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Abstract
While global enterprise is not a new phenomenon, new technologies, such as the internet coupled
with the comparative ease of international travel have made the interchange between cultures
nearly universal. With this interchange comes the resultant interaction between leaders and
managers from one culture leading subordinates and peers from another culture. The interaction
of cross-cultural leadership suggests potential for misunderstandings and confusion even when
utilizing contemporaneous best methods and styles to achieve maximum effectiveness with
minimal confusion. This article suggests that the four virtues of courage, moderation, justice and
wisdom provide a framework for modern leaders to find common ground as the basis, near
universal attributes necessary to lead within a multi-cultural global business concern.
Key Words: ethics; leadership; cardinal virtue; justice; moderation; global business; cross
cultural; moral courage
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Table of Contents
Leadership in the Global Enterprise: Practicing the Amaranthine Cross-Cultural Values of
Courage, Moderation, Justice, and Wisdom................................................................................... 1
Abstract........................................................................................................................................... 2
Leadership in the Global Enterprise: Practicing the Amaranthine Cross-Cultural Values of
Justice, Courage, Moderation and Wisdom.................................................................................... 4
Cultural Values ............................................................................................................................... 6
The Four Cardinal Virtues, Judeo-Christian Roots and Greek Philosophy............................ 9
Courage................................................................................................................................. 11
Moderation............................................................................................................................ 12
Justice.................................................................................................................................... 13
Wisdom................................................................................................................................. 13
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 14
References..................................................................................................................................... 17
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Leadership in the Global Enterprise: Practicing the Amaranthine
Cross-Cultural Values of Justice, Courage, Moderation and
Wisdom
While global enterprise is not a new phenomenon, new technologies, such as the internet
coupled with the comparative ease of international travel have made the interchange between
cultures nearly universal. With this interchange comes the resultant interaction between leaders
and managers from one culture leading subordinates and peers from another culture. The
interaction of cross-cultural leadership suggests potential for misunderstandings and confusion
even when utilizing contemporaneous best methods and styles to achieve maximum
effectiveness with minimal confusion. In 2003, researchers suggested that there is a wide interest
in increasing sophistication in leadership research that leads to universal findings and refinement
of cultural dimensions for clear application to variation in leadership (Dickson, Den Hartog, &
Mitchelson, 2003, p. 751). Dickson et al. suggest that much of “cross-cultural leadership…has
been focused on the issue of equivalence” (p. 732) and that research must identify and
distinguish emics, the unique things of a culture from the etics, the universal. In recent years, the
validity of studying leadership in a cross-cultural context has developed as an independent field
of study (p. 748).
An example of the issues encountered by leadership in the global marketplace is the
growth of corruption that is occurring with the expansion of international trade and global
business competition. While many factors may contribute to a willingness of those in leadership
positions to participate, Beets suggests that there is a role for religious organizations to raise their
voices in condemnation of this corruption (Beets, 2007). Karakas states that humanity and
global cultures not only experience problems in economic, political and material areas, but in
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ethical, moral and spiritual areas as well (2006). Certainly business leaders who incorporate
Judeo-Christian principles must also face both the singular moral issue and the more general
challenges of cultural and ethnic dissimilarities. Is it possible then to define a set of basic
leadership values that are at once universal and yet not hostile to the foundations of one’s faith?
Global leaders are called to influence people who come from a variety of cultural, ethnic,
and religious backgrounds. Success comes with a global mindset, toleration for high levels of
ambiguity, along with adaptability and flexibility to cultural variations (Javidan, Dorfman, De
Luque, & House, 2006, p. 85). Leaders may act as impresarios, but they also must recognize that
a type of structure is needed, which stimulates creativity toward organizational goals (Benton,
1992, p. 28). A leader must possess an ability to understand other cultures and to act in
accordance with that understanding in order to achieve goals and further positive relations. A call
for universal values from leaders and scholars appears at first glance to clash in the presence of
the need to function amidst cultural variations, ambiguity, and adaptability that are vital to
commercial success across multiple international arenas. Further, globalization may lead to
moral ambiguity that will culminate in leaders that follow the letter of the law, “but not the spirit
of the law” (Barber, 2009)? Yet, ambiguity does not lead to a practice of a moral system that “is
more than obedience to the rules of social conduct” for “to be moral is to foster the betterment of
humankind” (Phelps, 2009). The apparent contradiction between the need for a universal moral
framework and the need for ambiguity and adaptability suggests that a need for a middle way of
reconciliation is in order.
