strengthen US

• States would be more supportive of national government

• Rich creditors would support national government (to get their money paid back)


• State reaction to Hamilton’s assumption plan – States with large debts (like Massachusetts)

supported plan – States with small debts (like Virginia) did not

• District of Columbia – Virginia wanted this federal district (authorized in

Constitution, but had not been decided on yet) for commerce and prestige

– In return, Virginia supported assumption, and it passed

Customs Duties and Excise Taxes

• Under Hamilton’s plan, national debt was now $75 million – Could have avoided $13 million in back

interest and state debts • Hamilton’s true objective for national

debt was to strengthen US – The more creditors the government owed

money to, the more people with interest in making sure government worked


• Tariffs on foreign trade – Tariff – tax on imports– Hamilton’s plan to pay down the debt– Hamilton’s and Congress’s way of protecting weak

American industry from foreign (especially British) competition

– 1789 – first tariff law of small 8% duty – Hamilton pushed for higher tariffs, but Congress

(dominated by agricultural interests) only slightly increased tariff after 1789


• Internal taxes (within US)– Additional pay down debt– 1791 – Congress passed excise tax on a few

items• Worst was .7 cents per gallon on whiskey, paid

primarily by distillers (hurt rural farmers the most)

Hamilton's Financial Structure Supported

by Revenues

Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

• Hamilton’s bank – Admired British Bank of England – Proposed powerful private institution, with

government as majority stockholder– Government would deposit money from federal

treasury there • Would stimulate economy by remaining in circulation

(available for loans and investment)

– Would print paper money and provide stable currency


• Jefferson opposed to bank – Washington asked for Jefferson’s written opinion – Jefferson held to “strict” construction

(interpretation) of Constitution– No specific authorization in Constitution – Powers not specifically granted to US, reserved for

states – Therefore, states had power to authorize banks, not

national government


• Hamilton’s reply to Jefferson – Also requested by Washington – Hamilton held to “loose” construction

(interpretation) of Constitution• Anything Constitution did not forbid it permitted • Jefferson believed exactly the opposite

– Used “necessary and proper” (“elastic”) clause (Article I)

• Government explicitly authorized to collect taxes and regulate trade

• Bank would help government carry out these powers • Therefore, bank was implied (“implied powers”) in other

explicit powers


• Fight over bank exposed differences between North and South – Industrial North supported bank – Agricultural South did not


• Hamilton’s view prevailed – Washington signed Bank of US into law

• 1791 – bank created by Congress– Chartered for 20 years – Located at Philadelphia – Capital of $10 million – 1/5 of bank owned by federal government – Stock sold out quickly in public sale

Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania

• Importance of whiskey to rural communities – Bad roads forced many farmers to convert

grain to alcohol for easier and cheaper shipping to east

– Whiskey used as money on frontier


• Hamilton’s excise tax on whisky hurt rural farmers – Not a tax on luxury but as burden on

necessity and form of money

• 1794 – Whiskey Rebellion – Distillers tarred and feathered revenue

officers, stopping collections – Cried for “Liberty and No Excise”


• Washington brought militia from several states to stop Whiskey Rebellion – Question whether men from other states would unite

to fight another state – Army of 13,000 did march to Pennsylvania – Rebels dispersed when they heard troops were

coming – 2 convicted for rebellion; Washington pardoned them – Increased power of national government, although

some criticized Washington’s brutality

The Emergence of Political Parties

• Hamilton succeeding in giving more power to central government, at expense of states

• Hamilton’s successes led to divisions– States’ rights versus federal power – Grew from personal feud between Jefferson

and Hamilton to full-blown political rivalry


• Parties vs. factions – Organized political partied did not exist

during Washington’s first term– Political divisions (Whigs and Tories,

federalists and antifederalists) were factions• Groups who opposed each other and fought over

specific issues • Disbanded after issue had gone away


• Founders had not anticipated existence of parties – Organized opposition to the democratic

government seemed disloyal


• 1790s – Jefferson and Madison began organizing against Hamilton – Worked in Congress only – Did not anticipate creation of popular party

