CHAPTER 3

LEADERSHIP

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should

1. Describe how to apply sound leadership 4.practices to managerial abilities.

2. Interpret command or departmental instruc-tions and documents used to formulate

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division work requirements.

3. Analyze division material and personnel 6.readiness.

be able to do the following:

Identify the steps necessary to monitor theprogress of overall division work efforts.

Identify the methods used to determinedivision timelines.

Identify the methods used to monitor theassignment of division personnel.

This chapter addresses the topics of leadershipand management. The chapter should provide youwith an introduction to the fundamentals ofleadership and management required at the chiefpetty officer level. Topics covered in this chapterinclude effective management, leadership, personalcharacteristics, and Total Quality Management(TQM). An in-depth discussion of the topicspresented in this chapter is beyond the scope ofthis text. However, Management Fundamentals:

A Guide for Senior and Master Chief PettyOfficers, NAVEDTRA 10049, gives an excellentgeneral overview of leadership and managementfundamentals used by chief petty officers.

SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITIES

Within the formal Navy management structure,management begins at the chief petty officer level(fig. 3-1). Top-level management is composed of

Figure 3-1.-Levels of management.

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executive officers and above. Those officers areresponsible for setting the direction and vision ofthe command. In short, they set the major goalsthe command is to accomplish.

Middle management is composed of departmentheads. The department heads determine whichelements of their department are required to meeteach of the specific goals set by upper manage-ment. Department heads also assist in coordinatingaction between their divisions or interaction withother departments.

Operating-level management is composed ofdivision officers and chief petty officers. Personnelat that level are responsible for fulfilling the super-visory function of management. The operatinglevel of management is responsible for taking thegoals and determining a plan of action toaccomplish the goals. The operating level is alsoresponsible for ensuring the workers accomplishthe goals in a timely manner. The elements ofmanagement chief petty officers are involved ininclude planning, staffing, controlling, organizing,and leading.

PLANS

Plans are methods devised to achieve a goal.They are like road maps—they set the course thecommand will follow. All levels of managementare involved in one type of planning or another.At the chief petty officer level, you will probablybe involved in only one type of planning.

All plans fall into one of three general groups:strategic plans, standing plans, and single-useplans. Although you will normally be involved insingle-use plans, understanding all levels ofplanning will help you meet your planning require-ments.

Strategic Plans

Strategic plans involve activities that will takeplace in 2 to 5 years. The type commander(TYCOM) or higher authority uses the strategicplans of an organization to set its organizationalmission and objectives. The commanding officermay set additional organizational objectives suchas receiving the Golden Anchor Award or pass-ing the operational propulsion plant examination(OPPE) with no discrepancies.

ORGANIZATIONAL MISSION. —Theorganizational mission states the intended purposeof the command. The Ship ’ s/Command’sOrganization and Regulation Manual (SORM)contains the organizational mission.

ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES. —Organizational objectives are long-range objec-tives. They serve as the goals for management inachieving the organizational mission. The typecommander or squadron-level commanders setorganizational objectives. You can find thoseobjectives in your command’s five-year plan,yearly schedule, and quarterly schedule. Examplesof organizational objectives are the board ofinspection and survey (INSURV), the operationalpropulsion plant examination (OPPE), theoperational readiness inspection (ORI), anddeployment schedules.

You can use those long-range objectives toassist you in planning your work center objectives.An example of a work center objective is preparingfor an upcoming board of inspection and survey(INSURV) visit.

As a work center supervisor, you will probablydiscover an upcoming inspection the month beforeit occurs. You could, however, find out theapproximate date of the inspection 2 or moreyears in advance so that you could begin correctingor documenting discrepancies. That type of planningeliminates crisis management.

Standing Plans

Standing plans are those the Navy uses forrecurring or long-range activities. They includeUnited States Navy Regulations, 1990 (NavyRegs), Standard Organization and Regulations ofthe U.S. Navy (SORN), SORM, S E C N A Vinstructions, OPNAV instructions, captain’s nightorders, technical manuals, and so forth. Chiefpetty officers use standing plans to determineroutine work requirements within the division orwork center.

POLICIES. —Policies are broad generalstatements of expected behavior. You shouldbecome familiar with the command policies statedin the SORM. You could be tasked with helpingthe division officer develop divisional policies.Divisional policies involve areas such as the com-mand sponsor program, extra military instruction(EMI), extension of work hours, and routing ofrequest chits. As a general rule, your division willalready have division and command policy state-ments; your job is to ensure your subordinatescarry out those policies.

PROCEDURES. —Procedures are detailedstanding plans. Procedures define the exact stepsin sequence personnel should take to achieve the

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organizational objective. Examples are anelectrical tag-out procedure, a maintenancerequirement card (MRC), or a command check-in/out sheet. Ensure personnel comply with yourdivision’s established procedures, and submitrequests for correction whenever a procedurebecomes outdated or is in error.

RULES AND REGULATIONS. —Rules andregulations are standing plans that specificallystate what personnel can and cannot do in a givencircumstance. Commands use them to ensurepersonnel adhere to policy. Navy Regs, SORN,and command regulations fall into this category.

Although you should enforce rules and regula-tions, you don’t have to place everyone whoviolates a rule or regulation on report. As a chiefpetty officer, you have some latitude in applyingcorrective measures, depending on the severity ofthe infraction.

Single-Use Plans

Single-use plans are those used for short-rangenonrecurring activities. You should excel in thisarea of planning. Make short-range planning apart of your daily activity. Use strategic plans andstanding plans to determine short-range planningrequirements. Short-range plans should includemonthly, weekly, and daily plans. Types of single-use plans you will develop include programs,projects, and budgets.

PROGRAMS. —Programs are single-use plansthat state a specific goal and give the major steps,the timing of those steps, and the resourcesrequired to meet the stated goal. Examples ofprograms include the Personal Excellence Program,the National Apprenticeship Program, and theOverseas Duty Support Program.

PROJECTS. —Projects are the separate tasksyou must plan to meet program goals. When youmake plans to paint divisional spaces, you areplanning a project required to meet the goals ofthe Habitability Program. When you fill out atraining schedule, you are planning a projectrequired to meet the goals of your command trainingprogram.

Become familiar with the Navy’s programs.Doing so can help you to lead and manage yourwork center more efficiently because you will beaware of what is expected of you. You will alsohave steps to follow in reaching program goals.You can then devise projects to meet those goals,

BUDGETS. —Budgets are planned revenueand expenditures of money, time, personnel,equipment, and so forth, expressed in numericalterms, usually by category and over a period oftime. Most people think of budgets only in relationto money. You should think of a budget as adetailed plan of how you will use all of yourresources,

When you plan a project, make a budget ofthe time allowed, the personnel assigned, and thematerial resources and funding required.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

Management by objectives (MBO) is a fancyterm for the type of management most commandsuse. MBO means supervisors and subordinatestake part in setting overall goals for the organiza-tion. Each individual has a responsibility formeeting a major area of the goal. The commandexpresses that responsibility as those steps itexpects individuals to take in meeting those goals.The command then uses those expectations as ameasuring device to gauge the successfulcompletion of the job.

The Navy Leader Development Program(NAVLEAD) is based on MBO. It teaches Navyleaders to set goals. The leaders use managementand supervisory skills, outlined later in thischapter, to achieve desired results in the workcenter or division.

Objectives

The purpose of MBO is to set clearly definedgoals that all participants can easily understand.MBO helps managers plan, define jobs, motivatesubordinates, interact with subordinates, evaluateworker performance, and link command objectivesto division or work center objectives.

