leadership role of muslim scientists

Sports Surgery at the Wakefield Orthopaedic Clinic and the Royal Adelaide Hospital,Adelaide, Australia in 2002 under the Australian Orthopaedic Association (AOA) accreditedfellowship programme.

He is actively involved with professional bodies, being a member of International Society ofArthroscopy, Knee and Orthopaedic Sports Medicine(ISAKOS), European Society of Sports, Knee Surgery and Arthroscopy (ESSKA), Asia Pacific Orthopaedic Association (APOA),Malaysian Orthopaedic Association (MOA), Malaysian Medical Relief Society(MERCY),Magellan Society and the Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia.

Throughout his career he had been granted several awards including Prof N.SubramaniamAward for Outstanding Performance in Master of Surgery (Orthopaedic) ResidentialProgramme from the Malaysian Orthopaedic Association (1999), ESSKA-APOA TravellingFellowship Award for Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery & Arthroscopy from the EuropeanSociety for Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery & Arthroscopy (ESSKA) (2004). He wasalso awarded the prestigious J.W Fulbright Scholarship for the year 2004-2005 and spentthree months in Temple University, Philadelphia, USA as a visiting scholar.

Academically, he was the member of the Malaysian Academy of Medicine and has beenthe adjunct lecturer to the International Medical University Clinical School since 1998,visiting lecturer and examiner to the National University of Malaysia and the InternationalIslamic University. He was instrumental in disseminating the art of arthroscopic surgery tothe younger surgeons, being visiting surgeon to various hospitals in Malaysia andbecoming the founding member of the committee for arthroscopic and sports surgeryinternal fellowship training for the Ministry of Health. He had various scientific paperspresented and published at the international and regional level.

His tenure in the Ministry of Heath has brought him to Ipoh, Kuala Pilah, Kuala Lumpur andSeremban Hospital where he contributed most of his expertise. He was the ConsultantOrthopaedic, Trauma and Sports Surgeon, Seremban Hospital till 2005 before setting uphis own practice at Wan Orthopaedic, Trauma and Sport Injury Centre (WOTSIC),Seremban Specialist Hospital (SSH), Seremban.

His areas of interest include general orthopaedic, orthopaedic trauma and fracturetreatment, sports injuries, arthroscopic reconstructive surgery (knee, ankle, shoulder &elbow) and adult replacement surgery (hip, knee).

He has a special interest in medico-religious aspect of science and was the co-editor andcontributor of 5 books related to the subject . This is his latest book titled ’The Leadershiprole of Muslim Scientists’, a part of his Fulbright Award research project.

He is married to Dr Zainab Yahaya, a gynaecologist and was blessed with five children.

Dr Wan Hazmy Che Hon was born in Seremban, Negeri Sembilanand received his earlier education at Dato Klana Putra PrimarySchool, Lenggeng and MARA Junior Science College, Seremban.He received his medical degree from the State University of Ghent,Belgium in 1991. After completing the 3 years compulsory servicehe pursued a 4 years residency training in Orthopaedic Surgery atthe National University of Malaysia and received his Masterdegree in Orthopaedic Surgery in 1998. In 1999 he completed hisTrauma Fellowship at the Augsburg Trauma Hospital, Germany.He did his sub-speciality training in Arthroscopy, Arthroplasty and

ISBN 983-41324-3-3

THE LEADERSHIPROLE OF MUSLIM

SCIENTISTSSIGN OF

SCIENTIFIC REEMERGENCE

Dr Wan Hazmy Che Hon

"The light of conscience is religious sciences. The light of mind ismodern sciences. Reconciliation of both manifests the truth. The

student's skills develop further with these two (sciences). Whenthey are separated, from the former superstition and from the

latter corruption and scepticism is born."(Turkish Scholar Bediuzzaman Said Nursi)

Published by:Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia N. SembilanNo. 6, Jalan Angsana 2,Taman Pinggiran Golf,70400 Seremban, N. Sembilan.Tel: 06-6797907 Fax: 06-6797907Website: http://www.imam_ns.tripod.com

©IMAM-NS

ISBN 983-41324-1-7

©IMAM-NSApart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,or criticism or review, as permitted under the copyright act, no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any formor by any means, without the prior permission in writing of thepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordancewith the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.Enquires concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here shouldbe sent to the publishers at the above address.

Printed by: HNI Universal Creative, No 40-2, Jalan Vivekananda, Brickfields, 50470 Kuala Lumpur.e-mail: [email protected]

THE LEADERSHIP ROLEOF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:

SIGN OF SCIENTIFIC REEMERGENCE

RESEARCHER:

DR WAN HAZMY BIN CHE HONFulbright Visiting Scholar at Temple University &Consultant Orthopaedic, Trauma & Sports SurgeonSeremban Hospital, 70300 SerembanNegeri Sembilan, Malaysia

SUPERVISOR:

PROF DR KHALID AY BLANKINSHIPProfessor in Religion,Religion Department,College of Liberal Arts, Temple University,W. Berks Street, Philadelphia 19122,Pennsylvania, United States of America

THE LEADERSHIP ROLEOF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:

SIGN OF SCIENTIFIC REEMERGENCE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author acknowledges with deep gratitude the assistance andencouragement extended to him by the following persons and bodies:

1. The W. Fulbright Foundation, USA2. MACEE - Malaysian-American Council for Educational Exchange3. Sister Ayesha Begum and the occupants of Makkah Masjid,

Philadelphia4. Datin Dr Hjh Zailan, Director, Seremban Hospital5. Ministry of Health, Malaysia

Equally, the author acknowledges his enormous appreciation to hisbeloved wife, Zainab and children (Dalila, Hasif, Syafiq, Aqilah andIhsan) for their patient and prayer throughout the preparation of thisbook.

May Allah reward them all.

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientist: Sign of Scientific Reemergence________________________________________________________

CONTENTS

0. Preface

1. The Glorious Era of Islamic Scientific Civilization

1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement

1.2 The essential factors of success

1.2.1. Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message1.2.2. The importance of nature in Islam1.2.3. The unity in faith1.2.4. The expansion of the Islamic empire end the

Arabic conquest1.2.5. The superiority of the Arabic language as a

language of science1.2.6. The attitude of the Churches toward scientists

in Europe

1.3 The significant contributions and prominent figuresduring the glorious era

1.3.1. Astronomy1.3.2. Mathematics1.3.3. Optics1.3.4. Physics and Mechanics1.3.5. Geography1.3.6. Medicine1.3.7. Chemistry and Pharmacology1.3.8. Establishment of Libraries1.3.9. Establishment of Hospitals1.3.10. Establishment of Observatories

1.4 The 'Golden Era' of knowledge and civilization

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientists: Sign of Scientific Reemergence________________________________________________________i

2. The Stagnation Period of Muslim Scientific Achievements

2.1 The end of the glorious era

2.2 Factors contributing to the stagnation

2.2.1. Break-up of the Muslim Empires2.2.2. Partisanship, political differences and power

politics2.2.3. Religious and theological differences2.2.4. The intoxicants of pleasures and enjoyment2.2.5. Governmental ruling by the non Arabs2.2.6. Neglect of practical knowledge and world

realities2.2.7. Internal conflicts among scholars2.2.8. High esteem and unduly proud rulers2.2.9. The rise of European economic,political and

cultural imperialism2.2.10. Deception of Western achievements and

values

2.3 The critical era of Islamic science

3. The Current State of Muslim Scientists

3.1 Science in Muslim world during the recent centuries

3.1.1. The scientific development in the Muslimworld post-Renaissance

3.1.2. Development in Arabic-African continent3.1.3. Development under the Turkish Ottomans

Caliphate3.1.4. Development in Indian subcontinent3.1.5. Progression after 19453.1.6. Why does the Muslim still lag behind in

science?


3.1.7. The challenges

3.2 The Noble prize and its implication to the Muslimworld

3.2.1. Life and philosophy of Alfred Noble3.2.2. Alfred Noble's life and philosophy from the

Islamic perspective3.2.3. Muslim Noble Prize winner

3.2.3.1. Prof Dr Abdus Salam3.2.3.2. Prof Dr Ahmed Zewail

3.2.4. Noble Prize: Is there a selection bias?

3.3 Prominent Muslim scientific figures in the 20thcentury

3.3.1. Muslim scientists

3.3.1.1. Prof Dr Farouk El-Baz3.3.1.2. Dr Fazlur Rahman Khan3.3.1.3. Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan3.3.1.4. Dr Avul Pakir Jainul Abdeen Abdul

Kalam3.3.1.5. General Kerim Kerimov3.3.1.6. Prof Dr Seyyed Mahmoud Hessaby3.3.1.7. Prof Dr Zakaria Erzin Clioglu3.3.1.8. Prof Dr Samira Ibrahim Islam3.3.1.9. Prof Dr Haroon Ahmed3.3.1.10. Prof Dr Ahmed Shammin Siddiqui3.3.1.11. Prof Dr Ali Javan3.3.1.12. Prof Dr Karimat El-Sayed3.3.1.13. Prof Dr Ayse Erzan3.3.1.14. Prof Dr Salim Al-Hassani

3.3.2. Muslim astronauts and cosmonauts


3.3.2.1 Sultan Salman Abdul Aziz Al Saud3.3.2.2 Abdul Ahad Mohmand3.3.2.3 Toktar Ongarbaevich Aubakirov3.3.2.4 Talgat Amangeldyevich Musabayev3.3.2.5 Musa Manarov3.3.2.6 Saliszan Shakirovich Sharipov3.3.2.7 Mohammed Faris

3.3.3. Muslim scientists cum political leaders

3.3.3.1. Prof Dr Necmettin Erbakan3.3.3.2. Prof Dr Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie3.3.3.3. Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad

3.3.4. Muslim scientist and philosopher

3.3.4.1 Prof Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr

4. The Scientific Re-emergence and its Future Direction

4.1 Prerequisites for Muslims scientific re-emergence

4.1.1. The correct diagnosis: What really happenedto Islamic science?

4.1.2. The proven treatment: Al-Qur'an4.1.3. The expert doctors: the Muslim scientists and

religious scholars4.1.4. The Islamic Unity4.1.5. Review of educational approach4.1.6. Mastering the language of technology4.1.7. Effective scientific learning4.1.8. Recognition and awards4.1.9. Building up the 'scientific family, scientific

community'4.1.10. Credibility of Muslim countries


4.2 The assets

4.2.1. The spiritual assets4.2.2. The historical assets4.2.3. The material and physical assets

4.3 The future direction

4.3.1. Centrally based scientific leadership4.3.2. Identification of the expertise (Muslim Who's

who in science)4.3.3. Reorganization of material and human

resources4.3.4. Selection and establishment of the regional

scientific centres4.3.5. Preservation of scientific heritage4.3.6. Awards and scholarships

5. Conclusions

6. References


Preface 00

BACKGROUND:

The Muslims were the global leaders and innovators of intellectual,scientific and cultural development for many centuries. Islam hadpatronized and fostered the Greek scientific heritage in the field ofmedicine, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry and philosophy.Islam continued to add new scientific achievements which bear witnessthat Muslim were deeply and seriously interested in the scientificresearch. It was on the cream of the Islamic scientific achievement ofAndalusia that the European Renaissance and its modern scientificinventions were based.

However, things started to go awry in the early thirteenth century,when the Muslim started to stagnate and the Europeans surged ahead.Several factors had been attributed to this including the Mongol andother Central Asian invasions, political instability and spread ofreligious intolerance.

For almost seven centuries the Muslim scientists were not at theforefront of scientific achievement. Despite the facts that many of theMuslim scientists have been accepted to work in the world classestablished laboratory or institution throughout the world, none excepta few has make it to win the Noble prize. On the other hand, there is anincreasing numbers of Muslim scientists elected to leadership role intheir respective countries or abroad either in established scientificinstitutions or whether as the ruling political leaders, the oppositionleaders or as leaders of the non-governmental organizations. This mightbe an important sign of scientific re-emergence already present in theMuslim world but yet to be recognized by the Western communities.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To identify the reasons why the Muslim scientists are not makinga significant impact in the current scientific achievement. What isthe limitation, restriction or hindrance towards this achievement?Is there possible bias in selection of Nobel Prize winner for scienceas far as the Muslim scientists is concern?

Leadership Role of Muslim Scientist: Sign of Scientific Reemergence________________________________________________________2

2. To determine whether the increasing number of Muslim scientiststaking the leadership role in their respective countries and abroadis a sign of recognition of their scientific merit besides theirleadership capabilities. Are there any similarities amongst thesescientists became leaders in their thinking, dedication andprinciples.

METHODOLOGY:

1. Library and archival research on articles related to the title. Thisinclude the study on the achievement of Muslim scientist duringthe last decade, the detail biography of scientist cum leader andcommentary by the non Muslim prominent writer on the status ofMuslim scientists

2. Interviews with prominent Muslim scientists in the selectedinstitutions on the past, present and future of the Muslim scientistand to identify their weaknesses and strength.

3. Comparative study on the Muslim scientist cum leader includingtheir principle, their motivating factors and their visions.

SIGNIFICANCE:

This research will be determine the current position of the Muslimscientists and their direction in the future This will help them toreorganized their expertise and resources to achieve the field that oncewere dominated by them. This study will act as catalyses for theindividual and institutions throughout the world irrespective of theirreligious or political background to contribute to the re-emergence ofMuslim scientists which will not only benefit the Muslim communitybut the whole world in general.


TheGlorious Eraof IslamicScientificCivilization

11

THE GLORIOUS ERA OF ISLAMIC SCIENTIFIC CIVILIZATION

1.1 The early period of Islamic scientific involvement

The concept of 'ilm ("science") has been an important one in the historyof Islamic civilization and has gone a long way to giving thiscivilization, and all those who participated in it regardless of theirethnic or religious application, a distinctive shape. Again the concept ofscience in Islam is a vast subject. Historically Arabs and Persians whowere interested in exploring the natural world around them firstintroduced Greek scientific treatises to the Arab-speaking world duringthe eight century.

From the ninth century on, scholars travelled from one end of theempire to the other, carrying books and ideas, thereby ensuring whatsome have called the cultural and intellectual unity of the Islamicworld. Since this time, countless Muslims from all over the worldthroughout the course of many centuries have been involved inscientific development.

A momentous impetus was given to the development of science in theIslamic world with the accession of the Abbasid Caliphate to power andthe subsequent foundation of Baghdad as its capital in 762. Thisresulted in a translation movement that saw, by the end of tenthcentury virtually all of the scientific and philosophical secular Greeksworks that were available in the Late Antique Period (fourth to seventhcentury CE) translated into Arabic. These works included many diversetopics such as astrology, alchemy, physics, mathematics, medicine andvarious branches of philosophy. The great majority of these texts weretranslated from Greek to Arabic by way of Syriac. The earliesttranslators include Christians, many of whom were employed in therenowned bayt al hikma (House of Wisdom). This functions as theofficial institute and library for translation and research.

The Caliph Al Ma'mun (d 833) sent emissaries throughout theMediterranean world to seek out and purchase books on "ancientlearning" which were subsequently brought back to Baghdad andtranslated into Arabic by panel of scholars. The result was an


impressive official library that included many of the most scientific andphilosophical works produced in the ancient world. These works wouldform the foundation for medieval science, not only in the Islamic worldbut also subsequently in the Christian world.

The earliest Greek works translated into Arabic were often made forpurely pragmatic reasons. This is why treatises devoted to astrology,mathematics and alchemy represent some of the earliest scientific worksin Arabic. A useful list of the treatises translated into Arabic and whenand by whom can be found in the account given by the biographer ofIslamic writings, Ibn al-Nadim (d 995).

A common ,though incorrect, assumption has it that the Greeksinvented the sciences, the Arabs rescued them from disappearing in the'Dark Ages', and subsequently passed them untouched anduncommented upon to the Renaissance period. This ignores the fact thatmany people living in the Islamic world wrote commentaries to theworks of important individuals such as Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy.The genre of the commentary was not a slavish recapitulation of a text,but often a creative way of writing about science and philosophy in themedieval period. Rather than regard the commentaries as uncreative,they often allowed scholars to think about scientific matters in such away that they would validate their claims by putting them in the mouthof the ancient sages. In fact, many commentators often used ancientauthors to argue the very opposite of what these ancient authors hadintended in the first place. So although the Arabs worked within theparameters of science as established by the Greeks, they made manyimportant developments in the Western scientific tradition.

Another argument which worth of discussing is the following: Thisgolden age was definitely Muslim in that it took place in predominantlyMuslim societies, but was it Islamic, that is, connected to the religion ofIslam? States were officially Islamic, and intellectual life took placewithin a self-consciously Islamic environment. Ahmad al-Hassan andDonald R. Hill, two historians of technology, see Islam as "the drivingforce behind the Muslim scientific revolution when the Muslim statereached its peak." But some western author argued that non-Muslimshad a major role in this effort, and much of the era's scientificachievements took place in a tolerant and cosmopolitan intellectual


atmosphere quite independent of the religious authorities.

Al-Faruqi in explaining this matter had came to the followingconclusion: the same achievement may well be term Muslim or Islamicdespite the fact that some were the achievements of Sabaeans, Jews, andChristians. He explicitly gave two reasons for this: First, the works ofnon Muslims constitute a very small portion of the whole and belongeither to the preparatory period or that of collection andsystematization, bur not to that of creative flowering. Second, the nonMuslims contributors were in the service of Muslims as theiremployees, directed to produce what Muslims desired to see produced.Their non-Islamic religions had nothing to do with their works, whichwere being totally determined by the Islamic categories and values theiremployers, colleagues, and the milieu in which they lived. Their workswere part of an Islamic culture, determined by an Islamic worldview,ordered by Islamic categories. Hence the two appellations- Arab andIslamic- are justified; and the latter is preferable because it is moregeneral and more inclusive and has the prior connotation of the firstprinciples and values, the culture as a whole, rather than merely itslinguistic medium.

The Muslims had a tendency to consider every potential discipline as ascience, and as result tried to articulate first, principles for them.Important in this regard is the science of law or fiqh. In its developedform, the science of Islamic legal theory recognised a variety of sourcesand methods (usul al fiqh) by which to derive the law. The first principlewas the Qur'an, followed by the Sunna which, though second inimportance, provided the overwhelming majority of material fromwhich the law was derived. The third principle is consensus (ijma') ofthe legal scholars in the name of the entire community. The fourthprinciple is known as human reasoning (qiyas). These four principlesbecame the means whereby the legal scholars could, in their opinion,scientifically determine the legal effects of the textual sources of Islam.It is important to note that this principles still strongly being applied tilltoday. However its application is no longer limited to the Islamicjurisprudence but, also expanded to other branches of science such as inthe field of biotechnology (cloning) and medicine (in vitro fertilization,brain death, euthanasia).


During this era, many of the medieval philosophers compiled various"list of science" and "classification of sciences" (maratib al-'ulum).One ofthe famous examples of this is the Enumeration of the Sciences (Ihsa' al'Ulum) by al-Farabi (870-950). In the preface of this work, al-Farabi statesthat his intention is to give an enumeration of all the sciences of his dayand provide descriptions of their themes and subject matter. He dividesthe sciences into those dealing with (1) linguistic (2) logic (3)mathematics (4) physics (5) Metaphysics (6) political science (7)jurisprudence and (8) dialectical theology. Other lists were compiled bythe "Brethren of Purity" (Ikhwan al-Safa'), Ibn al-Nadim in his Fihrist, IbnSina (Avicenna), al Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun in his famous'Prolegomena'. Ghazali's list is interesting in that he divides all of thesciences into those that are either praiseworthy (mahmuda) orblameworthy (madhmuma). Such lists, however, are by no means amedieval phenomenon. In 1980 at the Second World Conference onMuslim Education, sponsored by the King 'Abd al Aziz University,Jeddah and the Quaid-I Azam University in Islamabad, delegateadopted a similar list. The main difference between their enumerationand that of someone like al-Farabi was that theirs begin with thememorization of the Qur'an and ends with the practical sciences.

The importance of this 'Muslim' or 'Arab' science to the general progressof culture is beyond question, and much evidence of it can be adduced.In the first place, numerous Arabic words have passed into some of theWestern languages, especially terms used in chemistry, navigation andastronomy. 'Arabic' figures, which came from India, were transmitted toEurope by the Muslims. An even more significant fact is that in hismonumental Introduction to the history of science Sarton has given thename of a Muslim scientist to seven chapters of the second volume,deeming that the period under consideration can be designated by him.Finally, the visitor entering the chapel of Princeton University may besomewhat surprised to find there a window representing an outlandishpersonage: clad in a long eastern robe and a majestic turban, he holds inhis hand an unrolled parchment on which can be read in Arabic Kitab al-hawi. That those who inspired or endowed this chapel should havedeemed al-Razi (Rhazes), the author of the book, worthy to be presentedin a place of Christian worship among the great figures of mankind, issufficient indication of the position occupied by Muslim science in thehistory of culture.


1.2 The essential factors of success

1.2.1 Al-Qur'an and the completeness of its message

This glorious generation who just succeeded the generation ofcompanions and salafus-sholeh, had a very important element instilledin the hearts and minds, that is Islam was born complete- complete inthe vision of its Prophet, complete in the Qur'anic revelations hereceived, and complete in the sunnah he exemplified. This claim is notthat of any human or humans; it is Qur'anic (3:19, 5: 4, 2:132) and thusGod given. It is the ideal to which all the Muslims strive and by whichthey would and should be defined. And the earlier generations knewand withhold this in their heart, minds and practicality.

Hence, the vision of Islam as stated in the Qur'an demands that theMuslims to take the history, as it were and to direct it so as to produceculture and civilization. Its association with the Muslim history is hencecrucial, for Islamic culture and civilization were indeed its offspring,nourished and perpetually sustained by it in every realm of humanendeavour.

It may be maintained, without paradox, that, with the possibleexception of poetry and its proverbs all Muslim intellectual activity inthe widest sense had its starting point in the Qur'an: Grammar wascreated by non-Arabs so that they might be able to read the sacred textcorrectly, rhetoric for the emphasizing of its beauties. The tradition wasassembled in order to explain it and supply its omissions.Jurisprudence was drawn up as a system of principles for moral andsocial life and finally theology to defend against the sceptics, or even todemonstrate, the truths taught by the Book.

It would have been surprising if this taste of knowledge had not beenextended to the 'profane sciences' when the Muslims came into contactwith these peoples who had inherited them. Even if there were, hereand there and at certain periods, theologians of a narrow and defensiveorthodoxy who forbade them, it must be said that Muslims in general,led by their Caliphs and princes, showed great thirst for instruction andwere eager to assimilate the treasures of ancient science when it camewithin their reach.


The original religious flavour still remained, for the Muslim scientists,whether astronomers, mathematicians or physicians, were not seekingany less to work for than the Glory of God and the service of religionwhen they devoted themselves to the sciences derived from Greece,Persian or India.

1.2.2 The importance of nature in Islam

Islam takes nature seriously. A large portion of the Qur'an deals withnature, whether directly or indirectly. The nature is determined by fiveprinciples: profanity, createdness, orderliness, purposiveness andsubservience

Profanity

Islam, so as Judaism and Christianity see nature as profane (not scared)and ephemeral (in itself, it is good but with reference to what manmakes of it, it can become either good or evil). Generally, this is thesubstance of the agreement among the transcendentalist religions in thematter of nature. Certainly, differences among them qualify theirtranscendentalist position, diluting and compromising, orstrengthening and emphasizing it. Islam stands at the extreme end ofthe spectrum where profanity of nature is complete and absolute.Nothing is sacred but God, and everything else is profane, totallyprofane in all its aspects. This is the meaning of the Islamic profession offaith, La ilaha illa Allah (3:18)

Createdness

Nature in Islam is a creature of God, created ex nihilo, by the sheercommandment of God for it to be. It is absolutely different and otherthan God, who is defined as "the totally other" or laysa ka mithlihi shay(42:11). The otherness of God, meaning that reality is dual, one realmbeing occupied exclusively by God, the transcendent Creator and theojther by all else, the creation, is the most emphatic lesson Islam hadtaught.

"If there were more than one unique creator, heaven and earth, Creatorand creature would have fallen to the ground and dissolved (21:22)


Orderliness

Islam holds nature to be an orderly realm: an event occurs as a result ofits cause; in turn, its occurrence is the cause of another event. The sameevents point to the same causes, and the same causes point to the sameconsequences (65:3, 36:12). The causal efficiency of each creature ismeasured, and so are its effect and time. Nature is thus a complete andintegral system of causes and effects without flaw, without gap,perfectly patterned by its Creator.

"Look into His creation for any discrepancy. And look again! Your sight,having found none, will return to you humbled" (67:3-4)

Purposiveness

Each of the objects that constitute nature has been assigned a purposewhich it must, and will, fulfil.

"God created everything and assigned to it, its qadar or measure, destiny,role and purpose" (25:2, 87:3)

Such purpose is built into the object as its nature, towards which itmoves with exorable necessity. It may be obvious and well known orhidden and almost unknowable. But it is certainly there, a "qadaranmaqdura" specific and precise (33:38). As object in nature, man is, in theIslamic view, equally purposive for he is an integral part of the finalisticsystem, the creation. Indeed, Islam declares him to be the purpose of allthe finalistic chains of nature. This constitutes his ecologicalinterdependence with all that is in nature.

SubservienceIslam further affirms that the purposiveness is not only an attribute ofevery object in nature but it also a predicate of the totality of nature. Thesubservience of nature to man means that the purpose that Godassigned to each object is ultimately to lead to man's good, that man canuse it to achieve felicity. It also means that God has made naturemalleable, capable of receiving the causal efficacy of man, of keeping itscausal threads open to further determination by him, and to make hisinput successful in bringing about the desired objective of humanaction. This is what the Qur'an has expressed by the idea of Taskhir.Sun, stars and moon, heaven and earth, animals, plants and things,clouds, air and all the elements are all subservient to man (13:2, 31:20).


Furthermore taskhir of nature is not only for survival but also for thepleasure (zinah) as well (37:6)

Implications of these principles to the Islamic scientific civilization

All the foregoing qualities of nature, therefore, are necessary for science.On the one hand, the necessity of profanity and regularity are obvious.Without them, there may be myth, but no science. On the other,purposiveness and subservience are necessitated by morality. Theprocesses of nature were so interrelated as to provide for nature'scontinuity and regularity.

With this, Islam strongly affirms that a continuing and regular naturesuch as we find creation to be, is indeed possible as object of humanknowledge. Nature, since it functions according to the laws or patterns,is observable and measurable. This was repeatedly affirms in the Qur'anthat the patterns of God are immutable (30:30,33:62). Human knowledgeof these external patterns may be immediate through revelation, orpainstakingly slow, tentative, and always incomplete, through rationalexamination.

Islam also maintains that the will of God is legible in either of the twobooks: First, the Qur'an revealed by God to His Prophet in clear Arabic,and second, the book called 'nature' for anyone to 'read' throughobservation, measurement, nazar or intellection and consideration, andtesting in experience.

Nature will not fail to yield its secrets - the eternal divine patterns - toanyone seriously applying himself to the task and allowing nature tospeak for itself through experience. The law of nature are hypothesisreached through observation and experimentation. This involvesisolation of factors or causes and effects operating in a phenomenon,their observation and measurement, and the amendment orconfirmation of the hypotheses in experience.

1.2.3 The unity in faith

One of the important aspects taught by Islam is the concept of Muslim


brotherhood (ukhuwah Islamiyyah) which deterred in totality thediscrimination based on races, social status, skin colour or nationality.Faith in Islam has bonded them far stronger than the blood relationitself. This concept was applied to every aspect of life, more so everwhen it comes to dissemination of knowledge. This era had witnessedthe emergence of Muslims knowledge seekers and scientists inBaghdad, Cairo, Cordova and Samarkand, so as of the Persian and theArab, the Turk and the Andalusian, the Berber and the Sabaean. Theytravelled from the one end of the empire to the other end without anyobjection. The gained their knowledge from their teacher without anyreservation. They were not restricted by geographic or racialboundaries. This unity in faith did not only expand the Islamic empiregeographically but more importantly had expanded the horizon ofknowledge.

1.2.4 The expansion of the Islamic empire and the Arabic conquest

The actual course of Arab conquests was from the beginning aconducive factor. Leaving a 'canton isolated from the world', to usePascal's phrase, the Arabs at once found themselves in contact withSyria and its Byzantine culture; with Egypt, the heir to the ancientworld of the Pharaohs; with Persia of the Sasanids; with India andbefore long with North Africa and Spain. Various peoples (Persians,Turks, Berbers, Andalusians, Egyptians etc) embraced Islam. Otherelements, 'the People of the Book' (Christians, Jews and Sabaeans)remained in the midst of the Muslim community, second -class citizensbut protected by the law and taking active part in the cultural life. Allcontributed to the development of sciences in Islam, and all or nearly allof them wrote their works in Arabic, so that for the Medieval WesternEurope 'Arab' was synonymous with 'Muslim' and not surprisinglyboth terms are used indiscriminately in dealing with Islamic scientificcivilization.

1.2.5 The superiority of the Arabic language as a language of science

The Muslim welcomed the great work of Greece, Persian and somefrom India, with avidity, with love and with infinite respect, and,


instigated by powerful patrons, a succession of translator rendered intoArabic the works of Plato and Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen,Ptolemy, Euclid and Archimedes, Apollonius and Theon, Menelaus andAristharcus, Hero of Alexandria, Philo of Byzantium and many others.

The admirable flexibility of the Arabic language made it possible forthem to coin an exact philosophical and scientific vocabulary, capable ofexpressing the most complicated scientific and technical terms. On thissubject, Louis Massignon explicitly confirmed how helpful the Arabiclanguage is to the internal exploration of thought, and for this reason itis 'particularly suitable for the expression of the exact sciences and for theirdevelopment along the lines of the historical progress of mathematics: thetransition from an arithmetic and a geometry which were intuitive and almostcontemplative…to a science of algebraic constructions in which arithmetic andgeometry were ultimately united'

1.2.6 The attitude of the Churches toward scientists in Europe

The persecution imposed by the Church to the European scientists hadmake them ran away and found refuge in the buffer states betweenPersia and Byzantium. It was reported number of Christian and Sabaeandoctors settled down in centers such as Ruha, al-Hirah, Jundishapurand Harran. The Muslims employed them, sat at their feet to learn fromthem, and commissioned them to translate their books and records intoArabic. Jurji bin Bakhtishu (died 830) was employed by al Mansur ascourt physician. Taught by their father, Bakhtishu's sons continued inthe same employment. Yuhanna ibn Masawayh (died 857), a physicianwas asked to teach his profession to Muslims. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (died873) was appointed by al-Ma'mun as head of Dar al Hikmah, and wascommissioned with his colleagues and pupils to procure and translatethe whole legacy of medical and scientific knowledge into Arabiclanguage.

1.3 The significant contributions and prominent figures during theglorious era

From being enthusiastic and industrious disciples, the Muslim


proceeded to the second stage of becoming masters, enamoured ofresearch and experienced, exploring not only the book of the ancients,but nurtured also nature itself. Islam was soon to produce originalscientists in various branches of study such as astronomy, mathematicsand medicine, and made many important innovations in a greatmajority of the sciences. Besides that, they were three major institutionsthat were significantly developed during this era and became thereference even until today. These were the establishment of the librariesand translation centres, the hospitals and the instruments forobservation, especially the astronomical observatories.

1.3.1 ASTRONOMY

Perhaps the most distinguish characteristic of the Muslims'contribution to the exact science was their vision of correspondencebetween mathematics, geometry and astronomy. This vision wasimparted to them by the Qur'an, which affirmed "the heavens and theearth were ordered rightly, and were made subservient to man,including the sun, the moo, the stars, and day and night. Everyheavenly body moves in an orbit assigned to it by God and neverdigresses, making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life andexistence, diminution and expansion, are totally determined by theCreator (30:22)

A Greek book on astronomy attributed to Hermes Trismegistus was thefirst to be translated into Arabic in 742. Al Mansur, the second Abbasidcaliph, had developed deep interest in this field that he asked thePersian astronomer Nawbakht to be his constant companion. When thelatter died, he appointed the son in his place along with Ibrahim alFarazi, his so Muhammad, 'Ali ibn Isa al Astrolabi and others. In 772,the caliph commissioned Abu Yahya al Batriq to translate into Arabicthe work of Ptolemy and other Greek sources which he had requestedfrom the Byzantine emperor. He also appointed Muhammad al-Fazarito translate the Sind-Hind book which contained the knowledge ofIndia in the same field. These translations were used by al Khawarizmito produce his famous zij or Table of Calculations Indexing the Positionof the Heavenly Bodies.


Muslims thinkers made important advancements following on the heelsof Ptolemy, in discussing the laws governing the periodic motions of thecelestial bodies. One of the famous Islamic astronomers was al-Battani(Al Batequius). He compiled a catalogue of the stars for the year 880, inwhich he determined the various astronomical coefficients withrenowned accuracy. He was also responsible for discovering the motionof solar apside. In additions, he also wrote an important introductorytreatise that was used in the European universities until the sixteenthcentury.

One of the most significance achievement was reached by Fakhr al Dinal Razi (died 1209) who questioned Aristotle's claim that the star wasimmobile and equidistant from the earth, as well as the claim that themovements of other heavenly bodies were all like and similar. In hiscommentary of the Qur'anic passage 2:258, al Razi affirmed that there isno evidence that the contrary may not be the case, that the realmovement of the heavenly bodies may be different from what isobservable by the unaided senses. The classical statement, however,belongs to al Biruni who said "In these and similar matters (of astronomy)one must resort to experimentation, and rely only on close examination of thedata or results". In the thirteenth century, at the observatory inMaraghah, Muslim scientists explained the motions of the heavenlyspheres as the combination of uniform circular motions. This is themodel that was eventually adopted by European astronomers, such asCopernicus.

Islam also brought a drastic change to pre Islamic astronomy in whichmythology was pervasive. This field of pseudo-science- calledastrology- which regarded man as the mere instrument of cosmic forcesemphasized the role of the stars, the signs of zodiac, the effect of horizonand meridian in determining what has, can and will happen in thefuture. Islam had to purge it clean of myth and established astronomyas an empirical science.

1.3.2 MATHEMATICS

Muslims had contributed extensively in the mathematical sciences,mainly in arithmetic, geometry, algebra and trigonometry.


Arithmetic (al-hisab) was, as Ibn Khaldun observed in his 'Prolegomena',the first of the mathematical sciences to be used by the Muslims, beingindeed a means of solving such material problems which presentthemselves in daily life as assessment of taxes, reckoning of legalcompensation, and division of inheritances according to Qur'anic law.Thabit bin Qurrah departed from the Euclidean legacy by proposing atheory of infinite numbers being part of another infinite numbers.'Umar Khayyam (died 1130) and Nasir al Din al Tusi (died 1247)succeeded in constructing formulation in which magnitudes wereexpressed by numbers. Muslims acquired from the Indian a number offorms for expressing numbers. They combined some, and reorganizedthem into two series, naming one series 'Indian' and the other 'Ghubari'.They used both but the latter were adopted by the West on account ofits wide usage in Spain and North Africa and were called by theWesterners 'Arabic numerals'.

More important was the Muslims' invention of a symbol for zero (theIndians used to leave the place blank!), and gave it name sifr (cipher,zero). They then organized the number into decimals system wheredigital location acquired a numerical value inside the intrinsic value ofits own. This development was crucial importance to the progress of allsciences of nature. Before it, numbers were expressed in words withrecourse to the fingers to complete an operation. Muhammad ibn Musaal Khawarizmi (died 850) was the mathematician who introduced thesystem of symbols representing the nine numbers and the inventor ofsifr or zero to represent the absence of any. He was also the first toexpress numerical value by digital position. The two systems, the oneexpressing number by symbol rather than a word and the otherexpressing value by digital position, wee continued in the work ofIbrahim al Uqlidisi, and were popularized by Ghiyath al Din Jamshid alKashi. It then spread to Europe.

Algebra, as the form of the name indicates, is an Arabic word: al-jabr,which signifies the restoration of something broken, the amplifying ofsomething incomplete. Khawarizmi, the latinized distortion of whosename has produced the name 'algorithm', was chiefly responsible forlaying the foundations of Islamic algebra. He called the new disciplineal Jabr wal Muqabalah ('linkage and juxtaposition') to describe whathappens in an algebraic. He began his treatise on the subject with a clear


if long-winded exposition of equations of the second degree, after whichhe discussed algebraic multiplication and division, then the numericalmeasurement of surfaces, the division of estates and other legalquestions. Such problems were always presented in the form ofnumerical examples.

Muslims also invented the symbol to express any unknown quantity,namely x (or s, standing for the Arabic shay'), which was adopted byEurope from the Spanish who had simply transliterated it from theArabic.

Arabic geometry was founded on the deep knowledge of prior Greekworks, particularly those of Euclid, Archimedes and Appolonius, and itwas also influenced by the Indian Siddhanta. The Arabic has showngreat interest in construction of interrelated figures (especially BanuMusa) and using geometry in making calculation. Abu'l-Layth used themeet of a hyperbola and a parabola to construct a regular nine sidedpolygon. Also to be noted are the works of Ibrahim b Sinan on thequadrature of the parabola, of Abu'l-Wafa (died 997) on the constructionof regular polygons which led to the equations of the third degree, ofAbu Kamil (ninth century) on the construction of the pentagon anddecagon, also by the means of equations. The commentary of 'UmarKhayyam (died 1131) on Euclid is an important precursor of non-Euclidean geometry, which may also have been inspired by Nasir al-Dinal-Tusi.

The applications of geometry during the period were numerous:problems of surveying, studies of mechanical tools in 'Iraq and in Persiain the tenth century, the construction of improved mills, of norias (fromArabic, na'ura, wheels with scoops for continuous drawing of waterfrom a watercourse), mangonels (stone-throwing machines) and others.

As for trigometry, the Arabs were, according to Carra de Vauxunquestionably the inventors of plane and spherical trigonometry. Withthe Arabs, the trigonometrical function of sine, tangent, cosine andcotangent became explicit. They adopted for 'sine' the name jayb whichsignifies an opening, bay, curve of a garment, specifically the opening ofan angle. The Latin term 'sinus' is a mere translation of the Arabic jayb.It appears in the twelfth century in the translation of De motu stellarum


of al-Battani (died 929), the Albategnius of the Latins. Al-Battani alsopresented an important formula in spherical trigonometry (uniting thethree sides and one angle of a spherical triangle) which has noequivalent in Ptolemy:

cos a = cos b cos c - sin b sin c cos A .