• Party system began to take form – As opposition to Hamilton grew and

newspapers brought ordinary citizens in


• The party system – Competition for power between 2 parties

important for sound democracy – Opposition party makes sure the other one

doesn’t go too far from wishes of people

The Impact of the French Revolution

• 1793 – political parties formed– Democratic-Republicans (Jeffersonian) – Federalists (Hamiltonian)

• Foreign policy made differences between parties even more pronounced


• 1789 – French Revolution began – 26 years before Europe would finally be at

peace – Left significant impact on US and rest of

Western world


• Early stages of French Revolution – Peaceful attempt to limit power of King Louis

XVI – Americans supported this as imitation of

American Revolution (except for a few ultraconservative Federalists)


• 1792 – France declared war on Austria – Austria fought to return king to France and

prevent democratic revolutionary ideas from spreading

– Late in 1792, France defeated Austria – Americans celebrated Austria’s defeat


• 1793 – French Revolution grew radical – King beheaded – Reign of Terror began (ending in 1794)

• 40,000 people killed


• American reaction to radicalism of French Revolution – Federalists turned against Revolution

overnight– Jeffersonians regret killing, but accept killing

of some aristocrats in furtherance of human freedom


• Impact of French Revolution – Britain brought into conflict (allied with

Austria to fight France) – Came to involve conflict between European

powers for control of Atlantic – Brought US and rest of world into conflict

Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation

• Alliance of 1778 between France and America still on the books– Was to last “forever” – Obligated US to defend West Indies (where

Britain was certain to attack)


• Democratic-Republicans wanted to honor treaty– Sided with France over recent enemy Britain – Argued US owed France its freedom


• Washington (backed by Hamilton) resisted – Believed US had to avoid conflicts with

Europe for 1 – 2 generations, so that American strength and numbers (through high birthrate) could be built up

– Believed that if US entered European wars (to defend its rights on Atlantic) it would possibly be defeated or significantly hurt


• Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 – Issued right after war started between Britain and

France – Proclaimed US government’s strict neutrality – Warned American citizens to be neutral toward both

sides – Influenced spread of isolationist feelings among

many Americans – Angered many Democratic-Republicans

• Betrayal of France • Announced by Washington without consultation of

Congress


• Citizen Edmond Genêt – April 1793 – ambassador from France; arrived in

Charleston, South Carolina– Received enthusiastically by many Democratic-

Republicans in South – Genêt mistakenly believed that most Americans did

not support Neutrality Proclamation • Worked to recruit Americans to invade Spanish Florida and

Louisiana and British Canada

– 1794 – Washington demanded Genêt be replaced

Citizen Genêt


• Neutrality Proclamation showed alliances are always based on self-interest – 1778 – both France and America gained from

alliance– 1793 – only France would gain, so alliance did

not happen – US didn’t technically violate 1778 alliance

because France never called on them


• American neutrality favored France– French West Indies needed food from US– If US had entered war on side of France,

Britain would have blockaded American coast, cutting off supplies

– No blockade meant US could continue shipping to France’s colonies

Embroilments with Britain

• British kept 7 forts on northern border between US and Canada– Violation of 1783 Treaty of Paris – Reluctant to give up profitable fur trade – Wanted Indian buffer between Canada and

US

American Posts Held by the British After 1783


• Miami Confederacy – 8 Indian nations allied with British– British provided Indians with guns and

alcohol – Indians saw Ohio River as US’s northern

boundary (and their southern boundary) – 1790 – 1791 – US generals Harmar and St.