Basic Principles

MBO is based on two basic principles. Thefirst is that if you get people committed to a goal,they are more willing to work toward that goal.The second is that if you allow people to set thegoal, they will do everything possible to achievethat goal.

As a manager, your first job is to get peoplecommitted to a goal through joint decisionmaking. When done correctly, your subordinateswill have a personal interest in accomplishing thegoal. The goal will no longer be just what the chiefwants to do, but what your subordinates told you

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they were capable of accomplishing. At that pointthe goal has become the personal goal of yoursubordinates.

Your second job is to work with yoursubordinates to set a goal. Goals should berealistic and attainable. When subordinatesparticipate in goal setting, they help to set thestandards and criteria you will use to evaluate theirperformance in reaching that goal.

Advantages and Disadvantages

MBO provides some advantages over othertypes of management styles. It involves subor-dinates in setting goals, forces leaders to focus onimportant objectives, increases communication,and establishes measurable performance goals.

However, MBO also has some disadvantages.An organization can use it only in certainsituations. It requires more time to use, increasespaperwork, and may overlook objectives thatcannot be measured. In addition, MBO will workonly if top leaders support it and peoplecommunicate as required. When leaders don’tsupport MBO, the disadvantages can cripple anorganization.

DETERMINING WORKREQUIREMENTS ANDSETTING PRIORITIES

One of the most difficult and often overlookedjobs of the chief petty officer is to determinedivisional work requirements and priorities. Youwill find the work requirements in your division’sstrategic plans, rules and regulations, and single-use plans. Once you have determined the require-ments, you must determine the tasks needed tocomplete them. Then you will set priorities basedon the order in which the division needs tocomplete each task.

Determining Work Requirements

To determine work requirements, you need astarting point to establish what your division ispresently accomplishing (the real situation) inrelation to what the division should be accom-plishing (the ideal situation).

The work requirements your division shouldbe accomplishing are outlined in your command’sstrategic, standing, and single-use plans. Youshould compare these work requirements to whatyour division is currently accomplishing. You mayfind your division is not following the work

requirements outlined in your command’s variousplans. In this case, you need to revise thedivision work requirements to conform to thecommand’s plans. Or you may find your divisionhas the correct work requirements, but the goalsfor those requirements are not being met. In thiscase, you need to revise the division’s goals foraccomplishing the work requirements.

The real-ideal model (fig. 3-2) is a flow chartyou can use in setting new goals for your division’swork requirements. The exact sequence of settinggoals for work requirements should be done inthe following order:

Recognize the real situation in yourdivision.

Review strategic, standing, and single-useplans to determine the ideal situation foryour division.

Figure 3-2.-Real-ideal model.

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• Identify the differences between the realand ideal situation.

• Determine if the gap between the real andideal is large enough to require correctivemeasures.

• Make a commitment to change if sorequired.

• Set the goals for accomplishing the change.

• Develop a single-use plan to implement thechange.

After your goals for the work requirementsare set, you should review them to ensure theywill be effective. Effective goals for work require-ments should meet four criteria:

1. Be behavior specific—specify the necessaryaction to take

2. Be measurable—specify criteria or check-points for accomplishing the goal

3. Be realistic but challenging—test yourability, but have at least a 50-percentchance of being attained

4. Be time-phased—provide a time scheduleor deadline for reaching the goal

Priorities

You should now have determined yourdivision or work center work requirements byusing the real-ideal model. The next step is toprioritize the work requirements. To determinepriorities, ask the question What is the purposeof my division? Then use the answer to thisquestion to set your number one priority.

Next, at the top of a sheet of paper, write twoheadings: ROUTINE and NONROUTINE. In theroutine column, list tasks that take place on arecurring basis. In the nonroutine column, listtasks that do not occur often and need yourspecial attention. Within each column, label eachtask Important, Urgent, or Important/Urgent asappropriate. Important/urgent tasks requireimmediate attention; do those first. Do the Urgenttasks next and the Important tasks last. Sometasks may not fit any of the categories; do thosetasks when you have time.

You have now divided all tasks into twocolumns and prioritized them. Which tasks do youdo? You do only those which require your specialskills. Delegate the tasks in the routine column

to subordinates. Delegate those in the nonroutinecolumn if possible; however, monitor job progressclosely.

Ensure you have trained your subordinatesbefore delegating any work to them. When youdelegate work, let your subordinates know youare available to help with any problems.

STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES,OPPORTUNITIES, AND THREATS(SWOT)

You can use the strengths, weaknesses,opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis tohelp you determine the needs of the division. Theobjective of the SWOT analysis is to help youidentify those areas in which the division (1) needsimprovement (2) has available opportunities and(3) must overcome certain obstacles.

To perform a SWOT analysis, first take anobjective look at your division. Make a list of itsstrengths. Those are the areas in which thedivision does a good job. Second, make a list ofthe division’s weaknesses. Those are the areas inwhich the division needs to improve. Third, makea list of opportunities. Those are areas that couldhelp the division, such as unfilled school quotas,surplus supply funds, personnel due to report, andmaintenance availabilities. Last, make a list ofthreats. Those could be upcoming inspections,personnel losses, and cuts in funding. Perform theSWOT analysis before the beginning of eachquarter, and then use it in developing your short-range plans.

STAFF

Every job the Navy has requires people. Eachperson is important to the overall mission of theNavy. Therefore, the staffing of personnel is animportant part of your job. In determiningpersonnel needs and qualifications to keep yourdivision running smoothly, remember that peopleare your most important resource.

Personnel Needs

You will assist the division officer in reviewingthe ship manning document to determine futuremanning requirements. Since your command mayperiodically request additional billets to coverpersonnel shortages, be sure to document yourdivision’s personnel requirements to justify thoserequests.

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Additionally, you may be required to solicitor provide additional manpower from or to otherdivisions to accomplish assigned tasks. Carefulplanning and cooperation with other divisions canresult in benefits for both divisions. Never askfor more people than you need, but be sure youhave enough people on hand to meet specialrequirements.

Personnel Qualifications

You need more than just people to accomplishtasks—you need qualified people. Reviewpersonnel qualifications to ensure you assignqualified people to do jobs. When people are notqualified, assign a qualified person to help themin task accomplishment.

When reviewing personnel qualifications,make sure their service records document thosequalifications. A person is not qualified until therequired entries have been made in his or herservice record. Don’t put yourself in the positionof having to endure a mishap investigationbecause your people were unqualified.

of control is when the officer of the deck(OOD) makes course changes during navigationdetail.

Feedback

Feedback involves making corrections after anevent has happened. You monitor the event andthen evaluate how to improve the outcome thenext time. Examples of this type of controlinclude performance evaluations, inspections, andcaptain’s mast.

Inventory Control

The Navy supply system is designed to be aneffective inventory control system when usedcorrectly. However, most supervisors oftenoverlook inventory control until they go tosupply to request a part. Make sure you performinventory control by monitoring division supplies.Ensure your coordinated shipboard allowance list(COSAL) is current and that supply has all thespare parts or required supplies listed in yourCOSAL inventory.

CONTROLLINGQuality Control

Controlling is another term for monitoring.Control ensures the Navy and your command,department, and division meet their goals. Youmust use different types of control to maintainstability within your division.

Feedforward

Feedforward control is a way of trying toanticipate problems and make adjustments beforethe problems occur. You try to foresee possibleproblems and apply a solution to prevent themfrom occurring. The planned maintenance system(PMS) used aboard ship is an example of feed-forward control.