A further advance was made with Abu'l-Wafa, and he was probably thefirst to demonstrate the sine theorem for the general spherical triangle.Indeed, Carra de Vaux has demonstrated, following Moritz Cantor, thatit was Abu'l-Wafa and not Copernicus who invented the secant: hecalled it the 'diameter of the shadow' and set out explicitly the ratio (inmodern form)

tan a / sec a = sin a / 1

1.3.3 OPTICS

The application of the principles of geometry to light made possible theconstruction of mirror and lens. The most remarkable practitioner ofthis science is Hasan b al-Haytham (died 1039), well known to the Westunder the name of Alhazen. A native of Basra, he came to Cairo, andentered the service of the Caliph al-Hakim, the Fatimid caliph knownfor his eccentricities, who set him to find a means of regulating theannual inundation of the Nile. His failure, despite his brilliant yetunimaginable proposal of building a mountain at Aswan which woulddam the waters and raise their level to increase the area underirrigation, nearly cost him his life. It however, cast no doubt on alHaytham's scientific ability in the field of optics, and his book Kitab al-manazir (The Visual World) exercised an important influence in theMiddle ages, prompting the studies of Roger Bacon and of Witello.

He laid down a new theory of visual perception, based on the eye'sabsorption of light rays issuing from the object, passing through thepupil, and reaching the brain through vision or eye nerves. Ibn alHaytham laid down the basis of explanation of the rainbow and of thecamera obscura, elaborated later by Kamaluddin al Farisi, by observingthe behaviour of light passing through spheres of glass, of the light of


an eclipsed sun and of a crescent, and light through a small aperture ofa dark room. Explanation through observation and experimentation andthe crystallization of results through mathematical formulae made hiswork the best prototype of the Islamic scientific method.

1.3.4 PHYSICS AND MECHANICS

The first textbook of mechanics dates from 860 and is the Book ofArtifices of the Banu Musa, the mathematicians Muhammad, Ahmadand Hasan, sons of Musa b. Shakir, who were all scientists andenlightened patrons of learning. It contains about a hundred technicalconstructions, some twenty of which are of practical value such as theapparatus for hot and cold water, wells of a fixed depth, the lifting ofweights by machinery, a whole series of the scientific and automatictoys so much beloved by the courts of princes in the Middle Ages.

In the thirteenth century al-Jazari , a native of 'Iraq, wrote a Kitab fima'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya, 'a great book on mechanics and clocks', thebest extant in the Islamic world, as decribed by Meyerhof. An engineer,Qaysar, who dies in Damascus in 1251, constructed irrigation wheels onthe Orontes, as well as fortification, for the prince of Hamah. It was hewho set uo the celestial globe which is today in the National Museum atNaples.

With regard to measuring devices, al-Khazini, making use the works ofthe ancient scientists, expounded a detailed theory of balance in hisbook 'Mizan al-hikma' (The balance of wisdom) in which he defined thecentre of gravity of a body and conditions for various types ofequilibrium. Al-Biruni (died 1050), ascertained experimentally a certainnumber of specific gravities, by means of a 'conical instrument' whichmay be regarded as the earliest pycnometer.al-Khazini, in dealing withliquids, used a hydrometer similar to those used by the Alexandrians.The results obtained by these two scientists constituted one of the finestachievements attained by the Arabs in the realm of experimentalphysics, as mentioned by Mielli in his book La science arabe.

1.3.5 GEOGRAPHY


The geographical knowledge was popularized during this period partlybecause of the rituals which necessitated its use in determining thedirection of Qiblah, the obligations of performing hajj in Mecca, andpartly because the facts that the Muslim was avid traders and travellers,undaunted by the usual perils and risks of long trips. They were evencommanded by God to explore the earth and to ascertain thegeographical realities for the benefits of the mankind.

Al-Kawarizmi was the first to produce a global geography, and Abu alQasim 'Abdullah Ibn Khurdadhbih (died 912) gave a full map anddescription of the main trade routes of the Muslim world in his AlMasalik was Mamalik. Later, the Muslims began to produce atlases oftheir countries for popular and professional use such were the works ofIshaq al Istarfi (died 934), Ahmad al Balkhi (died 934), Muhammad IbnHawqal, and Muhammad al Maqdisi (died 1101). Al Maqdisi was thefirst to produce maps in natural colours in order to bring geographicalknowledge closer to human understanding.

One of the most outstanding work was of al Sharif al Idrisi (died 1166)who was invited by Roger II, the Norman king in Sicily, to produce anup-to-date world map. Al Idrisi asked for a ball of silver 400 rotols inweight (approximately 400 kilograms) and drew on it the sevencontinents, their lakes and rivers, cities, routes, mountain and plains,and trade routes, and noted in each the distance, height, or length asmeasured. Al Idrisi wrote a book, Nuzhat al Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al Afaq, toaccompany the first globe ever built.

The same period witnessed a surge of great travellers who left a richlegacy of geographical contributions. Among them were Ibn Jubayr(died 1217), Yaqut al Hamawi (died 1229),'Abdul Latif al Baghdadi(died 1283), al Qazwini (died 1283), Abu al Fida (died 1331) and IbnBathutah (died 1377).

1.3.6 MEDICINE

Medicine is one of the most famous and best-known facets of Islamiccivilization, and in which the Muslims most excelled. The Muslims


were the great torchbearers of this art for centuries, even after thecessation of the Islamic territorial dominancy. Some of the best and mosteloquent praises of science ever written came from the pens of Muslimscientists who considered their work to be acts of worship. They hit thesource ball of knowledge over the fence to Europe. In the words ofCampbell "The European medical system is Arabian not only in originbut also in its structure. The Arabs are the intellectual fore-bearers ofthe Europeans. "

As for historical interest, medicine, long practised by Hippocrates,Galen, Dioscorides and the doctors of the school of Alexandria, finallybecame concentrated during the sixth century in the city ofGondeshapur. This city of south-western Persia had in fact beenaccepting a succession of refugees-the Netorians of Edessa when theirschool was closed in 489, followed by the NeoPlatonic philosophers ofthe school of Athens, when in turn this latter school was closed byJustinian in 529.

In 638 the city was taken by the Arabs. In view of its nearness to theArab city of Hira it is probable that Arabic was spoken there even beforethe conquest. At all events doctors must have been speaking thelanguage very soon afterwards, since Ibn Abi Usaybi'a, the famoushistorian of Arab medicine, recounts that on occasion of the visit of thephysician Jurjis b. Jibril of Gondeshapur to the caliph al Mansur, Jurjisaddressed the caliph in Arabic. In this city there were actual dynastiesof medical families, who handed down their scientific knowledge,enriched by personal experience, from father to son. And it was thephysicians of Gondeshapur who became the teachers of the soon toemerge Muslim medical geniuses.

One of the most eminent physicians, perhaps the greatest clinical doctorof Islam, was without question Abu Bakr Muhammad al Razi (died932), the Rhazes of the medieval Latins. He began his career as amusician (a lutanist), then switch to study philosophy under Abu Zaydal Balkhi and finally to medicine at the Baghdad hospital. There, hewrote his book Al Mujarrabat. In 902, at the call of Mansur ibn Ishaq, hemoved to Al Rayy to head its hospital. There, he wrote most of hismedical books and dedicated them to his patroon, entitling one of themAl Tibb al Mansuri in his honor. He also wrote a book on psychiatry,


which he entitled Al Tibb al Ruhani. He was the first to insist that hisstudents to continue with postgraduate studies in medicine in order toenrich the discipline. His crowning work was Al Hawi fi al Tibb, anencyclopedia of all the medical knowledge of his age. It was translatedinto Latin by Faraj ibn Salim and known as the Continens. It was printedin 1486, the first medical book ever printed in Europe. He was the firstto make use of music to heal his patients. He arranged his students inconcentric circles around patients so all could participate and to enablethe newer students (outer circle) to learn from the older (inner circle).

His most famous medical observations was his ability to distinguishbetween small pox and measles, works which was known in themedieval Latin translations as De variolis et morbilis or sometimes Liberde pestilential. This book is not simply an outline of Hippocrates or ofGalen, but truly original, based on detail elicitation of symptoms andsigns. He also enjoined precautions for protecting the eyes, face andmouth and for avoidance of pork-marks. In fact, it is the first treatise inexistence on infectious diseases.

The leading representative of Arab surgery was Khalaf ibn 'Abbas alZahrawi (died 1013). He was born, raised and educated in Qurtubah(Cordova). He was called to al Zahra', the new royal city built by AlNasir, grandson of 'Abdul Rahman, founder of Umawi dynasty inSpain. There, al Zahrawi lived and worked till he died. It is unfortunatethat only one of his works had survived, yet it has made a significantimpact to the surgical world. His work Al Tasrif Liman 'Ajiza 'An al Ta'lifhad the same authority in surgery as the Canon of Ibn Sina had inmedicine.

The thirtieth dissertation of this work was devoted to surgery and heincluded in it more than 200 drawings of surgical instruments and ofsurgical operations he has conducted. It was the first medical work tocontain diagrams of surgical instrumentation.The first part of the workconcerned with cauterization and its indications, used generously in theArab medicine since being recommended by the Prophet. The secondpart contained descriptions of surgical procedures and itsarmamentarium, and the third part dealt mainly with fractures anddislocations, even mentioning paralysis resulting from fracture of thespine. It is not surprising that al Zahrawi was extensively quoted by


European surgeons down to the end of the sixteenth century.

The Muslim medicine reached its peak of achievement with Abu 'AliHusayn Ibn Sina (died 1037), who was famed both as a physician andas philosopher. He left behind him a lively autobiography, from whichit emerged that he had been a precocious genius, who at the age ofsixteen had already mastered the medical science of his time. His greatphilosophical work, al-Shifa', has had a resounding effect on Christianthinkers of the Middle age. As for medicine, his great medical works, al-Qanun fi'l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), was the Arabic replica in theMiddle Ages of the great works of Hippocrates and Galen. It consistedof five books which represented complete medical knowledge of histime covering from the basic anatomy and description of diseases togeneral treatment and pharmacotherapy. Wherever he travelled, IbnSina conducted experiments and examined medical records and livecases to confirm his older finding. He diagnosed cancer and urged anearly treatment through surgical removal. He discovered that stomachulcers may be formed by either of two causes: a physic cause such asworry or depression, and a material or organic cause acting on thestomach itself.

The Canon of Ibn Sina remained the ultimate reference in medicine forcenturies and did not cede its place of superiority until the nineteenthcentury, being the standard textbook of medicine the world over forover 700 years. It was also studied enthusiastically and lavishlyannotated over the centuries by Muslim physicians, who also madesummaries of it. One of the most celebrated, al-Mujaz, as that of thethirteenth-century physician Ibn al-Nafis, a native of Damascus whopractised in Cairo. He was appointed as leading physician in Egypt anddied there in 1288. In 1924, Dr Tatawi, a young Egyptian doctor at theUniversity of Freiburg, who was working on the unpublished text of thecommentary of Ibn al-Nafis on the anatomy of Ibn Sina, demonstratedin his medical thesis that Ibn al-Nafis took the opposite standpoint tothat of Galen and Ibn Sina, and that he had given an almost exactdescription of the small or pulmonary circulation nearly three centuriesbefore its discovery by Michael Servetus (1556) and Rinaldo Colombo(1559).


1.3.7 CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY

Closely related with the medical sciences, pharmacology and chemistrybecame very fashionable and later became a speciality of its own amongMuslim authors. Muslim pharmacists began with the Materia Medica ofDioscoriades, followed by knowledge absorbed from India, Persia, andMediterranean world. Al Biruni (died 1050) produced a book, Kitab alsaydala fi'l tibb (The science of drugs). The Muslim pharmacists gaveArabic names to those plants or medicines which they came to know forthe first time, and many are still known by their Arabic names. Thework of Dioscoriades remained unchallenged in its authority until Ibnal Baytar of Malaga, who lived in the middle of the thirteenth century.After completing his own researches, which included visits toByzantium, Greece, Italy and other European regions, Ibn al Baytarproduced his Al Mughni fi al Adwiyah, which he presented to King Salihal Ayyubi in Cairo. He followed this book with two other works- Jami'Mufradat al Adwiyah wal Aghdiyah and Mizan al Tabib.

Another great pharmacologist, who was a contemporary of Ibn alBaytar, was Rashid al Din Ibn al Suri (died 1241), who lived in theeastern provinces. He was so meticulous in his research that he tookwith him an experienced painter and went to the fields and mountainsrecording every important species of medicinal plants.

The interest in chemistry was first aroused, according to the Fihrist ofIbn al Nadim by the Umayyad prince, Khalid b Yazid, who died in704. He learned and adopted the medicinal preparations of the GreekSchool of Alexandria. Ja'far al Sadiq (died 757) learned this Greektradition from Khalid. It was Jabir Ibn Hayyan (died 808) who put theground firmer for this field. Born in about 721 at Tus in Persia (whencehis by-name of al-Tusi), he led the life of an ascetic Sufi and spent mostof his time at his home in Damascus, where he also had his laboratory.He contributed so much to chemistry that the discipline was itselfnicknamed 'the craft of Jabir'. Among his written testimonies were AlKhawass al Kabir (The Great Book of Chemical Properties), Al Ahjar (TheMineral), Al Sirr Al Maknun (The Secret of the Elements), Al Mawzazin(Weights and Measures) and Al Mizaj (Chemical Combination).

Jabir built a precise weighing scale which was capable of weighing


items 6,480 smaller than the ratl (which is approximately one kilogram).He defined chemical combination as union of the elements together insmall particles too small for the naked eye to see without loss of theircharacter, as John Dalton was to discover ten centuries before. Inresponse to Ja'far al Sadiq's wishes, he invented a kind of paper thatresisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night. He invented anadditive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust andwhen applied to a textile, would make it water repellent. He wasconcerned with the production of steel and even counselled thatchemical laboratories should be located far away from populated places.

It was 'Izz al Din al Jaldaki (died 1360) who first noted the potentialdangerous gases arising out of chemical reactions and proposed theapplication of protective masks. He also able to proof that silver can beseparated from gold by dissolving it in nitric acid without affecting thegold. He emphasized the important role of puryfing suspected waterwith means of evaporation and condensation, and not mere filtration.Among his numerous books were two volumes of over 1,000 pageseach, entitled Nihayah al Talab and Al Taqrib fi Asrar al Tarkib.

With al-Razi, alchemy became more scientific with a more precisedesciptions of apparatus and experiments. The interest of al-Razihowever lies particularly in the practical chemistry. His Sirr al-asrar(Secretum secretorum) gave for the first time a lucid classification of thechemical substances and his great merit was that he rejected magicaland astrological practices, while adhering to what could be proved byexperiments. Al Razi's insistence on promoting research work in thelaboratory did not fail to bear fruit in pharmacology, and Abu'l-MansurMuwaffaq, a Persian of the tenth century, mentions chemical detailsabout certain medicaments which show real progress in this field. Facts,observe with so much care demonstrate, as Holmyard says: 'that a by-product of alchemy was a steadily increasing body of reliable chemicalknowledge, a trend which Razi did most to establish and for which hedeserves the gratitude of succeeding generations'

1.3.8 ESTABLISHMENT OF LIBRARIES

During this era, the mosques were put at the disposal of scholars. They


were able to teach not only religious sciences but also related discipline,and even the profane sciences of the ancients. Gradually the librariesbequeathed by scholars came to be housed in buildings speciallyintended for the purpose, and soon the scholars themselves werelodged in dwellings reserved for their use.

In 833 al-Ma'mun founded the famous 'House of Wisdom' (Bayt alHikma), which was bound to have an important influence on thetransmission of ancient learning to the Islamic world, and to stimulatea burst of intellectual activity. This academy was reminiscent of the onewhich had existed at Gondeshapur. It contained an important libraryand was soon enriched with numerous translations.

A later 'Abbasid caliph, al Mu'tadid (died 902) installed in his newpalace lodgings and rooms for all branches of science, and professorswere paid salaries for teaching there. Private individuals followed theexample of the caliphs, among them 'Ali b Yahya known as al-Munajjim (died 888) who possessed a palace and a library calledKhizanat al-hikma which he placed at the disposal of scholars. The studyof astronomy was being especially favoured there.

In Mosul there exited a Dar al-'ilm with a library, where students werenot only able to work without payment, but were even supplied withpaper. At Shiraz a great Khizanat al-kutub was administered by adirector and his assistant. Yaqut recounts in his Mu'jam al-udaba that atRayy a Bayt al-kutb contained more than four hundred camel-loads ofbooks, catalogued in a Fihrist of ten volumes.

However, it was in Cairo, under the Fatimids that the richest librariesof Islam were established. Al-Maqrizi describes in his Khitat that aKhizanat al-kutub was directed by the minister of Caliph al-Mu'izz. Itconsisted of forty store-rooms containing books on all branches ofscience, 18,000 of which dealt with the 'sciences of the ancients'. But thelibrary which surpassed all others was the Dar al-hikma founded by theCaliph al-Hakim in 1005, which contained a reading room and halls ofcourses of study. Efficient service was secured by means of paidlibrarians, and scholars were given pensions to enable them to pursuetheir studies. All the sciences were represented there. Other similarinstitutions were founded at Fustat. In the year 1043 a traveller saw a


library in Cairo containing 6,500 books on astronomy, geometry andphilosophy.

1.3.9 ESTABLISHMENT OF HOSPITALS

Hospitals in Islam initially were institutions inspired by charity forpious purposes, but they made it possible for medical science to developexperimentally. These hospitals, called by the Persian name bimaristan,were designed both to care for the sick and to provide theoretical andpractical medical training. Special buildings were erected, andconsiderable funds were assigned to them in waqf.

The first hospital was built by Walid ibn 'Abdul Malik, the UmawiCaliph, in 706, according to al Maqrizi. One of the famous hospitals wasbuilt by Ahmad ibn Tulun in Cairo in 872. It opened its doors to allpatients whatever the ailments inflicting them. The patients weredivested of clothing, jewellery, and any other personal possessionscarried on the body, and these were kept for him in the hospital safeuntil departure from the hospital. Dar al Shifa' Hospital, built in Cairoin 1284 by Sultan Qalawun, remained in operation up to the Napoleoninvasion of Egypt in 1798, when it was turned into a psychiatric hospitalexclusively. It is still in existence today.

Al Muqtadir built a new hospital in Baghdad in 915 which becamefamous because of the medical expertise of its director, Sinan ibn Thabit.Later in the same century, Baghdad saw the construction of anothergreat hospital, Al 'Adudi, which had twenty-four resident physicians, ahuge medical library, lecture halls, and hundreds of students from allcorners of the Muslim world. Other important and large hospitalsduring this era were al-Kabir al-Nuri in Damascus (which bear thenames of its founder) and al-'Atiq founded by Saladin in Cairo.

Each hospital contained one section for men and another for women.Initially, each section contained several wards: one for internal diseases,a second for surgery, a third for ophthalmology and finally a fourth fororthopaedics. Later, Muslims hospital were divided into those dealingwith either mental or physical diseases, the latter being divided betweencontagious and non contagious diseases. In every hospital there was a


pharmacy under the direction of a head-pharmacist which made up theprescriptions of the doctors. The director of the hospital was assisted bythe heads of sections, each a specialist in his own branch. Servants ofboth sexes watch over the sick, under the supervision of nurses andadministrative staff who received fixed salaries paid out ofendowments.

The physician had complete freedom for his experiments there, andwas able to advocate new treatments. He wrote up the results of hisexperiment in special reports, which could be consulted by members ofthe public. Physicians gave courses of instruction to their pupils, and,on the completion of teaching and practical work confirmed by anexamination, granted them ijaza which allowed them to practisemedicine. Several hospitals had libraries, and students used to travel inpursuit of instruction from celebrated teachers. Spanish sourcesmention that a physician of Cadiz established a botanical garden in thepark of the governor, where he cultivated the rare medical plants whichhe had brought back from his travels. Even Baghdad counted 869physicians who presented themselves to the licensing examinations setup by the government of Caliph al Muqtadir in 931.

The Muslim also invented the ambulant hospital: a hospital carried oncamelback in caravan style complete with beds, food, water, medicines,operating and isolation rooms, and a crew of doctors, nurses,attendants, officers and servants. The ambulant hospital travelled fromcity to city or village to village, to attend to epidemics and victims ofnatural catastrophes.

Hospitals were built, maintained, and operated either at the expense ofgovernment or of perpetual endowments (waqf) by individual donors.Their services were always free. The resident physicians and theirstudents were regarded, like all other college professors and students,as public servants dedicating their time and energy to the pursuit ofknowledge in fulfilment of a major commandment of God.

Ultimately the Muslim scientists surpassed their masters in powers ofobservation and care in verification. When studying the Materia Medicaof Dioscorides, for example, they succeeded in identifying, fromobservation of nature, the botanical terms which the original translation


had left obscure. The faith that every disease has its antidote, asaffirmed by the Prophet Mohammad: "Do take medicines for your ills, Godcreated no ailment but established for it an antidote except old age. When theantidote is applied, the patient will recover with God's permission", urged theMuslims to scan the world of minerals, plants and animals in search ofan antidote, which led to the development of a sophisticated science ofpharmacology.

1.3.10 ESTABLISHMENT OF OBSERVATORIES

Observatories were another outstanding contribution of Islam to theworld. Some of the observatories took place under the Umawis. AlMa'mun completed one on Mount Qaysun near Damascus, and anotherat al Shammasiyyah in Baghdad. Later, Muslim observatoriesproliferated throughout the provinces and were responsible for anumber of significant discoveries and measurements. The greatestobservatories during that era was built at Maraghah in 1258, under thedirection of Nasir al Din al Tusi,

Most of the observatories founded by caliphs and princes wereprovided with important collections of instruments. Al Battani inDamascus, for example, made use of astrolabes, tubes, a gnomondivided into twelve parts, a celestial sphere with five rings (of which hewas perhaps the inventor), parallactic rules, a mural quadrant,horizontal and vertical solar quadrants. These instruments were ofconsiderable size-in fact the Arabs enlarged their instrument as much aspossible in order to reduce margin of error.

Other prominent observatories based on their discoveries and precisionof their calculations were those of Ibn al Shatir in Damascus, al Dinawariin Isfahan, al Biruni at Ghaznah, and Ulug Beg at Samarqand.

1.4 The 'Golden Era' of knowledge and civilization

In summary, after Prophet Muhammad's death in 632, the Muslimsswept out of the Arabian Peninsula and expanded the borders of Islameast and west. By 711, the Muslims had reached Spain, and they ended


up dominating the region. They absorbed not just land, but alsoscientific knowledge from India and Greek learning, planted centuriesearlier by the armies of Alexander the Great. Muslims translated intoArabic the treasures of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Archimedes and othergreat physicians, philosophers and scientists.

By 711, the Muslims had reached Spain, and they ended up dominatingthe region until Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella drove outthe last of them in 1492.

The impact of Islam's discoveries during this period went far beyondindividual innovations like algebra or the establishment of models formodern hospitals and universities. The spread of Islamic knowledge toEurope sparked, or at least helped to spark, the Renaissance andscientific revolution of the 17th century as explicitly written by SirThomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume in their 1997 classic, 'The Legacyof Islam.' mentioning "It is highly probable that, but for the Arabs,modern European civilization would never have arisen at all,".

This was further emphasized by Robert Briffault who wrote in the'Making of Humanity' in 1938 that "Spain, not Italy, was the cradle of therebirth of Europe. After steadily sinking lower and lower intobarbarism, it had reached the darkest depths of ignorance anddegradation when cities of the Saracenic world, Baghdad, Cairo,Cordoba, and Toledo, were growing centers of civilization andintellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose which was togrow into a new phase of human evolution."

History has bear witnessed the truth of these events and it is veryimportant for the Muslims and non-Muslims to know and appreciatethose chronological achievements, not just as an academic references tothe future events to come but to understand the positive implicationsthe Muslim's scientific re-emergence would be to the humanity.


The StagnationPeriod ofMuslimScientificAchievements

22

THE STAGNATION PERIOD OF MUSLIM SCIENTIFICACHIEVEMENTS

2.1 The end of the glorious era

Things started to go awry in the early thirteenth century, when theMuslim world began to stagnate and Europeans surged ahead. Evenrevisionist historians who challenge this date as the time that decline setin do accept that decline eventually took place. Thus, MarshallHodgson -- who argues that the eastern Muslim world flourished untilthe sixteenth century, when "the Muslim people, taken collectively,were at the peak of their power" -- acknowledges that by the end of theeighteenth century, Muslims "were prostrate."

Whatever its timing, the decline in science has been attributed to manyfactors, including the erosion of large-scale agriculture and irrigationsystems, the Mongol and other Central Asian invasions, politicalinstability, and the rise of religious intolerance.

2.2 Factors contributing to the stagnation

2.2.1 Break-up of the Muslims empires

Political stability had played an important factor in assuring thecontinuity of the Muslim scientific dominancy. History bear witnessesthat the caliphate had never been really free from continuous assault,where its political stability was strongly challenged.

The Crusaders has been in continuous confrontation with the Muslimsfrom the start. As the Muslims began to feel comfortable with theirworldly achievements and great empire, Christianity woke up inEurope. It gathers its troop and pushed on the Muslims eastern state ofAfrica and Asia. Nine crusades, one after the other was instigated andthese consisted of the best riders and kings and were fully armed. Atlast these invasions and powers gained such preponderance that theysuccessfully established a Christian government in Jerusalem and


began to threaten the Islamic nations. They began to invade the mostpowerful Islamic country at that time, Egypt. The Caliphate had theirfirst bitter taste of their negligent of their faith.

Fortunately for the Muslims, under the leadership of Sultan Salahuddinal-Ayubi (1137/1138-1193), Egypt succeeds in her efforts collecting anduniting the small defeated states and offered their sacrifices. Salah al-Din Yusuf b Ayyub who became known in the West as Saladin was aKhurdish warrior reknown for his victories over the Crusades and as afounder of the Ayyubid dynasty in Eqypt, Syria and northern Iraq.Salahuddin defeated the Crusader at the Horns of Hattin/Hutain (4thJuly 1187) in Northern Palestine and this led to Muslim re-conquest ofJerusalem and the near elimination of the Franks in Levant.

Salahuddin's career began in the armies of Nur al Din b Zangi, ruler ofAleppo and Damascus, and himself a famous counter Crusader.Salahuddin went to Egypt in early 1169 in a contingent of Nur al Din'sarmy sent to assist the Fatimid Caliphate, which in late 1168 had beenattacked by Crusader forces. Salahuddin subsequently removed theFatimids from power, and made himself ruler in Egypt, subservient toNur al Din. Upon the latter's death in 1174, Salahuddin moved againstNur al Din heirs and began to bring the Muslim cities of Syria under hiscommand. He then used the combined resources of Egypt and Syria toattack the Crusaders. By forcibly uniting Muslim territories prior toassaulting the Franks, he followed the pattern of Nur al Din and Zangi.

In the 13th century, The Tartars under Genghis Khan and his successorsstart to establish the most extensive continuous land empire known tohistory. They invaded the Khwarazm-Shah's empire in 1216-1223 andsacked the great cities of Khurasan, Harat and Nishapur. The effect ofthe Mongolian invasion on Persian agriculture which was heavilydependent on irrigation by means of underground water wasdisastrous. They proceeded forward like a violent flood and descendedon the Islamic state like lightning. They uprooted it and massacred theMuslims and reached Baghdad in 1258, the Abbasid capital and overranit.

In this way, the Islamic government was broken up and for the first timethe string of Caliphate was snapped and the nation got distributed in to


small states. As a result, the 'Abbasid Caliphate had to move theircapital to Cairo. It was again a bitter lesson for the Muslims that makethem woke up to face the reality. Under the leadership of Zahir Babrus,the Muslims faced the Tartars and threw them back very gracefully.The victory of the Muslims at 'Ayn Jalut (Spring of Goliath, a villagenear Nazareth in Israel) in 1260 was a memorable one. The Mongols ofthe Hulegu, led by the Christian Turk Kitbuga Noyon were defeated bythe Mamluks of Sultan Qutuz, led by the future Mamluk Sultan,Barbars I. The Arabic chronicles regard the battle as a decisive victory,which save the Syro-Eqyptian Empire and indeed Islam itself from theMongol menace.

Once again the Caliphate is re-established and a vast, strong andpowerful Islamic state comes into being, which unites all the Muslims,and gather them under its flag. The next period was the era of theOttoman Empire. Interestingly, only one family reigned over theOttoman Empire for seven centuries, and, unlike most dynasties, theyruled in an unbroken line, thirty-six of them altogether, from the 13thcentury until the 20th century. Yes there were abdications anddepositions but never a hiatus. They were never overthrown by aforeign power and no usurper ever gained the throne. The Westernworld called them Ottoman, but their Turkish name is Osmanli, takenfrom the first ruler of the Ottoman state, Osman.

Then with a very great courage, it waged war against Crusaders, in thelatter's home and conquered the Byzantine capital, Constantinople in1453. Its authority further extends to Vienna city in the Central Europe.Under Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottomans rebuilt the devastatedcity of Constantinople into the fabulously wealthy capital they renamedIstanbul, with large warehouses, the Covered Bazaar, Topkapi Palace,and several mosque complexes.

Unfortunately, again the Islamic state under the flag of the Usmanis gotcontented with its authority. Such was the intoxication of tranquillityand contentment that it did not care as to what happening around it.The European, which in the west was connected to Spain and in the eastwas contiguous to the Islamic realm by the means of the crusades, didnot allow the opportunity to slip. In the land of Gaule, it began to rallyunder the English flag and gathered strength. It was successful in


checking the flood of Western Islamic wars. It spread the net of itsconspiracies in the files of the Spanish Muslims and was successful inmutually rousing them against one another, which in the end under theCatholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella , in 1492 the last of them wasthrew across the sea on the shores of Africa. A strong Spanishgovernment was established there. In this way, Europe continued tounite and strengthened itself.

Despite the defeat in Spain, the Ottoman is yet to reach it ultimatum. Itwas Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent however, who brought theOttoman Empire to its zenith. The fourth Ottoman sultan to reign, from1520 until 1566, he presided over the most powerful state in the world.A remarkable military strategist, he more than doubled the Ottomanland holdings he inherited from his father. He also brought a profusionof elegant mosques, baths, schools, fountains, and gardens to Istanbul.A virtual renaissance occurred in literature, the arts, the sciences, and heset a new standard of jurisprudence. Upon Süleyman's demise, thegradual decline of the Ottoman Empire began.

The scientific revolution in Europe in the 16th century led to massdiscoveries and 'invasion' of new lands. The Spain succeeded to get holdof America while India's sea route came to light through the efforts ofPortugal. These materials and ideological invasion, in the name ofreformation and industrialization successfully penetrated the countriesunder the suzerainty of the Ottoman Caliphate. One after the other wentout of hand into the clutches of Europe. The last decision of this tusslewas made clear by the First World War (1914-1918) which ended withthe defeat of Turkey and her allies.Britain, France and under theirprotection Italy, got full opportunity to capture this great and preciousheritage of the Muslim nation under the name of various excuses called'mandate', 'subjugation', 'colonialism' or 'guardianship'.

Muslims lands were divided amongst themselves: Morocco, Algiers,Tunis and Syria became the colonies of France; Tripoli and Barqa werethe colony of Italy; Egypt, Sudan, Iraq and India were directly underBritish; Turkistan and its neighbouring states were Russian colonies,which were badly taken into task by the Bolsheviks. The remainingparts of Arabia, comprising of small states and whose rulers remainedunder the supervision of British embassies came into solemn


agreements with the Emperor of the Peninsular that they would help ingetting Arabia free and for the consolidation of Arabian Caliphate.Finally, in 1924, Mustapha Kemal Ataturk abolished the Muslimcaliphate and founded the Republic of Turkey.

In this way, Europe was fully victorious in its political design. Itsucceeded in its resolve to shatter the Muslim Empire to pieces, touproot the Muslim Commonwealth and to have its name removed fromthe list of influential governments.

2.2.2 Partisanship, political differences and power politics

Islam had clearly prohibited such a tendency from the start. It hadforewarned that partisanship, desire of power and political agitation eatup a nation, as termite eats up wood and shatters the chandelier ofnations and governments: "And do not quarrel amongst yourselves in orderthat you may not become timid and forfeit your prestige. And be patient. Nodoubt Allah is with those who are patient" (8: 46).

One of the important milestones in Islamic history is the Battle of Siffin.While some of the religious scholars regard the decisions taken by bothparties were a form of ijtihad, undoubtedly, lot of subsequent politicalevents has aroused from that particular incident.

There were two major factors leading to partisanship and powerpolitics during this era. The weaknesses of the Muslim themselves wasthe first contributing factor. As the empire expanded, theadministration load increased. The appointment of the administratorsbecame less stringent to accommodate the demand. Some of them hadtheir own materialistic agenda, abusing power and public funds. Thelevel of faith and respect to the Caliph deteriorated, sometimes initiatedby the conduct of the caliph themselves. The essence of amana (trust) ofGod assigned for the Caliphate was not fulfilled and as consequence,the nations of the conquered lands were not given the true picture ofIslam as it should be and of no support value for the stability of theempire. This enhanced the second factor to come in, the intelligentenemy of the Muslim empire. They penetrated them gracefully andspread the net of its conspiracies in the files of the Spanish Muslims and


were successful in mutually rousing them against one another. Theybrought into the Muslim nations the narrow-minded concept oftribalism, patriotism and nationalism which divide the nation intodifferent groups and parties. This further led to mutual conflict, mutualenmity and envy, abuses and disparagement, rumours, hearsay andconspiracies ending with civil wars. They take advantage of theselfishness, self interest, temptations and personal consideration whichhas became the prime motivating factor in the weak Muslims to fan theflames of hatred, enmity and unites people for the sake their patrioticgrouping.

Islam had never put an end to the sentiments of racial, tribal or nationalpatriotism. The Prophet eyes were filled with tears, when he heard thepraise of Mecca from Aseel, due to eagerness and love and he said toAseel 'Let the hearts gain peace'.

Islam has always seen patriotism in its elevated and noble sense. Aslong the objective of the respective patriotisms is to produce thegeneration who are proud of the faithfulness and courage of theirancestors and want to determine the continuity of this honoured andblessed traits in their predecessor, and as long they understand that thispatriotism will not lead to the usurpation of the right of others,oppression on them, burning desire to gulp down all others, it isdoubtlessly commendable and well encouraged in Islam.

There were some arguments on the non-effectiveness of the Caliphatesystem itself. Without doubt the Muslims had observed the ups anddowns of the Caliphate and it was directly related to the individual heldresponsible and the nation or community involved. The caliphatesystem itself is of great benefit for the humanity, provided that it ispractice in the real Islamic understanding and this has been proven byits credibility to stand strong for at least 700 years after the prophet hoodof Mohammad. The persons and community involved is a majordeterminant of the success of the caliphate system.

2.2.3 Religious and theological differences

Islam had always encouraged healthy discussion on the matter of daily


living. The Muslims were asked to use the most precious faculty given,the ability to think to optimize the resources and to solve approachingproblems in their life. However these discussions should be wellguided and in case of indifferences, they should go back to the ultimatesource of consultation, the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet.

We know that difference in small matters and minor commandments ofthe religion is unavoidable. Sagacity differs, the power of individualperceptions differs and there is lot of difference in the grasp ofarguments. This is even the temperament of Islam which desires that itshould be always live firmly and eternally. It should never recede back,but always continue along with the times. This is why the religion ofIslam is very soft, elastic and easy. There is not a little frigidity orharshness in it.

Despite that, this was not the case during that era. The differences creptup and there were a leaning toward dead and lifeless words andspiritless term. The books of Allah and the Traditions of the HolyProphet were neglected. One's own views and opinions were insistedon unduly leading to argumentations and debates. As the ProphetMohammad had said: "No nation went astray after following guidance,unless it got entangled in the calamity of misguided argumentation"

2.2.4 The intoxicants of pleasures and enjoyment.

The Muslims drowned themselves in the intoxicants of pleasures andenjoyments. Sensual gratification and delicacies of mouth and tastebecame their aim of life. Many of the Muslim rulers went into extremein search of pleasure. They have left behind such examples orprofligacy, as do not find and equal amongst the others. They were notunaware of the following injunction of Allah: "And when we intend todestroy a locality,We order its rich and wealthy people. They maketransgressions in it. Thus the decision of punishment is justified and We makeit topsy turvy" (17: 16)

2.2.5 The governmental ruling by the non Arabs


It has been argued that the transition of the leaderships either at thelocal administrative level or even at the governmental level to the non-Arabic speaking Muslims contribute to the weakening of the Islamicempire and subsequent downfall of science. This includes the politicalruling by the Iranians or the Turks. Even though this is debatable, someauthors strongly concern on their inability to master the Arabiclanguage, which obviously a disadvantage in understanding the HolyQur'an.

2.2.6 Negligence of practical knowledge and world realities.

The Muslims intellectual started to leave aside practical knowledge andworld realities. They began to waste their lives and valuable energies onprofound speculative philosophies and unwieldy abstract arts, althoughIslam kept persuading them to think over this world, to find out thesecrets of life and to study the Nature and the Kingdom of Allah. Therewere continuous occasions where the theologian exhausted their timeand effort to even arguing in non practical thing and some even beyondtheir given faculty such as whether the Qur'an is a creature or not. Onthe other hand some of them used the tools of the philosophers toundermine philosophical and scientific inquiry. This had not onlybrought a conflict between the philosophers and the scientists but hadinitiated the extremist in both groups which only hampered thescientific progression.

2.2.7 Internal Conflict among scholars

In 700 CE a movement of Muslim scientists and scholars, known asMutazillites, who believed that both the mysteries of nature and thereligious belief could be explained and expressed in terms of humanreason, provoked the emergence of a counter-movement called theAsharites who emerged in 900 CE. They contested the over-zealous useof reason and condemned bidah or innovation in religious belief. In theend the Asharites won but gave rise to taqlid - the tyrannical attitude topassive acceptance. When taqlid was accepted as the dominantparadigm, Islamic science and technology truly became a matter ofhistory and the practice of Islamic science and technology disappeared.