Clair defeated by Indians


• 1794 – Battle of Fallen Timbers– General “Mad Anthony” Wayne defeated Miamis – British refused to shelter fleeing Indians

• August 1795 – Treaty of Greenville – Indians gave up huge tracts of land (Indiana and

Ohio) – Indians received $20,000 and annual payment of

$9,000– Indians could continue to hunt on lands they had

given up– Indians hoped treaty put limits on white expansion

Treaty of Greenville


• British attacks on US shipping– Blockaded French West Indies– Seized 300 US ships and impressed US

seamen into service on British ships; other US sailors imprisoned


• US reaction to British violations on sea– Jeffersonians called for war (or at least

embargo) against Britain – Federalists resisted Jeffersonian demands

• Wanted US to develop trade and industry; depended on Britain for this

• Did not want destructive war with most powerful country

Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell

• 1794 – Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London to negotiate treaty– Last attempt to avoid war – Jeffersonians feared pro-British Jay would sell

out US – Jay’s negotiations sabotaged by Hamilton

• Feared war with Britain, so he told British details of Jay’s negotiating strategy

• Jay got few concessions from Britain


• Jay Treaty– British promised to evacuate 7 forts on US

soil and promised to pay damages for seized American ships

– British did not promise anything about future ship seizures or impressments or about supplying arms to Indians

– Americans promised to repay debts owed to British merchants from before Revolution


• Jay Treaty enraged Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans – Treaty seemed to be complete surrender to Britain – Hurt South (who had to pay larger share of debts)

while North was helped (by being repaid for lost ships)

– Jeffersonian mobs hanged, burned and guillotined in effigy (a crude figure or dummy representing a hated person or group) John Jay

Jay Burned in Effigy by Anti-British

Americans


• Pinckney’s Treaty of 1795 – Spain quickly agreed to most US terms

because of fear of closer Anglo-American alliance

– US granted free navigation of Mississippi and large disputed area north of Florida

Main Centers of

Spanish and

British Influence After 1783


• 1796 – Washington chose to retire – 2-term tradition for US presidents until

broken by FDR in 1940 • 22nd Amendment (ratified 1951) made 2 terms part

of Constitution


• Washington’s farewell address– Published in newspapers, not spoken– Warned against “permanent alliances” – Did not oppose all alliances, but advised

making them temporary – Did this advice (to a weak nation) apply to

strong nation later?


• Washington’s importance– Fiscal health and strength of government

established – Settlement to west and sea trade expanding – Most importantly, had kept US out of foreign

wars

John Adams Becomes President

• Election of 1796 – Federalists nominated Washington’s vice

president, John Adams • Hamilton too unpopular with many people

because of financial policies (seemed to favor rich)

– Democratic-Republicans nominated Jefferson


• Bitter campaign of 1796– Federalists and Democratic-Republicans

bitterly attacked each other • Respect for Washington had put some restraints

on partisan attacks – Issues focused heavily on personalities– Democratic-Republicans attacked Federalists

for brutality during Whiskey Rebellion and Jay Treaty


• Results of the election of 1796 – John Adams narrowly won election (71 to 68

votes in Electoral College) – Jefferson became Adams’ vice president

• Under Constitution, 1 election for president and vice president; each elector had 2 votes; runner-up became vice president

• Changed by 12th Amendment in 1804• Now 2 separate elections (1 for president, 1 for vice

president)

Electoral Vote, Election of 1796Popular Vote(a) Presidential Candidate Party Home State

Count Percentage Electoral

Vote

John Adams Federalist Massachusetts 35,726 53.4% 71 Thomas Jefferson Republican Virginia 31,115 46.6% 68

Thomas Pinckney Federalist South Carolina — — 59

Aaron Burr Republican New York — — 30 Samuel Adams Republican Massachusetts — — 15 Oliver Ellsworth Federalist Connecticut — — 11 George Clinton Republican New York — — 7 John Jay Federalist New York — — 5

James Iredell Federalist North Carolina — — 3

George Washington (none) Virginia — — 2 John Henry Republican Maryland — — 2

Samuel Johnston Federalist North Carolina — — 2

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Federalist South

Carolina — — 1

Total 66,841 100.0% 276 Needed to win 70

Election of 1796


• John Adams’ personality – Fat (called “His Rotundity”), short (5’7”)– Stern and stubborn intellectual aristocrat– Not well-liked by mass of Americans