Concurrent

Concurrent control involves making changeswhile an event is taking place. You constantlymake little changes to keep your division movingtoward your stated goal. An example of this type

Quality control is a method of ensuring thatyour customers receive a product that meetsperformance expectations. Your customers aredivisions or departments that use your division’swork output. Your customers also include othercommands and the American taxpayer. A basicquality control system involves some or all of thefollowing measures:

•

•

•

•

Setting standards so that quality goals canbe established and then measuring orevaluating those goals

Inspecting and comparing materials, parts,and services to a set standard

Using statistics to measure deviation anddetermine if quality is within set standards

Using measurements or inspections toevaluate or compare actual quality todivision goals for quality

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FEEDFORWARD QUALITY CONTROL. –Feedforward control, when used as a qualitycontrol device, is an inspection of the rawinput for defects. An example is when youcheck parts received from supply to ensurethey are of the correct type and numberand are free of defects. If you find a problem,you should try to determine where it occurred.Did your division order the wrong part,wrong quantity of parts, or wrong styleof part? Does the supply system have aquality control problem that should be iden-tified and passed on to higher authority foraction?

CONCURRENT QUALITY CONTROL. —Concurrent control, as a quality control device,uses inspections to identify potential defectswhile the work is taking place. An example iswhen you inspect surfaces to be painted beforepainting.

FEEDBACK QUALITY CONTROL. —Feed-back, when used as a quality control device,occurs after the task has been completed. Thistechnique is useful to improve future quality.However, if you omit feedforward and concurrentcontrol and only rely on feedback, many tasksmay require complete rework because of problemsin quality.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS. —When thenumber of items produced is too large for aninspection of each item, statistical analysisis used. Random samples are taken andmeasured against the stated quality goal.If the samples fail to meet expectations,then the entire batch or lot could havefailed to meet quality goals. An example isa periodic planned maintenance system inspectionby the type commander (TYCOM). TYCOMmight make random maintenance inspectionsand use the results to form conclusions aboutoverall maintenance within the command.

QUALITY CIRCLES. —Quality circles consistof small groups of workers within each divisionwho look for ways to reduce defects, rework, andequipment downtime. The workers also makerecommendations concerning morale, workingconditions, and worker recognition for superiorperformance.

ZERO DEFECTS. —Zero defects is a type ofquality control that is based on the theory ofdoing the job right the first time. Supervisorsencourage workers to stop work to seek a solutionwhen they identify a problem and to suggestmethods of improvement. Supervisors follow upon suggestions and put into effect those which arefeasible. Workers who practice this type ofcontrol save time because they do not have torework a task.

Measurable and Nonmeasurable Control

To achieve control, you can use two methods:(1) measurable and (2) nonmeasurable.

MEASURABLE CONTROL. —You can usemeasurable control to determine the quality andquantity of the work output. This method ofcontrol involves the use of specific informationand measurements, such as budgets, audits orinspections, Gantt charts, and performanceevaluation and review techniques (PERT).

NONMEASURABLE. —You can use non-measurable control to measure overall divisionperformance while performing other functionssuch as planning, staffing, organizing, andleading. You can also use it to control the attitudesand performance of workers. This method ofcontrol involves the use of techniques suchas discussions with workers, oral or writtenreports, performance evaluations, inspections,and observations of work.

TYPES OF MEASURABLE CONTROL. —Most of the nonmeasurable controls are builtinto the Navy system or are self-explanatory. Wewill limit this discussion to the measurablemethods of control most people may not befamiliar with. These methods are the plan ofaction and milestones, Gantt chart, programevaluation and review technique (PERT), andcritical path method (CPM).

Plan of Action and Milestones. —A plan ofaction and milestones (POA&M) could beconsidered a budgetary type of control. You usethe POA&M to budget time, personnel, andresources necessary to complete a task. The basicPOA&M defines the job to be done, resourcesrequired, steps to be taken, and progress expected

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Figure 3-3.-Sample Plan of Action and Milestones (POA&M).

at specified times (see figure 3-3 for a sample The side of the chart indicates work output,POA&M). The POA&M is commonly used in and the top of the chart is divided into units ofcommands throughout the Navy.

Gantt Chart. —The Gantt chart shows plannedand accomplished work in relation to each otherand in relation to time. The Navy uses it as thebasis for more complicated charts, such as PERTand CPM. You will find the Gantt chartparticularly useful in planning and controllingoperational-level tasks.

time. Refer to figure 3-4. The left side of the chartlists tasks to be completed. The top of the chartshows the time allotted for task completion. Theunshaded bars represent the time allowed for eachindividual task. The solid bar represents howmuch of each task has been completed.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique. —The Navy developed the program evaluation and

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Figure 3-4.-Sample Gantt chart.

review technique (PERT) while constructing thePolaris fleet ballistic missile. It focuses on keypoints and steps that may present potentialproblems. You will find PERT helpful whenscheduling complicated nonrepetitive tasks and asa device to evaluate and report progress.

The PERT uses a line chart to show therelationship of tasks and the time required tocomplete each task. The chart contains lines andnodes (circles) that represent the start andcompletion of tasks.

When using the PERT, you apply a mathe-matical formula instead of guesswork to figurethe time needed to perform a task. You need threetime estimates to complete the formula. First,estimate an optimistic time (TO) based on aminimum of difficulties that could occur. Second,estimate a pessimistic time (Tp) based on themaximum difficulties that could occur. Third,estimate a normal completion time (Tn) based onthe average time you could expect to complete thetask. The formula for figuring estimated PERTtime (Te) is as follows:

To construct a PERT network, follow the sixbasic steps applied to all PERT projects. First,identify the component task you will perform.Second, define the order in which you need to

complete the component task. Third, analyze andestimate the time required to complete eachcomponent task and for the entire project.Fourth, find the critical path. The critical pathis the longest path from the beginning componenttask to the ending component task. Fifth, lookfor ways to improve the project though modifica-tions. Sixth, control the project. See figure 3-5for a sample PERT chart.

Critical Path Method. —The critical pathmethod (CPM) is very similar to the PERT. Themajor difference is the PERT focuses on timewithout regard to cost. The CPM focuses on bothtime and cost. The CPM and PERT have threemajor differences. First, the CPM only requiresa one-time estimate. Second, the CPM includesa cost estimate as well as normal and crisis timeestimates. Third, the CPM is based on theassumption that you have at least some experiencewith the work needed to complete each componenttask.

Elements of Effective Control

Control systems such as quality control orinventory control need certain elements to beeffective: controlled work activities, timeliness,effectiveness, accuracy, and acceptance. Theseelements of control influence how the work willbe accomplished and how long work will take.

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Figure 3-5.

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ACTIVITIES. —Your subordinates expectyou to control their work by comparing it to aset standard. When they know you will exercisethat control, they will try to meet that standard.

TIMELINESS. —Since managers need time totake corrective action when tasks deviate from thenormal standard, subordinates must make a timelyreport of those deviations. The “timeliness” ofreports depends on the amount of time a managerdesignates as adequate—it could range fromminutes to months. Therefore, when designingyour control system, specify the amount of timeyou consider to be timely.

EFFECTIVENESS. —Control systems mayinvolve additional cost. You should work toreduce the cost of your control system, while stillretaining an effective system. Additional costscould result from the need for additional people,material, equipment, or time. Evaluate yourcontrol system to eliminate or modify needlesscosts .

ACCURACY. —Your control system monitorsprogress and serves as the basis for correctiveaction. Therefore, you should ensure it providesyou with accurate information from which tomake decisions. Be aware that since people arehuman, errors will occur in the reporting process.Also realize some people will present informationin a manner that will reemphasize the negativewhile accentuating the positive. People usuallypresent information in that manner to try to makethemselves look good.