Certain current leadership theory may have a broad appeal. For example,
transformational leadership promotes achievement of collective purpose, common mission and
vision, while transactional leadership advances specific benefits for subordinates in
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accomplishing specific tasks (Ardichvili & Kuchinke, 2002, p. 101). Further research may
discover existing etic traits that are generalizable across cultures. Some researchers suggest that
traits are recognized in a single cultural context, but others propose that certain traits are
definable and apparent across cultures (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, & Dorfman,
1999). Murithi, in his discussion of the need for universal values, suggests that “there is an
urgent need to articulate a supplementary universal declaration of human rights duties and
obligations based on values drawn from various cultures” (2007, p. 277). He writes that the
African concept of ubuntu, with its concept of affirmation of and interconnectedness with
humanity points to a certain universality of values as shared with a range of religions (p. 283).
Cultural Values
Murithi is not alone for other leaders, academicians and students support the contention
that there is a need for values in global enterprise. Recognizing that temptations abound, one
writer states, “economists are tempted to placate powerful constituencies; shoemakers are
tempted to use inferior materials. To resist such temptations economists as well as shoemakers
require personal morality” (Phelps, 2009, p. 28). Strauss (1957, p. 344) strongly indicated that
political philosophy should undertake replacing opinion about the nature of political things by
political knowledge, while avoiding neutrality in a process to raise claims about mankind’s
obedience, allegiance, and judgment. Since commerce, communication, and commutation are
common throughout the globe, academic awareness of emerging trends is growing as reflected in
organizational literature. The advent of new models, theories, and movements concerning
spirituality and leadership is growing through observation and study (Karakas, 2006). As pointed
out by Karakas, a set of shared values is appearing in the global consciousness and reflect a sense
for justice, honesty, respect, compassion, and tolerance.
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Such an observation is noted by Fowers and Davidov who detail the importance of
acting, thinking, and practicing in ways that “persons of good character do” (2006, p. 586).
Societies across time and culture define character strength and promote the inculcation of
specific values in each generation. Many parents, teachers, philosophers, and clergy endorse
raising virtuous children (Park & Peterson, 2003). Leadership behaviors as studied across five
cultures by Dorfman and Howell (1997) point to the fact that certain leadership traits as
associated with charismatic leadership appear as universals. While not suggesting specific
virtues, one study supports the recognition that a search for universal attributes is appropriate and
that other considerations may have merit (Dickson, et al., 2003). Likewise, another researcher
suggests that while historical contexts and worldviews are different, ancient Indian traditions
present values that transcend time and space (Amaladass, 2007), adding additional support to the
thesis that universal traits of values exist. Further, he states that a leader influences others based
on factors other than formal authority (p. 9), lending credence to the importance of personal
virtue.
In an age when value judgments are often questioned for legitimacy or cross cultural
applicability, Schnapper suggests that “modern democracies increasingly confuse civic or
political equality with a radical relativism that calls into question legitimate principles of
hierarchy and the very idea of value judgments” (2009). Businesses and societies are searching
for the framework that will provide for a basis of leadership. The search is for qualities and
values that are recognized in multi-cultural environments across the global marketplace. A
framework performing a function of providing principles of hierarchy and equitable value
judgments, where can one locate a foundational, general set of traits. A framework that defines
qualities, which are easily recognized, defined, shared, balanced and teachable.
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The requirement for leadership skills and virtues that can function in a cross cultural
setting is supported by the importance of the growing need for leaders capable of functioning in a
global cross-cultural environment in an advancing climate of global communication, enterprise,
and multi-cultural interaction importance. The leader steeped in the context of Western culture
with its basis in Judeo-Christian religious prescriptions and principles, Greco-Roman culture,
and Anglo-Saxon legal and economic tradition is fortunate to have access to a heritage that offers
the potential for the necessary universals. These universals consist of the cardinal virtues as
embraced by the church and found in Jewish wisdom literature and the Greek philosophers, Plato
and Aristotle.
The Four Cardinal Virtues, Judeo-Christian Roots and Greek Philosophy
One of the hallmarks of Western culture and more specifically from the Christian roots of
Western culture is a theme of moral excellence, good habit, and exemplary personal qualities as
defined in the seven virtues. Three of the virtues denoted as faith, hope and charity are
considered the spiritual virtues and are taken from a passage of St. Paul in his first letter to the
Corinthians found in the New Testament. The remaining four virtues are defined as courage,
temperance, justice, and wisdom and have a cultural and philosophical history dating from
Jewish wisdom literature (Wisdom 8:7), in addition to the writings of Plato and Aristotle
(Koterski, 2001; Prus, 2007, p. 41). These four, known as the cardinal virtues, may offer a
beginning or foundation point for universal recognition as leadership practices for as Fowers and
Davidov suggest Aristotle’s conception of virtue is an acknowledgement that no one has the last
word on the best kind of life, but rather his idea suggests how should one best live within his
cultural milieu (2006, p. 593). These cardinal (from the Latin cardo meaning hinge) virtues are
the hinge for the access to the ethical and honorable life.