2.2.8 High esteem and unduly proud rulers

At the peak of the glorious era, the Muslims especially their rulers hadtoo high an esteem of their power and achievements. They becameunduly proud of their authority, and became negligent of theresentment, heart-burning and grudge of the defeated nations, whilethe Qur'an had insisted on their ever remaining wide-awake, andalways avoid carelessness.

The Muslims failed to learn the social and physical developmenthappening around them especially in Europe. In Bernard Lewis'sphrasing, "The Renaissance, Reformation, even the ScientificRevolution and the Enlightenment, passed unnoticed in the MuslimWorld." Instead, Muslims keep on relying on religious minorities(Armenians, Greeks and Jews) as intermediaries; they served as courtphysicians, translators, and in other key posts. Once known as aknowledge-thirst nations, the Muslim world seem contented with theiraccomplishment and start to become lazy and equally satisfied with justa limited transfer of science and technology from their neighbourhood.

2.2.9 The rise of European economic, political and culturalimperialism.

The European nations which during the crusades in the East and inSpain in the west were closed to the Muslims, due to their contacts withMuslim neighbours, Muslim nations and Islam itself, did not only takethe lesson of political unity and national sense from the contact, but alsoacquired the benefit of mental awakening and tremendous wisdom.They learnt many arts and gained a very vast knowledge, and madeenormous literary progress, which is a natural reaction for any nationswho felt inferior or threatened of conquest over them.

The Church fought out this new tendency with its full might, and beganto trouble the standard bearers of progress that is the literates and thelearned ones. The investigation departments belaboured them severelyand instigated the governments and organizations against them. But allthese efforts proved abortive. The oppression by the church could notsubdue the realities of knowledge and discoveries and the progress of


knowledge emerged victorious from this fight. The governments tooreceived an incentive from it and it stood up against the church andultimately defeated it. In this way Europe was free from the overlordship of the Church and the clerical staff took refuge in themonasteries and churches. Pope was confined to a small state known asVatican and the activities of the religious people got confined to a verynarrow circle, to think beyond which was a crime for them.

Thus, there was an open and vast atmosphere of knowledge andwisdom before the people of Europe and a broad field of research anddiscovery. The establishment of a strong Spanish government furtherstrengthened the European dominancy. They became very competitivein searching new knowledge throughout the world and keptdiscovering countries. Thus the discovery of America was theachievement of Spain and India's sea route came to light through theeffort of Portugal. Thus, progress and reform continued to go ahead andmany reformers were born. Their attention remained concentrated ontemporal arts and useful inventions.

The industrial and mechanical progress further accelerated the speed ofdiscoveries. Many countries were in its circle of control and the entireworld started to lean towards the western nation. Simultaneously, theresources began to move towards them. It was the flood of wealth andriches which was moving from all sides. However, this civilizationopened its eyes, in the lap of materialism, which nurtured it and inwhose cradle it was reared. The logical result of this was that religionwas thrown overboard from most walks of collective life, specially thegovernment offices and schools. The materialistic mind andmaterialistic point of view got to the forefront and it became a measureand standard for everything. Although the new culture, opened thegateways of knowledge and wisdom, brought tremendous wealth andgrandeur and raised the standards of its power and authority on earth,it seems lack the element of tranquillity and virtue.

2.2.10 Deception of Western achievements and values

The Muslim nations were later deceived by the flattering and fawningadvancement and achievement of the Western counterpart. They


became enamoured of their outward appearance and their activities,and starts to imitate them without evaluating the profit or loss resultingfrom this blind imitation. Scientific development was based andreferred to the westernized value, which in majority of the casesweighing towards materialism.

2.3 The critical era of Islamic science

Strolling back the historical lane of this era, one must come back to theimportant question. What really happened to the Islamic or the Arabicscience during this period of political turmoil and socio-economicdepreciation? Is the grand heritage of scientific knowledge had totallydiminished from the hand of the Muslim nation or it is still hiddensomewhere in the cloud of ignorance and demoralised nature of theMuslim nation?

It is quite unfair to totally agree with the connotation that the scientificcivilization in the Muslim world were at the downfall. The followingfacts might justify this ambitious statement.

The tremendous amount of new material science inventions and theexpansion of western empire if not colonization, had introducedimportant consequence to the Arabic science. First, the Muslimscientists, with their socio-politic and economic disadvantage situationcould not keep in pace with the rapid progression of western scientificdevelopment. As a result any achievement in the Muslim world isrelatively insignificant globally. It has become diluted in the ocean ofscientific discoveries and directly masks the Muslim scientificcontribution.

Furthermore, it had been proven that in some cases the integrity andcredibility of Muslim scientist either their inventions or their books, stillhold the test of time. They were still being used as major referenceseven after the scientific revolution in the Western world. Unfortunately,they were not given the appropriate recognition in the modernhistorical education for obvious reasons, in particular to undermine theMuslim great ancestral reputation if not to wash it out from the mind ofthe future generation. In order to do full justice to the importance of


their work, contemporary Western scientists must put into theirhistorical context those who were, in former times, the teachers of theirancestors.

Lastly, but not the least important, the future of the current scientificinvention and civilization is still uncertain. As mentioned earlier,science is only a tool in explaining, answering and improving thephenomenal of life, and it is up to the carpenter to manoeuvre itsdestiny. Here is where the issue of virtue and morality are of essentialin producing the beneficial outcome of science. Materialistic scientificcivilization neglecting the essence of humanity not only will tarnish theimage of science itself but disastrously will lead to the downfall of thecivilization itself. Industrial revolution has produce the capitalistideology which in the begin seems attractive enough for the developingnations with its investment capitalism However, as time past and itsmaterialistic attitude become more obvious, the practice of plunderingcapitalism became the name of the game.


The CurrentState ofMuslimScientist

33

THE CURRENT STATE OF MUSLIM SCIENTIST

3.1 Science in Muslim world during the recent centuries

3.1.1 The scientific development in the Muslim world post-Renaissance

The massive scientific revolution in the 16th century Europe hastransformed the world both intellectually and materially. Traditionalbelief systems were challenged by the paradigm of the new culturebased on experimentation, prediction, quantification, and control.Power relations between countries became increasingly defined by theirmastery of technology, ultimately leading to the colonization byEuropean nations of much Islamic world.

The combination of the Enlightenment and French Revolution hadmade European science accessible to the Muslims, hence the revival ofscience in the Muslim world. The former detached science fromChristianity, thereby making it palatable to Muslims. The latter, andespecially Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, with its entourage ofscholars and supplementary mission of knowledge, imposed Europeanpower on and brought European science to a Muslim people. Withinyears, some rulers led by Muhammad `Ali of Egypt, recruited Europeantechnicians and sent students to Europe.

An extraordinarily rapid diffusion of Western technologies throughoutmost of the Middle East took place in the period 1850-1914. With theapproval of local elites, European colonial authorities imposed public-health measures to contain cholera, malaria, and other contagiousdiseases. The Suez Canal opened in 1869, reduced shipping time anddistance and generated new trade. Railways, telegraphs, steamshipsand steam engines, automobiles, and telephones all appeared. Much ofthis technology transfer took the form of Middle Eastern governments'granting monopoly concessions to European firms. Muslim rulers hadlittle concern about developing indigenous capabilities in technologyadaptation, design, or maintenance.


Science was an afterthought, at best embedded in scientific technologiesbut not transferred explicitly as knowledge or method. Instead,members of minority communities continued to intermediate byproviding clerical and skilled labour. Minorities also helped to establishthe first Western education institutions in the region, such as the SyrianProtestant College in Beirut (founded in 1866) and the Jesuits' St.Joseph's College (founded in 1875). These schools and others inIstanbul, Tunis, Tehran, Algiers, and elsewhere primarily servedminority communities and Europeans, though some elite Muslims alsoattended. Middle Eastern medical schools quickly accepted and taughtthe medical discoveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others concerningmicrobes and bacteria. The schools contributed to the translation andpublication in Arabic of major scientific works and to the organizationof the first scientific societies in the region. Such societies were foundedin Beirut, Cairo, Damascus, and Istanbul in the late nineteenth century,often sponsoring journals that featured translations. Thus, CharlesDarwin's On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, was translated inArabic journals by 1876, though not in book form until 1918.Throughout this period, Muslim intellectuals presented minimalresistance to the diffusion of Western scientific ideas. For example, themajor opposition to Darwinian ideas of evolution came not fromMuslim scholars but from Eastern-rite Christians.

Between the year 1914-1945, Muslims slowly showed, even often infrustration, attempt to strengthen indigenous science against theimported variety. New universities with an emphasis on engineeringand medicine sprang up in Egypt, Turkey, Syria, and the Sudan. Duringthe depression years, however, reduced employment for graduates andincreased discontent over the dominant role of expatriates andminorities constrained science and technology.

The nationalist politicians who arose after World War I mainlyconcentrated on gaining political independence; science and technologyhardly concerned them. The one exception was Turkey, which underKemal Mustafa Atatürk after 1922 launched an ambitious program ofindustrialization and an expansion of engineering education.Elsewhere -in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Iran- politicians made onlyfaltering attempts at industrialization to serve small local markets.Turnkey, off-the-shelf projects prevailed, especially in engineering. This


meant that few scientific inputs existed, most technologies wereimported, maintenance was a persistent problem, and limited shop-floor learning took place. Only in the petroleum industry, which after1914 took on major proportions in Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, did thepattern differ, for multinational firms subcontracted locally such tasksas maintenance engineering and geological surveying.

Colonization, internal cultural beliefs, combined with global inequitiesin the distribution of power and wealth, may be an important factor inexplaining the disproportionately small representation in science andtechnology of Muslims, who constitutes about 20 percent of the world'spopulation.

Despite the period of 'hibernation', history has witnessed enormousattempts by the Muslims to re-instil the spirit of scientific developmentin the community. The following are worth of mentioning, despite theultimate aim in some of the scientific and industrial movement in theMuslim countries is still questionable and in some instances evenchallenged the fundamental Islamic norms.

3.1.2 Development in Arabic-African continent

In Egypt, following the Napoleonic occupation, Muhammad 'Ali (1769-1849) seized state power and rule from 1805 through 1848. An Albanianofficer in the Ottoman army, he made Egypt virtually independent ofIstanbul and who attempted a major modernisation of the country.

Pasha Muhammad Ali who came to power in 1805 almost single-handedly dragged the backward province into the modern world. Butthe brutality of his method showed how difficult it was to modernise atsuch breakneck speed. He massacred the political opposition -thousands of peasants are said to have died in the conscripted labourbands that improved Egypt's irrigation and water-communications. Tosecularise the country, Muhammad Ali simply confiscated muchreligiously endowed property, systematically marginalised the ulama,and divested them of any shred of power. As a result, the ulama, of whohad experienced modernity as a shocking assault, became even moreinsular, and closed their minds against the new world that was coming


into being in Egypt. The history of Egypt for the first half of the 19thcentury is virtually the history of Pasha Muhammad Ali who was alsoknown as the founder of modern Egypt.

He founded the first school of engineering in 1816, the first school ofmedicine 1821 and also the first Arabic newspaper in 1828.During thisperiod he made bold attempts to transfer French and British technologyinto the country, relying principally on European expatriates. Heintroduced the first printing press - a device initially condemned bysome of the ulama for having a belt of pigskin. This resistance wasovercome, and the Bulaq press in Cairo published eighty-one Arabicbooks on science between 1821 and 1850.

Technology for irrigation, textile manufacturing, surveying,prospecting and mining for coal and iron, and military hardwarereceived high priority. Major earthmoving and civil engineeringprojects were begun. Even more significantly, technical schools withforeign teachers were established with the aim of generatingmanpower. More than four thousand students were sent to Europe tostudy various branches of science, including military tactics. However,the success of Muhammad 'Ali's industrialization policies was mixed.The quality of domestic products such as textiles was poor. Technicalschools provided insufficient exposure to the theoretical science andfailed to create a base technicians or engineers of sufficiently highercalibre. After Muhammad 'Ali's death in 1849 these schools were closeddown under the rule of Kjedive 'Abbas and Khedive Sa'id, and scientificmomentum ground to a halt.

In Oman, Sultan Sa'id ibn Sultan (1806-1856) was notable for his interestin acquiring European technology. He made numerous attempts tohave sugar refineries installed in Zanzibar, an Omani possession, aswell as unsuccessful attempts at shipbuilding. Similarly in Algeria,Amir 'Abd al-Qadir, the ruler between1832-1847, engaged variousexperts to build small ordnance factories and appears to haveunderstood the importance of technology for progress.

In perhaps the most influential modernist effort vis-à-vis science, theEgyptian Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905) developed a belief systembased on reason. He argued that "religion must be accounted as a friend to


science, pushing man to investigate the secrets of existence, summoning him torespect the established truths and to depend on them in his moral life andconduct." A loyal disciple of Jamal al-Din al Afghani, he was born in avillage in Gharbiyya province, Egypt and educated at the Ahmadimosque in Tanta and at Al Azhar University. Despite his interest inphilosophy and sufism, which can be witnessed by his best known workin theology, 'Risalat al Tawhid'(Treatise of Unity) published in 1897, hiseffort to reconcile Islam with modernization was well recognised. Heand his well known disciple, Muhammad Rashid Rida advocatedreforming Islam by restoring it to its original condition, modernizing theArabic language and upholding people's right in relation with theirrulers. Muhammad Abduh remains a towering figure in Eqyptsintellectual history.

3.1.3 Development under the Turkish Ottomans Caliphate

The Turkish Ottomans established an extensive and magnificent empirein the sixteenth century and soon recognized the utility of militarytechnology, particularly cannons, which they readily borrowed from theWest. Strong religious taboos, however, prevented the use of suchinnovations as the printing press or public clocks. Travellers to Turkeyin this period remarked on the lack of interest in matters of science andlearning.

Sweeping changes in civil administration and education came withSultan Selim III (1761-1808), the most radical of the Ottoman reformers.Selim established a new military corps armed and organized in the mostmodern European techniques of warfare. Gun-founding wasintroduced, printing presses were set up, and the works of Westernauthors were translated into Turkish. To sustain the modern army, thesubjects of algebra, trigonometry, mechanics, ballastics and metallurgywere introduced into the teaching curriculum. Like Muhammad 'Ali,Selim had no choice but to import teachers from Europe for thesesubjects. The importance of theoretical science as a basis for continueddevelopment appears not to be recognized.

The major impetus to the scientific development came after therevolution in 1924, brought about by Mustafa Kemal Atartuk (1881-


1938) at the expense of introduction of secularism in Turkey. Before thiseducation had been limited to the cities and controlled by religiousauthorities, but after the secularization of Turkey, control was takenover by the state and curricula revised to include modern science,mathematics, world history, and other secular subjects. Fortunately, 80years after the revolution, the light of Islam is glaring again in Turkey,and despite the label 'sickman of Europe', Turkey today among theMuslim countries, is the leader and the most advance of scientificresearch and in terms of the quality of its universities.

3.1.4 Development in Indian subcontinent

The modern scientific ideas and techniques came in the wake of theEnglish conquest. After the banishment of the last Mughal emperor,Bahadur Shah Zafar, in 1857, the English consolidated their rule andintroduced modern education. A combination of shame, pride,defiance, and conservatism led Muslims to resist Western learning.Consequently, Muslims wre at a substantial disadvantage relative toHindus, for example between 1876-1877 and 1885-1886, 51 Muslims and1,338 Hindus took the B.A degree at Calcutta.

The resistance of Muslims of the subcontinent to modern ideasmotivated Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) to become a forcefulproponent of modern science and thought. He devoted much of his lifeto convincing Muslims in India "that western scientific thought was notantithetical to Islam." He reinterpreted the Qur'an to find passagesconsistent with reason and nature, and insisted that "Muslims have inthe Koran the source of a rational religion attuned to modern man'sscientific interests." He was convinced that the subjugation of Muslimsto the west was a result of their scientific backwardness, and that in turnwas a consequence of the dominance of superstitious beliefs and ofrejection of reason in favour of blind obedience to the tradition. Hetherefore set about the monumental task of reinterpreting Muslimtheology, making it compatible with post-renaissance scientific ideas.Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Aligarh Muslim University, whichprovided Muslims of the subcontinent a unique opportunity for highereducation. His articles in the periodical Tahzib al-akhlaq, which includedtranslations and explanations of scientific tracts as well his


interpretations of religious issues, were highly influential among theMuslims.

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897), also a supporter of Western scienceand modern ideas, was a determined anti-imperialist who inspiredMuslims in Turkey, Egypt, Iran and India. He was of belief that Islamencouraged rational thought and discouraged blind imitation. In 1870,because of the pressure from the clergy, he was expelled from Istanbulfor advocating the setting up of a Dar al- Funun, a new universitydevoted to the teaching of modern science. He is known for his vitrioliccritism of those ulama' who opposed modern ideas and science.

3.1.5 Progression after 1945

In the aftermath of World War II, for the first time, a perceived need forindigenous science and technology spread in the Muslim world. Suchevents as the creation of Pakistan and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war madeMuslims very acutely aware of their deficiencies in science andtechnology. The attainment of independence fostered a technological(but not a scientific) nationalism. States took responsibility formanaging technology as an instrument of national power and maderelatively ample resources available for technology (though, again, notscience).

More than sixty new universities and technical schools opened duringthis period in the Arabic-speaking countries alone. Science andengineering programs received the most resources and so attracted thefinest students; further, they have grown to the point that hundreds ofthousands of students now graduate annually in the Muslim world. Inaddition, several hundred thousand Muslim students have since the1950s studied science and engineering in the West, the former SovietUnion, India, and elsewhere, and a majority have returned home.Trouble is, these results have been more impressive quantitatively thanqualitatively.

The implementation of science and technology policy takes place at thenational, not regional, level during this period. Most governments haveestablished councils to oversee science and technology, drafted some


sort of national plan, and made an attempt at implementation. Nationalscience policies vary widely. Turkey has achieved the most researchcooperation between the public and private sectors, especially inhydrology, textiles, and agriculture. Egypt has a cumbersome,centralized research bureaucracy and policy with little diffusion orpractical results. Pakistan pursues a comprehensive, government-directed research effort with a priority for nuclear energy and otherhighly centralized projects, but implementation has been slow andexpensive. Malaysia has a sophisticated applied-research policyfocused on getting local private investors to work together to expandthe export of electronic items. Indonesia has opted for a high-techpolicy based on a national aerospace industry with high-cost risks.

Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates have poured vastamounts of money into science and technology. But the research outputhas not matched the state-of-the-art facilities. The prevailing mentalitycontinues to be that of buying science and technology rather thanproducing it. Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia each operate its ownmodest version of French-style centralized research policies but theirlack of linkages to the private sector or ability to diffuse results limitstheir productivity. Iran and Iraq concentrate on petroleum andweapons research to the detriment of other sectors. Other countries,such as the Sudan, Yemen, or the newly independent Central Asianrepublics, lack a critical mass of researchers or have experiencedextensive emigration, or both. Political repression has crippled sciencein Afghanistan, Libya, and Syria.

Fundamentalist governments in Iran and the Sudan suffered theemigration of so many scientists and engineers abroad. This problem inIran, coupled with the devastating effects of the war with Iraq, had ledthe authorities to concentrate more towards nurturing the remainingresearch community. Indeed, the priority to reconstruct the war-damaged petroleum and petrochemical industries has dictatedgenerous treatment of scientists and engineers. The science curriculumin the schools and universities has been largely retained along pre-1979lines. Iranian scientists have preserved international contacts; evenAbdus Salam, the Pakistan particle physicist and the only MuslimNobel Prize winner in physic, has visited Iran.


Sudan has experienced one of the most severe instances of brain-drainanywhere in the world. It appears that a half-million Sudanesetechnicians and professionals have emigrated, primarily to Saudi Arabiaand the Persian Gulf, since 1960. Scientists, engineers, and physicianshave left, primarily to the Persian Gulf countries. The Sudanesegovernment that came to power in 1989 has been concerned to slowdown this exodus of talent and to retrieve what remains of Sudanesescientific and technological capabilities. Hasan at-Turabi, philosopher-theologian of the regime, envisions a moral, democratic, Islamic statewith ample room for research.Unfortunately, enormous internalproblems has hampered the progress of science there.

Nor do fundamentalist movements in opposition aspire to Islamizescience. Movements in Algeria and Tunisia, for example, demand thereplacement of French with Arabic at all educational levels, but theirobjectives are political and cultural rather than anti-scientific. InPakistan, due to internal political pressures and the particularlyinfluential role of the mullahs (clergy), the government of Zia-ul Haq in1987 introduced fundamentalist doctrines in the teaching of science atall levels, from primary schools to universities.

3.1.6 Why does the Muslim still lag behind in science

Aaron Segal, in 1976 concluded that 'After nearly fifty years of would-beinstitution-building, the Muslim world has failed to provide a satisfactory homefor science'. He attributed the low level of achievement was due tocumulative effect of multiple factors, and not from a single dominantcause.

Islam, according to him, even though not the key factor, contributes tothe Muslim world's lagging behind in science insofar as its tenets havenot satisfactorily been reconciled with those of science. Islam's mostdeleterious effect may be to remove most Muslims from direct contactwith science. Except for a brief exposure in school, there is little sciencein Islamic popular culture.

Fortunately, this perception of Islam can easily be argued as we hadexplicitly described earlier, in so far the completeness of Islam is


concerned and its openness to scientific discovery .It is pretty immatureto blame Islam based on the act of some deviated theologians, scholarsor even scientists.

Nevertheless, it is important to pay attention to the rest of hisconstructive comments at that time, which rather true and of benefit forthe progress of the Muslims in science. Basically it can be divided intofour groups:

a. Education

Language still forms a barrier not only to science but to educationgenerally. The fact that an estimated 80 percent of the world's scientificliterature appearing first in English, the literature in Arabic, Persian,Urdu, and other languages is inadequate for teaching students as wellas researchers.

Ineffective science education was also obvious at all level, primary,secondary and higher institutions. There is too much rote learning andemphasize was given to teaching instead of research. Overcrowded,under-funded, and turbulent universities have been unable to protectspace and resources for research.

b. Government

The Muslim governments lack of accountability and inability to diffusescientific research in state-owned corporations, as the case in Algeriaand Syria. This has led to wasted sources. At the same time industrialimport substitution often continues to rely on turnkey projects andforeign maintenance. Multinational firms active in the respective regionprefer to conduct research at European or North American sites. Exceptfor Algeria, Iran, and Iraq, state oil companies are more managers ofconcessions than operators with strong technical capabilities.

In some countries, authoritarian regimes deny freedom of inquiry ordissent, cripple professional societies, intimidate universities, and limitcontacts with the outside world. A horrific detailed account by the U.S.National Academy of Sciences documents the long-term destruction ofthe scientific community in Syria by a nationalist regime, not a


fundamentalist one. Authoritarian regimes also reinforce the prevailingpattern of relying on technology transfer. Distrustful of their own elitesand institutions, the rulers prefer to buy rather than generatetechnology. The oil-exporting countries especially see science andtechnology as commodities to be purchased, an outlook that has apernicious effect on the development of indigenous research capabilities

c. Research and development

Demographically, the number of research scientists and engineers in theMuslim world remains well below that of rich countries as well as LatinAmerica and South and East Asia. The Muslim world suffers an acutescarcity of career researchers. This resulted from lack of in-house abilityto train young researchers, promotion to bureaucratic post, inadequateresearch facilities and lack of incentive to scientific publications. One ofthe obvious consequences of this is the brain drain of whatever scientistleft in those countries.

A lack of financial resources and incentives has been a major barrier toresearch except in some oil-rich states. Whereas Japan, the United States,Germany, and other Western countries spend 2 percent or more of theirgross domestic product (GDP) annually on research, no Muslim countryspends more than .50 percent of its (much lower) GDP on research. Evenwhere funds are available, research-management capabilities are inshort supply. The prospects for stable research funding and effectiveinstitution-building are both poor.

Within government agencies or ministries themselves, applied-researchunits, such as agriculture or construction, have often become sinecuresfor political appointees with little or no interest or capabilities forresearch.

d. International collaboration

Broad-based interdisciplinary professional societies for science andengineering have been slow to develop in the Muslim world. Regionalcooperation in science and technology has a less promising history inthe Muslim world. It makes eminent sense in principle, for a handful ofcountries (like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia) are oil-rich and short of


researchers, while other countries (Egypt and Pakistan) export them.Also, the similarity of applied-research needs and priorities, such assolar energy, desertification, and desalination, should produce sharedinterests. Unfortunately, meetings held over two decades to coordinateregional research have produced much rhetoric and little action.

Much development has emerged ever since these 'pessimisticassessment' (in Segal's word) were made. In one aspect, it has portrayedthe optimistic future of the Muslims world as far as the scientificadvancement is concern, provided these commentaries has gone intobrain cells of the Muslims and transformed into the other aspect, thelong awaiting struggle and steps for re-emergence which will bediscussed in the later chapter.

3.1.7 The challenge

So why is much of today's Islamic world a "scientific desert," to use thestark language of a 2002 article in the journal Nature? Why do manypredominantly Muslim countries, home to 1.3 billion people and 75percent of the world's oil wealth is not at the fore front of science andtechnology? And how might they recapture their amazing scientificheritage?

These questions and many other have resounded at international, Araband Islamic scientific conferences and have made headlines in sciencejournals. Here's how the Nature article summed up the situation in theMiddle East, for instance:

"The region is, for the most part, a scientific desert. In some states, oilwealth has allowed the construction of fabulous cities, magnificentmosques and sumptuous shopping malls. But little scientificinfrastructure has emerged. Collectively, the Arab nations spend only0.15 per cent of their gross domestic product on research anddevelopment, well below the world average of 1.4 per cent."

Muslims account for 20 percent of the world's population, but less thanone percent of its scientists. Scientists in Islamic countries now makebarely 0.1 percent of the world's original research discoveries each year.


It is interesting to welcome back the term 'desert' which is not strange toIslamic civilization. In fact, Islam itself originated in the dryness anddullness of the desert of Arabia, and with much hardness andunpopularity it crawled, stand, walked and in the end it ran over theworld disseminating its nourishing spirit and irresistible physicalappearance to the envisage of the great nation and civilization at thattime. This eagerness of the demoralised material civilization to see there- emergence of Islam and science particularly is as great as the timewhen the Arabian people waiting the appearance of the Prophet whowill save them from darkness of life. Furthermore the condition of theMuslims today is much better and in advantage compared to the earliertime. They were nourished with spiritual, physical and historical assets.Yet the challenge is in themselves, the Muslim, both their attitude andtheir acts.

3.2 The Noble prize and its implication to Islam

Much had been said of this prestigious award since its inception in 1901.It is an international award given yearly since 1901 for achievements inphysics, chemistry, medicine, literature and for peace. In 1968, the Bankof Sweden instituted the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory ofAlfred Nobel, founder of the Nobel Prize.

Generally it had become the landmark of scientific achievement of thelast decade. For the scientific community it is an important recognitionof the individual, team or institutional credibility. For the other, it hasbeen useful to measure the socio-economic and political influences onscience advancement in society. Even for the layman, it had become amotivational subject for the young one to pursue scientific career.

For the past 100 years there were only two Muslim scientists who hadthe honoured to hold the 'flag' of the Muslim nation in this scientificpodium. This in one hand has again raised the questions on thecredibility of the Muslim nations in the scientific arena. On the otherhand it has raised the doubt in certain quarters of the reliability of theselection process.


Whichever direction it will be, since it is going to be the 'household' talkfor the next decade to come, it is of benefit for us to understand thephilosophy behind this award and the effect it will bring to our futuregeneration.

3.2.1 Life and philosophy of Alfred Nobel

Alfred Nobel was born in Stolkholm in 1833 into a family of engineers.His family was descended from none other than Olof Rudbeck, thebest-known technical genius of Sweden's 17th century era as a GreatPower in Northern Europe. Having gone through a recent bankruptcy,when Alfred was five years old, his father Immanuel Nobel moved toSt. Petersburg, where he started a mechanical workshop for themanufacture of land mines. In 1842, when Alfred was nine years old,the rest of the family also moved to St. Petersburg. By then his father'sfortunes had improved, enabling the family to live in high bourgeoisstyle. At the time, St.Petersburg was a world metropolis, alive withscientific, social, and cultural life.

Immanuel Nobel's sons did not attend school, but were insteadeducated at home by outstanding teachers at the level of universityprofessor. The instruction they provided focused on both humanitiesand natural sciences. Aside from Swedish, Alfred and his brothers weretaught Russian, French, English and Germany, as well as literature andphilosophy. In the natural sciences, they were guided by two professorsof chemistry who taught them mathematics, physics and chemistry.Considering the specialty of his teachers, it was perhaps no coincidencethat Alfred took a liking to chemistry. He learned to conduct chemicalexperiments, an activity that seemed to fascinate him from the verybeginning. Alfred spent his most important formative years in theRussian capital. With his five languages, which he seemed to havemastered well, he laid the foundation for the cosmopolitan nature thatwould later become so prominent in his life.

During the years 1850-52, Alfred was allowed a few study-orientedstays abroad. He spent one year in Paris with the famous chemist JulesPelouze, a professor at the College de France who had just opened aprivate training laboratory. Pelouze, who incidentally had been a good


friend of the Swedish chemist Berzellius, had also taught Nikolai Zinin,one of Alfred Nobel's private teachers. During that year, Alfredcompleted his training as a chemist. But somewhere around the sametime was the inception of what would become the greatest inventions ofhis life. For it was then, if not earlier, that he must have heard about theremarkable explosive called nitroglycerine. Strangely enough, this hasnot been pointed out by many scholars, who have dated the crucialmoment 10 years later.

The background of the story was, in 1847, in Turin, Ascanio Sobrero- anItalian student of Pelouze- had discovered a new explosive that heinitially called pyroglycerine (later known as nitroglycerine). However,Sobrero, both in letters to Pelouze and in a subsequent journal article,issued a warning about the new compound, not only because it hadincredible explosive power, but also because it was impossible tohandle. Sobrero's discovery did not come as a bolt from the blue. Asearly as the 1830s, Pelouze himself and others had conducted importantpreliminary work by making guncotton. Since Alfred was extremelyinterested in explosives-it was of course a family interest- and sincePelouze had both first-hand knowledge of how explosives weremanufactured and was familiar with Sobrero's discovery, Alfred musthave learned about nitroglycerine at that time. However, anyexcitement he might have felt was immediately dampened by thedifficulties of both manufacturing and handling the new compound.

The end of the Crimean war (1856) spelled disaster for ImmanuelNobel's factor, which had lived off the manufacture of war material. Thefactory went bankrupt, and Alfred's parents and their youngest sonEmil moved back to Sweden. The three older sons stayed in St.Petersburg to put the family affairs in order and restructure thecompany. Faced with this situation, Alfred and his brothers discussedvarious conceivable projects with their former teachers. That was whenNikolai Zinin reminded them of the potential of nitroglycerine.Professor Zinin is said to have demonstrated the power ofnitroglycerine by pouring a few drops of the fluid an anvil, and strikingit with a hammer, and producing a laoud bang. But only the liquid thatcame into contact with the hammer exploded. The rest of the liquid wasnot affected. The problem, as Sobrero had already realized, was two-fold. First, it was difficult to manufacture the compound, because at


excessive temperatures the whole batch exploded. Second, oncemanufactured, the liquid was equally difficult to explode in acontrolled fashion.

During the years around 1860, Alfred conducted repeated experimentsinvolving great risks. First, he succeeded in manufacturing sufficientquantities of nitroglycerine without mishaps. Then, he mixednitroglycerine with black gunpowder and ignited the mixture with anordinary fuse. After several successful explosions outside St.Petersburgon the frozen Neva river, Alfred travelled back to Stockholm. There, hisfather had begun similar experiments (though with less success) afterreading about Alfred's tests in his letter. Immanuel Nobel even insistedthat the new mixture was his own idea, but he backed off from thisassertion after a sharp letter from Alfred that set matters straight in nouncertain terms. Instead, he even helped Alfred apply for a patent in hisown name. In October 1863, Alfred Nobel was granted a patent for theexplosive that he aptly called 'blasting oil'.

With his first patent, Alfred had also reached his first milestone.Although he was only 30 years old, this was the start of an excitingadventure that would unfold with great speed. During the followingspring and summer, Alfred continued his experiments. He soonobtained a new patent related to the manufacture of nitroglycerine(using a simplified method) as well as the use of a detonator, or whatwas called the 'initial igniter', in other words a hollow wooden plugfilled with black gunpowder (later called a 'blasting cap'). Thedetermination and self confidence that later would become morepronounced features all Alfred's personality were already apparent. Hewrote "I am the first to have brought this subjects from the area ofscience to that of industry' and he had successfully arranged a largeloan from a French bank.

Around the same time, another personality trait began to assert itself-the inventor also became an entrepreneur. Alfred dealt with failures inthe same resolute manner as he did successes. In September 1864, amajor explosion at the Nobel factory in Stolkholm claimed the lives ofAlfred's brother Emil and four other people. Just month later, Alfred-resolutely and without sentimentality- founded his first joint stackcompany. Despite the accident or perhaps because of it, since no one


could now doubt the explosive power of the new compound, ordersbegan rolling in. the Swedish State Railways ordered blasting oil for usein building the Soder Tunnel in Stolkholm. A year later, in 1865, Alfredimproved his blasting cap (now made of metal rather than wood) whichin principle is still the same type used today. He then left for Germany.Set up a company there and bought land outside Hamburg where hebuilt a factory. In the summer of 1866, Alfred travelled to America therehe struggled against political bureaucracy, popular fear of accidentscaused by explosives and, not least, dishonest business associates. In theend, he received patents, form companies and built factories there.

Despite slow communications, everything now happened very quickly.Events literally assumed explosive force. While Alfred was in America,his factory in Germany exploded. When he returned to Germany inAugust, he had to supervise the clean-up of the debris and plan a newbuilding. At the same time, he continued to brood over the safetyproblems of nitroglycerine and he conducted new experiments. Herealized that nitroglycerine had to be absorbed by some kind of porousmaterial, forming a mixture that would be easier to handle. On theGerman moorlands very close to where he was staying, he found a typeof porous, absorbent sand or diatomaceous earth known in German asKieselguhr. When nitroglycerine was absorbed by Kieselguhr, it formeda paste that was easy to knead and shape. This paste could be shapedinto rods that were easily inserted into drilling holes. It could also betransported and subjected to jolts without triggering explosions. It couldeven be ignited without anything happening. Only a blasting cap wouldcause the paste to explode. The disadvantage of this new substance wasits somewhat reduced explosive force - the Kieselguhr did notparticipate as an active substance in the explosion. But this was the priceone had to pay. In short, that was how Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.Incidentally, Alfred himself coined the word dynamite from the Greekdynamis, meaning power. One of his German colleagues had proposedthe term "blasting putty" because it had the same consistency as putty.But Alfred thought this sounded like something meant to be used forblasting window panes, which was certainly not his intention. In 1867,he was granted patents for dynamite in various countries, notablyBritain, Sweden and the United States. Production was now set to beginon a large scale, and demand grew rapidly. It was an era of largeinfrastructure projects like railways, ports, bridges, roads, mines and


tunnels, where blasting was necessary. For example, dynamite was ofvital importance in the construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel throughthe Swiss Alps in the 1870s.

In 1868, the year after the first patent for dynamite, Alfred Nobel andhis father were awarded the Letterstedt Prize by the Royal SwedishAcademy of Sciences. This prize, which Alfred valued highly, wasawarded for "important discoveries of practical value to humanity." Wecan hear an echo of this wording in Nobel's will, where he stated thecriteria for awarding his own prizes.

He had taken the decisive steps that led to honour and fame. Let uspause a moment at the year 1873, when Alfred Nobel was 40 years old.All these events had taken place during the preceding 10 years. At age30, Alfred had received his first patent. Now, by age 40, he had alreadymade his greatest discoveries, he had built up a worldwide industrialempire, he had become wealthy, and he had bought a large house in thecenter of Paris. The foundation was in place. He later made newdiscoveries - primarily blasting gelatin and ballistite - and his industrialenterprises, as well as his fortune, grew. His distinguishing quality washis versatility. He was an inventor, an industrialist and anadministrator. He had to safeguard his patent rights, develop products,establish new companies, and conduct business in five languages withthe rest of the world - without the help of a secretary and before thetelephone and fax made people's lives easier. He frequently travelled bytrain or boat, since this was before the advent of the airplane. Hisfactories exploded, he had to withstand negative publicity campaigns,and he unmasked deceitful business partners. He had to deal with all ofthis himself. In addition, he seldom felt well - he viewed himself assickly and frail, often complaining of migraines, rheumatism and anunsettled stomach. His life was hectic and stressful. In letters he wrotefrom Paris, he complained of being constantly hounded by people,which he described in his own words as "pure torture." People arecrazy, he wrote - they rushed in and out of his office, everyone wantedto see him, and his presence was required everywhere. But despiteeverything, he managed to cope. In the role of the entrepreneur, he wasunbeatable.


It is incomplete if we do not touch another level of Alfred Nobel'spersonality, that of the humanist and philosopher. We know that he hadliterally interest and ambitions. He was an avid reader of fiction andwrote his own dramatic works and poems. In addition, he was attractedto philosophical issues. He read certain philosophical work with suchinterest that he underlined important passages. Among the papers thathe left behind is a black notebook on philosophy that his biographershave not taken an interest in. Although not constituting profoundoriginal thoughts, these pencilled notes reflect his serious interest inphilosophical questions. Nobel went through philosophy from antiquityto modern times, pointing out what he perceived to be vital issues. Hemade his own comments, which in a morose way showed hisdetachment from the subject. He commented on Plato, Aristotle andDemocritus, but also on Newton and Voltaire as well as contemporarybiologists such as Darwin and Haeckel. Nobel noted, for example, thatit was unclear what caused people to form a conception of a God:"Aristotle attributes it to fear, Voltaire to the desire of the more clever todeceive the stupid." He spoke with respect of the philosophical doubtsof Descartes and Spinoza, adding that doubt must surely be the startingpoint for all philosophical thinking. Theories of knowledge were ofspecial interest to Nobel. Consequently, he returned several times toLocke's thesis that all knowledge arises from sensory impressions,declaring that the "brain is a very unreliable recorder of impressions."