ACCEPTANCE. —People usually resist con-trol. The strongest resistance comes when peopleperceive the control to be excessive. Excessivecontrol gives the impression you do not trust yoursubordinates.

To avoid resistance, explain the purpose of thecontrol system to your subordinates. Make themfeel they have an interest in the success of thesystem. By explaining the purpose and generatinginterest in the control system, you have a greaterchance of convincing subordinates to accept it.

ORGANIZATION

Organization is the process of arrangingmaterial and personnel by functions to attainthe objective of the command. Organizationestablishes the working relationships amongcommand personnel and establishes the flow of

work, It promotes teamwork and identifies theauthority, responsibility, and accountability ofindividuals within the command.

An in-depth discussion of organization is wellbeyond the scope of this text. Therefore, thischapter will touch on only a few basic ideas andconcepts of which you should be aware. Thoseideas and concepts include types of organizations,organizational concepts, delegation of work, andauthority and power.

Types of Organization

Of the many different types of organizationused today, the Navy uses three specific types:line, staff, and functional.

LINE. —Line organizations refer to the majordepartments responsible for accomplishing themission of the command. These departments areusually Deck, Engineering, Operations, Weaponsor Combat Systems, and Air.

STAFF. —Staff organizations refer to person-nel who advise, assist, counsel, and serve the linedepartments. Staff usually does not have authorityover line departments. Examples of staff includethe Supply Department, 3-M Coordinator, educa-tional services officer (ESO), and drug and alcoholprogram advisor (DAPA).

FUNCTIONAL. —Functional organizationsrefer to special departments that are neither linenor staff. Usually a functional organization startsout filling a staff function and becomes soimportant to the success of the command that itis given special status. The manager has theauthority to ensure all parts of the commandperform as necessary to carry out that function.Examples of functional organizations include theMedical, Safety, Legal, and AdministrativeDepartments.

Organizational Concepts

At certain times you must report items suchas personnel readiness or material readiness tohigher authority. The method used to make thesereports will vary from command to command.However, certain basic concepts are common toall methods: the chain of command, unity ofcommand, span of control, and specialization.

CHAIN OF COMMAND. —The chain ofcommand is the order of authority among Navy

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members. The chain of command begins with thecommanding officer (CO) and flows down to theseaman recruit. All members use the chain ofcommand when they communicate about orders,responsibilities, reports, and requests from higherto lower authority or lower to higher authority.Members also use the chain of command whenthey communicate with others who have the samelevel of authority, such as a counterpart in anotherdivision.

UNITY OF COMMAND. —Unity of commandis the order of control of an organization. It givesone person control over one segment of theorganization. It ensures that a person reportsdirectly to and receives orders from only oneindividual. The person in control issues all ordersand receives all reports from his or her segmentof the organization. To ensure all personnel knowwhom they direct and to whom they report,commands should have clearly set lines ofauthority.

Use of the chain of command and anorganizational chart will help you maintain unityof command. Be sure you clarify your positionboth to your superiors and subordinates.

SPAN OF CONTROL. —Span of controlrefers to the ideal number of people one personcan effectively supervise. The ideal number isbased on the scope of the assigned functionalresponsibilities and the time available to thesupervisor. Normally a supervisor is responsiblefor at least three but not more than seven people.

SPECIALIZATION. —Specialization refersto the division of work. The organizational chartnormally shows the division of work. Workcenters are highly specialized by ratings. Divisionsusually contain personnel in similar ratings, anddepartments contain personnel in ratings thatperform similar tasks.

Delegation of Authority

The American citizens delegate authority tothe President, who, in turn, delegates authoritydown the chain of command to you. You delegateauthority to the lowest level competent to handlethe specific responsibility. Although you maydelegate authority for a task, you have the finalresponsibility for the completion of that task.

When you delegate authority to your subor-dinates, let them make their own decisions abouthow to handle problems that arise. If they make

wrong decisions, they will learn from theirmistakes. However, encourage and train yoursubordinates to come to you if they need help inmaking a decision. Since you are training yoursubordinates to fill a higher position of authority,help them, but do not do the delegated workyourself.

WHY YOU SHOULD DELEGATE. —Delegating allows you to accomplish more thanif you try to complete every task yourself. It allowsyou to focus your attention where it is mostneeded and to train and develop subordinates.Delegation also allows you to make gooddecisions outside your area of expertise. Forexample, because of specialization, you may nothave the knowledge level required to make thecorrect decision about how to complete a task.In that case, you would be wise to delegate thetask and have the subordinate report back to youwith alternative courses of action. You would thenreview the alternatives and make your decisionbased on the information presented.

FAILURE TO DELEGATE. —Many super-visors fail to delegate, or they delegate poorly.Some people refuse to delegate because they feelmore powerful when they make all the decisions.Others avoid delegating because they think subor-dinates might exercise poor judgement. Somesupervisors have a fear of letting subordinatesmake decisions they will be responsible for. Somesupervisors are afraid the subordinate will be moreeffective and thus threaten their position. Stillother supervisors do not believe subordinates wantthe opportunity to have more authority anddecision-making responsibility.

Make sure you train your subordinatesthrough delegation of authority. Both you andyour subordinates will be happier and have moretime.

SUBORDINATES’ ROLE IN DELEGA-TION. —When you delegate the authority tocomplete a task, your subordinates’ role is toaccept that authority. Along with that authority,they must accept the additional responsibility andaccountability that go with it.

Subordinates sometimes are unwilling toaccept authority for the following reasons:

• They don’t want to risk making a decision.

• They have a fear of being criticized.

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• They have a lack of self-confidence.

• They want to avoid the pressure of addi-tional responsibility.

Counsel any of your subordinates who showthese signs of unwillingness. Help them overcometheir fears and learn to accept authority andresponsibility.

AUTHORITY AND POWER

With authority comes power. Power is theability to influence people toward organizationalobjectives. However, you have limits on yourauthority and power. View your authority andpower as a funnel, broad at the top and narrowat the bottom. Always assume you have enoughauthority and power to meet your obligations, butdo not exceed that limit.

Authority

Authority only exists when subordinatesaccept the idea that the supervisor has authorityover them. Subordinates can fail to recognizeauthority through disobedience, denial, or workdelays. Subordinates usually accept authorityreadily; however, abusing your authority as asupervisor can make you ineffective.

Although most authority in the Navy resultsfrom a member’s rank or position in the chainof command, many types of authority exist. Mostauthority in the Navy is delegated.

LINE AUTHORITY. —Line authority is theauthority you have over subordinates in yourchain of command. This type of authoritycorresponds directly to your place within the chainof command and does not exist outside the chainof command.

STAFF AUTHORITY. —Staff authority isthe right of staff to counsel, advise, or makerecommendations to line personnel. This type ofauthority does not give staff the right to give linepersonnel orders that affect the mission of the lineorganization.

A chief from another work center or divisioncould, by virtue of his or her rank, exercise staffauthority over a person in your work center ordivision by counseling or advising him or her toget a haircut. Failure to follow the advice orcounsel may result in nonjudicial punishment(NJP) for the subordinate. The other chief would

not, however, have the authority to enter yourwork center or division and make changes thatonly you and your superiors have the authorityto make.

FUNCTIONAL AUTHORITY. —Certain stafforganizations are granted functional authority todirect line units within the area of the staff'sspecialty. Examples of staff organizations withfunctional authority include the Legal, EqualOpportunity, and Safety Departments.

Power

In conjunction with your authority, you usepower to influence others toward the accomplish-ment of command goals. You can use power forpersonal gain or for the good of the organization.However, if your subordinates believe you usepower for personal gain, you will soon suffer anerosion of that power. On the other hand, ifsubordinates believe you use power to accomplishthe organizational goals, your power to influencethem will become stronger. Your power will alsobecome stronger when you share it throughdelegation of authority.