• Adams’ enemies– Could not hope to measure up to Washington – Hamilton (who hated Adams) headed High

Federalists (opposed to Adams)• Had resigned from Treasury in 1795 • Even plotted with members of Adams’ cabinet

against him – Inherited a violent fight with France that

might lead to war

Unofficial Fighting with France

• French angered by Jay Treaty – First step to US-British alliance– Violation of Franco-American Treaty of 1778

• French retaliation– Began seizing US merchant ships (300 by

mid-1797)– Refused to receive US diplomat – and even

threatened him with arrest


• XYZ Affair – Adams wanted to avoid war, following Washington – 1797 – Adams sent 3 men to reach agreement with

French • Hoped to meet with Charles de Talleyrand, French foreign

minister • Met by 3 go-betweens (called X, Y, and Z)

– Demanded loan of $12 million and bribe of $250,000 to talk to Talleyrand (bribes were standard procedure in Europe)

• American negotiators refused terms and left Europe – Hailed as heroes in US upon return


• US reaction to XYZ Affair – War hysteria swept US (even to Adams)– “Millions for defense, but not one cent for

tribute.”– Politically beneficial for pro-British

Federalists – Most Jeffersonians (except for most

committed) condemned French action also


• War preparations in US – In spite of some opposition in Congress by

Democratic-Rebublicans – Navy Department created

• Small navy expanded

– US Marine Corps reestablished • Originally created in 1775, but disbanded

– New army of 10,000 men authorized


• 1798 – 1800 – undeclared naval war between France and US – Principally conducted in West Indies – US navy captured 80 French ships, although

several hundred US ships captured by French – Slight push might bring US and France to

full-scale war

Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

• French do not want war with US – Already fighting war against powerful Britain

and Austria • Britain brought closer to US than again for many

years

– Talleyrand made it known that he would accept new US diplomat


• Adams’ decision – Full war, with US capturing Florida and Louisiana,

would bring power and popularity to himself and Federalist party

– In spite of this, he knew US was not ready for full war with a European power

– Early 1799 – submitted name of new minister to France to Senate

• Hamilton and High Federalists enraged; Jeffersonians and most reasonable Federalists supported Adams


• US’s 3 ambassadors received by France – Napoleon had just taken power of dictator

• Wanted to stop fighting with America and concentrate on Europe (and possibly form empire in Louisiana

– Convention of 1800 • France agreed to annul Franco-American Treaty

of 1778 • US agreed to pay damages to American shippers

(caused by French attacks)


• Importance of Adams in dealing with France– Avoided war with France– Prepared way for Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• Extremely important to future of US

– Adams unappreciated by Americans at the time

The Federalist Witch Hunt

• 1798 – Alien and Sedition Acts rammed through Congress– Federalists used their increased popularity

(during anti-French – and therefore anti-Jeffersonian period)

– Supposedly to protect US during war with France; in reality designed to weaken Jeffersonians


• Naturalization Act– Most European immigrants were poor and

supported Democratic-Republicans (less prosperous, more democratic)

– Raised residence requirement for aliens (non-citizens) from 5 to 14 years


• Alien Enemies Act– President could deport or imprison any foreigners

during time of war (without proof or guilt)

• Alien Friends Act– President could deport any foreigners whose

activities he considered dangerous (without proof or guilt) during time of peace

• Never enforced, but both Alien Acts gave president arbitrary and excessive power


• Sedition Act– Sedition – to conduct or language inciting rebellion

against the authority of a state– Anyone who impeded policies of government or

falsely damaged reputation of officials (including president) subject to fine or imprisonment

– Many indicted and 10 people brought to trial under Sedition Act

• All 10 were convicted by packed juries and pro-Federalist judges


• Supreme Court (dominated by Federalists) refused to declare Sedition Act unconstitutional