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According to Koterski, the moral theory of Aristotle as found in the Nicomachean Ethics
transcends the cultural world in which it was composed. Aristotle searched for common ground
in the pattern of excellence in a diversity of individuals, cultures and social backgrounds (2001).
Further, these virtues as found in Aristotle’s work go beyond the mere personal but are seen as a
part of a larger human context and enacted as part of a community based process. Aristotle
stressed the importance of studying purposive activity from the viewpoint of community based
and linguistic beings (Prus, 2007, p. 15).
One of the key ideas supporting the moral virtues is that of habit. One gains the capacity
for moral behavior and in this model foundational leadership behavior by a routine of practicing
excellence, doing what is right and making better choices as attentiveness and focus are
increasing and becoming habit (Koterski, 2001). The formation of virtue is possible, according to
Strauss (1957, p. 365), through education and the development of habit. The balance for the
leader is to find the middle way of the demands of individual life with the legitimate demands of
the larger community, entity, or organization. The balance accorded to these four virtues appears
to transcend culture (Koterski, 2001) and acknowledge the necessity of community (Prus, 2007,
p. 15). So these four virtues are likely to provide the key elements of a universal set of practices
that place the leader in a position for to perform right actions for self, business, and community
within the global milieu. Each virtue is then a foundation block to prepare a global leader for
encountering the wide array of differences, expectations, and values within his/her scope of
responsibility. An overview of each of these four offers a sense of their fit and form into the
universal framework.
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Courage
Courage seems a necessary element for a leader if there is to be any leadership at all. For
what use is any value or virtue if there is no action? In the practice of ethics, courage to act is a
necessary element. If a leader has other virtues and qualities, they are of no value when there is
no action in the face of challenge (Kidder & Bracy, 2001, p. 5). These authors continue by
suggesting that there is a danger in focusing on the old ideal of physical courage and advocate
that the more important path to maturity is in the lessons of moral courage. In the global
economy of today, leadership and the act of courage must shift from a focus on physical courage
to moral courage. For moral courage may prove much more challenging as the leader may find
an easier path by avoiding a moral conflict than a physical one.
The characteristic of moral courage as a virtue means developing the habit to overcome
the fear of humiliation and shame of admitting mistakes, “to confess a wrong, to reject evil
conformity, to denounce injustice, and also to defy immoral or imprudent orders” (Miller, 2000,
p. 254). Walston lists additional constituents of courage such as revealing vulnerability, voicing
unpopular opinion, sacrificing for long-term goals, and manifesting vision (2003). The sense of
this idea emerges in the thinking of Aristotle, who represents courage as a habit where one
chooses the mid-point between cowardice and recklessness (Koterski, 2001).
As courage is an attribute that resonates across most cultures, the global leader is likely to
relate cross culturally by learning and sharing those stories that best reflect heroes that reflect
habits and acts of moral courage. Within the context of global enterprise moral courage should
suggest the courage to be ethical (Kidder & Bracy, 2001). Kidder and Bracey expand on the idea
of moral courage suggesting that it is “the quality of mind and spirit that enables one to face up
to ethical dilemmas and moral wrongdoings firmly and confidently, without flinching or
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retreating “ (2001, p. 6). Finally, they contend for the idea that business courage is represented
“in a steadfast adherence to the fundamental values of justice, honesty, and fairness” (p. 9), and it
can be taught.
Moderation
In an age and context, where the students, employees, performers, and civil servants from
many cultures across the globe are experiencing leadership behavior from leaders in the
academy, business, entertainment and government who have mastered the excesses of self-
aggrandizement, self-centeredness, and self-indulgence, the unusual freshness of moderation is
but a distant expectation. The idea of a virtue that calls for moderating our response to pleasures
and excesses appears as a distant vision of the mean between self-indulgence and insensibility,
yet that is considered by Aristotle and his students down through the ages as one of the core
virtues (Koterski, 2001).
The importance of moderation or self-control, the idea of balance is a factor in commerce
as well. Adam Smith is quoted as saying that “self-command is not only itself a great virtue, but
from it all other virtues seem to derive their principle luster” (Shaw, 1997, p. 43). According to
Shaw the market may not generate virtues (p. 44), nevertheless modern commerce is in large part
made possible by virtues, and virtues are possible as Aristotle suggests through habituation.