Of the six types of power—reward, coercive,legitimate, informational, referent, and expert—you may use one or more in various combinations.Each situation will determine the one or ones youuse.

REWARD POWER. —Reward power stemsfrom your use of positive and negative rewardsto influence subordinates. Positive rewards rangefrom a smile or kind word to recommendationsfor awards. Negative rewards range from corrective-type counseling to placing a person on report.

You will find one of the best ways to influenceyour subordinates is through the use of yourreward power. As a chief, you are responsible forstarting the positive reward process. First, writea recommendation for the award. Once therecommendation is typed in the command’sstandard award letter format, forward it up thechain of command for approval. Your job doesnot end here. Always follow-up on the recommen-dation, using your influence and persuasion to getthe award to the proper command level.

Frequent use of positive rewards will amplifythe effect of a negative reward. Give positiverewards freely, but use restraint in giving negativerewards. If you use negative rewards frequently,subordinates will begin to expect a negativereward. Their expectation of a negative rewardwill lessen your power.

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COERCIVE POWER. —Coercive powerresults from the expectation of a negative rewardif your wishes are not obeyed. For example,suppose you have counseled a subordinate twicefor minor infractions of regulations. At the thirdcounseling session, you threaten the subordinatewith NJP. At the next occurrence of the un-desirable behavior, you place the subordinate onreport.

Coercive power works, but is not the preferredmethod of leading subordinates. It works best ifused when all else fails and you feel sure you cancarry through with a threat. Before giving athreat, you should have some insight as to howthe CO will handle the case. You do not want torecommend maximum punishment only to havethe CO dismiss the case at mast.

LEGITIMATE POWER. —Legitimate powercomes from the authority of your rate andposition in the chain of command. You use thispower in day-to-day business. Although legitimatepower increases with added responsibilities, youcan decrease that power if you fail to meet all ofyour responsibilities.

To increase your legitimate power, assumesome of the division officer’s responsibilities. Atfirst, the division officer will be glad to have thehelp. In time, the division officer will view theresponsibilities as yours and formally delegateadditional authority to you. That would increaseyour legitimate power without diminishing thepower of the division officer.

Just as you can increase your legitimate powerby assuming more responsibility, you can decreasethat power by losing responsibility. For example,if you permit the division officer to assume someof your responsibilities, the division officer willeventually begin to view your responsibilities ashis or hers. You will then have less legitimatepower. However, when a subordinate wishes toassume some of your responsibilities, formallydelegate those responsibilities to the subordinate.That makes the subordinate accountable to you.You then increase the subordinate’s power whileretaining your power.

INFORMATIONAL POWER. —Informationalpower depends on your giving or withholding ofinformation or having knowledge that others donot have. Use informational power when givingorders to subordinates. Give orders in such amanner that your subordinates presume the orderoriginated at your level. When forced to complywith orders you do not agree with, don’t introducethe order by saying "The division officer

said. . ." Phrase and present the order in amanner that leaves no doubt you initiated it.

Rely on your own resources to stay fully informedinstead of depending on others. Subordinates maypresent unreliable information in a manner thatmakes it appear to be true. Superiors may becomeso involved with projects they forget to keep youinformed of tasks being assigned or upcominginspections. Information is power. Stay informed!

REFERENT POWER. —Referent powerderives from your subordinates’ identification orassociation with you. You have this power bysimply being "the chief." People identify with theideals you stand for.

The chief has a pre-established image. You canenhance that image by exhibiting charisma,courage, and charm. An improved image increasesyour referent power. Always be aware of howothers will perceive your actions. A negative imagein the eyes of others will lessen your power andrender you ineffective. Maintain a positive image!

EXPERT POWER. —Expert power comesfrom your knowledge in a specific area throughwhich you influence others. You have expertpower because your subordinates regard you asan expert in your rating. Subordinates may alsohave this type of power. When you combineexpert power with other types of power, you willfind it an effective tool in influencing others.However, when you use it by itself, you will findit ineffective.

LEADERSHIP

Good leadership is of primary impor-tance in that it provides the motivatingforce which leads to coordinated actionand unity of effort. Personnel leadershipmust be fused with authority since a leadermust encourage, inspire, teach, stimulate,and motivate all individuals of the organi-zation to perform their respective assign-ments well, enthusiastically, and as a team.Leadership must ensure equity for eachmember of the organization. Concerningactions in his or her area of responsibility,the leader should never allow a subordinateto be criticized or penalized except byhimself or herself or such other authorityas the law prescribes.

—Standard Organization andRegulations of the U.S. Navy

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Leadership is often talked about and discussedwithout thoroughly being explained. Exactly,what is leadership? Are leaders born or can theybe trained? Management specialists have beensearching for the correct answers for over 90years.

The Navy defines leadership as the ability toinfluence others toward achieving the goals andobjectives of the organization. Leadershipinvolves inspiring, motivating, and developingothers.

Many theories have been developed to explainthe leadership process. The theories range fromDouglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y toWilliam Ouchi’s Theory Z. The Japanese usedTheory Z to develop the Total Quality Manage-ment (TQM) leadership style, discussed later inthis chapter.

Based on Theory X, the leader assumes peopleare basically lazy; will avoid working if possible;must be coerced, controlled, directed, orthreatened; wish to avoid responsibility; have noambition; and want security. People who basetheir leadership style on that theory use threatsto motivate subordinates.

Theory Y proposes that the leader assumespeople like to work; will seek additionalresponsibility when the proper work environmentexists; will exercise self-direction and self-control;and have a high level of imagination, ingenuity,and creativity. People who pattern their leadershipstyle after this theory help subordinates performwork assignments.

According to Theory Z, people who don’t fiteither Theory X or Theory Y are really acombination of the two. People who develop aleadership style based on Theory Z use differentstyles of leadership with different people,depending on the situation.

Relation to Management

Civilian management sees leadership as justone of its five functions. It expects its managersto plan, organize, control, staff, and then applyleadership to motivate employees. The Navy seesleadership as all-encompassing. The Navy leaderfirst and foremost motivates subordinates. TheNavy then applies the management functions ofplanning, organizing, controlling, and staffing asneeded to meet organizational goals.

Although the views of the civilians and theNavy seem to be different, both have one elementin common. Effective leadership involves planning,organizing, controlling, and staffing. Good

leaders plan well, establish an effective organiza-tion, set up an efficient and effective controlsystem, and staff required jobs with the rightpeople. Finally the leader excels at inspiring andmotivating subordinates.

Leadership Styles

What’s your style of leadership? Do youpractice one style of leadership all the time, ordo you vary your actions according to theparticular situation or type of people with whomyou are working? You might have asked yourself,How do I maintain respect for my position ofauthority and at the same time allow my peopleto voice their opinions? How can I take the timeto get their point of view when I’m under pressureto get the job done? These questions are puzzling,and they have no easy answers. A leader mustwalk a tightrope when it comes to solving thesedilemmas of leadership.

As a leader, you can practice leadership inmany ways. Research on leaders and leadershiphas identified several leadership styles. Mostpeople have a preferred range of styles. No oneleadership style is right or wrong; the appropriatestyle depends on the people being led, thesituation, and the requirements of the job.

In any situation, a leader must perform sixtasks that in some way involve or affect subor-dinates. A good leader takes the following actions:

• Listens to subordinates to diagnose orsolve problems

• Sets goals and develops short- and long-range action plans

• Gives directions about who is to do whichtasks to what standards

• Provides feedback on task performance

• Rewards or disciplines task performanceand personal characteristics

• Develops subordinates

The way these six tasks are handled at any onetime varies with the nature of the jobs. A differentleadership style should be used for routine tasksthan for innovative tasks or for situations thatrequire crisis management. Similarly, tasks ofshort duration often warrant a different style fromthose that extend over long periods.