• Federalists wrote law to expire in 1801 (so it couldn’t be used against them)

• Sedition Act probably drove many to Democratic-Republican party

• Many others supported Alien and Sedition Acts – 1798 – 1799 congressional elections – Federalists won

strong victory over Democratic-Republicans

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions• Jefferson feared if Federalists could

become 1-party dictatorship – Choke off free speech might lead to end of

other constitutional rights – Jefferson and Madison wrote resolutions

adopted by legislatures in Kentucky and Virginia opposing Alien and Sedition Acts

• Jefferson’s more radical than Madison’s

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions• Jefferson and Madison stressed “compact”

theory of government – 13 sovereign states had made compact (contract) when

they formed federal government – Federal government seen as creation of states – States therefore final judges of whether the federal

government had broken the contract • Jefferson charged federal government had

exceeded its authority with Alien and Sedition Acts – “nullification” (refusal to accept them) was the

“rightful remedy”

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions• Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions not

adopted by any other states – Some Federalist states added strong

condemnations

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions• Federalist arguments against resolutions

– People – not the states – had made the original compact

– Supreme Court – not the states – had right to nullify unconstitutional laws passed by Congress

• Adopted by Supreme Court in 1803 (Marbury v. Madison)

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions• Longstanding impact of resolutions

– Extreme states’ rights view of Union – Longer lasting impact than authors had

intended• Used by South to support nullification and

eventually secession • Did not intend to break up the union, just stop

Federalist abuses of power

Federalist Versus Democratic-Republicans

• Sharp divisions between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans– Election of 1800 provided stark choice for

voters


• Federalists’ background– Generally federalists (who had supported

Constitution) – Led by Hamilton– Primarily from northeastern Atlantic

seaboard and merchants, manufacturers, shippers


• Federalists and government– Wanted strong central government, able to

crush democratic excesses (like Shays’ Rebellion), protect rich, promote foreign trade

– Advocated rule by “best people” • “Those who own the country ought to govern it.”

– John Jay • Feared democracy and rule by commoners


• Federalists and foreign policy– Hamilton believed in strong government to

expand US commerce and trade – Foreign trade (especially with Britain) very

important


• Democratic-Republicans’ (Republicans) background– Generally anti-federalists (who had not

supported Constitution) – Led by Jefferson – Primarily small farmers, middle class,

underprivileged, laborers, artisans, small shopkeepers


• Jefferson’s was bundle of contradictions – Virginia aristocrat and slave owner who lived

in mansion – should have been a Federalist – Master political organizer through ability to

appeal to underclass (Democratic-Republicans)


• Democratic-Republicans and government– Wanted weak central government (best government

was one that governed least) – Most power should stay with states, not federal

government • People, closer to state governments, could prevent tyranny

– Central authority kept to minimum through strict interpretation of Constitution

– National debt should be paid off


• Democratic-Republicans and classes – Believed in no special privileges for groups

(especially manufacturers) – Agriculture was most important branch of

economy


• Democratic-Republicans and democracy– Voting only for white males literate enough

to inform themselves and vote intelligently – Universal education important for voters

• Would lead to universal (male) suffrage

– For his time, Jefferson was very open-minded • Faith in properly educated masses and their

collective wisdom


• Democratic-Republicans and land– Jefferson feared property-less dependents

would be politically manipulated by landowners

– Reconciled slavery with more democratic feelings

• Slavery allowed white southern yeomen (farmer who cultivates his own land) to be independent

• Whites would not have to work for large landowners on plantations


• Democratic-Republicans and foreign policy– Generally pro-French

• Favored liberal democracy of French Revolution (before it turned violent) over the conservative British government

– Favored increasing democracy in US, especially in frontier beyond Appalachians


• 1790s – conflicts between 2 parties opened question of whether US would survive

• Election of 1800 – danger was that US would be destroyed by conflict

launching the new ship of state - hokes bluff high school€¦ · •1791 – 10 amendments passed...

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