While Shaw disagrees with Maitland (p. 46) that market forces will encourage virtue and
particularly self-control, the need for such virtue does not dissipate. Those in leadership are
prone to a number of temptations to which they can succumb due to a lack of self-restraint.
When a person lacks self-control, he or she is susceptible to countless dangers, writes Durand
(2008). This would appear even more important when leading others in cross-cultural business
situations where the possibility of misunderstood actions and words are even more likely.
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Justice
Within organizations the practice of justice as perceived by the staff is associated with
higher satisfaction (Fischer & Smith, 2006, p. 542). A leader with aspirations for high staff
satisfaction needs to recognize that employees will come into the work environment from
different socio-cultural backgrounds with different expectations and value systems. The
perception of justice by the organization may be the pivotal variable. While it may seem that
people value justice out of self-interest studies continue to indicate the importance of justice in
the workplace (Mueller & Wynn, 2000, p. 20)
The elements of justice will consist of a sense of fairness, empathic concern, and a
capacity for problem solving (Jonsson & Flanagan, 2000, p. 197). These characteristics reflect
the balance of priorities as indicated by males and females and as such, the leaders in global
business must work to understand the expectations of the staff. Justice is also the habit of
choosing the mean, of rendering the right amount at the right time within the knowledge of the
relevant circumstances (Koterski, 2001). For the global leader, sensitivity to justice, a justice that
recognizes the similarities and distinctions of the various cultures in the organization, should be
seen as a key element to the cross-cultural context of organizational vision and mission.
Wisdom
Wisdom, as promulgated by Aristotle, in the sense of prudence, is knowing how to act by
realistic deliberation, coming to an appropriate decision in a reasonable period of time to secure
the ends and goals for human life (Koterski, 2001). As an element of the requirements for global
leadership, wisdom marks the person who is balanced in their approach to discernment and
decision-making. While our age may be an information age, the Polish philosopher Czarnoka
(2006) is concerned that wisdom in the contemporary world does not reflect that of previous
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and contexts will only increase. The basis for leadership development and the framework for
values and spirituality calls for a bridging theory between customs, ethnicities, and cultures; a
basis that captures “the diversity of universal ethical and spiritual values across the globe”
(Karakas, 2006, Conclusion section, ¶ 4).
In support of Karakas, the four cardinal virtues as understood in western culture appear to
meet the criteria for a universal framework. These qualities are learned by the development of
habits that reflect right action, the habit of choosing the correct response (Koterski, 2001; Shaw,
1997, p. 46). For leaders in training in the post-Reformation western tradition with its Judeo-
Christian background, caution is urged by Kreeft suggesting that it is a mistake to assume that
virtues are a gift from God and writes that we cannot dispense, “with natural human foundations
and with our responsibility to be active, not passive, in cultivation of virtuous habits” (Kreeft,
1986, a common Christian misunderstaning, ¶ 2). The process of becoming a leader capable of
recognizing the distinctions inherent in other cultures must come through experience, for formal
training is not enough (Light, 2003, p. 6).
Finally, the need to define and articulate a more global set of values is recognized as a
desirable goal (Karakas, 2006; Schnapper, 2009). Yet, additional studies are needed according to
Dickson, who suggests that most studies done in the area of global leadership have significant
limitations, such as inconsistent leadership measures, overreliance on surveys, and methods of
measuring or application of cultural dimensions (Dickson, et al., 2003, p. 751).
Do virtue ethics as universals provide a theoretical framework for the development of a
process by which a more generally acknowledged training and preparation program can be
developed? Does the concept of experience by habitually practicing good and right actions while
allowing for the flexibility of different cultures and values provide a stable enough structure for
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ethical practices across the scope of a global enterprise (Dickson, et al., 2003)? In the end, the
cardinal virtues provide an amaranthine starting point for teachers and practitioners to join in a
healthy cross-cultural dialogue.
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About the Author
E. Allen Knight serves as director of the Hosmer Center for Entrepreneurship and
Innovation, as well as serving as assistant professor of business for the Gainey School of
Business at Spring Arbor University. Knight is currently a Doctor of Business Administration
candidate at the Falls School of Business, Anderson University. His interests include leadership,
strategic management, and Christian principles as applied to business. Knight has served as
senior consultant for A&B Consulting Associates, Inc. and senior vice president of Ingram Book
Group/Spring Arbor Distributors. He was influential in coordinating and leading the successful
entrepreneurship workshop hosted by SAU in 2008 and 2009. The latest endeavor is the
development of entrepreneurship training and support through local churches in Detroit, MI.
Email: [email protected]
Personal Website: http://www.linkedin.com/in/allenknight