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You can adapt the six different leadershipstyles (coercer, authoritarian, affiliator, demo-cratic, pacesetter, and coach) to meet therequirements of different situations.

COERCER. —In this style of leadership,subordinates are expected to do the job the waythe leader tells them to do it. Coercer leadersprovide clear directions by telling subordinateswhat to do and how to do it. They don’t listento the subordinates nor permit much subordinateinput. They expect immediate compliance andobedience to orders, and they control the jobs verytightly. This style of leadership requires manydetailed reports on the job, including progress andproblems with the job. Coercer leaders give morenegative and personalized feedback than positivefeedback and frequently resort to name calling toaccomplish the job. They motivate their subor-dinates by threats of discipline or punishment.

AUTHORITARIAN. —Authoritarian leadersare firm but fair. They tactfully provide cleardirection but leave no doubt about what isexpected or who makes the final decisions. Theysolicit some input from subordinates on how todo the job and ways to make the job easier.Authoritarian leaders see their influence as a keypart of their job. They persuade subordinates todo the job by explaining the “whys” behinddecisions. They monitor all jobs closely andprovide negative and positive feedback to theirsubordinates.

AFFILIATOR. —In this leadership style thepeople are the leader’s first concern. Affiliatorleaders consider concern for subordinates andpersonal popularity as the most important aspectof their job. They don’t provide clear direction,standards, or goals. They provide for job securityand fringe benefits to keep their subordinateshappy. Affiliators avoid conflicts that might causehard feelings. They reward personal characteristicsrather than job performance, and they rarelypunish subordinates.

DEMOCRATIC. —This style of leadershiprelies on participation of the group. Democraticleaders believe subordinates should take part inthe decision-making process. They base decisionson the consensus of opinion of the entire group.They consider specific direction and close super-vision unnecessary in completing the job whentrust has been established. They frequently holdmeetings and listen to their subordinates.

Democratic leaders usually reward averageperformance and rarely give negative feedback orpunishment.

PACESETTER. —Pacesetter leaders wouldrather do the job themselves. They set highstandards, and they lead by example. They areloners. They expect self-direction of themselvesand others. Pacesetter leaders have troubledelegating because they believe they can do thejob much better than their subordinates. Theybecome coercive when their subordinates havedifficulty or when things go wrong. Pacesetterleaders don’t develop subordinates because theyare continually taking away the subordinates’responsibility and exerting their own authority.

COACH. —In the coach style of leadership,leaders are concerned with the development oftheir subordinates. They are concerned with highstandards but have trouble communicating thesehigh standards to subordinates. Coach leaders seetheir job as developing and improving theperformance of their subordinates. They directby having subordinates set their own goals. Theyget their workers to develop plans and identifysolutions instead of giving them clear, conciseinstructions on what to do and how to do it.

Advantages and Disadvantagesof the Leadership Styles

Each of the six leadership styles has advantagesand disadvantages. Usually a good leader is acombination of several of these styles. You musttailor your personal leadership style to fit eachsituation.

The coercer style is especially effective duringa wartime situation when the command is incombat or under fire. However, this style ofleadership can have some negative effects if thecommand, work center, or individual is performingat a high rate of efficiency. Subordinates will notrespond well to the repeated use of threats duringnormal situations.

You might find the authoritarian leadershipstyle useful when seeking information on a particularsituation or before inspections. However, it isnormally not a good style to use in personalcounseling sessions. This leadership style doesn’tallow enough flexibility to provide alternativesolutions to subordinates’ personal problems.Using this style by jumping in and taking over insituations when you have technically competentworkers is counterproductive.

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The affiliator style of leadership is especiallywell adapted to the role of counselor. It is alsoeffective when you need to recognize someone fordoing a good job. However, the affiliator has anegative effect when the work center has a tightdeadline or when you are in a leadership role forlong periods.

People who use the democratic leadership stylelisten to subordinates. Therefore, you couldbenefit from this style when showing a newmaintenance procedure or how a new piece ofequipment works. You would also find it helpfulwhen planning social events based on a consensusof opinion. Using this style when preparing foran inspection would be harmful because youwould lack control. It would also be harmfulduring drills or combat because you would nothave time to hold meetings. You would have totell subordinates what to do or the entirecommand could be lost.

Using the pacesetter style of leadership ishelpful when you are working with a new workcenter or teaching a new maintenance procedureby example. However, if you begin doing otherpeople’s work, rather than training, monitoring,and developing subordinates, the pacesetter stylebecomes harmful to the work center.

The coach style of leadership is helpful whena worker is attempting to learn a new procedureor master a new technique. It is also effectivewhen you need to counsel a subordinate whofrequently arrives late at the work center.However, this style of leadership has no effect ona subordinate who knows how to perform a jobor task but refuses to do the work.

Factors Affecting Leadership Styles

The following six elements interact to deter-mine your leadership style:

• Motives and values

• Past experiences

• Past and present supervisors

• Jobs or tasks

• Organizational culture and norms

• Situations

MOTIVES AND VALUES. —Your leadershipstyle reflects those motives and values you see as

important. If power is important to you, you mayemphasize the coercer style of leadership. If youvalue friendship, you may tend to emphasize thedemocratic or affiliator style of leadership.

PAST EXPERIENCES. —If a particularleadership style has worked in the past, you willprobably use it again in similar situations. If acertain style didn’t work, you will avoid using itagain. Therefore, past experiences influence yourleadership style.

PAST AND PRESENT SUPERVISORS. —Since supervisors serve as role models, subor-dinates frequently imitate their behavior;therefore, your supervisors influence yourdominant leadership style.

JOBS OR TASKS. —The job or task yourwork center performs affects your leadershipstyle. A new procedure or the installation of apiece of equipment may call for the pacesetterstyle of leadership. An emergency situation maycause you to be coercive.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES ANDNORMS. —Civilian businesses provide a serviceor product to society. Since the products andservices provided by businesses differ, the needsand requirements of their workers also differ. Thesame is true for the Navy. The Navy provides aservice to its country. Each organizational levelof the Navy performs a specific job or providesa product that contributes to that service.Therefore, the needs and requirements of theworkers at each level also differ. This differencecreates different work environments (cultures) anddifferent relationships (norms) between theworkers. The culture of your organization has agreat impact on your leadership style. Yourleadership style changes to fit the organizationalculture of your work center. In short, you willchange your leadership style to meet theexpectations of your superiors.

SITUATIONS. —Specific situations determineyour leadership style because each one couldinvolve a different number of people and adifferent amount of pressure or stress. Forexample, you might use the democratic style whenassigning a daily task because you would havetime to explain the "why" of doing it. However,you would be unable to use that style during anemergency. Can you imagine explaining why youwant the electrical power secured during a fireaboard ship?

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Management and Supervisory Skills

Maintaining an effective and efficient workcenter or division requires five management andsupervisory skills. Those skills are a concern forstandards, a concern for efficiency, planning andorganizing, supervising for effective performance,and monitoring. Develop these skills in super-vising your people.

CONCERN FOR STANDARDS. —Emphasizethe importance of doing a job right and enforcehigh standards by doing the following:

• Ensuring tasks are done safely andaccording to regulations

• Seeing that required documentation isupdated

• Being intolerant of poor performance

CONCERN FOR EFFICIENCY. —Defineand organize each task to best use your workcenter’s or division’s time and resources asfollows:

• Identify inefficiencies.