This led him to reflect further on the methodology of science and todevelop a line of reasoning that, aside from being inspired by Locke'sthesis, also seemed to have been influenced by Alexander vonHumboldt's theory of knowledge. Nobel wrote that all science is builton observations of similarities and differences. He continued:

"A chemical analysis is of course nothing other than this, and evenmathematics has no other foundation. History is a picture of pastsimilarities and differences; geography shows the differences in theearth's surface; geology, similarities and differences in the earth'sformation, from which we deduce the course of its transformations.Astronomy is the study of similarities and differences between celestialbodies; physics, a study of similarities and differences that arise fromthe attraction and motive functions of matter. The only exception to thisrule is religious doctrine, but even this rests on the similar gullibility of


most people. Even metaphysics - if it is not too insane - must findsupport for its hypotheses in some kind of analogy. One can state,without exaggeration, that the observation of and the search forsimilarities and differences are the basis of all human knowledge."

Nobel could have completed this train of thought with Humboldt'swords that "from observation one goes on to experimentation....basedon analogies and inductions of empirical laws." Nobel did not espouseany grand theory of knowledge, but rather an empirical method. AlfredNobel himself seemed to think that he had accomplished quite a lot byapplying this method in his work.

Alfred Nobel also viewed himself with detachment, or shall we say,philosophical skepticism. He often described himself as a loner, hermit,melancholic or misanthrope. He once wrote: "I am a misanthrope andyet utterly benevolent, have more than one screw loose yet I am asuper-idealist who digests philosophy more efficiently than food." Evenfrom this description, it is clear that this misanthrope was also aphilanthropist, or what Nobel called a super-idealist. It was the idealistin him that drove Nobel to bequeath his fortune to those who hadbenefited humanity through science, literature and efforts to promotepeace.

For Alfred Nobel, the idea of giving away his fortune was no passingfancy. He had thought about it for a long time and had even re-writtenhis will on various occasions in order to weigh different wordingsagainst each other. Efforts to promote peace were close to his heart,largely inspired by his contacts Bertha von Suttner (herself a NobelPeace Prize winner in 1905). He derived intellectual pleasure fromliterature, while science built the foundation for his own activities as atechnological researcher and inventor. On November 27, 1895, Nobelsigned his final will and testament at the Swedish-Norwegian Club inParis.

Alfred Nobel had many different homes during the final decades of hislife. In 1891, he had left Paris to live in San Remo, Italy, aftercontroversies with the French authorities. Four years later, hepurchased the Bofors ironworks and armaments factory in Sweden andestablished his Swedish home at nearby Björkborn Manor. He equipped


all his residences with laboratories where he could continue hisexperiments. He was apparently homesick for Sweden but complainedof the Swedish winter weather. His health began to falter. He visiteddoctors and health resorts more frequently, but never had time to heedtheir most important advice - "to rest and nurse my health," as he put ithimself. On December 10, 1896, Alfred Nobel passed away at his homein San Remo.

Nobel's will was hardly longer than one ordinary page. After listingbequests to relatives and other people close to him, Nobel declared thathis entire remaining estate should be used to endow "prizes to thosewho, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatestbenefit to mankind." His will attracted attention throughout the world.It was unusual at that time to donate large sums of money for scientificand charitable purposes. Many people also criticized the internationalcharacter of the prizes, saying they should be restricted to Swedes. Thiswould not have suited the cosmopolitan Alfred Nobel. Some of hisrelatives contested the will. Complicated legal and administrativematters also had to be sorted out. All this took time, but eventually itwas all settled.

In 1901, the first Nobel Prizes were awarded. The donor himself couldhardly have dreamed of the impact that his benevolence would have inthe future.

The excerpt from Nobel's will is as the following:

"The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the followingway: the capital, invested in safe securities by my executors, shall constitute afund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizesto those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatestbenefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts,which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall havemade the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; onepart to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discoveryor improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most importantdiscovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the personwho shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work inan ideal direction; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or


the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction ofstanding armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses. Theprizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy ofSciences; that for physiology or medical works by the Karolinska Institute inStockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm, and that forchampions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by theNorwegian Storting. It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes noconsideration be given to the nationality of the candidates, but that the mostworthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not."

3.2.2 Alfred Noble's life and philosophy from the Islamic perspective

One might questions the rational of writing the vast elaboration ofNobel's biography as mentioned above. Yet there are a lot of lessonsthat can be learned and be clarified from such a great and famous man.

First of all let us look at the milieu that brought up such a charismaticperson. This will help us to modify and rethink of our approach inupbringing our future scientific generation.

Alfred came from a generation of intellectual and practical thinkers,which is self explanatory to his success story. He was educated in amost fortunate way at home, taught by teacher with credibility andmastered several foreign languages. In other words, he was brought upin a conducive- environment. A lesson to learn is that to produce acharismatic person we need a good environment and that might bemissing in the Muslim nation. Our future generation should be giventhe appropriate stimuli to nurture interest in learning particularly inscience.

Continuity of the chain of knowledge within family is no stranger to theMuslims, who not only obliged to pass down any knowledge they haveto their descendant, but also to the other Muslims without anyreservation. Once the Muslims have a solid educational platform tostart with, the next steps will be much easier and promising for them toexcel.

Secondly, let us study the philosophy behind his success. He was a man


with courage, unshaken with incoming obstacles and never satisfiedwith his discoveries. He was an inventor, an entrepreneur and a thinker.In short, he is a dynamic, self confident and full of determination tomove forward. This is the attitude a good scientist should have and it isthe attitude the Qur'an and the Prophet had instilled in the earliergeneration of Islam. And such an attitude does not only belong to theMuslim alone, it belongs to anyone who strived for it. It is justunfortunate if the Muslim neglect these prime motivators (Qur'an andHadith) that can change their attitude towards life and humanity.

Noble's great observational capabilities brought him to the conclusionthat the basis of human knowledge was the observations of similaritiesand differences. His love for science manifests in his residence-laboratorium and his unbelievable donations at that time. Yet he wasstill unclear of the conception of God despite agreeing to the fact that'the brain is a very unreliable recorder of impressions'.

His observational talent reminded us of the capabilities of al-Razi indifferentiating between smallpox and measles, so as Ibn al-Haytham inexplaining the phenomenon of rainbow. His residence-laboratoryreminded us of the great in-house laboratory of Jabir Ibn Hayyan inDamascus. His love to science and generous contribution reminded usof 'Ali b Yahya who possessed a palace and a library called Khizanat al-hikma which he placed at the disposal of scholars and not least, thecontribution of Caliph al Hakim (1005) who built the Dar al Hikma withits invaluable sponsorships of scholars. Unfortunately, the question ofthe sovereignty of God was left unanswered for Noble since it isabsolutely not something that can be read from books or learned frompast history. It is a unique gift of Him to whosoever He wants.

Thirdly, his scientific invention was mainly within the scope of blastingindustry and the Letterstedt Prize won in 1868 was for the patenteddynamite. However, it was not clearly stated whether the success of theindustry were coming mainly from which part of the businesscontribution- the destructive war or the building of infrastructure itself.Nevertheless, we noted that during his life time, the family industrywent bankrupt following the end of the Crimean war which signified itsgreat contribution and dependent to the war.


For the historical note, the Crimean war itself was another milestone inthe downfall of the Ottoman Caliphate. In July 1853 Russia occupiedterritories in the Crimea that had previously been controlled by Turkey.Britain and France was concerned about Russian expansion andattempted to achieve a negotiation withdrawal. Turkey, unwilling togrant concessions declared war on Russia.

After the Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope in the Black Seain November 1853, Britain and France joined the war against Russia. Onthe 20th September 1854 the Allies, under the joint commands ofGeneral Lord Raglan, Marshal St. Arnaud and General Omar Pasha,reached the Alma and met the Russians. The Allied army defeated theRussian army at the battle of Alma River (September 1854) but thebattle of Balaklava (October 1854) was inconclusive. At the end,Sevastopol fell to the Allied troops on 8th September 1855 and the newRussian Emperor, Alexander II, agreed to sign a peace treaty at theCongress of Paris in 1856.

It is not the scope of this discussion to determine which side Nobel wasin favour during the war, neglecting the fact that his factory was locatedin St. Petersburg itself. What is more important is to understand hisphilosophy of science itself. It seems a contradictory philosophy whensomeone who willingly agreed to the usage of the scientific invention tocause harm to the humanity, is the same person who awarded a prizefor peace. Perhaps, it might be the conscience of guilt that led him tothis decision.

In conclusion, generally there is nothing spectacular or new in thephilosophies of Alfred Noble as seen from the Islamic point of view.Conscious or unconsciously those philosophies had been borrowedfrom Islamic philosophy of science mastered by the Muslims during the6th to the 13th century.

The younger Muslim generation should be made aware of this fact.While there is nothing wrong in having such a great person like AlfredNoble as our motivator in intellectual advancement, yet it should notblinded our eyes and worse still our mind of the fact that the greatscientific philosophies has been instilled by the Muslims scientificancestor into the western scientist.


In the end, as determine that we want the origin of the scientificinvention to be put back in its proper historical context, so it should beto the scientific philosophies that had become the key to their successfuldiscoveries.

3.2.3 Muslim Noble prize winner

To date, there were only two Muslim scientists who became therecipient of this prestigious award. This section has been allocated tothem with the intention to motivate the reader and the futuregeneration. Their biography and banquet speech serve for the rest tounderstand the struggle, philosophy and their wish in future scientificundertaking.

3.2.3.1 Prof Dr Abdus Salam

Abdus Salam - Biography

Abdus Salam was born in Jhang, a small town in what is now Pakistan,in 1926. His father was an official in the Department of Education in apoor farming district. His family has a long tradition of piety andlearning.


When he cycled home from Lahore, at the age of 14, after gaining thehighest marks ever recorded for the Matriculation Examination at theUniversity of the Punjab, the whole town turned out to welcome him.He won a scholarship to Government College, University of the Punjab,and took his MA in 1946. In the same year he was awarded ascholarship to St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took a BA(honours) with a double First in mathematics and physics in 1949. In1950 he received the Smith's Prize from Cambridge University for themost outstanding pre-doctoral contribution to physics. He alsoobtained a PhD in theoretical physics at Cambridge; his thesis,published in 1951, contained fundamental work in quantumelectrodynamics which had already gained him an internationalreputation.

Salam returned to Pakistan in 1951 to teach mathematics atGovernment College, Lahore, and in 1952 became head of theMathematics Department of the Punjab University. He had come backwith the intention of founding a school of research, but it soon becameclear that this was impossible. To pursue a career of research intheoretical physics he had no alternative at that time but to leave hisown country and work abroad. Many years later he succeeded infinding a way to solve the heartbreaking dilemma faced by manyyoung and gifted theoretical physicists from developing countries. Atthe ICTP, Trieste, which he created, he instituted the famous"Associateships" which allowed deserving young physicists to spendtheir vacations there in an invigorating atmosphere, in close touch withtheir peers in research and with the leaders in their own field, losingtheir sense of isolation and returning to their own country for ninemonths of the academic year refreshed and recharged.

In 1954 Salam left his native country for a lectureship at Cambridge,and since then has visited Pakistan as adviser on science policy. Hiswork for Pakistan has, however, been far-reaching and influential. Hewas a member of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, a memberof the Scientific Commission of Pakistan and was Chief ScientificAdviser to the President from 1961 to 1974.

Since 1957 he has been Professor of Theoretical Physics at ImperialCollege, London, and since 1964 has combined this position with that of


Director of the ICTP, Trieste.

For more than forty years he has been a prolific researcher in theoreticalelementary particle physics. He has either pioneered or been associatedwith all the important developments in this field, maintaining aconstant and fertile flow of brilliant ideas. For the past thirty years hehas used his academic reputation to add weight to his active andinfluential participation in international scientific affairs. He has servedon a number of United Nations committees concerned with theadvancement of science and technology in developing countries.

To accommodate the astonishing volume of activity that he undertakes,Professor Salam cuts out such inessentials as holidays, parties andentertainments. Faced with such an example, the staff of the Centrefound it very difficult to complain that they are overworked.

He has a way of keeping his administrative staff at the ICTP fully aliveto the real aim of the Centre - the fostering through training andresearch of the advancement of theoretical physics, with special regardto the needs of developing countries. Inspired by their personal regardfor him and encouraged by the fact that he works harder than any ofthem, the staff cheerfully submit to working conditions that would beunthinkable here at the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna(IAEA). The money he received from the Atoms for Peace Medal andAward he spent on setting up a fund for young Pakistani physicists tovisit the ICTP. He uses his share of the Nobel Prize entirely for thebenefit of physicists from developing countries and does not spend apenny of it on himself or his family.

Abdus Salam is known to be a devout Muslim, whose religion does notoccupy a separate compartment of his life; it is inseparable from hiswork and family life. He once wrote: "The Holy Quran enjoins us toreflect on the verities of Allah's created laws of nature; however, thatour generation has been privileged to glimpse a part of His design is abounty and a grace for which I render thanks with a humbleheart."(Abdus Salam died in 1996)

The biography was written by Miriam Lewis, now at IAEA, Vienna, who was at one time on thestaff of ICTP (International Centre For Theoretical Physics, Trieste).From Les Prix Nobel 1979.


Abdus Salam - Banquet SpeechAbdus Salam's speech at the Nobel Banquet, December 10, 1979

Your Majesties, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen,

On behalf of my colleagues, Professor Glashow andWeinberg, I thank the Nobel Foundation and the RoyalAcademy of Sciences for the great honour and thecourtesies extended to us, including the courtesy to me ofbeing addressed in my language Urdu.

Pakistan is deeply indebted to you for this.

The creation of Physics is the shared heritage of allmankind. East and West, North and South have equallyparticipated in it. In the Holy Book of Islam, Allah says

"Thou seest not, in the creation of the All-merciful anyimperfection, Return thy gaze, seest thou any fissure. ThenReturn thy gaze, again and again. Thy gaze, Comes back to theedazzled, aweary."

This in effect is, the faith of all physicists; the deeper weseek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is thedazzlement for our gaze.

I am saying this, not only to remind those here tonight ofthis, but also for those in the Third World, who feel theyhave lost out in the pursuit of scientific knowledge, forlack of opportunity and resource.


Alfred Nobel stipulated that no distinction of race or colourwill determine who received of his generosity. On thisoccasion, let me say this to those, whom God has given HisBounty. Let us strive to provide equal opportunities to allso that they can engage in the creation of Physics andscience for the benefit of all mankind. This would exactlybe in the spirit of Alfred Nobel and the ideals whichpermeated his life. Bless You!

From: Les Prix Nobel 1979.

3.2.3.2 Prof Dr Ahmed Zewail

Ahmed Zewail - Autobiography

On the banks of the Nile, the Rosetta branch, I lived an enjoyablechildhood in the City of Disuq, which is the home of the famousmosque, Sidi Ibrahim. I was born (February 26, 1946) in nearbyDamanhur, the "City of Horus", only 60 km from Alexandria. Inretrospect, it is remarkable that my childhood origins were flanked bytwo great places - Rosetta, the city where the famous Stone wasdiscovered, and Alexandria, the home of ancient learning. The dawn ofmy memory begins with my days, at Disuq's preparatory school. I am


the only son in a family of three sisters and two loving parents. Myfather was liked and respected by the city community - he was helpful,cheerful and very much enjoyed his life. He worked for the governmentand also had his own business. My mother, a good-natured, contentedperson, devoted all her life to her children and, in particular, to me. Shewas central to my "walks of life" with her kindness, total devotion andnative intelligence. Although our immediate family is small, theZewails are well known in Damanhur.

The family's dream was to see me receive a high degree abroad and toreturn to become a university professor - on the door to my study room,a sign was placed reading, "Dr. Ahmed," even though I was still farfrom becoming a doctor. My father did live to see that day, but a dearuncle did not. Uncle Rizk was special in my boyhood years and Ilearned much from him - an appreciation for critical analyses, anenjoyment of music, and of intermingling with the masses andintellectuals alike; he was respected for his wisdom, financially well-to-do, and self-educated. Culturally, my interests were focused - reading,music, some sports and playing backgammon. The great singer UmKulthum (actually named Kawkab Elsharq - a superstar of the East) hada major influence on my appreciation of music. On the first Thursday ofeach month we listened to Um Kulthum's concert - "waslats" (threesongs) - for more than three hours. During all of my study years inEgypt, the music of this unique figure gave me a special happiness, andher voice was often in the background while I was studyingmathematics, chemistry... etc. After three decades I still have the samefeeling and passion for her music. In America, the only music I havebeen able to appreciate on this level is classical, and some jazz. Readingwas and still is my real joy.

As a boy it was clear that my inclinations were toward the physicalsciences. Mathematics, mechanics, and chemistry were among thefields that gave me a special satisfaction. Social sciences were not asattractive because in those days much emphasis was placed onmemorization of subjects, names and the like, and for reasons unknown(to me), my mind kept asking "how" and "why". This characteristic haspersisted from the beginning of my life. In my teens, I recall feeling athrill when I solved a difficult problem in mechanics, for instance,considering all of the tricky operational forces of a car going uphill or


downhill.

Even though chemistry required some memorization, I was intriguedby the "mathematics of chemistry". It provides laboratory phenomenawhich, as a boy, I wanted to reproduce and understand. In my bedroomI constructed a small apparatus, out of my mother's oil burner (formaking Arabic coffee) and a few glass tubes, in order to see how woodis transformed into a burning gas and a liquid substance. I stillremember this vividly, not only for the science, but also for the dangerof burning down our house! It is not clear why I developed thisattraction to science at such an early stage.

After finishing high school, I applied to universities. In Egypt, you sendyour application to a central Bureau (Maktab El Tansiq), and accordingto your grades, you are assigned a university, hopefully on your list ofchoice. In the sixties, Engineering, Medicine, Pharmacy, and Sciencewere tops. I was admitted to Alexandria University and to the faculty ofscience. Here, luck played a crucial role because I had little to do withMaktab El Tansiq's decision, which gave me the career I still love most:science. At the time, I did not know the depth of this feeling, and, ifaccepted to another faculty, I probably would not have insisted on thefaculty of science. But this passion for science became evident on thefirst day I went to the campus in Maharem Bek with my uncle - I hadtears in my eyes as I felt the greatness of the university and thesacredness of its atmosphere. My grades throughout the next four yearsreflected this special passion. In the first year, I took four courses,mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology, and my grades wereeither excellent or very good. Similarly, in the second year I scored veryhighly (excellent) in Chemistry and was chosen for a group of sevenstudents (called "special chemistry"), an elite science group. I graduatedwith the highest honors - "Distinction with First Class Honor" - withabove 90% in all areas of chemistry. With these scores, i was awarded,as a student, a stipend every month of approximately £13, which wasclose to that of a university graduate who made £17 at the time!

After graduating with the degree of Bachelor of Science, I wasappointed to a University position as a demonstrator ("Moeid"), to carryon research toward a Masters and then a Ph.D. degree, and to teachundergraduates at the University of Alexandria. This was a tenured


position, guaranteeing a faculty appointment at the University. Inteaching, I was successful to the point that, although not yet a professor,I gave "professorial lectures" to help students after the Professor hadgiven his lecture. Through this experience I discovered an affinity andenjoyment of explaining science and natural phenomena in the clearestand simplest way. The students (500 or more) enriched this sense withthe appreciation they expressed. At the age of 21, as a Moeid, I believedthat behind every universal phenomenon there must be beauty andsimplicity in its description. This belief remains true today.

On the research side, I finished the requirements for a Masters inScience in about eight months. The tool was spectroscopy, and I wasexcited about developing an understanding of how and why the spectraof certain molecules change with solvents. This is an old subject, but tome it involved a new level of understanding that was quite modern inour department. My research advisors were three: The head of theinorganic section, Professor Tahany Salem and Professors Rafaat Issaand Samir El Ezaby, with whom I worked most closely; they suggestedthe research problem to me, and this research resulted in severalpublications. I was ready to think about my Ph.D. research (called"research point") after one year of being a Moeid. Professors El Ezaby (agraduate of Utah) and Yehia El Tantawy (a graduate of Penn)encouraged me to go abroad to complete my Ph.D. work. All the oddswere against my going to America. First, I did not have the connectionsabroad. Second, the 1967 war had just ended and American stocks inEgypt were at their lowest value, so study missions were only sent tothe USSR or Eastern European countries. I had to obtain a scholarshipdirectly from an American University. After corresponding with adozen universities, the University of Pennsylvania and a few othersoffered me scholarships, providing the tuition and paying a monthlystipend (some $300). There were still further obstacles against travel toAmerica ("Safer to America"). It took enormous energy to pass theregulatory and bureaucratic barriers.

Arriving in the States, I had the feeling of being thrown into an ocean.The ocean was full of knowledge, culture, and opportunities, and thechoice was clear: I could either learn to swim or sink. The culture wasforeign, the language was difficult, but my hopes were high. I did notspeak or write English fluently, and I did not know much about


western culture in general, or American culture in particular. Iremember a "cultural incident" that opened my eyes to the newtraditions I was experiencing right after settling in Philadelphia. InEgypt, as boys, we used to kid each other by saying "I'll kill you", andgood friends often said such phrases jokingly. I became friends with asympathetic American graduate student, and, at one point, jokingly said"I'll kill you". I immediately noticed his reserve and coolness, perhapsworrying that a fellow from the Middle East might actually do it!

My presence - as the Egyptian at Penn - was starting to be felt by theprofessors and students as my scores were high, and I also began asuccessful course of research. I owe much to my research advisor,Professor Robin Hochstrasser, who was, and still is, a committedscientist and educator. The diverse research problems I worked on, andthe collaborations with many able scientists, were both enjoyable andprofitable. My publication list was increasing, but just as importantly, Iwas learning new things literally every day - in chemistry, in physicsand in other fields. The atmosphere at the Laboratory for Research onthe Structure of Matter (LRSM) was most stimulating and I wasenthusiastic about researching in areas that crossed the disciplines ofphysics and chemistry (sometimes too enthusiastic!). My courses wereenjoyable too; I still recall the series 501, 502, 503 and the physics coursesI took with the Nobel Laureate, Bob Schrieffer. I was working almost"day and night," and doing several projects at the same time: The Starkeffect of simple molecules; the Zeeman effect of solids like NO2- andbenzene; the optical detection of magnetic resonance (ODMR); doubleresonance techniques, etc. Now, thinking about it, I cannot imaginedoing all of this again, but of course then I was "young and innocent".

The research for my Ph.D. and the requirements for a degree wereessentially completed by 1973, when another war erupted in the MiddleEast. I had strong feelings about returning to Egypt to be a UniversityProfessor, even though at the beginning of my years in America mymemories of the frustrating bureaucracy encountered at the time of mydeparture were still vivid. With time, things change, and I recollected allthe wonderful years of my childhood and the opportunities Egypt hadprovided to me. Returning was important to me, but I also knew thatEgypt would not be able to provide the scientific atmosphere I hadenjoyed in the U.S. A few more years in America would give me and my


family two opportunities: First, I could think about another area ofresearch in a different place (while learning to be professorial!). Second,my salary would be higher than that of a graduate student, and wecould then buy a big American car that would be so impressive for thenew Professor at Alexandria University! I applied for five positions,three in the U.S., one in Germany and one in Holland, and all of themwith world-renowned professors. I received five offers and decided onBerkeley.

Early in 1974 we went to Berkeley, excited by the new opportunities.Culturally, moving from Philadelphia to Berkeley was almost as muchof a shock as the transition from Alexandria to Philadelphia - Berkeleywas a new world! I saw Telegraph Avenue for the first time, and thiswas sufficient to indicate the difference. I also met many graduatestudents whose language and behavior I had never seen before, neitherin Alexandria, nor in Philadelphia. I interacted well with essentiallyeverybody, and in some cases I guided some graduate students. But Ialso learned from members of the group. The obstacles did not seem ashigh as they had when I came to the University of Pennsylvaniabecause culturally and scientifically I was better equipped. Berkeleywas a great place for science - the BIG science. In the laboratory, my aimwas to utilize the expertise I had gained from my Ph.D. work on thespectroscopy of pairs of molecules, called dimers, and to measure theircoherence with the new tools available at Berkeley. Professor CharlesHarris was traveling to Holland for an extensive stay, but when hereturned to Berkeley we enjoyed discussing science at late hours! Hisideas were broad and numerous, and in some cases went beyond thescientific language I was familiar with. Nevertheless, my generaldirection was established. I immediately saw the importance of theconcept of coherence. I decided to tackle the problem, and, in a rathershort time, acquired a rigorous theoretical foundation which was newto me. I believe that this transition proved vital in subsequent years ofmy research.

I wrote two papers with Charles, one theoretical and the otherexperimental. They were published in Physical Review. These paperswere followed by other work, and I extended the concept of coherenceto multidimensional systems, publishing my first independentlyauthored paper while at Berkeley. In collaboration with other graduate


students, I also published papers on energy transfer in solids. I enjoyedmy interactions with the students and professors, and at Berkeley'spopular and well-attended physical chemistry seminars. Charlesdecided to offer me the IBM Fellowship that was only given to a few inthe department. He strongly felt that I should get a job at one of the topuniversities in America, or at least have the experience of going to theinterviews; I am grateful for his belief in me. I only applied to a fewplaces and thought I had no chance at these top universities. During theprocess, I contacted Egypt, and I also considered the AmericanUniversity in Beirut (AUB). Although I visited some places, nothing wasfinalized, and I was preparing myself for the return. Meanwhile, I wasbusy and excited about the new research I was doing. Charles decidedto build a picosecond laser, and two of us in the group were involved inthis hard and "non-profitable" direction of research (!); I learned a greatdeal about the principles of lasers and their physics.

During this period, many of the top universities announced newpositions, and Charles asked me to apply. I decided to send applicationsto nearly a dozen places and, at the end, after interviews and enjoyablevisits, I was offered an Assistant Professorship at many, includingHarvard, Caltech, Chicago, Rice, and Northwestern. My interview atCaltech had gone well, despite the experience of an exhausting twodays, visiting each half hour with a different faculty member inchemistry and chemical engineering. The visit was exciting, surprisingand memorable. The talks went well and I even received someundeserved praise for style. At one point, I was speaking about what isknown as the FVH, picture of coherence, where F stands for Feynman,the famous Caltech physicist and Nobel Laureate. I went to the board towrite the name and all of a sudden I was stuck on the spelling. Half waythrough, I turned to the audience and said, "you know how to spellFeynman". A big laugh erupted, and the audience thought I was joking- I wasn't! After receiving several offers, the time had come to make upmy mind, but I had not yet heard from Caltech. I called the Head of theSearch Committee, now a colleague of mine, and he was lukewarm,encouraging me to accept other offers. However, shortly after this, I wascontacted by Caltech with a very attractive offer, asking me to visit withmy family. We received the red carpet treatment, and that visit did costCaltech! I never regretted the decision of accepting the Caltech offer.


My science family came from all over the world, and members were ofvaried backgrounds, cultures, and abilities. The diversity in this "smallworld" I worked in daily provided the most stimulating environment,with many challenges and much optimism. Over the years, my researchgroup has had close to 150 graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, andvisiting associates. Many of them are now in leading academic,industrial and governmental positions. Working with such minds in avillage of science has been the most rewarding experience - Caltech wasthe right place for me.

My biological children were all "made in America". I have twodaughters, Maha, a Ph.D. student at the University of Texas, Austin,and Amani, a junior at Berkeley, both of whom I am very proud. I metDema, my wife, by a surprising chance, a fairy tale. In 1988 it wasannounced that I was a winner of the King Faisal International Prize. InMarch of 1989, I went to receive the award from Saudi Arabia, and thereI met Dema; her father was receiving the same prize in literature. Wemet in March, got engaged in July and married in September, all of thesame year, 1989. Dema has her M.D. from Damascus University, andcompleted a Master's degree in Public Health at UCLA. We have twoyoung sons, Nabeel and Hani, and both bring joy and excitement to ourlife. Dema is a wonderful mother, and is my friend and confidante.

The journey from Egypt to America has been full of surprises. As aMoeid, I was unaware of the Nobel Prize in the way I now see its impactin the West. We used to gather around the TV or read in the newspaperabout the recognition of famous Egyptian scientists and writers by thePresident, and these moments gave me and my friends a real thrill -maybe one day we would be in this position ourselves for achievementsin science or literature. Decades later, when President Mubarakbestowed on me the Order of Merit, first class, and the Grand Collar ofthe Nile ("Kiladate El Niel"), the highest State honor, it brought theseemotional boyhood days back to my memory. I never expected that myportrait, next to the pyramids, would be on a postage stamp or that theschool I went to as a boy and the road to Rosetta would be named afterme. Certainly, as a youngster in love with science, I had no dreamsabout the honor of the Nobel Prize.For more updated biographical information, see:Zewail, Ahmed, Voyage through Time. Walks of Life to the Nobel Prize. American University inCairo Press, Cairo, 2002.


Ahmed Zewail - Banquet SpeechAhmed Zewail's speech at the Nobel Banquet, December 10, 1999

Your Majesties, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen,

Let me begin with a reflection on a personal story, that of avoyage through time. The medal I received from hisMajesty this evening was designed by Erik Lindberg in1902 to represent Nature in the form of the Goddess Isis -or eesis - the Egyptian Goddess of Motherhood. Sheemerges from the clouds, holding a cornucopia in her armsand the veil which covers her cold and austere face is heldup by the Genius of Science1. Indeed, it is the genius ofscience which pushed forward the race against time, fromthe beginning of astronomical calendars six millennia agoin the land of Isis to the femtosecond regime honoredtonight for the ultimate achievement in the microcosmos. Ibegan life and education in the same Land of Isis, Egypt,made the scientific unveiling in America, and tonight, Ireceive this honor in Sweden, with a Nobel Medal whichtakes me right back to the beginning. Thisinternationalization by the Genius of Science is preciselywhat Mr. Nobel wished for more than a century ago.

In visionary words, Mr. Nobel summed up the purpose ofthe Prize: "The conquests of scientific research and its everexpanding field awake in us the hope that microbes - of thesoul as well as of the body - will gradually be exterminatedand that the only war humanity will wage in future will bewar against these microbes". Mr. Nobel saw clearly whathe wished for the world and the value of scientificdiscovery and advancement. Although there exist in theworld today some microbes of the soul, such asdiscrimination and aggression, science was and still is thecore of progress for humanity and the continuity ofcivilization. From the dawn of history, science has probedthe universe of unknowns, searching for the uniting lawsof nature. The world applauds your Majesties and theSwedish people for your appreciation, recognition, and


celebration of discoveries of the unknown, which,according to Alfred Nobel will "leave the greatest benefitto mankind". I know of no other country that celebratesintellectual achievements with this class and passion.

To the world, the Nobel Prize has become the crowninghonor for two reasons. For scientists, it recognizes theiruntiring efforts which lead to new fields of discovery, andplaces them in the annals of history with other notablescientists. For Science, the Prize inspires the people of theworld about the importance and value of new discoveries,and in so doing science becomes better appreciated andsupported by the public, and, hopefully, by governments.Both of these are noble causes and we thank you. To me,there is a third cause as well.

If the Nobel Prize had existed 6,000 years ago, whenEgypt's civilization began, or even 2,000 years ago, whenthe famous library and university (museum) at Alexandriawere established, Egypt would have scored very highly inmany fields. In recent times, however, Egypt and the ArabWorld, which gave to Science Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn-Rushd (Averroës), Ibn-Hayan (Geber), Ibn-Haytham (AlHazen), and others, have had no Prizes in science ormedicine. I sincerely hope that this first one will inspire theyoung generations of developing countries with theknowledge that it is possible to contribute to world scienceand technology. As expressed eloquently in 1825 by SirHumphrey Davy: "Fortunately, science, like that nature towhich it belongs, is neither limited by time nor by space. Itbelongs to the world, and is of no country and of no age."There is a whole world outside the boundaries of the"West" and the "North" and we can all help to make it themicrobe-free world of Mr. Nobel. I also hope that the Prizewill help the region I came from to focus on theadvancement of science, the Science Society, and ondignity and peace for humanity.

Your Majesties, I do not know how to express my own


personal feelings and those of my family about thisrecognition. Behind this recognition, there exists a largercommunity of femtoscientists all over the world whotonight declare themselves proud. My own science familyat Caltech of close to 150 young scientists represents thetrue army that marched to victory and made thecontribution possible; they, too, must be proud of theireffort. Personally, I have been enriched by my experiencesin Egypt and America, and feel fortunate to have beenendowed with a true passion for knowledge. I am gratefulthat this highest crowning honor comes at a young agewhen I can, hopefully, enjoy and witness its impact onscience and humanity. The honor comes with greatresponsibilities and new challenges for the future, and I dohope to be able to continue the mission, recalling thethoughtful words of the great scholar, Dr. Taha Hussein:

which can be paraphrased in the following words: "Theend will begin when seekers of knowledge becomesatisfied with their own achievements."

Thank you, Your Majesties. Thank you, all who arecelebrating science and scientists.

The inscription reads: Inventas vitam juvat excoluisse per artes, looselytranslated: "And they who bettered life on earth by new found mastery"(literally stated, "inventions enhance life which is beautified throughart").From: Les Prix Nobel 1999.


3.2.4 Noble prize: Is there a selection bias?

The rarity of Muslims in the list of Nobel Prize winner had alarmedcertain quarters on the realibility of the Nobel Prize selection process. Inscience, some has postulated the possibility of selection bias, inparticular to the Jewish scientific community in view of theiroutstanding representative of the award. The other felt that even NoblePrize award could not fully dissociates itself from considerable politicalinfluences. Well quoted was the questionable absent of MahatmaGandhi in the list of Noble Price for peace. To draw a conclusion fromassumptions is very easy, yet the credibility and the benefit can bebetter appreciated when a scientific evaluation was added, even thoughthe end result is pain-staking for certain quarters to shallow.

Philip Brooks in his book 'Extraordinary Jewis America' quoted 'Onehundred and fifty years ago there were barely 50,000 Jews in America.Today there are more Jews in America than in any other country. Alarge number of Jewish Americans are distinguished writers, scholarsand composers. Although Jews have never represented more than 3.5percent of America's total population, more than one-third of America'sNoble Prize winners have been Jews'.A brief survey at the list of the Noble Prize winners shows interestingfacts.

The percentage of the Jewish prize winners in comparison with theMuslims are as the following:

_______________________________________________________Jewish (%) Muslim (%) _______________________________________________________

Economy 40 0Peace 8 3Physics 26 0.5Chemistry 18 1.2Medicine 28 0Literature 11 2_______________________________________________________

From the figure above, even though the Jews overceded the Muslims inall categories of awards, in general they have not constituted more than30% of the total winner except in economy. At least the Noble Prize forscience doesn't look like pro-Judaism compared to economy, which


seems relevant with the current mode of capitalistic world dominatedby the Jewish economists.

Up to the year 2000 there were 19 Jewish winners of the Nobel Prize inChemistry, 37 winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics and this was furtherenhanced by the addition of no less that 44 Jewish winners of the NobelPrize in the Biomedical Sciences. To understand further the successstory of the Jewish scientific community, let us go back to their historicalbackground.

Jews were prominent in the biomedical sciences throughout the ages. Itis well documented that Jewish doctors were retained for theirknowledge and expertise by royalty and noblemen through the ageseven at times when Jews were otherwise suffering the severestostracism and oppression.

As in the case of the disciplines of chemistry and physics, Germany'sbrutal racial policies drained Europe of a host of its most distinguishedscientists. The Nazis ignored the fact that Jews were prominent in andwere even at the head of some of the Germany's greatest scientificinstitutions. Meyerhof, for example, had been the Director of the newly-formed Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Research in Medicine, and laterWarburg became the Director of its Center for the Study of CellPhysiology.

Nine winners of the biomedical Nobel Prize were among the escapeesfrom Hitler's horrors and the Jewish community even presumed morewould be if not because of the genocidal pyres of the Nazi regime.England and the United States were the main beneficiaries of CentralEurope's "brain drain," the exodus of distinguished scientists from bothNazi Germany and eastern Europe. As many as twelve prize winnerswere born of parents who had fled the pogroms in Eastern Europe.Three other Nobel Prize winners had emigrated to the USA directlyfrom the "Pale of Jewish Settlement."

Emigration to England and the USA did not begin nor end with theNazis. Agencies like the Rockefeller Institute and many universitieswere eager to capture the products of Europe's most scientificallyfecund educational institutions. Six biomedical Nobel Prize winners


joined the many other Jewish scientists who were benefitted by orfound refuge in the Rockefeller Institute in the USA. Lederberg, in fact,was appointed President of Rockefeller University.

Likewise, the Pasteur Institute in Paris could count six biomedicalNobel Prize winners in its distinguished roster. Prize winner Lwowwas appointed Head of the Department at the Institut Pasteur, and laterserved on its board of directors. Lwow also won France's highest honorfor his courageous participation as a partisan in the undergroundstruggle against the Nazis. Switzerland was likewise blessed with threebiomedical Nobel Prize winners.

The Jewish scientists had started from a stable broad based chain ofintellectual platform. The fact that they have the same 'vision'afterstruggling through the same'experiences' if not 'tribulations' anddominated credible scientific 'positions' had make them strong andcompetent in dominating the scientific world. This should not deteredthe Muslims nation.

The very fact that the ancestor of our scientific progeny during thegolden era used to sit at their feet and learn, and then conquered thearts should became a catalyst for us to advance. So as the fact thatactually we are not lack of scientists and intellectuals which will berevealed later in the chapter, should be a good motivating factor. So itseems that the nagging problem now is that the Muslims themselves donot have the same 'vision'and could not accept the fact that they have toundergo the same 'experience' and 'tribulations' to achieve the 'ultimaterewards'. This should be pondered by everyone, the Muslim scientist inparticular. Otherwise at the end of the day their efforts will be ascattered effort, their success will be an individual success and their'positioning' is of little or no benefit to the development of the Muslimnation.