• Improve the efficiency of existing systems.

• Delegate tasks to improve efficiency.

• Encourage superiors to use efficient waysto accomplish tasks.

• Build preparations for inspections into theday-to-day routine of the work center ordivision.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING. —Takethe following steps to carefully and systematicallydevelop thorough and specific plans andschedules:

• Set priorities, goals, and deadlines.

• Develop detailed, step-by-step plans.

• Develop schedules that optimize theallocated manpower.

• Coordinate schedules with others.

• Anticipate obstacles and plan accordingly.

Use the skills of planning and organizing todetermine the status and impact of your divisionwork on the work of other divisions. Becomeproficient in your planning of divisional work byapplying the strategic, standing, and single-useplans discussed earlier in this chapter. Becomeefficient at setting goals, and then analyze yourplans to reach those goals by using the SWOTanalysis.

SUPERVISING FOR EFFECTIVE PER-FORMANCE. —Get the best results from yoursubordinates by coordinating their actions. Setchallenging standards and demand high levels ofperformance; then supervise your subordinates’performance as follows:

• Set and clearly communicate your expec-tations for the level of performance in yourwork center or division.

• State up front the consequences forviolations of conduct or nonperformance.

• Hold subordinates accountable for poorperformance.

• Match people and jobs to get the bestperformance.

• Promote cooperation and teamwork foreffective performance.

MONITORING. —Develop the habit ofroutinely gathering information and keeping trackof ongoing work to monitor work center progressby doing the following:

• Observe procedures and processes.

• Monitor records, equipment, andresources.

• Ask questions to assess the readiness ofyour subordinates.

Monitoring is a control function of manage-ment, as previously discussed in this chapter. Youcan use inventory control, one of the six types ofquality control, or a control method such as thePOA&M, the Gantt chart, CPM, or PERT to helpyou in monitoring.

Effective Leadership

To be an effective leader requires certain skills.The Navy has identified six skills effective leaders

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have in common. These skills area commitmentto the command’s mission, self-image as a leader,communication, influencing, development ofothers, and a concern for subordinates. Let’s lookat how you should apply those skills in leadingothers,

COMMITMENT TO COMMAND’S MIS-SION. —Take the following steps to show subor-dinates you have a strong dedication to the Navy,the command, and the work center:

••

Act with the best interest of the commandin mind.

Put the Navy, the command, and the workcenter needs above concern for anyindividual.

SELF-IMAGE AS A LEADER. —Identifyyourself as a leader and a key factor in thesuccessful performance of the command or workcenter

•

•••

as follows:

Clearly define your role and respon-sibilities to both superiors and subor-dinates.

See yourself as a leader.

Set the example for subordinates.

See yourself as someone who makes thingshappen.

COMMUNICATION. —Use the chain ofcommand to provide and receive information tohelp all levels of the chain of command under-stand task-related issues more easily. Improvecommunication throughout the chain of com-mand in the following ways:

Keep others informed.

Give clear directions and assign specificresponsibilities when delegating.

Listen to suggestions from subordinates.

Make yourself available to answerquestions.

INFLUENCING. —Influence others towardtask accomplishment by using a variety ofstrategies, such as the following:

• Persuading othersthey will benefit

by pointing out how

Using threats or your authority toinfluence others

Presenting logical reasons or informationto persuade

Using the proper setting and timing foroptimum impact

Acting to motivate subordinates

Giving reasons for your decisions

Devising and using a strategy for influ-encing others

DEVELOPMENT OF OTHERS. —Use routinetasks to train division personnel to functioneffectively in your absence. Give enough guidanceto the leading petty officer (LPO) to allow himor her to complete delegated tasks proficiently.Train the LPO to assume your job so that whenhis or her turn comes to make chief, he or shewill be ready. Develop the performance of yoursubordinates through the following methods:

Making training opportunities, differentjobs, and expert help available

Providing constructive feedback

Using delegation as a tool to developsubordinates

Using the opportunities presented byroutine tasks to train subordinates

CONCERN FOR SUBORDINATES. —Activelysupport subordinates who must overcome problemsby showing concern for them as follows:

••

Expressing positive expectations

Taking the action required to providerewards, recognition, or special liberty foryour subordinates

Helping your subordinates in overcomingproblems

Effective Personal Characteristics

Successful chief petty officers exhibit certainpersonal characteristics that support commandleadership and management policies. You should

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develop these characteristics and make them partof your personality profile. Effective personalcharacteristics include concern for achievement,analytical problem solving, interpersonal aware-ness, initiative, persistence, and assertiveness.

CONCERN FOR ACHIEVEMENT. —If youhave concern for achievement, you seek newchallenges and work to reach higher levels ofaccomplishment. Four traits show you have aconcern for achievement:

Taking on new challenges with enthusiasm

Trying to persuade your work center ordivision to outperform others or to exceedthe set standard

Assessing the work center’s level of per-formance using comparative measures

Feeling frustrated when situations or otherpeople prevent you from completing yourassigned task in a timely and effectivemanner

ANALYTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING. —Analytical problem solving involves analyzingcomplex situations and evaluating information tochoose the best solution to a problem. The follow-ing are some traits you will exhibit when usinganalytical problem solving:

••••

Identifying the causes or central issuesinvolved in a problem

Weighing the pros and cons of each alter-native course of action

Drawing inferences and seeing the implica-tions of problems and solutions

Relating present situations to similar pastexperiences

INTERPERSONAL AWARENESS. —Whendealing with subordinates with whom you haveproblems, try to anticipate their behavior beforedeciding on a course of action. Anticipating theirbehavior requires a sense of interpersonal awarenessthrough which you gain insight into what is causingthe behavior. The following traits show that youhave a keen sense of interpersonal awareness:

• Thinking about the impact of your actionsor the actions of other people

• Trying to assess the motives or perspectivesof other people

INITIATIVE. —Taking the initiative meansyou are a self-starter who sees problems and takesaction to correct them without being told. Ifneeded, you take action to make changes inwork center operations. You don’t hesitate toinvestigate and tackle difficult situations. Thefollowing are some other traits that show you haveinitiative:

• Searching out information needed toaccomplish tasks or make decisions

• Developing new plans, procedures, orsystems

• Taking calculated risks

• Taking an active role in critical situationsand exhibiting the pacesetter style ofleadership when required

PERSISTENCE. —You show persistencewhen you expend extraordinary effort to completea task or overcome an obstacle. You usually getyour own way by showing persistence becausepeople become tired of listening to you and willdo anything to help solve your problem. Thefollowing traits show you are a person withpersistence:

•••

Doing whatever is ethically needed tocomplete a job

Taking repeated action to overcomeobstacles and ensure your goals are met

Making yourself and your subordinatesavailable - to work the hours needed toaccomplish your goals

ASSERTIVENESS. —When you show assertive-ness, you confront issues directly and insist othersrecognize your place in the chain of command.You do not become emotionally involved instressful situations and show restraint whenrequired. The following traits indicate you are aperson with assertiveness:

••

Addressing key issues and conflicts youhave with other people

Acting forcefully and with confidencewhen you are dealing with superiors orpeers

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• Always insisting on having full respon-sibility for each task you are assigned

• Demonstrating self-control in a conflict orwhen you are provoked

Total Quality Management (TQM)

A major problem facing the armed servicestoday is a lack of money. The budgets of ourforces are not going to increase in the foreseeablefuture. Indeed, they will probably continue toshrink. Although our present system of doingbusiness is adequate, it doesn’t allow for manyimprovements in productivity. We have done anexcellent job with our present system. To wringany more bang from our buck, however, willmean a change in the way we do business.

Management by objectives is a time-honoredprinciple of management. However, we now mustchange our objectives. Today’s managers must settheir sights on a larger, system-wide objective.That objective is increased productivity throughbetter quality.

The Department of the Navy (DON) hasrecently adopted the concept of Total QualityManagement (TQM) as the means of meetingDON needs into the 21st century. Executive Order12637, signed April 27, 1988, establishes theProductivity Improvement Program for thefederal government. TQM IS THE NAVY’SANSWER TO THAT ORDER. The Navy hasadopted the civilian TQM concept and changedthe name to a more military sounding name—Total Quality Leadership (TQL).

TQM, What Is It?

TQM focuses on the process by which workgets done. The person most familiar with thatprocess is the individual worker responsible formaking it work. Often, a process is eitherunmanageable or just plain unworkable. In a rigidbureaucracy, for workers to persuade upperechelons of a need to change a procedure isnearly impossible. Under TQM, management isresponsible for making a particular job as easyas possible for workers. Supervisors and managersmonitor the work process and respond tosuggestions from the work force concerningunworkable procedures. Sailors in particular areinfamous for coming up with nonstandard (butworkable) solutions to problems. In some cases,this results in unsafe practices. However, thesesolutions are often extremely practical. We must

develop the ability to ferret out these improve-ments and incorporate them into standardprocedures. That serves a dual purpose. First, itensures the recommended improvement is usableand meets all applicable standards. Second, theimproved method is made available to everyoneinvolved in that process. Both of these purposesserve a practical application of "working smarter,not harder."

Benefits of TQM

A popular myth among military managersholds that increased quality results in increasedcosts and decreased productivity. In reality,improved quality ultimately results in decreasedcosts and increased productivity. How can this be?A focus on quality extends the time betweenfailures on equipment and improves the efficiencyof our operations. It reduces rework requirementsas well as the need for special waivers ofstandards. It also reduces mistakes and producesmonetary savings through more efficient use ofscarce resources.

Direct benefits of TQM are as follows:

• Increased pride of workmanship amongindividual workers

• Increased readiness

• Improved sustainability caused by extendedtime between equipment failures

• Greater mission survivability

• Better justification for budgets because ofmore efficient operations

• Streamlined maintenance and productionprocesses

The bottom line of TQM is “more bang forthe buck.”

The Concept of Quality Management

The concept behind quality managementrevolves around a change from management byresults to management by process (quality)improvement. Managers are tasked with con-tinuously improving each and every processin their organization. That means combiningquantitative methods and human resource manage-ment techniques to improve customer-supplier

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relations and internal processes. This culturalchange in management practices has certain basicelements:

Management must clearly state theorganization’s mission. It must state themission clearly and make it available to allemployees, suppliers, and customers. Aclear, public-mission statement preventsindividuals from generating their owndefinitions of work priorities.

Managers and supervisors must ensuretheir actions clearly support the organiza-tion’s mission. This support includessetting priorities and assigning tasks.

Management must focus its efforts towarda common goal. This focus is an importantpart of team building.

Management must make a long-termcommitment to quality improvement. In-dividual managers must set an example byproviding consistent, focused leadership.

Quality management achieves results byfocusing on the procedures and processes that getthe work done. Under TQM, management muststrive continuously to improve the work process.The primary emphasis of this effort is theprevention of defects through quality improve-ment rather than quality inspections. Qualitycannot be inspected; it must be managed from thebeginning. Conforming to established specifica-tions is only part of quality improvement.Management must not be satisfied with minimumstandards. As standards are met, we, as managers,must look for new ways to improve our product.Find the means to further tighten standards andimprove quality. That’s your job.

Customer-Supplier Relationship

Another aspect of the TQM concept is thenecessary relationship between customer andsupplier. No matter what your job, it probablyinvolves a customer-supplier relationship. TheIntermediate Maintenance Department of acommand is a customer of and supplier to theSupply Department. Aircraft squadrons andsupply departments have the same dual roles. Atone point, a supply department must establish a

working arrangement with a squadron that clearlydefines each department’s needs and realisticexpectations. A career counselor must ensurecustomers’ needs are met. On the other hand,customers must have a realistic understanding ofthe service the career counselor can render. Thismutual understanding of needs and capabilitiesis needed to achieve customer satisfaction.

Leadership and TQM

The essential ingredient of TQM success isleadership involvement. Management controls theprocess that accomplishes the mission. Quality,however, is in the hands of the workers who dothe job. Management, therefore, has the respon-sibility to drive out the natural fear of change andinnovation that is part of most people’s basicpsychology. TQM must be supported from the topdown. That doesn’t mean the department headlevel. TQM must start with SECNAV/CNO-levelsupport and be supported and carried out all theway to the bottom of the chain of command.From admiral to deck seaman, TQM requires atotal effort.

SUMMARY

Effective management involves the use ofplanning, staffing, controlling, organizing, andleading. Planning is the use of strategic plans,standing plans, and single-use plans. Effectiveplanning requires you to determine work require-ments; set priorities; and use the strengths,weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT)analysis.

Staffing is a means by which you match thecorrect person to the job for optimum perform-ance. You should continually evaluate yourpersonnel needs and make sure documentation isupdated when subordinates complete personnelqualifications standards.

You use control to monitor your division orwork center. Types of control include feed-forward, concurrent, and feedback. Control alsoincludes inventory control and quality control.Types of quality control include feedforward,concurrent, feedback, statistical, quality circle andzero defects. Methods of control include the planof action and milestones, Gantt chart, programevaluation and review technique (PERT), andcritical path method (CPM). Elements of effectivecontrol are activities, timeliness, effectiveness,accuracy, and acceptance.

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TQM Focus on Process

Organization refers to the relationships ofpeople within the command or work center. Thetypes of organization common to the Navy areline, staff, and functional organizations. Organiza-tion functions are based on organizationalconcepts. The Navy uses the organizationalconcepts of the chain of command, unity ofcommand, span of control, and specialization.

The delegation of work is an important partof management and leadership. Delegating workfrees you to concentrate on the most importanttasks and trains your subordinates for higherlevels of responsibility.

The Navy recognizes three types of authority:line, staff, and functional. Authority involves sixtypes of power: reward, coercive, legitimate,informational, referent, and expert. Your poweris limited by the perception subordinates have ofyou. Misuse of power for personal gain can renderyou ineffective.

Leadership involves influencing others towardaccomplishing goals. You may use one or moreof the six leadership styles: coercer, authoritarian,affiliator, democratic, pacesetter, and coach. Youwill find each leadership style effective whenmatched with the proper situation.

The Navy used to manage tasks and peoplebased on Management by Objectives (MBO).Today the Navy has made a commitment to amanagement program called Total QualityManagement (TQM). The Navy has changed the

name to Total Quality Leadership (TQL). Thebasis of TQL is quality control. Through TQL,your work center or division can provide out-standing service to the person or organizationreceiving your products.

REFERENCES

Megginson, Leon C., Donald C. Mosley, andPaul H. Pietri, Jr., Management: Conceptsand Applications, 3rd ed., Harper & Row,New York, 1989.

Navy Leader Development Program, Chief PettyOfficer Student Guide, NAVEDTRA 38222,Chief of Naval Technical Program, Memphis,Tenn., 1990.

Standard Organization and Regulations of theU.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B, Officeof the Chief of Naval Operations, Washing-ton, D.C., 1986.

Total Quality Management, Department of theNavy, Washington, D.C., 1989.

U.S. Navy Regulations, 1990, Office of theSecretary of the Navy, Washington, D.C.,1990.

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