As for the case of Mahatma Gandhi, the Nobel Committee recordsreveal that he was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947 and, finally, afew days before he was murdered in January 1948. The omission hasbeen publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee.When the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, thechairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the


memory of Mahatma Gandhi". However, the committee has nevercommented on the speculations as to why Gandhi was not awarded theprize, and, until recently, the sources that might shed some light on thematter were unavailable.

Oyvind Tonnesson, Peace Editor, Nobel e- Museum, who has examinedand reported on the diaries of the committee advisors and chairpersonsof the Nobel Committee, confirms that Gandhi was nominated fivetimes and that his candidature was considered and rejected thrice whenit was on the short list in 1937, 1947, and 1948.

The Nobel Committee´s adviser, historian Jens Arup Seip, wrote areport, which was "favorable and yet not explicitly supportive". Thebasis for this duality, according to Tonnesson, is that there wasambiguity about Gandhi's non-violent role in the Partition, "shouldGandhi be selected for being a symbol of nonviolence, and whatpolitical effects could be expected if the Peace Prize was awarded to themost prominent Indian leader".

Historians and chroniclers of the Noble Peace Prize now admit that itwas a "curious omission" when men like Martin Luther King Jr. (the1964 laureate who acknowledged Gandhi as his mentor) and 1960 NobelPrize winner Albert Luthuli (who applied Gandhi´s principles in SouthAfrica) and the 1989 winner, the Dalai Lama, were duly honored, butGandhi, the first to employ nonviolence in a political context, was neverawarded the Peace Prize.

Scholarly critics of the Nobel Peace Prize agree that the exclusion ofGandhi has been a serious setback to the integrity of the prize. Prof.Irwin Abrams makes the point that there has been a conspicuous andunjustifiable absence of war-resisters and non-violent activists amongthe laureates and concludes that ´even less defendable is the parochialneglect for so long of the non-western and non-Christian world´. Inother words the Nobel Committee is open to the charge of religious andracial bias

Attempts to determine the reasons for Gandhi´s omission from theranks of laureates is plagued by procedural difficulties.


According to Statute Eight of the Nobel Foundation ´The deliberations,opinions and proposals of the Nobel Committee in connection with theaward of prizes may not be made public or otherwise revealed´, andStatute Ten adds that ´No protest shall lie against the award of anadjudicating body. If conflicts of opinion have arisen, they shall not berecorded in the minutes or otherwise revealed.´ Thus the Nobel statutesforbid public revelation of the deliberations of the Committee or thedisclosure of the list of nominees for any given year.

Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948, two days beforethe closing date for that year Nobel Peace Prize nominations. TheCommittee received six letters of nomination naming Gandhi; amongthe nominators were the Quakers and former prize winners such asEmily Greene Balch and the American friends Service Committee, fiveprofessors of philosophy from New York´s Columbia University, fiveprofessors of law from the University of Bordeaux, and Norwegianprofessors Fedge Castberg and Kristian Oftedal. For the third timeGandhi came on the Committee´s short list - this time the list onlyincluded three names - and Committee adviser Jens Arup Seip wrote areport on Gandhi´s activities during the last five months of his life. Heconcluded that Gandhi, through his course of life, had put his profoundmark on an ethical and political attitude which would prevail as a normfor a large number of people both inside and outside India.

Nobody had ever been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize posthumously.But according to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation in force at thattime, the Nobel Prizes could, under certain circumstances, be awardedposthumously. Thus it was possible to give Gandhi the prize. However,Gandhi did not belong to an organization and he left no will; whoshould receive the Prize money? The Director of the Norwegian NobelInstitute, August Schou, asked another of the Committee´s advisers,lawyer Ole Torleif Røed, to consider the practical consequences if theCommittee were to award the Prize posthumously. Røed suggested anumber of possible solutions for general application. Subsequently, heasked the Swedish prize-awarding institutions for their opinion. Theanswers were negative; posthumous awards, they thought, should nottake place unless the laureate died after the Committee´s decision hadbeen made.


On November 18, 1948, the Norwegian Nobel Committee decided tomake no award that year on the grounds that "there was no suitableliving candidate". Chairman Gunnar Jahn wrote in his diary: "To me itseems beyond doubt that a posthumous award would be contrary to theintentions of the testator." According to the chairman, three of hiscolleagues agreed in the end, only Mr. Oftedal was in favor of aposthumous award to Gandhi.

Thus it seems reasonable to assume that Gandhi would have beeninvited to Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, had he not been felledby an assassin's bullet, says Tonnesson.


3.3 Prominent Muslim scientific figures in the twentiethcentury.

3.3.1 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS

3.3.1.1 PROF. DR FAROUK EL BAZ

Dr. Farouk El-Baz is Research Professor and Director of the Center forRemote Sensing at Boston University, Boston MA, U.S.A. He is AdjunctProfessor of Geology at the Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University,Cairo, Egypt. He is also a Member of the Board of Trustees of theGeological Society of America Foundation, Boulder CO

He was born on 1 January 1938 in the Nile Delta town of Zagazig.Twenty years later, he received a B.Sc. in chemistry and geology fromAin Shams University, followed by a scholarship for graduate study. In1961, he received a M.S. degree in geology from the Missouri School ofMines and Metallurgy; his performance won him membership in thehonorary society of Sigma Xi. In 1964 he received a Ph.D. in geologyfrom the University of Missouri after conducting research in 1962-1963at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge MA. In1989, he received an Honorary Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree from theNew England College, Henniker NH.

Dr. El-Baz taught geology at Assiut University, Egypt (1958-1960) andthe University of Heidelberg, Germany (1964-1965). He joined the Pan


American - U.A.R. Oil Company in 1966, where he participated in thediscovery of El-Morgan, the first offshore oil field in the Gulf of Suez.

From 1967 to 1972, Dr. El-Baz participated in the Apollo Program asSupervisor of Lunar Science Planning at Bellcomm Inc., a division ofAT&T that conducted systems analysis for NASA Headquarters inWashington DC. During these six years, he was Secretary of theLanding Site Selection Committee for the Apollo missions to the Moon,Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography, andChairman of the Astronaut Training Group. His outstanding teachingabilities were confirmed by the Apollo astronauts. While circling theMoon for the first time during Apollo mission 15, Alfred Worden said,"After the King's [Farouk's nickname] training, I feel like I've been herebefore."

During the Apollo years, Dr. El-Baz joined NASA officials in briefingmembers of the press on the results of the lunar missions. His appealrested in a unique ability to simplify complex issues in clear, succinctand easily understood words. His remarks on the scientificaccomplishments were regularly quoted by the media during theApollo missions. As the Apollo program progressed through itsprojected series of human orbits of the moon and the landings, Dr. El-Baz became mentor to the participants, instructing lunar-boundastronauts on every aspect of the geology and geography of the moon.Training sessions on orbital science and photography went on duringodd moments the astronauts could spare almost until the moment ofblast-off.

After the Apollo Program ended in 1972, Dr. El-Baz joined theSmithsonian Institution in Washington DC to establish and direct theCenter for Earth and Planetary Studies at the National Air and SpaceMuseum. At the same time, he was elected as a member of the LunarNomenclature Task Group of the International Astronomical Union. Inthis capacity, he continues to participate in naming features of the Moonas revealed by lunar photographic missions.

El-Baz is certainly looking to the future. But he has made sure too thatsome aspects of the past will not be forgotten: he's officially named onearea of the moon Arabia, because it "looks like sand dunes and


approximates the shape of Arabia." He's named another one Necho, tohonor the Egyptian pharaoh who launched a naval expedition to provethat Africa was surrounded by water. "Moon craters have from thebeginning been named for contributors to astronomy, mathematics andother sciences," he says. "There already are craters named for ancientArab scientists, and I wanted to continue that practice. There were, afterall, so many great Arab scientists at the height of the Islamic civilizationwho were not fully honored." El-Baz is doing his part, too, to spread theArabic language. Along with several books on geology and lunarexploration, he has published a little phrase book, "Say It in Arabic," foruse by English-speaking tourists. It grew out of Arabic phrases he'dcompiled to help his American-born, Irish-descended wife on their tripsto Egypt.

In 1973, NASA selected him as Principal Investigator of the EarthObservations and Photography Experiment on the Apollo-Soyuz TestProject (ASTP), the first joint American-Soviet space mission of July1975. Emphasis was placed on photographing arid environments,particularly the Great Sahara of North Africa and the ArabianPeninsula, in addition to other features of the Earth and its oceans.

In May 1974. Dr. El-Baz had an audience with His Majesty King Faisalin Riyadh, during which the late monarch gave his enthusiastic supportfor continued studies of the Arabian Desert from space. El-Baz returnedto the Saudi Arabian capital in March 1976 to attend the IslamicConference on Science - and Technology. The five-day parley, heldunder the auspices of Riyadh University and opened by His MajestyKing Khalid, brought together 160 distinguished scientists, educatorsand engineers from all over the Muslim world. While there Dr. El-Bazmet with Amir Fah'd, the Crown Prince, who spoke of his desire toestablish a scientific research institution in Saudi Arabia. In Dr. El-Baz'sopinion, the Arabian Peninsula is not only an ideal desert laboratory,but also offers optimum conditions for a whole spectrum of solarenergy studies.

Emphasizing the study of the origin and evolution of arid landscapes,he collected field data during visits to every major desert in the world.One of his significant journeys took place, soon after the United Statesand China had normalized relations in 1979, when he coordinated the


first visit by American scientists to deserts in northwestern China. Thesix-week journey was chronicled in National Geographic and theExplorers Journal. His research on the origin and evolution of the desertresulted in his election as a Fellow of the American Association for theAdvancement of Science (AAAS).

His desert research, spanning over 25 years, helped in dispelling thepublic misconception that deserts were man-made and explained howarid lands originated and evolved in response to global climaticvariations. His research methods are now commonly replicated indesert studies throughout the world.

From 1982 to 1986, Dr. El-Baz was Vice President of Science andTechnology at Itek Optical Systems, Lexington MA. He oversaw theapplication of data from the Space Shuttle's Large Format Camera. Thephotography of this advanced system assisted greatly in El-Baz'sprogram of desert study from space. He was elected Fellow of the ThirdWorld Academy of Sciences (TWAS) in 1985, and became a member ofits Council in 1997. He represents the Academy at the Non-Governmental Unit of the Economic and Social.

In 1986 Dr. El-Baz joined Boston University as Director of the Center forRemote Sensing to promote the use of space technology in the fields ofarchaeology, geography and geology. Under his leadership, the Centerhas grown to become a leading force in the applications of remotesensing technology to environments around the world. In 1997, NASAselected it as a "Center of Excellence in Remote Sensing."

Research at the Center has particularly pushed forward the frontiers ofapplying remote sensing in archaeology. For example, Dr. El-Bazdeveloped a methodology for nondestructive investigation of a sealedchamber containing a disassembled boat at the base of the GreatPyramid in Giza, Egypt. He reported the results of this uniqueinvestigation in National Geographic and American Scientist, as well asmany print, radio and television interviews. He also contributed anarticle on worldwide applications of remote sensing to archaeology inthe "1991 Yearbook of Science and the Future" of the EncyclopaediaBritannica, and another to the August 1997 issue of Scientific American.


Dr. El-Baz is well known as a pioneer in the application of space-bornedata to ground-water exploration. He utilizes satellite images toidentify fracture zones, and radar data to reveal sand-buried courses offormer rivers. He successfully applied these methods in the arid landsof Egypt, Somalia, Sudan and Oman. His findings alleviated shortagesof ground water in areas of dire need. This won him the M.T. HalboutyHuman Needs Award of the American Association of PetroleumGeologists (AAPG). He was also appointed Senior Advisor to theWorld Bank/UN World Commission on Water for the 21st Century.

He is an accomplished author or editor of twelve books, including Sayit in Arabic, The Moon as Viewed by Lunar Orbiter, Apollo Over theMoon, Egypt as Seen by Landsat, Deserts and Arid Lands, The GulfWar and the Environment, and Atlas of the State of Kuwait fromSatellite Images. He has contributed over 200 scientific papers toprofessional journals, supervised numerous graduate students, andlectured in academic institutions and research centers worldwide.

Dr. El-Baz is a member of the United States National Committee forGeological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences. He serves onthe Board of Trustees of the new Alexandria Library, the Arab Scienceand Technology Foundation, the Egyptian Center for EconomicStudies, the Egyptian-American Affairs Council, the Moroccan-American Council, the World Affairs Council of Boston, as well as theeditorial boards of several international professional journals. He is amember of many national and international professional societies and aFellow of the Geological Society of America, the American Associationfor the Advancement of Science, the Royal Astronomical Society(London), and the Explorers Club (New York).

He has won numerous honors and awards, including NASA's ApolloAchievement Award, Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal, andSpecial Recognition Award; the University of Missouri AlumniAchievement Award for Extraordinary Scientific Accomplishments; theCertificate of Merit of the World Aerospace Education Organization;the Golden Door Award of the International Institute of Boston; theAward for Public understanding of Science and Technology of theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science, and the ArabRepublic of Egypt Order of Merit - First Class. He also serves as


President of the Arab Society for Desert Research.

In 1999, the Geological Society of America (GSA) established the"Farouk El-Baz Award for Desert Research," an annual award aimed atencouraging excellence in arid land studies.

Dr. El-Baz travels often to the Middle East and North Africa in search ofknowledge about the desert. He and his wife, Patricia, have fourdaughters: Monira (Mika), Soraya, Karima, and Fairouz. They also havefour grandchildren: Yasmeen Grace, Alia Nisreen, William Jr. and IanShuler.

Years since leaving his Cairo classrooms Farouk El-Baz hasaccomplished more than many gifted men and women have succeededin doing in long lifetimes and attained a reputation in his field of thehighest order. Conceding that the West has given him a great deal ofknowledge in the space-science field, El-Baz talks feelingly about thedebt he is convinced he owes to the other side of the world: "I have notforgotten my link with the Arab world, and I cannot. I came from there.I continually ask myself how I can contribute to scientific developmentthere. And I believe one of the best ways I can pay back some of theknowledge I have gained is to use it, particularly for those who need itmost."

Farouk is the fourth in line of nine talented El-Baz brothers and sisters.His father was a "relatively poor" teacher of religion and Arabic,undogmatic but fiercely ambitious for his children, who gave each of theolder ones unstinting aid in their homework. It was not long before theolder children, as is the custom in Arab families, were tutoring theyounger ones and taking enormous pride in their scholasticachievements. Farouk remembers well how his father, a graduate of al-Azhar University and a very devout man, would often say, "I wish thatGod will help me get at least one of my boys through high school."

Farouk's mother married in her early teens. With her husband's help shetaught herself the rudiments of reading and writing after her olderchildren were half grown. But what the senior Mrs. El-Baz still lacks informal education she more than compensates for, according to sonFarouk, with "fantastic common sense and native intelligence."


In 1972, after repeated entreaties from those of her children living in theWest, and by then a widow with no travel experience-even on a bus-themother flew from Cairo to visit her U.S. daughter and two sons. Specialreason for her second trip to the United States, in 1975, was to witnessthe Apollo-Soyuz launch at the Kennedy Space Center. At the launchsite this visitor from far-off Nile country was accorded well-deservedtreatment as a V.I.P.


3.3.1.2 DR FAZLUR RAHMAN KHAN

Fazlur Rahman Khan was "the father of modern-day tall buildings." Hiscreative yet realistic designs helped make high-rise constructionpossible in the 1960s and 1970s and are a legacy to today's engineers.

In step with the abounding vitality of the time, structural engineerFazlur Rahman Khan (1929 - 1982) ushered in a renaissance inskyscraper construction during the second half of the 20th century.Fazlur Khan was a pragmatic visionary: the series of progressive ideasthat he brought forth for efficient high-rise construction in the 1960s and'70s were validated in his own work, notably his efficient designs forChicago's 100-story John Hancock Center and 110-story Sears Tower(the tallest building in the United States since its completion in1974).These projects utilize a tubular system method of constructionthat Khan popularized. The Hancock Center features a braced tube andthe Sear Tower uses a bundled tube.

One of the foremost structural engineers of the 20th century, FazlurKhan epitomized both structural engineering achievement and creativecollaborative effort between architect and engineer. Only whenarchitectural design is grounded in structural realities, he believed -thus celebrating architecture's nature as a constructive art, rooted in theearth - can "the resulting aesthetics … have a transcendental value andquality."


He introduced a groundbreaking structural system, the "bundled tube."This design for Chicago's 110-story Sears Tower was structurallyefficient and economic: at 1,450 feet, it provided more space and raisedhigher than the Empire State Building, yet cost much less per unit area.Equally important, the new structure type was innovative in itspotential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficienttowers no longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take onvarious shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts ofgroupings.

When one looks at a text on tall-building design today, one finds theserecognizable structure types: the framed tube, the shear wall frameinteraction, the trussed tube, the bundled tube, and the compositesystem (also developed by Fazlur Khan). Though Khan developedstructural systems for particular project needs, he based his innovationson fundamental structural principles that allowed them wideapplication. His developments are among today's "conventional"systems for skyscraper design.

His ideas for these sky-scraping towers offered more than economicconstruction and iconic architectural images; they gave people theopportunity to work and live "in the sky." Hancock Center residentsthrive on the wide expanse of sky and lake before them, the stunningquiet in the heart of the city, and the intimacy with nature at suchheights: the rising sun, the moon and stars, the migrating flocks ofbirds. The cornerstone of Khan's approach; science and durability in fusionwith creativity, endures also in the less affluent parts of the world. Untilhis death in 1981, Fazlur Rahman Khan was profoundly concerned withthe rapid urbanisation of developing countries and called for theapplication of workable and appropriate forms of technology.

Fazlur Khan was always clear about the purpose of architecture. Hischaracteristic statement to an editor in 1971, having just been selectedConstruction's Man of the Year by Engineering News-Record, iscommemorated in a plaque in Onterie Center (446 E. Ontario,Chicago),the last buiding he designed: The technical man must not belost in his own technology. He must be able to appreciate life; and lifeis art, drama, music, and most importantly, people.


After completing undergraduate coursework at the Bengal EngineeringCollege, University of Calcutta, Fazlur R. Khan received his bachelor'sdegree from the University of Dacca in 1951 while placing first in hisclass. A Fulbright Scholarship and a Pakistani Government Scholarshipsubsequently enabled him to travel to the United States in 1952 wherehe pursued advanced studies at the University of Illinois, Urbana. Inthree short years Khan earned two masters' degrees - one in structuralengineering and one in theoretical and applied mechanics - and a PhDin structural engineering.

He received an Alumni Honor Award from the University of Illinois,Urbana (1972), an Honorary Doctor of Science from NorthwesternUniversity (1973), and an Honorary Doctor of Engineering from LehighUniversity (1980).

In 1961, Fazlur Khan was made a Participating Associate in Skidmore,Owings & Merrill; in 1966 he became an Associate Partner and in 1970 aGeneral Partner - the only engineer partner at the time.

In 1973 he was honored with the top accolade for an engineer in theUnited States, election to the National Academy of Engineering.

He was cited five times among "Men Who Served the Best Interests ofthe Construction Industry" by Engineering News-Record (for 1965,1968, 1970, 1971, and 1979); and in 1972 he was named "Construction'sMan of the Year." He was posthumously honored with the InternationalAward of Merit in Structural Engineering from the InternationalAssociation for Bridge and Structural Engineering and a DistinguishedService Award from the AIA Chicago Chapter (both in 1982).

In 1983 the American Institute of Architects recognized Fazlur Khan'scontributions with an AIA Institute Honor for Distinguished Achievement.

That same year he was honored with the Aga Khan Award for Architecture"for the Structure of the Hajj Terminal, An Outstanding Contribution toArchitecture for Muslims," which was completed over the last years ofhis life.


The Structural Engineers Association of Illinois recognized hisachievements with the John Parmer Award in 1987. The SEAOI alsocommissioned a sculpture in Fazlur Khan's honor by the Spanish artistCarlos Marinas. The sculpture is located in the lobby of the SearsTower.

In 1998 the city of Chicago named the intersection of Jackson andFranklin Streets (located at the foot of the Sears Tower) "Fazlur R. KhanWay."

Other honors include:

· Chicagoan of the Year in Architecture and Engineering, Chicago JuniorChamber of Commerce (1970);

· Special Citation Award, American Institute of Steel Construction(1971);

· Wason Medal for the most meritorious paper, American ConcreteInstitute (1971);

· Thomas A. Middlebrooks Award, American Society of CivilEngineers (1972);

· Chicago Civil Engineer of the Year, Illinois Section, ASCE (1972); · J. Lloyd Kimbrough Medal, American Institute of Steel Construction

(1973); Khan was only the fifth recipient of AISC's highest tributeto professional achievement in the award's 35-year history;

· Alfred E. Lindau Award, American Concrete Institute (1973) "foroutstanding contributions in advancing the art of reinforcedconcrete construction in high buildings";

· Oscar Faber Medal, Institution of Structural Engineers, London(1973);

· State Service Award, Illinois Council, American Institute ofArchitects;

· Ernest E. Howard Award, American Society of Civil Engineers(1977);

· G. Brooks Earnest Award, American Society of Civil Engineers,Cleveland Section.

He passed away on the 27 March 1982 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Inrememberance of his excellent contributions to the world of sctructuralengineering the Departments of Civil and Environmental Engineering


and of Art & Architecture at Lehigh University, Pennsylvania hadcreated the Fazlur Rahman Khan Chair, reserved for candidate with aworld-class research reputation in Structural Engineering and thoseexpected to bring innovative ideas to the classroom and design studiowith a focus at the intersection of Structural Engineering andArchitecture.


3.3.1.3 DR ABDUL QADEER KHAN

Abdul Qadeer Khan is a Pakistani engineer widely regarded as thefather of Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme. Born in 1935 into amiddle-class Muslim family in Bhopal, India, Khan migrated toPakistan in 1952 following the country's partition from India five yearsearlier. He trained as an engineer at the University of Karachi beforemoving after graduation to West Germany and Belgium for furtherstudies, earning a doctorate from the Catholic University of Leuven inBelgium in 1972.

That same year, he joined the staff of the Physical Dynamics ResearchLaboratory, or FDO, in Amsterdam. FDO was a subcontractor for theURENCO uranium enrichment plant at Almelo in the Netherlands,which had been established in 1970 by the United Kingdom, WestGermany and the Netherlands to assure a supply of enriched uraniumfor European nuclear reactors. The URENCO plant used highlyclassified centrifuge technology to separate fissionable uranium-235from U-238 by spinning a mixture of the two isotopes at up to 100,000revolutions a minute. The technical complexity of this system is themain obstacle to would-be nuclear powers developing their ownenrichment facilities.

In May 1974, India tested a nuclear bomb, to the great alarm ofPakistan's government. Around this time, Khan had privileged accessto the most secret areas of the URENCO plant as well as todocumentation on centrifuge technology. A subsequent investigation


by the Dutch authorities found that he had passed highly classifiedmaterial to a network of Pakistani intelligence agents, although theyfound no evidence that he was sent to the Netherlands as a spy, norwere they able to determine whether he approached his government orwhether it was the other way around. He left the Netherlands suddenlyin January 1976 and was put in charge of the Pakistani nuclearprogramme with the support of then prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Khan established the Engineering Research Laboratories at Kahuta inJuly 1976, subsequently renamed as the Dr. A.Q. Khan ResearchLaboratories (KRL), as the focal point for developing a uraniumenrichment capability. KRL also took on many other weapons projects,including the development of the nuclear-capable Ghauri ballisticmissiles. KRL occupied a unique role in Pakistani industry, reportingdirectly to the Prime Minister's office, and having extremely closerelations with the military: former prime minister Benazir Bhutto hassaid that during her term of office, even she was not allowed to visit thefacility.

Pakistan very rapidly established its own uranium enrichmentcapability and was reportedly able to produce highly enriched uraniumby 1986. This progress was so rapid that international suspicion wasraised as to whether it had had outside assistance. It was reported thatChinese technicians had been at the facility in the early 1980s, butsuspicions soon fell on Khan's activities at URENCO. In 1983, he wassentenced in absentia to four years in prison by an Amsterdam court forattempted espionage, although the sentence was later overturned onappeal on a legal technicality. Khan rejected any suggestion thatPakistan had illicitly acquired nuclear expertise: "All the research work[at Kahuta] was the result of our innovation and struggle," he told agroup of Pakistani librarians in 1990. "We did not receive any technicalknow-how from abroad, but we can't reject the use of books, magazinesand research papers in this connection."

During the 1980s and 1990s, Western governments became increasinglyconvinced that covert nuclear and ballistic missile collaboration wastaking place between China, Pakistan and North Korea.The activities ofthe Khan Research Laboratories led to the United States terminatingeconomic and military aid to Pakistan in October 1990, following which


the Pakistani government agreed to a freeze in the nuclear programme.

The American clampdown may have prompted an increasing relianceon Chinese and North Korean nuclear and missile expertise. In 1995, theU.S. learned that the Khan Research Laboratories had bought 5,000specialized magnets from a Chinese government-owned company, foruse in uranium enrichment equipment. More worryingly, it wasreported that Pakistani nuclear technology was being exported to otheraspirant nuclear states, notably North Korea. In May 1998, Newsweekmagazine published an article alleging that Khan had offered to sellnuclear know-how to Iraq, an allegation that he denied. A few weekslater, both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests that finallyconfirmed both countries' development of atomic weapons.Pakistanexploded six nuclear weapons in the desert of Baluchistan, in May 1998,(two weeks after India's re-tested theirs. The event was greeted withjubilation in both countries and Khan was feted as a national hero.President Rafiq Tarrar awarded him a gold medal for his role inmasterminding the Pakistani nuclear programme. The United Statesimmediately imposed sanctions on both India and Pakistan andpublicly blamed China for assisting the Pakistanis.

Khan's open promotion of Pakistan's nuclear and missile capabilitieswas really worrying The United States government who becameincreasingly convinced that Pakistan was trading nuclear technology toNorth Korea in exchange for ballistic missile technology. In the face ofstrong American criticism, the Pakistani government announced inMarch 2001 that Khan was to be dismissed from his post as chairman ofKRL, a move that drew strong criticism from the religious andnationalist opposition to President Pervez Musharraf. Perhaps inresponse to this, the government instead appointed Khan to the post ofspecial science and technology adviser to President Musharraf, withministerial rank. While this could be presented as a promotion forKhan, it removed him from hands-on management of KRL and gave thegovernment an opportunity to keep a closer eye on his activities.

In January 2004, Khan confessed to having been involved in aninternational network of clandestine nuclear proliferation fromPakistan to Libya, Iran and North Korea. However on February 5, 2004,president Pervez Musharraf announced that he had pardoned Khan.


Despite that ,Khan remains an extremely popular figure in Pakistan. Heis known as an outspoken nationalist and for his belief that the West isinherently hostile to Islam.

Dr Khan was awarded with Pakistan's countless official decorationsincluding 13 solid gold medals and many more public honours - theonly Pakistani to have twice received the Nishan-I-Imtiaz, the country'shighest civilian honour. His image - wreathed in roses or electron rings- is a common sight on billboards and the sides of lorry that rumbledown the roads of Pakistan. Ordinary Pakistanis revere Dr Khan as agreat patriot and innovator who put himself at risk to obtain the nucleargrail.


3.3.1.4 DR AVUL PAKIR JAINULABDEEN ABDUL KALAM

Born on 15th October 1931 at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu, Dr. AvulPakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam is known as the 'Father of India'smissile programme' and brain behind the 1998 Pokharan nuclear tests.He specialized in Aeronautical Engineering from Madras Institute ofTechnology. In his early career he went to NASA (the AmericanNational Aeronautics and Space Administration) for a short training. AtNASA's flight Facility's reception lobby, Kalam's eyes caught a paintingprominently displayed; of the 'Tipu Sultan's army fighting the British'.Tipu Sultan (1750-1799), a ruler of Mysore, South India, was the pioneerof warfare rocketry. The painting inspired Kalam to develop Indianrocket, 'a revival of the eighteenth century dream of Tipu Sultan.' Spaceis the limit insofar as Kalam's own vision is concerned.

Dr. Kalam made significant contribution as Project Director to developIndia's first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) whichsuccessfully injected the Rohini satellite in the near earth orbit in July1980 and made India an exclusive member of Space Club. He wasresponsible for the evolution of ISRO's launch vehicle programme,particularly the PSLV configuration. After working for two decades inISRO and mastering launch vehicle technologies, Dr. Kalam took up theresponsibility of developing Indigenous Guided Missiles at DefenceResearch and Development Organisation as the Chief Executive ofIntegrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). He wasresponsible for the development and operationalisation of AGNI andPRITHVI Missiles and for building indigenous capability in criticaltechnologies through networking of multiple institutions. He was the


Scientific Adviser to Defence Minister and Secretary, Department ofDefence Research & Development from July 1992 to December 1999.During this period he led to the weaponisation of strategic missilesystems and the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in collaboration withDepartment of Atomic Energy, which made India a nuclear weaponState. He also gave thrust to self-reliance in defence systems byprogressing multiple development tasks and mission projects such asLight Combat Aircraft.

As Chairman of Technology Information, Forecasting and AssessmentCouncil (TIFAC) and as an eminent scientist, he led the country with thehelp of 500 experts to arrive at Technology Vision 2020 giving a roadmap for transforming India from the present developing status to adeveloped nation. Dr. Kalam has served as the Principal ScientificAdvisor to the Government of India, in the rank of Cabinet Minister,from November 1999 to November 2001 and was responsible forevolving policies, strategies and missions for many developmentapplications. Dr. Kalam was also the Chairman, Ex-officio, of theScientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) and piloted IndiaMillennium Mission 2020.

Dr. Kalam took up academic pursuit as Professor, Technology &Societal Transformation at Anna University, Chennai from November2001 and was involved in teaching and research tasks. Above all he tookup a mission to ignite the young minds for national development bymeeting high school students across the country.

In his literary pursuit four of Dr. Kalam's books - "Wings of Fire", "India2020 - A Vision for the New Millennium", "My journey" and "IgnitedMinds - Unleashing the power within India" have become householdnames in India and among the Indian nationals abroad. These bookshave been translated in many Indian languages.

His humble background, born as a son to a boatman is a testament tohow education can raise people from poverty. He refuses to bedistracted by fame and glory, but remain totally modest. Prayer "acts asa stimulus to creative ideas," so he writes in Wings of Fire, anautobiographical work. His simplicity and his almost ascetic lifestylehave helped bolster the myth of the selfless, patriotic scientist who has


devoted his entire life to a mission - making India into a major militarypower.

Dr. Kalam is one of the most distinguished scientists of India with theunique honour of receiving honorary doctorates from 30 universitiesand institutions. He has been awarded the coveted civilian awards -Padma Bhushan (1981) and Padma Vibhushan (1990) and the highestcivilian award Bharat Ratna (1997). He is a recipient of several otherawards and Fellow of many professional institutions.

Dr. Kalam became the 11th President of India on 25th July 2002. Hisfocus is on transforming India into a developed nation by 2020.


3.3.1.5 GENERAL KERIM KERIMOV

Kerim Kerimov was born in November 14, 1917 in Baku, Azerbaijan.Ason of an engineer, he was known as the shadowy scientist whoseleading role shaped the Soviet space programme. He has been involvedin Soviet aeronautics from its inception after World War II. During hiscareer, he rose to the highest position as Chairman of the StateCommission, and supervised every stage of development and operationof both manned space complexes as well as unmanned interplanetarystations for the entire former Soviet Union.

Kerim, chairman of the Soviet Aeronautics Commission, had a leadingrole behind the Soviet space programme over several decades. He wasone of the architects of the string of Soviet successes that stunned theworld from the early 1960s - from the launch of the first human in space,Yuri Gagarin's 108-minute trip around the world to Mir space station in1986. In 1967, Cosmos 186 made history by successfully completing thefirst automated link-up between two unmanned spacecraft. For thisachievement, Kerim was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General.He took a leading role in overseeing the numerous launches from SovietUnion's secret cosmodromes. His career in space industry expandedfrom Commander of TsUKOS 1964-1965 to Directorate Chief of Ministryof General Machine Building 1965-1974 before being appointed as theChairmen for the State Commission for Soyuz 1966-1991.

Kerim Kerimov identity has remained a secret for most of his careeruntil 1987- when he was first mentioned in Pravda during MikhailGorbachev's era of glasnost and perestroika. Even Azerbaijanis did not


know that the man holding the Number One position in aerospace wasan Azerbaijani. At televised space launchings, cameras always focusedon the cosmonauts and not the person to whom they reported theirreadiness to carry out the mission. As Karimov was a "secretedgeneral", he was always hidden from the camera's view; only his voicewas broadcast.

The following are few excerpts from an exclusive interview with BettyBlair, revealing this 'unknown' great contributor to the Soviet spacemission:

About the space missions:

I haven't counted. But I was in that position 25 years and I launched allof them during that period. I almost didn't have a personal life. I usedto work Saturdays and Sundays. I couldn't fall ill. I didn't have the rightto get sick. Despite all this, I'd have to admit I'm satisfied with my lifeexcept for the fact that I lost my wife very early on. She was only 50when she died and, afterwards, I never remarried. I had met her atschool; we had studied together.

About his being kept secret from public:

First of all, I was a "secret" general. Previously, I had been in the sphereof strategic rockets (hydrogen bombs). Later, after being transferred toaeronautics (we had given that division the non-descript name of"Ministry of General Machinery"), they continued the tradition ofkeeping me secreted. My name was first mentioned publicly in thenewspaper, "Pravda", on August 7, 1987. After that, everybody startedinterviewing me. That was during Gorbachev's "Glasnost" and"Perestroika". Prior to that, I was known as the "nameless" or"anonymous" Chairman of the Commission

About his book published in 1995:

It's called "The Way to Space: The Notes of the Chairman of the StateCommission." Frankly speaking, much of the information that wasmade public was produced as propaganda. But after 1988, it becamepossible to write about me as I had been in the position to have


participated in all the space flights. It was then that I was asked to writeabout what actually happened behind the scenes-many events had notbeen made known. People were curious about space missions so Ioffered to write about my activities and to document everything that Ihad experienced.

The book is very technical. In fact, it's my first published work. I wantedto write about each space flight with all its shortcomings as well as itsbenefits. Not a single flight went smoothly. The descriptions in the bookare based on reports that I made to the State Commission. If anyonewants to discover any information about the dates, time of flights, theirlandings, it's all there. I tried not to hide anything. There had beenrumors that Gagarin was not the first cosmonaut to go into space, butthat wasn't true. I write about these kinds of things.

About life:

I've had incredible experiences in my life time, most of which I wouldn'ttrade for anything in the world.

He was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labour and the Order ofLenin. He died in March 2003 in Moscow after a brief illness at the ageof 85.


3.3.1.6 PROF DR SEEYED MAHMOUD HESSABY

Professor at the University of Tehran, Dr. Mahmoud Hessaby was animportant Iranian and Muslim scientist.He is also known as the 'Fatherof Modern Physic in Iran'.

He was born in Tehran in 1903.At the age of seven he moved to Beirutwhere he began attending school. At the age of seven he memorized theQur'an by heart and later he started to read great books of Persianliterature, which are regarded as very sophisticated. At the early age ofseventeen he obtained his Bachelor's in Arts and Sciences from theAmerican University of Beirut. Later he obtained his BA in civilengineering while working as a draftsman. After a short period of timehe obtained a BA in Mathematics and Astronomy.

He continued his studies and as a graduate of the Engineering school ofBeirut he was admitted to the "École Superieure d'Electricité". In 1925he graduated from this school at the same time he was hired by theFrench Electric Railway Co. He had a scientific mind and continued hisresearch in Physics at the Sorbonne University and obtained his Ph.D inPhysics from this University at the age of twenty-five.

According to the Professor Hessaby Institute, the following were someof his accomplishments:

Founding the Highway Engineering school and teaching there from1928 Survey and drawing of the first coastal road-map between Persian


Gulf ports Founding the "teachers college" and teaching there from 1928 Construction of the first radio-set in Iran (1928) Construction of the first weather-station in 1931 Installation and operation of the first radiology center in Iran in 1931 Calculation and setting of Iranian time (1932) Founding the first private hospital in Iran (Goharshad Hospital) in1933 Writing the University charter and founding Tehran University(1934) Founding the Engineering school in 1934 and acting as the dean ofthat school until 1936 and teaching there from then on Founding the faculty of science and acting as its dean from 1942 to1948 Commissioned for the dispossession of British Petroleum Companyduring government of Dr. Mossadegh and appointed as the firstgeneral manager of the National Iranian Oil Company Minister of Education in the cabinet of Dr. Mossadegh from 1951 to1952 Opposing the contract with the consortium while in the senate Opposing the membership of Iran in CENTO (Baghdad Pact) Founding the Telecommunication Center of Assad-Abad inHamedan (1959) Writing the standards charter for the standards Institute of Iran(1954) Founding the Geophysical Institute of Tehran University (1961) Title of distinguished professor of Tehran University from 1971 Founding the atomic research center and atomic reactor at TehranUniversity Founding the atomic Energy center of Iran, member of the UNscientific sub-committee of peaceful use of member of theinternational space committee (1981) Establishment of Iran's space research committee and member of theinternational space committee (1981) Establishment of the Iranian music society and founding the Persianlanguage Academy.

He continued lecturing at University for three working generations,teaching seven generations of students and professors. He spoke four


living languages: French, English, German and Arabic and he alsoknew Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Pahlavi, Avestan, Turkish and Italianwhich he used for his etymological studies.In the scientific field: twenty-five research papers, articles and bookshave been put to print by professor Hessaby. His theory of "Infinitelyextended particles" is well-known among the world scientist. Themedal of the commandeur de la legion d honneure, France's greatestscientific medal, was awarded to him for his theories.

Professor Hessaby was the only Iranian student of professor AlbertEinstein, he was known to be his favourite student, and during hisyears of scientific research he had meetings with well-known scientistssuch as Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac, AageNiels Bohr ....and scholars such as Russel and Andre-Gide.

During the congress of "60 years of physics in Iran" the servicesrendered by him were deeply appreciated and he was entitled "thefather of physics in Iran". He passed away on September 3, 1992, at theUniversity hospital of Geneva.

As Hesabi had wished he was buried in his mother-land Tafresh.


3.3.1.7 PROF DR ZAKARIA ERZINCLIOGLU

Dr. Zakaria, also known as Dr. Zak, was Britain's leading forensicentomologist Britain's leading forensic entomologist (an expert in theapplication of insect biology to criminal investigations) with threedecades' experience in solving all manner of grisly crimes.

He was also the author of the fascinating, if gruesome, Maggots, Murderand Men (2000).In this book Erzinçlioglu, who described himself as a"maggotologist", explained the scientific basis of his work: "When abody begins to decompose, it releases volatile compounds withparticular chemical compositions. These are the odours that attract a flyto a corpse." Once the odours disappear, usually within a few weeks ofdeath, flies ignore the corpse, so by calculating the age of the flies andfly larvae found on the body, a forensic entomologist can determinewith a degree of confidence how long ago (and often in what sort ofenvironment) the person died.

Erzinçlioglu, or "Dr Zak", as he was affectionately known, was aprofessed admirer of the methods of Sherlock Holmes and, like his hero,was unsqueamish about death. He observed that "vieweddispassionately a dead human body is a magnificent and highlynutritious resource," and claimed to find "a great deal of beauty" in theblowflies and other insects whose maggots thrive on decaying flesh.During his career, Erzinçlioglu helped to solve more than 200 murders,including those committed by Robert Black, alias "Smelly Bob", whowas convicted in 1994 of the murders and rapes of three young girls. Hewas also consulted in 1985 during the investigation of the murder of 14-


year old Jason Swift by members of a paedophile ring. Erzinçlioglu'sevidence in this case showed that Jason had been killed indoors and notin the woods where his body was discovered.

In 1984, Erzinçlioglu's evidence helped to convict Dr Sampson Perera, adental lecturer at Wakefield accused of murdering a 13-year old girl hehad adopted illegally and kept as a slave. Perera had chopped hisvictim in pieces and hidden her remains round his house, laboratoryand garden. When the remains were found, he claimed they were sterilebones he used in his medical research. But by identifying a particularfly which was still present on some of the bones, Erzinçlioglu was ableto prove the bones had been recently dismembered, a crucial piece ofevidence in the prosecution.

Despite his evident relish for his subject, Erzinçlioglu was a soft-spokenman of immense compassion and integrity who never forgot the humantragedy behind the forensic evidence, believing that "the last aspects ofyour life have to be dealt with as well".

Zakaria Erzinçlioglu was born on December 30 1951 in Hungary toparents of Turkish origin. He was partly brought up in Egypt and theSudan and partly in England, where, as a child, he contracted polio, andas a result developed a limp.

He started out an as entomologist interested in how insects transmitdiseases and obtained a degree in Applied Zoology at WolverhamptonPolytechnic in 1975. From 1976 to 1981 he worked for the ZoologicalSociety of London as a compiler for the Zoological Record.In the early1970s, he was telephoned by police who needed someone who knewsomething about maggots. They came back to him again and again and,as he recalled, "soon I thought, 'well, this is an interesting area'." In 1981he moved to Durham University to study for a doctorate with LewisDavies. His thesis was on blowfly eggs and larvae and theirdevelopment.

Not all his forensic investigations were grisly. On one occasion he wasconsulted by a firm of vintners accused of negligence by an aggrievedcustomer in Scotland who had found a spider in one of their bottles ofwine. Erzinçlioglu identified the spider as Clubonia diversa, a species


which does not occur indoors but is common in boggy areas of thenorth. He concluded that it was difficult to see how the spider couldhave entered the wine during bottling and since the complainant livedin a marshy area of lowland Scotland, it was likely that it had enteredafter the bottle had been opened, probably during an alfresco party.

In 1984, as an employee of the Field Studies Council, he moved toCambridge University, where he worked with Henry Disney in theZoology department. Among other publications this resulted inBlowflies (1996 - volume 23 in the Naturalists' Handbook series). Hewas then funded by the Home Office to undertake research in forensicentomology and was later appointed director of a new Forensic ScienceResearch Centre at Durham University.Erzinçlioglu fought constant battles for funding, and in 1995, shortlyafter the Royal Army Medical College had awarded him their JohnGrundy Medal for medical entomology, the centre was forced to close.He returned to Cambridge as an affiliated researcher at the Departmentof Zoology and continued to do case work for the police.

In 1997, however, he announced that, in future, he would only carry outforensic work if paid by the judiciary. Explaining his decision in anarticle in Nature in 1998, Erzinçlioglu claimed that incompetent anddishonest forensic scientists were undermining Britain's criminal justicesystem. The Government's decision to make the forensic science servicean agency of the Home Office, he argued, had led to the development ofan unregulated market in which lawyers acting for one side or the otherin criminal trials could effectively buy the evidence most favourable totheir cause.

Erzinçlioglu recommended that a fully-staffed statutory body should beset up, answerable solely to the judiciary and not dependent on the"goodwill" of its customers. Much of Erzinçlioglu's later forensic workwas concerned with miscarriages of justice - work he often carried outfor nothing.Dr Erzinclioglu said: "Forensic scientists should not besubject to financial or emotional pressures and their independence mustbe guaranteed and defined in law so that, like judges, their neutralityand objectivity can be upheld in every way. "Unfortunately at thepresent time forensic science evidence is paid for by people who are, bythe very nature of the system, biased, even if they are sincerely trying to


arrive at the truth. Police officers and lawyers are interested but not,with the best will in the world, disinterested, parties."

In the last years of his life, Erzinçlioglu spent much of his time workingfrom home writing books. Maggots, Murder and Men was the runner-up in the Crime Writers' Association 2001 Silver Dagger Award for non-fiction. He also wrote Every Contact Leaves a Trace (2001), as well as achildren's story, Ivo of the Black Mountain, and a thriller, JackdrawCrag, which have yet to be published.

Erzinçlioglu served, variously, on the council of the Linnean Societyand of the Zoological Society and as a member of the National TrustWicken Fen Management Committee and the advisory committee ofthe Centre for Albanian studies. He was a trustee of the Bosnia-Herzegovina Rescue Foundation.

At the time of his death he was working on books on poisons and onmiscarriages of justice as well as a play. He participated in televisionprogrammes on forensic science, including the documentary TheWitness was a Fly, which was shown on the BBC.

Zakaria Erzinçlioglu married Sharon Wynne Davies in 1984 and theyhad a son and two daughters. They met while both were studying forzoology PhDs at Durham University. Her research was into theunderwater foraging behaviour of mink. Dr Zak was developing waysto identify flies from their maggots, a skill he would use regularly in hislater career as a forensic scientist.Dr Zak's last effort was to set up anindependent forensic science centre, which he named the SolonInstitute, after the Greek sage who reformed Athenian law.Unfortunately,in September 2002, before he could get the idea off theground, he had an unexpected and fatal heart attack, aged 50.


3.3.1.8 PROF DR SAMIRA IBRAHIM ISLAM

Prof Dr Samira Ibrahim Islam of Saudi Arabia was she was the firstSaudi woman to complete a basic education; the first Saudi woman toobtain a BA and PhD degree; also with respect to all specialties she wasthe first Saudi woman to become a full professor. While in the field ofPharmacology she was the first Saudi, man or woman, to become a fullprofessor. Her successful working career was not limited to pure scienceresearch projects only; with considerable devotion to, and a sincereinterest in the field of girl's higher education which was in its infancy inthe early 70s - Professor Islam's contribution branched into manyseparate areas.. She is also the first to introduce formal universityeducation for girls in the Kingdom and the first woman vice dean in aSaudi university.

Professor Islam started her academic career in 1971 by volunteering tolecture at the College of Education, King Abdulaziz University, MakkahBranch (now Umm Al Qura University). In 1972, Dr AhmedMuhammad Ali, the university President, appointed Dr Islam as anofficial member of the teaching staff in the position of Lecturer. With theencouragement and support of Dr Mohammed Abdu Yamani, then theRector of King Abdulaziz University, in 1973 Dr Islam was assigned asAcademic Advisor for the girl's section in both the Jeddah and Makkahbranches. She introduced formal university education sections for girls;prior to 1973 girls were enrolled as external students only, and thoseinterested were allowed to attend limited evening classes only.

At the expense at time of furthering her own scientific career and


research Professor Islam dedicated her time to starting official, regulardaytime university education for girls. Dr Islam established many neweducational programs for women and she was also assigned as theHead of the Science Departments. During 1973, Departments ofChemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Biology were founded in theCollege of Education Makkah branch with Dr Islam at their Head. Thiswas the first time girls were enrolled into science subjects and allowedto carry out practical studies in laboratories.

In 1974 the Faculty of Medicine was established; Professor AbdullahBasalamal became the Dean of the Faculty and Professor Islam was theVice Dean, the first time such a title had been given to a woman inSaudi Universities. In 1975 she was the second person to be assigned asone of the founders of the Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences. In1975 male and female students were enrolled in the medical program,Nursing and Medical Technology programs followed in 1976. TheNursing Program was opened for girls only, with no male staff;Professor Islam took the full responsibility of developing its programfaculty and in 1978 became the Dean of that program.she wasresponsible for the establishment, together with the Faculty of Medicineand Allied Sciences Facilities, a BA degree program in Natural Sciencesfor girls and the first group were also enrolled in 1975. Professor Islamtook charge of this college for the following three years and participatedin the required planning to develop its faculty and facilities until itbecame an independent college of Kind Abdul Aziz University. Withsupport of the Health Sector of the Armed Forces and Aviation between1981 and 1984 she also established the specialized secondary schoolprogram for girls 'School of Health Sciences' which grants a secondaryschool certificate in specialized areas of the health profession.

Whilst achieving so much on behalf of women in her country in termsof higher education, Professor Islam also managed to combine heracademic work with a successful career as a research scientist - neverlosing touch with her dream of conducting research that wouldeventually benefit the whole of Saudi society. Professor Islam received strong support and co-operation fromcolleagues and assistants which enabled her to develop her primeinterest in research. With their encouragement and due to herdedication to scientific research she would travel to Britain to complete


her research in Pharmacology, as there were no research laboratories inher own country during the seventies.

"It was with considerable difficulty. I used to collect samples for myexperiments in those days and hand carried them to the UK to myMedical School at Paddington," recalls Professor Islam. At that stage shefocused on pharmacogenetic studies, and managed to phenotype theSaudi population; she defined the polymorphism traits with respect tosome metabolic pathways; 'acetylation' and '4-hydroxilstion' reactions,which some drugs undergo when taken into the body of patients.

"Our country is an open market for imported drugs from East and Westand none of the producers have studied the ethnic influences on theeffects of these drugs. With regard to medication, we were vulnerable innot having enough specific information about the normal biological andphysiological constitution of our population, with the consequence thatphysicians would used the empirical values for calculating drug doses,which may be extremely risky when prescribing certain drugs becausethere are many hereditary factors which distinguish the differentpopulations of the world and consequently their needs for specific drugdoses, these differences are not critical for all drugs. In any event myresearch is the first of its kind in the international literature whichdefines the Saudi profile in drug metabolism and is an importantcontribution to drug safety," she observes.

Professor Islam achieved recognition in her field and she became thefirst Saudi full professor in Pharmacology in 1983. She focused herresearch on the effect of drugs on the Saudi population through theDrug Monitoring Unit at King Fahd Medical Research Canter of KingAbdulaziz University. She founded the Drug Monitoring Unit from theresearch funds she was granted where the blood of patients undergoingmedication is analyzed, thus helping physicians to decide on accuratedoses. Professor Islam remarked that she publicized the need for everyorganization and individual to support scientific research in thiscountry, especially concerning the drug safety which includes treatmentof illnesses and curing of diseases.

Her groundbreaking research and contributions to science in her homecountry were finally recognized when Professor Samira Ibrahim Islam


became the first Muslim and Arab woman to be nominated byUNESCO as a distinguished Scientist of the World for the Year 2000, attheir For Women in Science Awards.

The award, first instituted in 1998, selects female scientists who havemade a major contribution to their area of expertise. Of the 100 womenscientists nominated globally, the UNESCO award committee in Parischose 32 in late 1999 as final nominees. Saudi Arabia was one of the sixAsian counties shortlisted along with China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea andIndia.

Professor Islam established collaborative links of mutual benefit withseveral international academic institutions internationally. From 1996to '98 Professor Islam became the first Saudi woman and the secondSaudi Arab to hold an official staff position in the World HealthOrganization (WHO); she was appointed to the post of RegionalAdvisor (Essential Drug Program in the Regional Office for the EasternMediterranean), which covers 23 countries of the Region.

Denying herself an international career Professor Islam resigned fromthe WHO in 1998, and returned to Jeddah in response to the requestwhich she was deeply honored to receive from the late Queen Effat toestablish the first private university college for girls - Effat NationalCollege. For this remarkable effort,she was conferred the title ofEstablishing Dean. Professor Islam manages to combine her scientificinterests at the Pharmacology Department and the Drug MonitoringUnit at King Fahd Medical Research Canter, King Abdulaziz Universitywith her work at Effat College, continuing to make huge advances inthe sciences and in women's education in Saudi.


3.3.1.9 PROF. DR HAROON AHMED

Professor Haroon Ahmed is a distinguished electrical and electronicsengineer. He is the Master of Corpus Christi College, University ofCambridge (the first Muslim master of an Oxbridge College) andProfessor of Microelectronics at the Cavendish Laboratory. HaroonAhmed first came to the Engineering Department, CambridgeUniversity in 1959 having graduated at Imperial College London. Heworked for his PhD with Charles Oatley and Bill Beck. He thencontinued to work with Charles Oatley, until Oatley retired, beforemoving into the new research area of electron beam lithography in 1970.

He taught electrical engineering at the Department for twenty-twoyears, until 1984, and saw the electronics courses change from valves totransistors and eventually to modern microelectronics. His two textbooks, one with Beck and the other with Spreadbury, have been used toteach many generations of students.

His research group eventually became so large that he moved it to theScience Park, although it still remained part of the Department. Thisgroup left the Engineering Department in 1984 when Haroon moved tothe Cavendish to set up the Microelectronics Research Centre with theaid of a large donation from Hitachi. As the Head of theMicroelectronics Research Centre he has carried out many projects incollaboration with well-known industrial companies. He is non-Executive Chairman of the Board of Smartbead Ltd which is a start-upcompany in biotechnology and he has served as an advisor to electroniccompanies and to Government bodies nationally and internationally.


In August 2000 he was elected as the Master of Corpus Christi College,Cambridge.Haroon Ahmed has worked at the University of Cambridgein the Engineering and Physics Departments for more than 30 years. Heis a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and a Fellow of theInstitution of Electrical Engineers and of the Institute of Physics. Heretired from Cambridge in September 2003.

Haroon Ahmed has lived in Cambridge for 42 years. His wife Anne,also a graduate of the University of Cambridge, worked for many yearsas a Research Assistant on the Addenbrooke's site.


3.3.1.10 PROF DR AHMED SHAMMIN SIDDIQUI

Dr Ahmed Shamim Siddiqui was a brilliant physicist whose originalcontributions to the fields of optical communications stimulated whatwas a paradigm of collaboration between academe and industry. Hispeculiar talent was to envisage novel applications of the physics of theinfra-red to photonics.

He gained international recognition for his work in opticalcommunication systems and particularly for his pioneering research onpolarisation effects in fibre-optic transmissions. During the early 1990shis research focused on the fundamental polarisation properties ofoptical fibres. His work contributed greatly to the understanding ofPolarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD). This is an important limitingfactor for transmitting high-speed and high-volume informationthrough optical fibres over very long distances.

He demonstrated the first two-channel optical transmission usingpolarisation division multiplexing. This work led to the invention of thefirst real-time optical polarimeter, which was granted a US patent in1992. The understanding and management of PMD in fibre-optic linkshas been a major step for achieving today's global information societybased on the huge capacity that only optical fibre can provide.

Siddiqui worked closely with Nortel (Northern Telecom), BritishTelecom, STC submarine systems and later Alcatel SubmarineNetworks searching for solutions for greater transmission capacitiesover their long-haul undersea fibre networks. Siddiqui's more recent


pioneering achievements in the field include the development of thefirst fully polarisation-sensitive optical time domain reflectometer aswell as the novel polarisation mode dispersion compensationtechniques.

Shamim Siddiqui was born in Patna, India in 1942, the son of aProfessor of Zoology at the University of Lucknow, and grew up inPakistan. He came to Britain after taking a first degree in Karachi, andbecame a British citizen shortly after completing his education inPhysics at Heriot-Watt University, in Edinburgh, in 1972.

He then embarked on the uncertain life of a post-doctoral researchassistant, which took him into the physics departments of Bristol, Essexand Queen Mary College, London, and eventually, in 1983, to alectureship in the Department of Electronic Systems Engineering atEssex. In 2001, he was awarded a Professorship at Essex University. Hehas published more than 100 papers and was a holder of three patents.

He had a daughter from previous marriage with Elizabeth Noble in1967. In 1977 he married Cora van Helfteren. He died in Cholchester on22 August 2001.

As a tribute to his extensive contribution the University of Essex hasintroduced the Shamim Siddiqui Award. This prize is awardedannually to an outstanding student in the Department of ElectronicSystems Engineering who submits the best essay on a theme of generalintellectual interest, including topics that reflect Professor Siddiqui'sinterests including the philosophy of science and ethical and socialissues arising from science and technology.


3.3.1.11 PROF. DR ALI JAVAN

Prof Dr Ali Javan currently is the Professor Emeritus in Physics, at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. He is internationallyknown as the inventor of the 'gas laser'.

He was born in 1928 in Tehran of Azerbaijani parentage. His mother andfather were born in Tabriz (Iran). Javan came to the United States in 1949and received the Ph.D. degree in physics in 1954 from ColumbiaUniversity in New York City under the direction of Charles Townes.Following a postdoctoral fellowship at Columbia University, he joinedthe research staff of Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, NewJersey in September, 1958. In 1961 he joined the MIT faculty, where hehas continued to teach and conduct research up to the present.

Professor Javan conceived of the gas laser principle in 1958, while amember of the Bell Laboratories technical staff, and in 1960 he broughtthis concept to fruition, successfully operating the well-known andwidely used helium-neon laser. This invention, the first laser to operatecontinuously, attracted immediate international attention and laid thefoundation for a great deal of subsequent work.Prior to his work on the laser, Professor Javan developed the theory ofthe three level lasers and showed the importance of phase coherence inthis microwave device. This work introduced the concept of laserswithout population inversion, and he further extended this idea to theuse of the stimulated Raman effect to achieve gain, a concept thatsubsequently led to novel extensions in the optical regime.


Professor Javan's continued contributions over the years have advanceddiverse frontiers in the field of quantum electronics. At MIT, heestablished a major research laboratory and developed it into thelargest university laser research laboratory throughout the 1960's and1970's. Many of the early breakthroughs in the scientific uses of laserstook place there. These include the many developments in laserspectroscopy at sub-Doppler resolution, which defined the field of gasphase nonlinear spectroscopy; the first use of lasers to accurately testthe special theory of relativity and the isotropy of space; theintroduction of absolute frequency measurement technology into theoptical region, and the first development of laser atomic clocks.

Professor Javan has continued to be active in novel areas of research,including his recent work exploring the effects of coupling light by anoptical antenna into a nanoscale volume of matter. A number of activefields of research have emerged from his work. His contributions havealso extended to applied research areas, from the development of highenergy gas lasers and multistatic laser radars, controlled by accurateoptical clocks, to lasers for medical diagnostic use. He has supervisedthe doctoral thesis research of a large number of physics graduatestudents. In addition, he has served as an active consultant togovernment and industry.

For his work on gas lasers, Professor Javan was awarded the 1964Stewart Ballentine Medal of the Franklin Institute, the 1966 Fanny andJohn Hertz Foundation Medal, the 1975 Fredrick Ives Medal of theOptical Society, and the 1993 Albert Einstein World Medal of Science ofthe World Cultural Council. He is a Fellow of the National Academy ofSciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, an AssociateFellow of the Third World Academy of Sciences, and an HonoraryMember of the Trieste Foundation for the Advancement of Science. In1966 he was named a Guggenheim Fellow, and in 1979 and 1995 aHumbolt Foundation Fellow. He's been with the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology (MIT) since 1962.

Prof Javan, known as a person who always pre-occupied with thefuture of science, yet the following excerpts can summarise the visionand perception of this great scientist:


On science and discovery:

"In the scientific world, they always say that when the time comes for aninvention or a discovery to be made, if you don't do it, someone elsewill. To a large extent, that's true. But it's not always the case. People canmiss a good idea."

"Science always develops on the strength of work done in the past.When Newton discovered gravity, he admitted that he had "stood onthe shoulders of giants and that's how he had seen farther." Nothingever develops on its own, isolated from the past. There's always afoundation for our knowledge that others have laid and that we buildupon"

"It's difficult to pinpoint the moment when a creative idea is born. Oh, Isuppose there's a beginning somewhere along the line. But who knows?At some moment you know everything about your invention eventhough you're not aware that you do. And then suddenly it all fitstogether and the discovery is made"

As a child:

"As long as I can remember, I've always been interested in science. Inever hesitated to get involved in science……. I remember playing a lotwith gadgets. My first attempt to invent something was for an idea thatcould never have worked out. Conceptually, it was impossible.But Itried anyway…."


3.3.1.12 PROF DR KARIMAT EL-SAYED

Prof Dr Dr. Karimat EL-SAYED is currently the Professor of Solid StatePhysics, Department of Physic, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.

As a high school girl, Karimat EL-SAYED was overwhelmed by theglorious biography of Marie Curie, the scientist and the woman. Thusshe majored in physics for her first university degree. After graduatingfrom Ain Shams University with honor, she acquired her Ph.D. underanother distinguished woman scientist: Kathleen Lonsdale ofUniversity College, London University. In her thesis, which could beconsidered innovative at the time, Dr. EL-SAYED correlated thethermal vibration of each individual atom in the structure with thethermal expansion of the studied material. Returning home, she wasappointed to the physics department of the science faculty of AinShams University in Cairo, at a time when the discovery of thetransistor began to show that small amounts of impurities (doping)could profoundly change the properties of many materials.

Dr. EL-SAYED undertook and published most of her work concernedwith structures (finding the distribution of atoms and impurities inatoms inside materials), microstructural properties and application oflow concentrations of constituents in materials relevant to industrialmetallurgy, and semi-conducting materials. For example, Dr. EL-SAYED has diagnosed that aluminum foils were weakened by cracksresulting from the presence of a particular form of silica (sand) impurityand that oxygen atoms were poisoning certain semiconductors exposedto the air.Thanks to the expertise she acquired regarding crystal growth,


Dr. EL-SAYED has analyzed the formation of urinary stones. Thesegrow epitaxially layer upon layer, alternately calcium oxalate andorganic material consisting of proteins.

Dr. EL-SAYED's efforts also relate to the on-going training of students,teachers and researchers in Egyptian universities through workshopsand seminars, and she is a sought-after speaker at internationalconferences. She also has devoted a significant part of her time todescribing the condition of women scientists in Egypt. Her findingsshow that the low number of female researchers in physics does notarise from a lack of talented students or from discrimination on the partof the teaching staff, but from social attitudes. And she puts much efforttoo, into educating, encouraging and inspiring female scientists inEgypt and abroad.

Dr. EL-SAYED has successfully managed her academic and privatelives, overcoming technical, academic, and institutional challenges. "Iliked to teach the young students, but now the percentage of studentswho are studying science is less than in my time. All teachers should tryto make teaching materials that are easy for students to learn and toplay…. Many professors my age stop doing science, but I'm still doingit because I love it. We want to take part in developing our country, andwe have good people and good scientists"

Her academic credibility and invaluable contribution to science wereinternationally acknowledged when she was awarded the prestigious2003 L'Oreal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science in 2003.(TheL'Oreal-UNESCO Award distinguishes five remarkable womenresearchers representing the five continents - Africa, Asia-Pacific,Europe, Latin America and North America. Professor Pierre-Gilles deGennes, Nobel Prize in Physics 1991, presided over an international juryof 10 eminent scientists for 2003.)

Karimat EL-SAYED is blessed with a family of an understandinghusband, two sons, one daughter, and four grand children. She is alsoblessed with a fine group of graduate students and colleagues. Thefollowing are few excerpts of the philosopies behind her success:

About life as a working mother:


"I was studying under a great lady there (in UK).She had been ahousewife, and then later a mother and scientist. She taught me how tobalance the three roles, because she discovered that she was lookingafter her children much better when she was working. When you work,your time with your children is limited. So it becomes quality time. Youstop taking their day for granted and you want to know every detail.You want them to fill you in on what you've missed.And in return, theymiss out on nothing either."

"The children of a working mother do better in life. A working mothergains experience. She learns what life is about and learns to deal withthe challenges one faces. Children, in turn, learn to accomplish manythings and juggle responsibilities and activities because their motherpasses this experience on to them. A working mother works at theoffice, works to take care of her children, works to take care of thehouse, and works to take care of her husband -- who is also like a child."

On research:

"It was a real struggle to do research.I had to travel a lot.To be a goodresearcher you have to interact with advanced countries, and I madesure I married another solid state physicist.He understands therequirements of research, so he's not like the other husbands who telltheir wives that they can't travel.He used to look after the children withthe help of my mother and mother-in-law

On her passion to science:

"Think of a human body. As humans, we have cells. They are repeatedin everyone, but with individual arrangements. These individualarrangements give us our characteristics.God created materials similarto the way he created humans.Think of a fingerprint.Every material,every substance, has a fundamental structure -- its unit cell. Thisstructure is made out of atoms, which are arranged in a certain way.This arrangement gives each material its characteristics. So eachmaterial has a fingerprint. And no material is similar to another, so eachhas its own fingerprint."


"Materials are like humans.Substances become ill too. And when theyare sick, their properties changed and they became deformed - theircharacter changes. And the substance as you knew it - with its particularproperties - transforms, changes, and dies. If you try to compress, orheat, or put a material in unfriendly conditions, it transforms to anothermaterial.Its fingerprint changes. If you were burnt, you would changetoo."

The problem with scientific research in developing countries:

"The problem, unfortunately, is that scientists' hours of enigmaticresearch remain incomprehensible to most citizens, and the importanceof such work remains significantly, outside of the national grasp. We'renot like abroad. Abroad, research is used to address a specific problem,to develop it in a certain way. Take India, the only research they do isfor the purpose of development (she points to the example of India'sprowess in the global software industry). I do research because I love it,but if we use it for the country we would be in a very different place."

On women capability in science:

"Women are naturally suited to research.Women like details, they noticethem, their eye falls across them. The success of women in science - inparticular material sciences - is universal. Our concern in this field ismapping the arrangement of atoms three dimensionally[crystallography]. That's depth. Women can see things in threedimensions much better than men. The pioneers of the field, the NobelPrize winners, are women."

"Women are better observers.We notice the details; in homes and inscience. We are also more intuitive and far-sighted. We sense things.That helps us see the depth in the structures and look for the threedimensional element to them." (According to UNESCO, 12 researchcentres in France, Asia and America, approximately 2,700 scientists areresponsible for the registration of hundreds of patents annually. About55 per cent of those scientists are women)

"There is an American expression 'green thumb', describing the abilityto make plants grow. Like gardeners, women researchers have this


ability; they know how to make a colony of bacteria grow, how toextract a protein cleanly; they have a heightened sensitivity to livingthings.They see not just the life in elements, but also the depth."

"We must work together with men," El-Sayed says, dispelling anysuspicions that she is anti- male. "God created both to be integrated inthe world. We need to capitalise on the individual skills and talents andGod-given gifts to fully exploit this integration."

On the role of government:

"The government needs to be a part of this process of educating womenand letting them move ahead in their fields. To start with, they need toprovide nurseries in the workplace. They need to have laundromatsand ready-to-go meals. They need to make it easy for women to runboth a household and career."

"The poet Ahmed Shawqi said 'A mother is like a school. If you knowhow to let her do her job in that school, you will educate a nation', andProf El-Sayed added; "Its very much like the African proverb that whenyou educate a man you educate an individual, but when you educate awoman, you educate a family, a nation."


3.3.1.13 PROF DR AYSE ERZAN

Dr Ayse Erzan is currently the Professor of Physics at Istanbul TechnicalUniversity, Turkey. She is one of the five recipients of the 2003 L'Oreal-UNESCO Women in Science Award, representing European Continent.

A native of Ankara, Turkey, Erzan was home-schooled until thirdgrade, when her parents enrolled her in private school. She went on tosecondary school at the American College for Girls, where, she recalls,"A lot of subjects came naturally, but physics was the hardest for me, soI decided to do physics." At the urging of her physics teachers, Erzanapplied to Bryn Mawr and was accepted, a placement exam placing herin junior year. "Bryn Mawr on the whole was a very positiveexperience," she says. Upon graduation, "Like other young peoplecoming to physics, I had this slightly starry-eyed, romantic idea that Iwould do particle physics and explore the basic building blocks of thephysical world."

At the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where she earnedher doctorate in 1976, Erzan became interested in critical phenomena inphase transitions. "Phase transitions are very special," she explains."When water freezes, for example, this occurs at a very sharptemperature point. On each side of that point, the compounds arequalitatively different and their symmetry is different. In the liquidform, the molecules are spaced randomly, whereas in the solid orcrystalline form they form a perfectly regular periodic structure. Howthis change comes about as you lower the temperature is a verybeautiful question, and also a philosophical question. That fired my


imagination."

During the 1970s, Cornell physics professor Kenneth G. Wilsonpublished a series of influential papers on his theory of criticalphenomena in phase transitions, for which he received the Nobel Prizefor physics in 1982. His research clarified how many different systemscan show identical behavior at the critical point, as had beenexperimentally observed. "People like me, who graduated in 1976, weredrawn naturally into the area of fractals, self-organized critical pointsand pattern formation in the 1980s," Erzan says.

After graduation she returned to Turkey and joined the Middle EastTechnical University in Ankara, and a year later the Istanbul TechnicalUniversity. "At this time I was active in the women's and peacemovements," she says "Thus, after the military coup in 1980, I left thecountry and worked at various universities and research institutions,among which are the University of Geneva, University of Porto inPortugal, University of Marburg in Germany (as an Alexander vonHumboldt fellow, with Siegfried Grossmann) and the University ofGroningen.

After a brief stint at the ICTP in Trieste she went back to her homeinstitution, the Istanbul Technical University, in 1990. Since then shehave been teaching and doing research at the ITU as well as at the FezaGursey Institute for Fundamental Research, sponsored by TUBITAK,the Turkish equivalent of the NSF.Over the course of her career, Erzan has studied phase transitions andscaling behavior in a slew of complex systems: spin glasses, fractalgrowth models, sand piles, charge density waves, surface catalysis,earthquakes, and, recently, biologically motivated problems such asprotein folding and the evolution of sexual reproduction.

On her passion to science:

"I am just a theoretical physicist who works in her corner and worriesabout such things as how complexity arises spontaneously, frominteractions between simple building blocks. Contrary to thereductionist approach, this means investigating certain global featuresthat display a great deal of universality: cracks work similarly to


earthquakes; the sudden flash of lightning is in fact very similiar, in itsgrowth mechanism, to the spread of dampness in plaster, or to thegrowth of bacteria in a Petri dish, and forms similar patterns- in whichthe common denominator is a geometric effect called percolation, theformation of paths spanning a random network of clusters at athreshold concentration."

"All of these phenomena may happen at many different scales, butnevertheless they follow the same patterns that can be described by thesame geometrical concepts," she says. "They display certain universalmathematical relationships." "Lately I have been working more on biologically motivated problems-after all, the greatest challenge is to try to understand how life started!"

Recently Erzan and her colleagues have submitted a paper about theirresearch into the origin of the unique folding configurations of proteins.Their calculations and modeling suggest that proteins with big energygaps between their folded and unfolded states could have acted asrefrigerants, enhancing the replication rates of those RNA which codedthem. Their work is in line with the increasingly popular view thatthermal and chemical gradients must have played an important role inprebiotic evolution, and casts doubt on a widely held theory thatproteins' form followed biological function. Instead, Erzan concludes,"Those proteins with a deeply folded native state would, in effect, havebeen selected in an evolutionary sense before specific biologicalfunctions came into being."

Erzan, who was among five female scientists honored with the 2003L'Oreal-UNESCO Awards, delights in the challenges and rewards ofscience. "It is like a race against time," she says. "You know other peopleare pursuing similar types of problems, and you try to do better, to getthere first. That race is very much part of the fun."

Erzan was elected a full member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences in1997 and awarded the TUBITAK Science prize in 1997. She is on theeditorial boards of the European Physical Journal B and The Journal ofStatistical Physics.


3.3.1.14 PROF. DR SALIM AL-HASSANI

Dr Salim al-Hassani is an Iraqi-born Professor of MechanicalEngineering at the University of Manchester Institute of Science andTechnology. He is a world expert on the responses of materials,structures and systems to impact and blast loading.

He was born in Iraq, educated in Stoke-on-Trent, UK to Universitylevel. He received BSc first class Honours in Mechanical Engineering atUMIST (1962 to 1965), MSc in Mechanical Engineering at UMIST (1966-1967) andPhD in Mechanical Engineering at UMIST (1967-1969).

He was the assistant and later lecturer at UMIST (1968-1975),AssistantProfessor and Associate Professor, College of Engineering, Universityof Riyad (1974-1975), Senior Lecturer (1976-1983) and Reader (1983-1992). In 1991 he was appointed as a Professor.

His professional affiliations includes the Institute of Petroleum, DeputyHead of the Impact and Explosion Engineering Group (IMPEX),Director of Computing Dept. of Mechanical Engineering and Chairmanof FLAIR Industrial Unit

He served as an expert witness in the Piper Alpha oil rig disaster of1988. He is well known in the field of impact engineering and publishesand lectures all over the world.

His extra-curricular expertise is in the history of science, particularlythe contribution of the Islamic civilization. He is also actively involved


in Manchester's Muslim community, and helped to set up ManchesterCentral Mosque, the Muslim Youth Foundation and student Islamicsocieties at UMIST and Manchester University. Despite hisintellectuality, he is a humble person, well potrayed when receiving the2001'Fazlur Rahman Khan Award'from the Muslim News saying: It wasa very useful occassion with a very positive outcome. It is a greatHonour to receive this award, but a greater reward is from Allah.


3.3.2 MUSLIM ASTRONOUTS AND COSMONAUTS

Sending humans into space is often considered a dual monopoly of theUnited States and Russia, with their junior partners in allied nations.But even the Western public would be surprised to learn that sevenmen from Islamic cultures are among the 400-odd humans who havevoyaged into orbit. These men need to be recruited as spokesmen forthe values that their space missions represent. Their achievements, ifmore widely advertised in the Muslim world, would inspire millions oftheir cultural compatriots.

Modernist and moderate Muslims the world over have never had anyproblems with the concept of humans walking on the moon, sinceMohammed himself denounced pagan moon worshippers. And thescientist in charge of teaching Apollo astronauts about lunar geologywas a devout Muslim named Farouk El-Baz, now at Boston University.El-Baz sent the first chapter of the Koran to the moon aboard Apollo-15,with an inscribed prayer to protect the mission and its crew. Thisillustrates the friendship and mutual respect between him and theApollo astronauts.

For those misled into disbelieving space travel on supposedly religiousgrounds, the evidence of their own eyes should be enough to convincethem that it is truly occurring, as claimed. Western radio broadcastsshould make more effort to announce the dawn and dusk over flightsof easily visible space vehicles such as the international space station,which is brighter than any star in the sky.

The lesson should be stressed that such man-made facilities areavailable to all nations who seek to progress into the future togetherrather than recede into a mythical past. There is a place for modernistIslamic societies on this new frontier, and history has proven this evenas most of the world remains ignorant about it.

Actual Islamic space travelers include a Saudi Arabian businessmanwho flew on a space shuttle in 1985 as a representative of hiscommunications satellite company, which had booked a launching ofone of its payloads, and an Afghan pilot who was taken on a Sovietspace flight as a propaganda show but whose sharp eyes caught a


potentially fatal flaw during the return to Earth, and thereby saved thelives of the entire crew.

The Saudi was Sultan Salman al-Saud, a minor royal prince; the Afghanwas Abdul Ahad Mohmand, now in exile in Stuttgart, Germany, afterdeath threats from the Taliban government. Another guest-cosmonautaboard a Soviet space mission in 1987 was Syrian pilot MuhammedAhmed Faris.

Two pilots from Kazakhstan, with the 'russified' last names ofAubakirov and Musabayev, have been aboard the space stations, andTalgat Musabayev has commanded both a Mir space station crew andthe first-ever 'space tourist' mission. Another Soviet cosmonaut, MusaManarov, is from Daghestan in the Caucasus; he was on the first spacestation crew to spend a full year in outer space. Russian pilot-cosmonautSalizhan Sharipov, an Uzbek from Kirghizia in Central Asia, flewaboard an American space shuttle in 1998 and is slated to command anew mission again.

These men were raised in Islamic cultures but have joined the selectcadre of the symbol of the future, space travelers. They should be calledupon to speak out widely about how Muslim people can enter the futuresuccessfully, and how valuable such an activity can be. These 'spaceaces' have been hidden away, unrecognized and unused, for too long.

The Challenger disaster in 1986 denied the Muslim world an even betterrole model, a female space traveler. She was Dr. Pratiwi Sudarmono, aphysician with a doctorate in microbiology, who had been designated toaccompany an Indonesian communications satellite into orbit. She alsohad developed plans for performing a classic Indonesian dance in zerogravity. Dr. Sudarmono was also selected by the Fulbright Foundationto take part in a global health issues project. There is no lack of other highly-educated Muslim women, perhaps fromEgypt, Bangladesh, Turkey or elsewhere, who could perform worthyspace experiments and even more high-value public relations back onEarth.


3.3.2.1 SULTAN SALMAN ABDULAZIZ AL-SAUD

Prince Sultan ibn Salman ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz Al Sa'ud of Saudi Arabia, isthe first Arab, the first Muslim and the first member of royalty in space.Prince Sultan was born in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia on June 27, 1956. Hecompleted his elementary and secondary education in Riyadh, SaudiArabia. He later went on to study communications and aviation in theUnited States.

He was a 28-year old graduate of the University of Denver - with adegree in mass communications - and a trained pilot, when picked to bethe first Arab in space after a search of several months. Because theArabsat organization was to have its second satellite launched byNASA during the June 1985 flight, its 22 member countries werepermitted to select a payload specialist to travel aboard Discovery, andSaudi Arabia won the slot.

Payload specialist refers to individuals selected and trained bycommercial or research organizations for flights of a specific payload ona space flight mission. These payload specialists may be cosmonauts orastronauts designated by the international partners, individualsselected by the research community, or a company or consortia flying acommercial payload aboard the spacecraft. Payload specialists are notinvolved in the launch or operation of the space shuttle; they begin tofunction only when the spacecraft commences its orbit around theearth. Nonetheless, their training schedule is intense.Arriving in theUnited States, Prince Sultan and Major al-Bassam, a back-up pilotbegan the 114 hours of what NASA calls "habitability" training, or - in


layman's language - learning to adapt to the routines of daily life in aspace shuttle.

Initial tasks at the Johnson Space Center in Houston covered suchordinary, down-to-earth chores as choosing what clothing selected fromNASA's list of possibilities and what food - again from NASA'sproposed menu - they would desire while aloft. For the launch andlanding procedures, light blue jumpsuits, decorated with variousmission-related patches, were required, but once the shuttle reachedorbit, the astronauts were free to wear whatever suited their individualtaste. Obviously the Saudi national dress-the flowing thwb and ghutra -is not appropriate in zero gravity, but one traditional food of SaudiArabia was stowed in the fresh food locker aboard the orbiter andconsumed by the Arab astronaut: dates from Medina.

Prince Sultan, French scientist Patrick Baudry, and Americans DanielBrandenstein, commander; John Creighton, pilot; John Fabian, missionspecialist, Steven Nagel, the 100th American in space, and ShannonLucid, the sixth woman in space, worked hard for the success of thehistorical mission which started on June 17 and end on June 24,1985.They launched three communications satellites - including one for theArab Satellite Communications organization (Arabsat) - deployed andretrieved a scientific platform to probe the Milky Way, and their spaceship served as the target for a laser in the first "Star Wars" space shuttletest.

In addition, Prince Sultan carried out a series of in-cabin experimentsdesigned by Saudi scientists, talked to his uncle, King Fahd, bytelephone from space, gave a guided tour of the space shuttle's interiorin Arabic, which was beamed back to Arab television viewers on earth,and also found time to pray and to read the Koran.

Prince Sultan also performed three scientific experiments and tworemote observation tasks during the mission; these experiments and thetraining of the specialists in the procedures were the responsibility ofthe Arabsat Scientific Experiments Team led by Dr. Abdallah Dabbagh,director of the Research Institute of the University of Petroleum andMinerals (UPM) in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.


Of the three scientific experiments performed by Prince Sultan, themost complex was an Ionized Gas Experiment designed by anothermember of the Saudi Royal Family, Prince Turki ibn Sa'ud ibnMuhammad Al Sa'ud, as part of his Ph.D. dissertation at StanfordUniversity.

The purpose of this experiment was to obtain measurements whichmight help explain the extent of the chemical combination of the atomsof gas discharged from rocket engines with the atoms composing theearth's ionosphere - 50 to 1,000 kilometers up (30 to 620 miles). Thoughmost scientists believe rocket-exhaust gases do not combine withionospheric gases, some have noticed recently that there are ions andelectrons in proximity to space vehicles as a result of the ignition ofrocket engines.To record the experiment, Prince Sultan used theshuttle's television cameras, which register changes in the gasesdischarged by the engines, such as temperature change, structure ofchemical makeup, the mechanism of gas diffusion and the timerequired for dissipation; this was done by augmenting the strength ofthe television signals which will be interpreted with the help ofcomputers.

For Arab and Muslim scientists, with their proud memories of theGolden Age and the House of Wisdom, the opportunity of working atthe leading edge of science is an exciting challenge.

"The Arab world," says Prince Sultan "is at a turning point. We havegone through the phases of oil, money and early technologicaldevelopment. The new generation is looking forward to joining the restof the world by obtaining the most important things in that turnaround:opportunity and education. Together they are the keys that open thedoor for our future. My space flight is just a crack in that door."

Later, Prince Sultan told a television interviewer that another bigmoment was when he had first glimpsed Saudi Arabia from space."Once," he said, "I was woken up by some crew members who said:'Come and see your country.' I was looking from the upper deckwindow. The earth was above us, and I saw the Eastern Province withits lights. It was a very moving sight." But the "happiest moment,"Sultan said "was coming back - re-entering the earth's atmosphere.


Whatever distance we travel away from earth, man always feels thatthis is his home, not space or anywhere else."

At the same interview, Prince Sultan praised the team of Saudiscientists, who had been monitoring his experiments from earth. "Wedon't lack talent in the Arab world. We have plenty of it," the princesaid. "All we need to do is give people the chance to prove themselves"Prince Sultan also displayed the small Koran he had carried into space;inside was a prayer dictated by his mother asking God to take care oftravelers - and the prince's Saudi pilot's licence. "I was saying the prayerduring take off," said Sultan. "And the pilot's license?" he was asked. "Itook that with me in case we had to land somewhere and I needed tohire an areoplane."

Upon conclusion of his space flight, he helped in founding theAssociation of Space Explorers, an international organizationcomprising all astronauts and cosmonauts who have been in space, andserved on its Board of Directors for several years.In 1985 he wascommissioned as an officer into the Royal Saudi Air Force. He holds therank of Lieutenant Colonel, and is qualified in several military andcivilian aircraft.


3.3.2.2 ABDUL AHAD MOHMAND

Abdul Ahad Mohmand (b. January 1, 1959) was the first Afghancosmonaut and spent nine days in space aboard the Mir space station in1988. He currently lives in Stuttgart, Germany.

Along with Commander Vladimir Lyakhov and Dr. Valery Polyakov,Mohmand was part of the Soyuz TM-6 three-man crew, whichlaunched at 04:23 GMT August 29, 1988. Mohmand's inclusion in themission was a significant symbol during the Soviet occupation ofAfghanistan.

During his brief time on the Mir, Mohmand took photographs ofAfghanistan, participated in astrophysical, medical and biologicalexperiments, spoke to Afghan president Najibullah and brewed Afghantea for the crew.

The September 6 landing of Soyuz TM-6 was delayed because ofmechanical complications on the Mir. Radio Moscow reassuredlisteners that Lyakhov and Mohmand were fine and in touch withMission Control. A recording was played of them laughing. The Britishmedia jumped on the story and incorporated words like "marooned"and "lost in space" into their headlines. They even suggested(erroneously) that the cosmonauts had run out of food. With eachpassing orbit, the danger for the crew became more and more serious.Fortunately, a day later the retro-fire was successful, and at 00:50 GMTSoyuz TM 5 landed near Dzhezkazgan. During touchdown there wasno live radio coverage, only live television pictures of Mission Control.


Born in Sardah, Afghanistan, Mohmand graduated from thePolytechnical High School in Kabul and then the Air Force Academy.He served in the Afghan Air Force and later trained in the USSR as apilot.


3.3.2.3 TOKTAR ONGARBAEVICH AUBAKIROV

Toktar Ongarbaevich Aubakirov (born on July 27, 1946, in Karaganda,Kazakhstan) is a Kazakh military pilot, and the first Turkic man inspace.

Aubakirov graduated from Air Force Institute and was parachutist andtest pilot with the rank of Major General in the Kazakh Air Force beforehe was selected as cosmonaut.

On October 2, 1991 he started together with the Austrian cosmonautFranz Viehböck and the Russian cosmonaut Alexander A. Volkov inSoyuz TM-13 from the Baikonur cosmodrome spaceport, and spentover eight days in space. He was also the first Soviet citizen to go intospace without being fully certified as a cosmonaut, as his flight washurried forward - several commercial international cosmonauts werealready booked, but the flight of a Kazakh cosmonaut was part of theBaikonur rental agreement between Kazakhstan and Russia.

Since 1993 he is the general director of the National Aerospace Agencyof Republic of Kazakhstan and a member of Kazakhstan parliament.


3.3.2.4 TALGAT AMANGELDYEVICH MUSABAYEV

Talgat Amangeldyevich Musabayev is a cosmonaut who flew on thefollowing space missions:

1 Soyuz TM-19 Flight Engineer - 04.11.1994 (125d 22h 53m) 2 Soyuz TM-27 Commander - 25.08.1998 (207d 12h 49m) 3 Soyuz TM-32 Commander - 06.05.2001 (7d 22h 04m)

Currently he is the Russian Federation Air Force Major General,working for the Russian State Scientific Research Institute "GagarinCosmonaut Training Center"

Born 7th January 1951 in Kargaly, Dzhambul District, Alma-Ata Region,Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan), he graduated from the Riga Civil AviationEngineers Institute as a specialist in aircraft radio equipment. His careertenure ranging from aircraft equipment & radio avionics engineer, instructor of the Kazakh CivilAviation Head Office Personnel Department to deputy commander incharge of personnel at the Alma-Ata United Civil Aviation OperationsDivision.

He completed training in the civil aviation training team and received acivil aviation pilot certificate in 1986. From July 6th 1989 he was the AN-2 airplane commander at the Burundaisk United Civil Aviation Divisionand had one memorable experience where in one of the flights TalgatMusabaev made a forced landing on a field because of an engine failure


(he was commended for his courage and high level of his professionalskills). Later he graduated from the Aktyubinsk-based Civil AviationAdvanced Flying School with an engineer-pilot's certificate in 1993.

In 1990 by decision of the State Interdepartmental Commission, he wasrecommended to take a general space flight training course at theMinistry of Civil Aviation and subsequently was called up for militaryservice and placed as a candidate on the list of researcher cosmonautsof the 4th cosmonaut detachment at the Cosmonauts Training Centerwhere on finishing the course he was given a test cosmonautqualification

Beween the 1st July - 4th November 1994 he achieved his first spaceflight on the Soyuz-TM-19 spacecraft and MIR orbital space station as aflight engineer of the EO-16 crew together with Y. Malenchenko and V.Polyakov. He performed two spacewalks for the total duration of 11 hrs7 min. The flight duration was 126 days.

Subsequently on the 29th January 1998 to 25th August 1998 he was acommander of the Soyuz TM-27 spacecraft and MIR space stationunder the EO-25 Program (NASA-7/"Pegasus") together with N.Budarin and L. Eyharts (France, till 19th February 1998), and E. Thomas(U.S.A., till 8th June 1998).During these flights they emerged into outerspace five times for the total duration of 30 hrs 8 mins.The flight duration was 207.5 days

From 28th April to 6th May 2001 he participated again in a space flightas a commander on the Soyuz-TM32 spacecraft together with Y.Baturin, a flight engineer, and the world's first space tourist DennisTito.

He received various awards and honors to commemorate his extensivecareer in space. Amongst them were the Hero of the Russian Federation(1994),Space Pilot of the Russian Federation (1994) and People's Hero ofKazakhstan (1995). He was later promoted to major general.

Musabayev was married to Musabaeva (maiden name: Latsis) VictoriaVoldemarovna, (born 1952), who worked as a dentist in a hospital in thetown of Zvyozdny. They had a son Musabaev Daniyar Talgatovich


(1975), a serviceman of the Kazakhstan Ministry of Internal Affairs anda daughter Musabaeva Kamilya Talgatovna (1981), a student of theRussian State Humanitarian University.

The following are few excerpts of his personal view and experiences:

About fear in space:

I am a normal person. All normal people feel and should feel fear. Idon't believe those, who say that they don't fear anything. It'sa bravadoor they are just insane... The other thing is to overcome fear, toreasonably evaluate circumstances and potential danger and take animmediate decision. As our attitude regarding reliability of space technology, do we,cosmonauts, resemble insane people? Only an insane person can fly towork in space not being assured of equipment reliability...

About UFO:

I think it is still a good dream of people. There may be something, but Imust say that nobody of those who has been out in space saw anythingof the kind...

...I cannot say definitely because during my first flight I experiencedsomething very unlikely. More precisely, I saw for 10 to 15 minutes aluminous object moving in parallel with our spacecraft slightlyovertaking us. I seized a video camera and filmed. But when I replayed,it contained nothing...

About relationship among people of different ethnic origin:

It is unwise, ridiculous and in some cases even tragic to divide peopleby their ethnic origin. How can it be possible to tear a family apart if ahusband is of one ethnic origin while a wife - of another? What aboutchildren then? My family is international. We have two children... Mywife who is Latvian gave them Kazakh's names. We have nothing toquarrel about, but each nation should preserve its distinctive features.Our family is harmonious. We understand and support each other. I ampleased to have such a companion in my life. What is then a problem of


the ethnic origin? ... Most likely, it is an internal problem of eachindividual. I am Kazakh, I work in Russia and I serve to the entiremankind. Because, regardless of the "port of registry", cosmonauticsworks for the entire mankind in the long run. And I consider myself ahappy man.

I call upon everybody... to adhere more to the truth that our fathers andgrandfathers communicated to us. We live today in a totally differenttime, in a totally different country, in a totally different w orldcommunity... Our next generation and, naturally, we all... have oneopinion: we must do everything to get united for the mankind as awhole to pioneer cosmic space.

On what he brought to space:

There was a special container on the ship where the Flag of Kazakhstan,a book by Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, his portrait, theConstitution of Kazakhstan, a capsule with the soil from Astana and theKoran were kept. All these things were in space with us and returnedto the Earth.


3.3.2.5 MUSA MANAROV

Musa Manarov is a cosmonaut who was born on March 22, 1951, inBaku, Azerbaijan. He was a civil engineer affliated to Energia NPO. Hehas spent over 541 days in space on two spaceflights.

Manarov made his first spaceflight in 1987, aboard Soyuz TM-4. Thespacecraft docked with the Mir space station where Manarov remainedfor one year. He was the first person to spend a year in space.

In 1990, Manarov stayed on Mir for a second time. During his 176-daystay, Manarov observed the Earth and worked in space manufacturing.

He also performed 20 hours of spacewalks.

He has spent over 541 days in space on two spaceflights.

He was married with two children at the time of embarkation.


3.3.2.6 SALISZAN SHAKIROVICH SHARIPOV

Saliszan Shakirovich Sharipov is the first Uzbek astronaut.

He was born August 24, 1964 in Uzgen, Oshsk region, Kirghizia.

Saliszan graduated from the Air Force Pilot School in 1987. Aftergraduation, he worked as a pilot-instructor and taught 8 cadets. He haslogged over 950 hours flying time. He has experience flying on MIG-21,L-39 aircraft.

Selected by the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (GCTC) Sharipovbecame a cosmonaut-candidate in 1990. In 1992, he completed generalspace training and became a cosmonaut. As a member of the group hehas completed a full course of training for OC MIR space flights as acrew commander. In 1994, he graduated from Moscow State Universitywith a degree in cartography.

Sharipov has flown one mission and has logged over 211 hours inspace. He served as a mission specialist on the crew of STS-89 (January22-31, 1998), the eighth Shuttle-Mir docking mission during which thecrew transferred more than 8,000 pounds of scientific equipment,logistical hardware and water from Space Shuttle Endeavour to Mir. Inthe fifth and last exchange of a U.S. astronaut, STS-89 delivered AndyThomas to Mir and returned with David Wolf. Mission duration was 8days, 19 hours and 47 seconds, traveling 3.6 million miles in 138 orbitsof the Earth.


Sharipov was assigned as Soyuz Commander and Flight Engineer onISS Expedition-10 which just completed their mission in early October2004.

He is married to Nadezhda Mavlyanovna Sharipova. They have onedaughter and one son. He enjoys football, likes to read books. His father,Mr. Shakirzhan Sharipov, resides in Uzgen, Oshsk region, Kirghizia.


3.3.2.7 MUHAMMED FARIS

Muhammed Faris was born May 26 1951 in Aleppo, Syria. He was thefirst Syrian cosmonaut. He was a pilot in the Syrian Airforce with therank of a colonel. He specialized in navigation when he was selected asa cosmonaut on September 30 1985.

He flew as Research Cosmonaut on Soyuz TM-3 in July 1987, spending7 days 23 hours and 5 minutes in space together with Sovietcosmonauts Alexander Viktorenko and Alexander Alexandrov.

After his spaceflight he returned to the Syrian Air Force and lives nowagain in Aleppo. He is married and has three children.

During a celebration in Damascus in 2003 to commemorate the 40thanniversary of the space flight of Valentina Tereshkova, the world'sfirst woman-cosmonaut, he was asked about his space experience andhis response was:

"I know how difficult is a space flight and admire the first woman whosuccessfully made it," stressed the Syrian cosmonaut.


3.3.3 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS CUM POLITICAL LEADERS

'Abdullah bin Mas'ud, may Allah be pleased with him, reported: Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: There should be no envybut only in case of two persons: one having been endowed with wealth andpower to spend it in the cause of Truth, and (the other) who has beenendowed with wisdom which he uses for judging and teaches it (to others).(Sahih Muslim)

The beauty of Islam is that it never dissociates the world with thehereafter, the material well-being with the inner spiritual need and theknowledge of science and religion. They are all inter-related and actharmoniously in the eyes of the believers.

Islam gave high respect to scholars and intellects, irrespective of thebranches of their speciality as explicitly described in the hadithabove.The religious scholars, the material or social scientists, theadministrators and the legal experts were all considered 'alim (scholars)in the widest sense. Past history of Islam has shown Caliphs who werenot only interested but directly involved with scientific development,scientists who were as influential as the leaders and in some instancesmuch more popular than the administrators.

The nature of responsibilities in Islam goes to the extent that everybodyis a leader irrespective of the number of their follower. It covers from theking of a kingdom to the head of a family. So, it is not a strangephenomenon to witness the modern scientists or scholars taking theleadership role in the community, within their professional bodies, inpolitical or non political organization, or even becoming the head of astate.

Their scientific upbringing might offer several advantages to them,since in some way science management seems to be no different frompolitical scenario. A good scientist is the one who can produce the mostcreative, insightful, ground-breaking scientific work, and had this workaccepted by peer review. He has to work within his financial limitationand time constraint.Further, he must have the courage and capability todefence the innovation. And the utmost important is that it should be ofgreat benefit for humanity. He should foresee the coming obstacles of


his idea, either by a better innovation by other collegue or even byintentional condemnation by his opponents. He should be preparedwith various steps of implementation and survival if idea. If he is aphysician, he should be able to diagnose the illness, administered theproper medication and even much better if he can anticipate it before itoccurs and implement the preventive approach ahead.

Irrespective of which countries or organizations they represented, thesescientists cum politician had themselves potrayed the true sense ofscience in Islam.Yet despite their obligation to prepare the necessaryplatform for scientific re-emergence in the Muslim world, the politicalgameball seems to challenge their existence in reality.


3.3.3.1 PROF. DR. NECMETTIN ERBAKAN

Born in1926, he was the former prime minister in Turkey, leader ofcoalition between the Welfare Party (his own) and the True Path Party(1996- 1997). Academically he was a professor in physics and lived inGermany for many years, where he worked as a scientist. His career inpolitics started as a minister in coalition government under BülentEcevit in 1974.

Erbakan was one of the founders of the Welfare Party, which started togrow tremendously in the recent few years. In 1980 Erbakan was theleader of pro-Islamic protests which resulted in a military coup.Erbakan's party was banned and he was excluded from politics for 7years. It is believed that the Welfare Party's politics had less supportthan the actual election results, which was 21% in the elections ofDecember 24, 1995. But people cast their ballots for it, as it has a highreputation for honesty in municipal governments. Many have alsosupported the Welfare Party because it has a polity that help the leastfortunate in the Turkish society. Erbakan raised the wages for civilservants with 50% shortly after taking office.

As prime minister, Erbakan chose a moderate line, but still orientedhimself more in direction of other Muslim states without cutting any tiesto the West, which many observers had expected. In Western media, hisimproved relations with Iran and Libya's leader Mu'amar Ghadafi havebeen hard to accept. During his period of being prime minister, Erbakanchanged from opposition to, into supporting Turkey's application formembership in the European Union (EU).


Erbakan's Welfare Party was outlawed in 1997 after a long campaignled by the Turkish military and forces afraid of a disintegration of thecountry by its possible Islamization and the chances of an escalation ofthe conflict with Khurdish nationalists. Necmettin Erbakan, who hassought for years to integrate Islam into mainstream politics and whohas become in the process one of the country's best-known Islamicleaders, has already had several of his organizations banned byTurkey's Constitutional Court. Erbakan's first party, the National OrderParty, was banned in 1972. Undeterred, Erbakan formed the NationalSalvation Party, which was dismantled in 1980 after Gen. Kenan Evranseized power in a bloodless coup and imposed martial law.

The Welfare Party followed, and as its leader, Erbakan was electedTurkey's first Islamist prime minister in 1995. Three years later,however, the Constitutional Court banned the Welfare Party as well, onthe grounds that it was engaged in fundamentalist activity and wasviolating the secular principles of the Turkish constitution. The verdictbarred Erbakan from politics for five years, but, as has happened to theVirtue Party today, most of party's deputies kept their seats inParliament and simply formed a new party under a new name with anew party program. This new incarnation, the Virtue Party,immediately did very well, capturing nearly a fifth of the seats inParliament in the 1999 elections.

One of the important contributions of Erbakan to the Muslim worlds isthe initiation of D-8 Group. The D-8 is a grouping of eight Muslimcountries with diverse economic and political outlooks. They aregeographically not contiguous. It is a slight improvement on theEconomic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) which groups togetherTurkey, Iran and Pakistan with the Central Asian Republics as well asAzerbaijan and Afghanistan. The ECO, too, has not taken off as itsmembers had hoped. In April 1996, during the meeting of its foreignministers in Tehran, president Hashemi Rafsanjani of Iran complainedthat the organisation had not made much progress despite its vastpotential.

The D-8, first mooted on January 1,1997 in Istanbul, has far greaterpotential. It has a market of 800 million people compared with the 300


million in ECO, although the three major players - Turkey, Iran andPakistan - are common to both. The D-8 brings together Bangladesh,Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan and Turkey todevelop trade, industry and financial projects. Its strength is that itbrings in some of the leading economic movers of Southeast Asia. Itsweakness lies in geography. Bangladesh and the Southeast Asian tigersare separated from the D-8 core countries by a hostile India while Egyptand Nigeria lie on a different continent with no direct links to the rest.

Erbakan had been very optimistic with D-8 as elicited in his openingaddress of the First Summit meeting 'The D-8 will take on an importantrole in solving the problems of humanity in our globalizing world'. Hedescribed D-8 as 'a turning point in human history' and 'an organizationof the new world. God willing, this group will play a big role in bringingpeace and security.' Erbakan visited all D-8 countries except Bangladeshsoon after coming to power last June. He fostered economic links withprojects such as a $23 billion gas deal with Iran. His opponents havecontinued to run down the whole scheme.

Erbakan, however, continued to talk enthusiastically about major D-8projects to build passenger aircraft, helicopters, cars and computers.Among planned areas of cooperation, Egypt will oversee trade, Turkeywill coordinate industry proposals, Pakistan will be responsible foragriculture, Nigeria will oversee energy plans and Indonesia will beresponsible for human resources. Iran will oversee telecommunicationprojects, Bangladesh will deal with rural development and Malaysiawill focus on privatization, banking and Islamic insurance or takaful.


3.3.3.2 PROF. DR BACHARUDDIN JUSUF HABIBIE

Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie was the former and the third president ofIndonesia (1998-1999). He was born on June 25, 1936 in Pare-Pare,Sulawesi,Indonesia.

In 1954, after graduating from Bandung Institute of Technology,Habibie was given a scholarship by the Ministry of Education andCulture to study aircraft construction engineering at RWTH(Rheneisch-Westfalische Technische Hocschule) in Aachen, Germany.After receiving his diploma in 1965 and doctorate in 1965, he joined theHamburger Flugzeugbau (HF) aircraft industry and later theMesserschmitt Boelkow Blohm (MBB) aircraft manufacturer, where hebecame a vice-president.

In 1974, Suharto (who came to know the young man and his familyduring a military posting to the South Sulawesi) asked Habibie toreturn to Indonesia, and placed him in charge of the strategic state-owned oil company. He worked under President Suharto for 20 years,first as minister of state for research and technology in 1978 and later asvice president.

In his post as technology minister, Habibie was an aggresive advocatefor expensive state-funded economic projects aimed at makingIndonesia technologically self-sufficient.Using his connections withGerman corporations, he began by assembling Messerschmitthelicopters in a hangar at Bandung. The operation expanded to employ20,000 workers in making small and medium-sized turboprop aircraft.


Ambitious plans were drawn up for an Indonesian-made commercialairliner to rival the US and European aerospace companies.

His other projects included the costly purchase of the entire navy of theformer East Germany in the 1990s, and plans for a string of nuclearreactors throughout Java.Critics point to the high cost of these industrieswhich rely heavily on huge tariff protection and guaranteed sales to thearmed forces and national airlines.

Habibie was central to the establishment of the Association ofIndonesian Moslem Intellectuals (ICMI) in 1990. The ICMI is a focus fornon-Chinese or pribumi businessmen.The association has its own bankand daily newspaper Republika.

Habibie's days as vice president were few, however, as the economictroubles that had been festering under Suharto's crony capitalism boiledover just 10 weeks after Habibie's appointment. In May 1998, Suhartoresigned after 32 years as undisputed head of state, handing the reinsover to Habibie. Habibie quickly removed from office the mostegregious examples of Suharto's nepotism in an attempt to distinguishhimself from his predecessor and win favor with the emergingopposition factions. In 1999 he lost a parliamentary vote of confidenceand he withdrew from the presidential race.


3.3.3.3 TUN DR MAHATHIR MOHAMED

Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad (born December 20, 1925 in Alor Star,Kedah) was the Prime Minister of Malaysia from July 16, 1981 to 2003.He had his early and secondary education in his home town. In 1947 hegained admission into the King Edward VII College of Medicine inSingapore Upon graduation he joined the Malaysian GovernmentService as a Medical Officer. He left government Service in 1957 to setup his own practice in Alor Setar.

He was first elected to Parliament in 1964 as a member of the UMNO,the dominant party within the ruling governmental coalition. In 1969,however, Mahathir was expelled from the UMNO after his forcefuladvocacy of ethnic Malay nationalism brought him into conflict withPrime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. After Tun Abdul Razak becameprime minister in 1970, Mahathir rejoined UMNO and was reelected toits Supreme Council in 1972.

During his term in office, Mahathir forcefully guided Malaysia'sdevelopment as a regional high-tech manufacturing, financial, andtelecommunications hub through his economic policies based oncorporate nationalism, known as the National Economic Policy, whichremained in effect almost to the end of his tenure in office. His petprojects have included Perwaja Steel, an attempt to emulate SouthKorea and Japan, the Proton car company, and ASTRO, a satellitetelevision service. He is credited with spearheading the phenomenalgrowth of the Malaysian economy, now one of the largest and mostpowerful in South East Asia. Growth between 1988 and 1997 averaged


over ten percent and living standards rose twenty-fold, with povertyalmost eradicated and social indicators such as literacy levels and infantmortality rates on a par with developed countries.

During this period, Mahathir embarked on various enormousconstruction projects, such as the North-South highway, which has cuttransport times in half on the West Coast of Malaysia, the MultimediaSuper Corridor, a flagship project based on Silicon Valley designed toenable Malaysia's foray into information technology (it includesMalaysia's new capital Putrajaya), Port Tanjung Pelepas, a project torival Singapore's SPA port, the glittering Kuala Lumpur InternationalAirport in Sepang, an adjacent Formula One circuit, the Bakun Dam,meant to supply all of the electricity needs of the East Malaysian statesof Sabah and Sarawak and which has enough capacity to enableexportation of power to Brunei, Olympic-class stadia in Bukit Jalil, andthe buildings which have become symbolic of modern Malaysia, thePetronas Twin Towers, the tallest buildings in the world from 1997 to2003.

While most Malaysians are justifiably proud of these projects, theirextreme costs have made Malaysians reluctant to engage in more suchventures until such time as the economy can afford it. He has beencriticised for the failures and horrendous inefficiency of some of his petprojects.

During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Mahathir was strongly criticizedby the international financial community for contravening IMF policiesby keeping interest rates down and slowing the flow of foreign capital.Mahathir blamed currency speculators for the crisis, foremost amongthem George Soros. Critics said his accusations were "tinged with anti-semitism." Banks were forced to merge and to write off bad debts,consolidating the financial system. The Ringgit, which stood at RM2.50to the US Dollar prior to the crisis but plunged to RM4.97 during theworst part of the recession, was pegged at RM3.80. Initially this wasseen as a move to keep the currency from falling further, but is now seenas keeping the currency artificially low in order to boost exports. As aresult of these policies, Malaysia's economy recovered much faster thancomparative countries which did follow IMF prescriptions, therepercussions of which are still felt in those countries, and more prudent


fiscal and monetary policies have ensured that the Malaysian economy,while not growing yet as spectacularly as before, is well balanced andnot built on rotting foundations. As the Malaysian economy recovered,the IMF and George Soros released statements saying that Mahathir'spolicies had indeed been the right ones. However, long term structuralconsiderations, such as the uncompetitiveness of Malaysian firms, thefailure of Malaysian industry to move up the value chain in the face ofincreasing costs and competition from other countries in the region(most notably China) and a total lack of R&D, still cloud the horizonand yet to be addressed accordingly.

During twenty-two year grip on power, Mahathir was seen as apolitical "strongman", despite being criticised for his authoritarianpolicies. His charismatic leadership and strong political wills help himto survive several controversial issues. These include removal of theroyal veto and royal immunity from prosecution (1983 &1991), thedismissal of the Lord President of the Supreme Court, Tun Salleh Abas,and three other supreme court justices(1988), and the dismissal of hisdeputy, Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim in 1997.

Among developing and Islamic countries, however, Mahathir remainsgreatly admired, particularly for Malaysia's impressive economicgrowth. Foreign leaders such as Kazakhstan's President NursultanNazarbayev praised him and have been trying to emulate Mahathir'sdevelopmental formulae. He was one of the greatest spokesmen onThird World issues, and strongly supported the bridging of the North-South divide, as well as exhorting the development of Islamic nations.He was dedicated to various Third World blocs such as ASEAN, theG77, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Nationsand most recently, the G22 at the latest WTO talks at Cancun.

In 2003, shortly before leaving office, Mahathir sparked off a fiercecontroversy when he called on Muslim leaders at the 57-memberOrganization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) summit to "fight backagainst their Jewish oppressors" who "ruled the world by proxy". Hiscomments were widely criticized in the West, but the issue was ignoredin Asia and Islamic countries, which felt that his remark had been takenout of context. Mahathir later defended his remarks, saying "I am notanti Semitic ... I am against those Jews who kill Muslims and the Jews


who support the killers of Muslims." He tagged the West as "anti-Muslim", for double standards by "protecting Jews while allowingothers to insult Islam."

Largely due to the economic development of the country, which by andlarge has benefited all races, Mahathir left behind a peaceful,prosperous, and self-confident Malaysia. On his retirement he wasgranted Malaysia's highest honour, which entitles him to the title Tun.Dr Mahathir is married to a doctor, Tun Dr Siti Hasmah Mohamed Ali,and they both have seven children and ten grandchildren.Basically, Mahathir achieved his objective to place him as the MalaysiaModernization Father.


3.3.4 MUSLIM SCIENTIST AND PHILOSOPHER

3.3.4.1 PROF DR SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, currently University Professor of Islamic Studiesat the George Washington University, Washington D.C. is one of themost important and foremost scholars of Islamic, Religious andComparative Studies in the world today. Author of over fifty books andfive hundred articles which have been translated into several majorIslamic, European and Asian languages, Professor Nasr is a well knownand highly respected intellectual figure both in the West and the Islamicworld. An eloquent speaker with a charismatic presence, Nasr is amuch sought after speaker at academic conferences and seminars,university and public lectures and also radio and television programsin his area of expertise.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr was born on April 7, 1933 (19 Farvadin 1312 A.H.solar) in Tehran into a family of distinguished scholars and physicians.His father, Seyyed Valiallah, a man of great learning and piety, was aphysician to the Iranian royal family, as was his father before him. Thename "Nasr" which means "victory" was conferred on Professor Nasr'sgrandfather by the King of Persia. Nasr also comes from a family ofSufis. One of his ancestors was Mulla Seyyed Muhammad TaqiPoshtmashhad, who was a famous saint of Kashan, and his mausoleumwhich is located next to the tomb of the Safavid king Shah Abbas, is stillvisited by pilgrims to this day.


As a young boy, Nasr attended one of the schools near his home. Hisearly formal education included the usual Persian curriculum at schoolwith an extra concentration in Islamic and Persian subjects at home, aswell as tutorial in French. However for Nasr, it was the long hours ofdiscussion with his father, mostly on philosophical and theologicalissues, complemented by both reading and reaction to the discoursescarried on by those who came to his father's house, that constituted anessential aspect of his early education and which in many ways set thepattern and tone of his intellectual development. This was the situationfor the first twelve years of Nasr's life.

Nasr's arrival in America at the young age of twelve marked thebeginning of a new period in his life which was totally different andtherefore, discontinuous from his early life in Iran. He attended ThePeddie School in Highstown, New Jersey and in 1950 graduated as thevaledictorian of his class and also winner of the Wyclifte Award whichwas the school's highest honor given to the most outstanding all-roundstudent. It was during the four years at Peddie that Nasr acquired hisknowledge of the English language, as well as studying the sciences,American history, Western culture and Christianity.

Nasr chose to go to M.I.T. for college. He was offered a scholarship andwas the first Iranian student to be admitted as an undergraduate atM.I.T. He began his studies at M.I.T in the Physics Department withsome of the most gifted students in the country and outstandingprofessors of physics. His decision to study physics was motivated bythe desire to gain knowledge of the nature of things, at least at the levelof physical reality. However, at the end of his freshman year, althoughhe was the top student in his class, he began to feel oppressed by theoverbearingly scientific atmosphere with its implicit positivism.Furthermore, he discovered that many of the metaphysical questionswhich he had been concerned with were not being asked, much lessanswered. Thus, he began to have serious doubts as to whether physicswould lead him to an understanding of the nature of physical reality.His doubt was confirmed when the leading British philosopher,Bertrand Russell, in a small group discussion with the studentsfollowing a lecture he had given at M.I.T, stated that physics does notconcern itself with the nature of physical reality per se but withmathematical structures related to pointer readings


Upon his graduation from M.I.T., Nasr enrolled himself in a graduateprogram in geology and geophysics at Harvard University. Afterobtaining his Master's degree in geology and geophysics in 1956, hewent on to pursue his Ph.D. degree in the history of science andlearning at Harvard. Nasr wanted to study other types of sciences ofnature apart from the modern Western and also to understand whymodern science had developed as it had. He planned to write hisdissertation under the supervision of George Sarton, a great authorityon Islamic science. However, Sarton passed away before he could beginhis dissertation work and since there was not another specialist inIslamic science at Harvard then, he wrote his dissertation under thedirection of three professors. They were I. Bernard Cohen, HamiltonGibb and Harry Wolfson.

It was also at Harvard that Nasr resumed his study of classical Arabicwhich he had left since coming to America. He struggled withphilosophical Arabic while getting some assistance from Wolfson andGibb. However, the mastery of philosophical Arabic was only attainedafter he studied Islamic philosophy from the traditional masters of Iranafter his return to his homeland in 1958.

At twenty-five, Nasr graduated with a Ph.D. degree from Harvard andon the way to completing his first book, Science and Civilization inIslam. His doctoral dissertation entitled "Conceptions of Nature inIslamic Thought" was published in 1964 by Harvard University Press asAn Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Although he wasoffered a position as assistant professor at M.I.T., Nasr decided toreturn permanently to Iran.

Back in Iran, Nasr was offered a position as an Associate Professor ofphilosophy and the history of science at the Faculty of Letters in TehranUniversity. A few months after his return, Nasr married a youngwoman from a respected family whose members were close friends ofhis family. Five years later at the age of thirty, Nasr became theyoungest person to become a full professor at the University. He usedhis position and influence to bring major changes to strengthen andexpand the philosophy program at Tehran University which like manyof its other programs, was very much dominated by and limited toFrench intellectual influence.


Nasr initiated the important move of teaching Islamic philosophy on thebasis of its own history and from its own perspective and to encouragehis Iranian students to study other philosophies and intellectualtraditions from the point of view of their own tradition. He maintainsthat one cannot hope to understand and appreciate one's ownintellectual tradition from the viewpoint of another, just as one cannotsee oneself through the eyes of another person. He also created greaterawareness and interest in the study of Oriental philosophies among thestudents and faculty members. Since Tehran University was the onlyuniversity in Iran to offer a doctorate in philosophy, these changesintroduced by Nasr had far reaching influence. Many universities inIran integrated these changes into their philosophical studies and untiltoday Nasr's perspective that Iranian students should study otherphilosophical traditions from the view of their own tradition instead ofstudying their tradition from the perspective of Western thought andphilosophy remains widely influential. The students he has trained andwho have become scholars and university professors of philosophyhave enabled this perspective to have enduring influence in Iran.

Apart from the philosophy program, Nasr was also involved in theuniversity's doctoral program in Persian language and literature forthose whose mother tongue was not Persian. He strengthened thephilosophical component of this program and had many outstandingstudents from outside of Iran to receive training, not only in Persianlanguage, but also the rich treasury of philosophical and Sufi literaturewritten in Persian. Many of the students trained in this program havesince become important scholars in this field such as the Americanscholar, William Chittick and the Japanese woman scholar, SachikoMurata.

Furthermore, from 1968 to 1972, Nasr was made Dean of the Faculty andfor a while, Academic Vice-Chancellor of Tehran University. Throughthese positions, he introduced many important changes which all aimedat strengthening the university programs in the humanities generallyand in philosophy, specifically. In 1972, he was appointed President ofAryamehr University by the Shah of Iran. Aryamehr University wasthen the leading scientific and technical university in Iran and the Shah,as the patron, wanted Professor Nasr to develop the university on themodel of M.I.T. but with firm roots in Iranian culture. Consequently, a


strong humanities program in Islamic thought and culture, with aparticular emphasis upon an Islamic philosophy of science, wasestablished at Aryamehr University by Nasr. Nasr's pioneering efforthas led Aryamehr to create one of the first graduate programs in theIslamic world in the philosophy of science based upon the Islamicphilosophy of science, some ten years ago.

In 1973, the Queen of Iran appointed Professor Nasr to establish acenter for the study and propagation of philosophy under herpatronage. Hence, the Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy wasestablished and very soon became one of the most important and vitalcenters of philosophical activities in the Islamic world, housing the bestlibrary of philosophy in Iran and attracting some of the mostdistinguished scholars in the field, both from the East and the West,such as Henry Corbin and Toshihiko Izutsu. The Academy alsoorganized important seminars and lecture series given by philosophers,offered fellowships for short and long term research work in Islamicphilosophy, and comparative philosophy and undertook a majorpublication program of works in this field in Persian, Arabic, Englishand French.

Another very important dimension to Nasr's intellectual activities afterhis return to Iran in 1958, was his program in re-educating himself inIslamic philosophy by learning it at the feet of the masters through thetraditional method of oral transmission. He studied hikmah for twentyyears under some of the greatest teachers in Iran at the time, readingtraditional texts of Islamic philosophy and gnosis, three days a week atthe Sepahsalar madrasah in Tehran and also in private homes inTehran, Qom and Qazwin. Among his venerable teachers were SayyidMuhammad Kazim Assar, an alim who was an authority on Islamiclaw, as well as philosophy, and a very close friend of Professor Nasr'sfather; the great luminary and master of gnosis, Allamah SayyidMuhammad Husayn Tabatabai and Sayyid Abul-Hasan Qazwini, agreat authority on Islamic law and the intellectual sciences who knewmathematics, astronomy and philosophy extremely well. Nasr read andstudied several of the major texts of Islamic philosophy under thesemasters such as the al-Asfar al-arbaah of Mulla Sadra and the Sharh-imanumah of Sabziwari and benefited greatly from the invaluableinsights and commentaries provided by them orally. In this way, Nasr


had the best educational training both from the modern West and thetraditional East, a rare combination which put him in a very specialposition to speak and write with authority on the numerous issuesinvolved in the encounter between East and West, and tradition andmodernity, as demonstrated very clearly by his writings and lectures. During the years Professor Nasr was in Iran, he wrote extensively inPersian and English and occasionally in French and Arabic. His doctoraldissertation was rewritten by him in Persian and it won the royal bookaward. Nasr also brought out the critical editions of several importantphilosophical texts such as the complete Persian works of Suhrawardiand of Mulla Sadra and the Arabic texts of lbn Sina and al-Biruni. Nasr'sgreat interest in the philosophy of one of the greatest later Islamicphilosophers, Mulla Sadra resulted in the publication of the Mulla Sadrawritten by the traditional masters of Islamic philosophy. Nasr was alsothe first person to introduce the figure of Mulla Sadra to the Englishspeaking world.

In 1979 at the time of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Nasr moved withhis family to the United States where he would rebuild his life again andsecure a university position to support himself and his family. By 1980,Nasr began to write again. He started to work intensively on theresearch and text of the prestigious Gifford Lectures at the University ofEdinburgh to which he received an invitation shortly before the IranianRevolution took place. Nasr had the honor of being the first non-Westerner to be invited to deliver the most famous lecture series in thefields of natural theology and philosophy of religion in the West. Thus,Knowledge and the Sacred, one of Nasr's most important philosophicalworks, one which had a great impact on scholars and students ofreligious studies, came to be prepared amidst the strain of trying timesand the strenuous commute between Boston and Philadelphia.However, Nasr discloses that the actual writing of the text ofKnowledge and the Sacred came as a gift from heaven. He was able towrite the texts of the lectures with great facility and speed and within aperiod of less than three months, they were completed. Nasr says that itwas as though, he was writing from a text he had previouslymemorized.

In 1982, Nasr was invited to collaborate on a major project to bring outthe Encyclopedia of World Spirituality together with Ewert Cousins,


chief editor and professor of Medieval philosophy at FordhamUniversity, and many other leading philosophers and scholars ofreligion. Nasr accepted to edit the two volumes on Islamic Spirituality,which came out in 1989 and 1991. Both volumes have since becomeinvaluable reference material in English for those interested in thissubject. In 1983, Nasr delivered the Wiegand Lecture on the philosophyof religion at the University of Toronto in Canada. He also helped in theestablishment of the section on Hermeticism and perennial philosophyat the American Academy of Religion

Within the recent years, Nasr together with the British scholar ofIslamic and Jewish philosophy, Oliver Leaman, edited a two volumework, History of Islamic Philosophy which consists of articles writtenby important scholars in this field, discussing the different aspects andschools of Islamic philosophy and its development in the different partsof the Islamic world. Nasr's continued interest in science is madeevident by his latest book on this subject, The Need for a Sacred Science.Also, together with one of his former students, Mehdi Amin Razavi,Nasr is brought out a major four volume work, An Anthology ofPhilosophy in Persia. Razavi also edited earlier, The Islamic IntellectualTradition in Persia, which is a collection of Nasr's articles on Islamicphilosophy in Persia written during the last forty years.

Over the years, Profesor Nasr has trained different generations ofstudents. This expanded since 1958 when he was a professor at TehranUniversity and then, in America since the Iranian revolution in 1979,specifically at Temple University in Philadelphia from 1979 to 1984 andat the George Washington University since 1984 to the present day.They have come from the different parts of the world, and many ofwhom have become important and prominent scholars in their fields ofstudy.

The range of subjects and areas of study which Professor Nasr hasinvolved and engaged himself with in his academic career andintellectual life are immense. As demonstrated by his numerouswritings, lectures and speeches, Professor Nasr speaks and writes withgreat authority on a wide variety of subjects, ranging from philosophyto religion to spirituality, to music and art and architecture, to scienceand literature, to civilizational dialogues and the natural environment.


For Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr, the quest for knowledge,specifically knowledge which enables man to understand the truenature of things and which furthermore, "liberates and delivers himfrom the fetters and limitations of earthly existence," has been andcontinues to be the central concern and determinant of his intellectuallife.

At seventy, Seyyed Hossein Nasr leads an extremely active intellectuallife with a very busy schedule of teaching at the university and lecturingat many institutions in America and around the world, writing scholarlyworks, being involved in several intellectual projects simultaneouslyand meeting individuals who are interested in traditional thought. Atthe same time, he leads a very intense spiritual life spent in prayer,meditation and contemplation and also providing spiritual counsel forthose who seek his advice and guidance. Exiled from his homeland,Seyyed Hossein Nasr has found his home in the inviolable and sacredCenter which is neither in the East nor the West.


The ScientificReemergenceand Its FutureDirections

44

THE SCIENTIFIC REEMERGENCE AND ITS FUTUREDIRECTIONS

4.1 Important Elements of re-emergence

Reality has shown us that what is true of weakness, energy, health anddisease, is also true with nations and civilization. We see a man who ishealthy, hale and hearty but all of a sudden he is attacked by diseases,and illnesses overtake him from all sides to the extent that his strongand sturdy building of his body is shaken up. He is constantly changingsides restlessly and cries in anguish. At last Allah blesses him, and hegets the services of an expert healer, who diagnoses the real malady,precisely gets to the root-cause of the disease, and treats him sincerelyand painstakingly. After some days, you find that the energy and healthof the patients returns. Sometimes, it so happens that his health getsbetter than before.

Similar is the case of the Muslim nation and its scientific civilization.They face trials and tribulations. The edifice of the nation gotdilapidated, and all manifestations of power and glory come to an end.Constant assaults of trouble and mishaps enervate them, and they getabsolutely weak, powerless and emaciated. Then they are neither in aposition to check the oppression of the tyrants, nor stop the mouth of theavaricious. At that time, their power, well-being, existence and progressdepends on three things- diagnosis of the disease, treatment of thesickness and an expert doctor, who should be their patron. Thetreatment should continue till they get well, alright and full of healthand energy.

4.1.1 The correct diagnosis: What really happened to Islamic Science?

Abdus Salam, the only Muslim to have won the Noble Prize in physics,once was asked the similar question 'what happened to Islamic Science?'and he gave no suprising answer `Nothing. Instead what we cultivatedin Isfahan and Cordoba is now being cultivated in MIT, Caltech and atImperial College, London. It's just a geographical translation of place'.


Nasr, further validated this statement by saying 'The Muslims has beenstudying the history of science from the Western perspective, and theWesterner have their right to decide the era which is important andwhich is not for them. If we are going to utilise their reference, then weare overlooking 700 years, not 70 years, 700 years of Islamic intellectualhistory during which the Muslims were supposed to have donenothing. They were supposed to have been decadent for 700 years. Nowhow can you revive a patient that has been dead for that long a time?The idea [which] is propagated in the West [is] that Muslims are verybrilliant, that they did science and things like that, [and then] suddenlydecided to turn the switch off and went to selling beads and playingwith their rosaries in the bazaar for the next 700 years till Mossadeghnationalized the oil and they came back on the scene of human historyare now living happily again. This, of course, is total nonsense and itbrings about a sclerosis, intellectually, which is far from beingtrivial.Over [the] twenty years I have taught at Tehran University, Ialways felt, [our students] could never overcome this very longhistorical loss of memory. Somehow it was very difficult for them. Theywanted to connect themselves to Al-Biruni and Khawarizmi and peoplelike that, but this hiatus was simply too long. This hiatus has not beencreated by history itself. It has been created by the study of history fromthe particular perspective of Western scholarship, which is as I said,perfectly [within] its right in its claim that Islam is interesting only tillthe moment that it influences the West. The great mistake is when thatobjective divides the history of Islam [into a period of productivity andone of degeneration]. In the field of history of science, that is a veryimportant element.'

In the earlier chapter we have proven the facts that the Muslimscientific community had continuously contributed to the developmentand advancement of science within their geographical or institutionalplatforms. Despite their achievements, surprisingly, some of them whoeven honoured by the Western world were not significantlyacknowledged to the Muslim worlds in the true sense. They were the'hidden scientific torch-bearers' for the Muslim, the 'unknown heroes'.They supposed to be the motivators and the catalysts for the success ofthe Muslim generation. Yet, their forceful voice couldn't be heard butonly to be seen in their written biography, some even after they have


left the world.

Overlooking the abundant Muslim scientists over the world today, thefirst question that should be asked is, how many of them really care oftheir collective status and how many of them really interested to knowtheir role in the scientific re-emergence. This will somehow bring intochallenge the aim of their intellectual existence, the role of theiracademic positioning and the future direction of their ambitious career.It might be bittersome for some who never thought of the important ofthis religion throughout their successful academic journey.It might behard for some to readjust the preset future glooming status and it mightbe difficult for some to sacrifice their profit-adjusted time just torekindle the light of scientific interest in future generation. It will taketime and time is always the good healer. Yet this issue had to be clarifiedindividually and in the best possible approach.

This is vital before we go to the next question, how many of them arewilling to work hand-in-hand to achieve the same objective and whowill play the leading roles manoeuvring the whole process of re-emergence. There is a big difference between thinking and saying,saying and acting, acting and struggling, and true struggle and wrongstruggle. This brought all of us back to the important elements in anyprocess of change: the right attitude, the correct and blessed objectiveand the courage to sacrifice for the benefit of the Muslim ummah.

4.1.2 The proven treatment: Al-Qur'an

It is without doubt that the Qur'an was the prime motivating factor inthe success of the Muslims ….for centuries. This has been wellsupported not only by the sequence of events and achievementsfollowing the earlier generations of Muslims, but also well agreed byeven the non Muslims researchers in the field of Islamic sciences andhistory. So, it is obvious that when the Muslims started to interpret theQur'anic teaching in their own perspective, if not losing interest in it,they are embracing unavoidable defeat, spiritual and materially.

"The Koran actually forms one of the cornerstones of science in Islam ina way unlike any other scripture of any other religion," said Glen M.


Cooper, a professor of the history of science and Islam at BrighamYoung University."The Koran enjoins the believer and the unbelieveralike to examine nature for signs of the creator's handiwork, evidenceof his existence, and his goodness," Cooper said. "Reason is revered asone of the most important of God's gifts to men. The examination ofnature led historically into a scientific perspective and program."

Farkhonda Hassan, a professor at the University of Cairo who haswritten about barriers to science careers for Islamic women,agreed."The teachings of the Holy Prophet of Islam emphasize theacquiring of knowledge as bounden duties of each Muslim from thecradle to the grave, and that the quest for knowledge and science isobligatory upon every Muslim man and woman," she said. "One eighth-that is, 750 verses - of the Koran exhort believers to study, to reflect,and to make the best use of reason in their search for the ultimate truth."

Muslim should go back to the essence of the Qur'anic teaching. Theyshould be educated the way the Prophet had taught them. They shouldbe the 'living Al Qur'an'. They should be told that seeking knowledgeand exploring the nature was not a mere encouragement to whosoeverwanted to do so, but it is a religious obligation, not only for their owninner faith but for the benefit of the humanity.

The spirit of unity amongst the Muslims scientists, Muslims countriesand amongst Muslims in general as propagated by the Qur'an is basedon the sincerity and good faith and not because of material gain oreconomic and political privileges.

Qur'an should be embraced as the first generation embraced it and theimportance of it should be intilled in the very heart of the Muslims.

4.1.3 The expert doctors: The Muslim scientists and religiousscholars

The religious scholar (ulama') should come hand in hand with theMuslim scientist in the real sense. They should be no gap between themsince there is nothing in the teachings of Islam that contends againstlearning, against science, and against technology. The pursuit of


knowledge and scientific research is the birthright of every Muslimwoman and every Muslim man.

The rediscovery of Islamic science and technology in the 21st centuryis an intellectually formidable task requiring a sustained effort overseveral decades.It demands a strong cooperation between both of them.The religious scholar should be updated of the development of themodern science and technology so that they can give their inputespecially on moral and legal aspect of such an innovation anddevelopment. At the same time the Muslim scientists and technologistsshould be aware of the importance to impart if not mastered the Islamicknowledge so they are well guided in their development.

The combination of these efforts will not only witness a positivescientific development flourished based on the essence of the Qur'anand the Hadith but furthermore, it will enhanced the development forhealthy 'ijtihad which without doubt, is essential in the rapid changingworld of science and technology.

Muslim religious scholar and scientists should be united in their aim atapplying science and technology in the building of a new Islamiccivilization. This will prevent the imbalance, disharmony anddisintegration in almost every field of human endeavor such as social,economic, cultural, political or any other.

4.1.4 The Islamic Unity

The secret of the Islamic unity, as was proven historically was theestablishment of the Caliphate. Not only that it is a special symbol ofIslam with its distinction, many of the orders of the Islam are directlyconnected with the Caliph and cannot be completed in his absence. Thiswas the reason that before the burial of the Holy Prophet, the honouredCompanions were anxious about the matter and till they settled thisimportant work satisfactorily, they did not consent to his burial. It wasalso under the directive of the Caliph that the centre of Islamic scientificcivilization was moved to Baghdad.

As explicitly explained by al-Faruqi, the content of the Divine amana,


and therefore of khilafa, is the development and establishment ofculture and civilization. To institute peace and assurance of life andproperty, to organize humans into an ordered society capable ofproducing food and of processing, storing, and distributing it to all inadequate quantities and quality, to provide shelter, warmth andcomfort, communication and ease, to build and make available the toolsnecessary to realize these goals, and, finally, to furnish opportunities foreducation and self-realization, and for recreation and estheticenjoyment, this is the core content of khilafa. It is equivalent to themaking of culture and civilization, to the affirmation and promotion oflife and the world. Allah (SWT) commands all this to be done anddeclares it to be the very reason for His creation of the world. TheDivine, anterior motive in all this is that humans may prove themselvesethically worthy in doing it. They can do so by entering into theirroutines of action for His sake and maintaining the balance of justicethroughout their actions.

Rightly, Muslims understand khilafa as predominantly political. TheQur'an repeatedly associates khilafa with establishment of politicalpower (Surah al A'araf 7:73), the reassurance of security and peace(Surah al Nur 24:55), the vanquishing of enemies and the replacementof their regime by that of the vicegerents (Surah al A'araf 7:128 andSurah Yunus 10:14 & 73). Political action, i.e. participation in thepolitical process as in election or bay'ah of the ruler, giving continualcounsel and advice to the chief of state and his ministers, monitoringtheir actions, criticizing and even impeaching them - all these are notonly desirable but prime religious and ethical duties. Failure to performsuch duties is, as the Prophet (SAWS) said, to lapse into jahiliya.

On the other hand, to be part of the politico-religious body of Islam isintegral to the faith itself. Abu Bakr and the sahaba fought those whowanted to secede from the body while keeping the faith, branding themas apostates who had rejected the whole of Islam. Unlike Christianity,large sections of which have always regarded the political process asthe depth of evil and counseled against involvement in it, Islamconsiders it to be of the essence and prohibits withdrawal. The same istrue a fortiori of culture and civilization. Islam regards building them asthe very business of religion. All the more contrasting with the normsof Islam therefore is the disengagement of the Muslim masses from the


political process in the period of decay in which we are still ensnared.

Revival of the Caliphate is essential, although it will take great pains forMuslim and many difficult problems will have to be settled before thelast steps for the resuscitation of the Caliphate is taken. It is reallyencouraging to witness steps taken towards economic, social andcultural cooperation and liaison among all the Muslim nations andgroups.

The formation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) wasa first major step towards achieving that aim even though its directionis still in vague. It was established in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco, on12th Rajab 1389H(25th September 1969) when the first meeting of theleaders of the Islamic world was held in this city in the wake of thecriminal arson perpetrated on the 21st August 1969 by Zionist elementsagainst Al-Aqsa Mosque, in occupied Jerusalem. It was indeed in orderto defend the honour, dignity and faith of the Muslims, to face this bitterchallenge launched in the holy city of Al-Quds so dear to them andagainst the Mosque of Al-Aqsa, the first Qibla and third holiest Shrineof Islam, that the leaders of the Muslim world, at their summit in Rabat,to think together of their common cause and muster the force requiredto overcome the differences, unite and lay the foundations of this largegrouping of states.

Six month after that historical meeting, the First Islamic Conference ofMinisters of Foreign Affairs held in Jeddah set up a permanent generalsecretariat, to ensure a liaison among member states and charged it tocoordinate their action. The conference appointed its secretary generaland chose Jeddah as the headquarters of the organization, pending theliberation of Jerusalem, which would be the permanent headquarters.

The charter of this organization which now consists of 57 member states,was adopted in Muharram 1392H(February 1972) aiming to strengthenIslamic solidarity among member states, to built cooperation in thepolitical, economic, social, cultural and scientific fields, and safeguardthe dignity, independence and national rights of all Muslim people. Itwill coordinate action to safeguard the Holy places and support thestruggle of the Palestinian people and assist them in recovering theirrights and liberating their occupied territories. Politically, the chapter


also enumerates the principles of full equality among member states,observation of the right to self determination and non interference inthe internal affairs of member states and observation of the sovereignty,independence and territorial integrity of each state.

Unfortunately, despite 35 year of its establishment, Jerusalem is stillunder the hand of Israel, and history had witnessed various events suchas Iraq-Iran war, Kuwait invasion and intervention of foreign forces inthe Islamic lands which do not in line with the spirit of OIC itself. Thissignifies that even though the external frame of re-establishment of theCaliphate was in the mind of the Muslims-conscious or subconsciously,the internal content and implementation of it is still far from reality.

4.1.5 Review of educational approach

For several hundred years, Islamic countries were colonial countriesruled by foreigners.The Muslim masses were not only left behind ineducation and loosing their natural resources, but also lacked inspiringand guiding leaders. Without these they could not struggle and couldnot compete and keep pace with the rest of the world, which has beendeveloping fast. Awakening from its slumber, the Ummah is todayconfronted with formidable problems on all fronts. It's economic, socialand political problems, which are overpowering by any standard, are"tip of the icebergs" of its deeper-lying malaise on the education,intellectual and moral level.

All or most of the Muslim countries are blindly following the westernscience and technology without any modification or change. This willagain result in injury to the Islamic personality and culture at all levelsand also it will destroy the physical environment. Muslim scientistsand technologists who are in pursuit of building a new Islamiccivilization must understand and solve the Ummah's problems. Theymust understand them correctly and analyze them critically. Theymust assess with precision how their solutions will affect the life of theUmmah.

The young Muslim generation should be taught of Islamic patriotism.The objective is that the new generations should make their own the


modes of their Muslim scientific ancestor such as Ibn Sina, Ibn Khaldunand many other as mentioned earlier, whom they regard as an exampleworthy to be followed. In their heart should lay the foundation ofgreatness, honour, elevation, dignity, courage and chivalry like them.They should hug to their hearts the ancestral grandeur, regard it as aheritage of honour, and feel in themselves an urge of valour andboldness.It is obvious that if we do not revive the deeds of thepredecessors, do not talk of their greatness and honour, how valourcould be generated in the present and future generation.

History books have been ripped from the rich culture of Islam.Professors have been reluctant to attribute any discovery or invention toMuslims. As stated even by Prince Charles-

"If there is much misunderstanding in the West about the nature ofIslam, there is also much ignorance about the debt our own culture andcivilisation owe to the Islamic world. It is a failure, which stems, I think,from the straight-jacket of history, which we have inherited. Themedieval Islamic world, from central Asia to the shores of the Atlantic,was a world where scholars and men of learning flourished. But becausewe have tended to see Islam as the enemy of the West, as an alienculture, society, and system of belief, we have tended to ignore or eraseits great relevance to our own history." (Prince Charles, lecture atOxford University)

Many education systems teach that the world civilisation scientificallypassed through, Greeks Era (BC), Romans Era (500 AD), Dark Ages(600-1600 AD) Renaissance(1600 AD), Industrial Revolution (1800/1900 AD),Modern Civilisation (2000-)."Dark Ages" is the word some corrupthistorians used to convinced the mass that for 1000 years nothinghappened, no discovery, no invention, no progress ,every body wassomehow mentally dead and their brains stop working. While it wastrue for the Western Civilisation which was asleep during this time,across the western countries an exemplary civilization arose, yetmasked by the historical fallacy.

During these 'neglected'centuries many remarkable developments tookplace including discovery of Pulmonary Circulation, first CompleteMedical Encyclopedia, first successful surgeries, founding of chemistry,


founding of algebra, discovery of the laws of refraction anddetermination of the Solar Year. There were many more discoveries thattook place during the 6th-16th century that shaped up the worldimmensely and without doubt should be renamed as the Golden Era ofthe World.

4.1.6 Mastering the language of technology

Without doubt, the tedious translation works done by the earlierIslamic generation has given a fruitful outcome to their dominancy inscience. The similar situation occurred when the western nation startedto dig the treasure of knowledge of the Islamic civilization. Even untiltoday, the Muslim Arabic transcripts are still being translated.

We have to agree that today the English language is considered thelanguage of technology besides German, French and Japaneselanguages. Scientific work, therefore, requires a competence in reading,writing, and comprehending English, an area in which Muslims overalllag behind other peoples, such as Chinese, Indians, and Brazilians. Eventhough the Arab League has systematically promoted scientifictranslations and an updated Arab vocabulary, yet where English orFrench are the language of instruction (the former in the Arabic-speaking countries of the Persian Gulf, the latter in North Africa),hostility often develops between students in science, who study in aforeign language, and those in other disciplines, who work in Arabic.

Some Muslim countries, and Malaysia was one of them, has even gonea step forwards by sending their students to various part of the worldstudying in different languages beside English. To quote Malaysiaitself, in the early 80's has started sending students to Belgium,Germany, France, Japan, Korea and of late to Russia. The effort was tobe applauded but yet the follow up of such a 'daring' initiative wasmiserable. The brilliant students, after their 'torturous' years learning inforeign languages and successfully came out 'the burning oven' in onepiece, found themselves back home struggling as the rest to find a goodjob and life. The language of technology that they learnt fade as timegoes. It is much beneficial if they were gathered in scientific oracademic institutions so that their different experiences and


technological approaches or transmission can be fully utilized toenhance scientific development in the respective countries.

4.1.7 Effective Scientific Learning

Effective science education at primary and secondary levels must beavailable to everyone. Encouragement should be given towardsunderstanding principle of science and its application in day to day life.Students should be encouraged to think, experiment and invent simplescientific discovery. The concept of study for exam should be erased andthe curriculum should be less stringent on academic marks and not'exam oriented'. Universities and technical schools should emphasizeresearch rather than teaching.Strong doctoral programs or researchcenters of academic excellence must be brought into existence.

The approach to science should be from the Islamic perpective.Understanding of the material science should come hand in hand withthe Islamic scientific philosophies. As well described by Syed HosseinNasr 'Modern science is successful in telling you the weight andchemical structure of a red pine leaf, but it is totally irrelevant to whatis the meaning of the turning of this leaf to red. The ``how'' has beenexplained in modern science, the ``why'' is not its concern. If you are aphysics student and you ask the question, `what is the force ofgravitation?' the teacher will tell you the formula, but as to what thenature of this force is, he will tell you it is not a subject for physics. So[science] is very successful in certain fields, but leaves other aspects ofreality aside'.

And the Muslim students should also be reminded and trained asbudding scientists, with ability to gather scientific informations, toscreening it, to assimilate it with the Islamic principle andunderstanding before digesting or rejecting it. As explicitly quoted byNasr: 'symbolically, and the symbol is important, when the Westadopted Islamic science, it even adopted the gown of the MuslimUlema, but it never took the turban and put it on its head. The head-dress of the European bishops of the Middle Ages, was kept on, whereasat many Islamic universities today, we have taken both the gown andthe cap from the West. We cannot think of ourselves independently. The


whole thing has been taken over and has now been made our own.'

4.1.8 Promotion and Commercialization of scientific research

Muslims countries must develop the mechanisms not only to producebut to sustain outstanding individual researchers and projects. Besidessteps taken to invite back local prominent scientist who is abroad,adequate incentives and unconditional support for scientific projectsand publications should be given for the talented scientists at home.Promotion, even to bureaucratic posts should be conditioned not tohamper their scientific momentum.

Attempts to develop research capabilities should not only be limited tothe universities or research institutes but should expand to thegovernment ministries, non-profit foundations, multinationalcorporations, or local corporations.

4.1.9 Recognition and award

Recognition of the contribution of the individual or group is importantnot only for personal satisfaction but also to foster a healthyenvironment for further scientific advancement. And it should not onlybe limited to the universities or higher institutional learning centres, butmust go down to the school, community and family level.

The scientific bodies or academies in the Muslims countries should notbe carried over by prestigious awards in science such as the Noble Prizeand the L'oreal-Unesco Awards for 'Women in Science' andconcentrating only to the 'big gun' in science. They should be wellaware of the value attached to the recognition of the young talentsespecially in their effort to nuture the budding scientific generation.Each award has its own credibility, seen by individual from differentlevel of education and accepted by different strata of people.

Noble prize has little meaning for a farmer who is struggling to getenough money to send his beloved children to school. For them afinancial award and a 'science scholarship' will not only lessened their


financial constraint but will open their eyes, broaden their mind andenhance their encouragement to motivate the learning of science in thefamily circle.

Teachers of science at the primary and secondary school played theutmost important role in shaping the future generation, and they tooshould be encouraged with appropriate recognition and awards. Howcan we expect our future scientists to be born out from an institutionwhere the teacher themselves are not scientifically inclined and notinnovative enough. They should built the interest together with theirstudents to explore the scientific world of innovation,even to start withthe simplest project of thinking how to measure the amount of waterused for performing wudhu'(ablution) to a complex project of making afountain clock that splash water at certain hour.

4.1.10 Building up the 'scientific family, scientific community'

Islam recognizes the family as the constitutive unit of social order, andbuttresses its extended form with legislation regarding inheritance anddependence in order to enable the largest possible family membershipto eat from the same kitchen and hence mutually and economically tosupport the social, emotional, and mental health and prosperity of itsmembers. Beyond the family, Islam recognizes multiple levels ofcommunity in humanity, and finally the universal social order of thelargest community, mankind. Man's membership in this order generatesinterest in the social sciences, or should do so. Human groupingswithout a moral basis between the family and humankind, such ascountry, region, the "people," or "nation-state," Islam regards purely asadministrative units absolutely irrelevant to the definition of good andevil and to the interpretation and application of the shari'ah. The arts,the humanities, and the social sciences of the modern West musttherefore be totally recast.

The basic need to build up a scientific family is as emphasized by Islam,the pursuit of knowledge. The Quran begins with the word "iqra" or"read". Every Muslim family must be encouraged and guided to takepart in acquisition of knowledge. Reading habit should be instilled ineach member of the family starting from the parent themselves. Each


Muslim house should have its own library, irrespective of its size, andeach housing area should have its community library. The educationsystem must be orientated towards encouraging reading habits insteadof dumping children with endless 'copying'homeworks rather thaninitiating self research and reading.

Important issues related to Islam and science in particular should be aregular topic of discussion within the family circle. The issue can beoutsourced from journals, media or the reading of Qur'an and Hadithitself. It has been a routine phenomenon nowadays that Islam has beenwrongly potrayed with multiple pictures and labels from 'poverty','starvation', 'war' to 'terrorism'. These disrecpectful issues should bewell explained to our children so that they are well repared to face thetrue face of the world.

The understanding of Islam as our way of life should be translated inreality within the family. The teachings of Qur'an and Sunna must beactivated in our houses, among our children and wives and all thosearound us so that they may receive its guidance for implementation notfor mere knowledge. Thereafter we will notice a manifest change inboth individual and collective behaviors. This positive change shouldbe guided to the right direction in order to make of it a comprehensivechange incorporating the whole nation. This is not an imagination ortheoretical thinking but it is a reality that we can live and put into effect.

4.1.11 Credibility of muslims countries

Globally, Muslim countries are devoid of a common voice that is takenseriously. They are known to be very consistent in arranging annualinternational conferences beside regular regional meetings, discussingimportant issues related to Muslim countries. They usually end up withexcellent resolutions and even credible steps to move forward. Yetunfortunately, in general they are poor in implementations.

So many matters, from untouchable internal politics to 'mental' if not'physical' non-deliberation from Western influences have stagnate theprogress of Muslim nations. It had become obvious that the moralboostering speeches given by particular goodhearted leaders will be


repeated again and again in the subsequent meetings.

Many Muslim countries are synonymous with poverty, illiteracy andmalnutrition. Some stand out because of oppression, tyranny andinjustice. Statistic has shown that only a small minority of the 57Muslim-majority countries, five to be exact, is deemed as having highhuman development by the UNDP (United Nations DevelopmentProgramme); 24 countries are in the medium-developing category. Theremaining 28, or half the Muslim world, are classified as having lowhuman development. Only five countries in the Muslim world enjoy aper capita GDP above US$10,000 (RM38,000).

The acquisition of knowledge in much of the Muslim world is stilllacking.Educational standards are low and illiteracy high in manycountries, due to poverty, poor management and allocation ofresources, war and conflict. In some countries more than half the adultpopulation is illiterate. The number of scholar produced could notcompesate the brain drain to other developed countries.

All this conditions led if not make worse with another disease in thesociety, corruption.Corruption is another major problem in the Muslimworld. We fare extremely poorly in Transparency International'scorruption perception index. Of the 133 countries surveyed in 2003, theMuslim country with the best record could only rank 26th. Four Muslimcountries occupied the last 10 rankings.

The Muslim countries are in need of credible leaders, who able toobserve, hear and think the pressing problems of their countries and theMuslim nations.A leader who has the courage to move forward.Aleader who has the broad vision of the future not only for his countrybut more importantly for the Muslim ummah and a leader who workand implement things more than mere talking.

Gone should be the days of leaders who accommodated their time moreon the issue of their political survival, who accumulated their ownwealth at the expense of starvation of the'mind' and 'body' of the nationand who had never thought of re-establishing the dominancy of Muslimummah in this world.

The Muslim countries has been so long 'isolated' in their 'mind' and


'vision' by their geographical boundaries, political egoism and worsestill religious illeteration or misunderstanding. Understanding this,insy'Allah (with the will of Allah), we can be a credible nation.

4.2 The Assets

Understanding the pre-requisites for the re-emerging process and thehuge responsibilities awaiting the sincere Muslims, it is important forus to reconsider the assets that we have to determine at which pointshould we began, and at which level are our capabilities. For this weneed to evaluate those beneficial assets that we have or had been passeddown by the previous generations.

4.2.1 The Spiritual Assets

The formative period of Islamic civilization began with the revelation ofthe Holy Qur'an, which laid down the basic principles of Islamicteaching. This has been agreed upon by both the Muslim and nonMuslim scholars who had done extensive research on the history of theIslamic nation. This is the key of the spiritual assets which is still in thehand of the Muslims without any minute alteration. This was furtherelaborated both by the words and the practical aspect of life of theProphet Mohammad which was preserved as the Tradition (Hadith) tilltoday with its stringent authenticity scrutiny.

The Holy Quran that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad ByAllah(God), is the only book who's content has not been altered orchanged a bit for more then 1400 years, and the book has been learnt by-heart, word to word by millions of Muslims. This Book that wasrevealed verse by verse in almost 23 years, explained to us each andevery aspect of the way our life should be, the way our life should notbe. It even explained many advanced scientific facts, including, TheOrigin of the Universe, Human Embryonic ,Purpose of Mountains,Origin of Rain and many other scientific and mathematical facts .

These are the two important spiritual elements that lit up the hearts of


the esteemed companions that they brightened up despite the deepgloom which prevailed at that time. These are the drink of spiritualismwhich Prophet Mohammad made them drink which sent a wave of lifeand freshness in to them. Thereafter the flowers of wisdom blossomedamongst them, the buds of emotions and sentiments bloomed intofragrance and leaves of intelligence and insight budded.

These are the spiritual elements needed and should be instilled in theheart of the current and future Muslim scientist, not only to motivatethem but more importantly to purify their ultimate aim of the scientificinnovations and achievements. And they are still in the hand of theMuslims.

4.2.2 The Historical Assets

History has justified that the Muslims were at the forefront of humanand scientific civilization. History has witnessed that the expansion ofIslam was not dominantly spearheaded by oppression and swords butby high moral upbringing and positive attitudes of the earliergenerations. History has also taught the human being, without fail thatgiven the appropriate time and processes, events will be repeated in thesame principle irrespective of the different geographical areas or timeframes. The fact is that if the Muslims willing to learn and stroll aheadin the successful pathway of the earlier generations, the door of victorywill be widely opened for them.

Beside the authentic historical book and manuscripts, as we open oureyes, we are not devoid of historical geographical landmarksthroughout the world. These physical remains of history should beappreciated not only for the sake of its artistic or architectural values,but should trickle the Muslims minds and woke them up of theirshameful laziness in continuing and benefiting the great heritage ofintellectuality and civilization of their ancestors.

Historically and till today the Muslim nation had never been exhaustedin producing scientific geniuses. This historical and 'to be historic'figures is invaluable assets in shaping the minds of the Muslims andmotivating the younger generation, proving the intrinsic capability of


the Muslims. It is timely for them to become more extrinsic in theirappearances and their achievements.

With regards to the manuscripts of Muslim civilization, it is enough toknow that there exist at the present day, in spite of many losses bydestruction, nearly quarter of a million manuscripts in the variouslibraries of the Muslim world, and in the great libraries of Europe andAmerica. A large part of this wealth deals with scientific subjects, andincludes both Arabic translation of Ancient Greek words, and originalworks written by Muslim scholars themselves.

History, day by day kept on unveiling the impact of Islam's discoveriesduring the 'Golden' period which went far beyond individualinnovations like algebra or the establishment of models for modernhospitals and universities. The spread of Islamic knowledge to Europesparked, or at least helped to spark, the Renaissance and scientificrevolution of the 17th century which repeatedly elicited even by theWestern historians.

"It is highly probable that, but for the Arabs, modern Europeancivilization would never have arisen at all," Sir Thomas Arnold andAlfred Guillaume wrote in their 1997 classic, "The Legacy of Islam."

Robert Briffault wrote in the 'Making of Humanity' that "Spain, notItaly, was the cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After steadily sinkinglower and lower into barbarism, it had reached the darkest depths ofignorance and degradation when cities of the Saracenic world,Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Toledo, were growing centers ofcivilization and intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arosewhich was to grow into a new phase of human evolution."

4.2.3 The Material and Physical Assets

Islam is the faith of over 1.25 billion Muslims, centered historically andsymbolically on the cities of Mecca and Medina in the ArabianPeninsula, where the word of God was revealed to Muhammad ibn'Abdullah from 610 until the Prophet's death in 632. Demographically,


the center of the Islamic world is well to the east of the Middle East.Only one-fifth of Muslims are Arab, and the largest populations ofMuslims live in Indonesia, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Out of 191 countries of the United Nations, 57 are Muslim countrieswhich also represent the OIC. With over one fifth of the worldpopulation and also possession of roughly one fifth of the world's landmass, Muslim countries also had been blessed with great wealth. Theyown some of the most abundant energy and mineral resources in theworld. They possess 70% of world's energy resources. And they supply40% of the global exports of raw materials.

But, unfortunately, the OIC as a group has failed to convert theirabundant human and physical resources into economic achievement.As a group the OIC has less than 5% of the world GDP; and, besides, theothers are growing faster. Therefore the per capita income o f the OICgroup is depreciating relative to other countries. The GDP of the entire Ummah is roughly $1400 billion while that ofJapan alone is $4500 billion. The highest GDP of a Muslim country is $185 billion while that of tiny European countries with no naturalresources is above $ 200 billion.

This disparity is because of the technological and human resource edgethey enjoy. The Ummah collectively can boast only of 500 universities(leave the quality aside) and 1000 PhDs per annum. Japan alone hasmore than 9000 universities and England alone produces more than2000 PhDs.

Incomes within OIC are also skewed. Only 6 countries account for morethan half the OIC income. Rest of the 51 countries generate a meagerincome of barely $ 600 billion. Out of the world's 48 least developedcountries, 22 are in OIC. 23 OIC countries are classified as severelyindebted by international institutions. In Trade and Foreign DirectInvestment (FDI), the OIC countries performance is again dismal. OICshare in world trade is only 6 to 8 percent. Hardly $15 billion of FDI isattracted by all the OIC countries. This figure is roughly that of Swedenor Thailand alone. China atone has FDI of $50 billion. What is mostsaddening is that lntra-OIC trade is a small fraction of its total tradevolume. The Muslims world was granted abundant material assets and human


resources. And it might be one of the important reasons why they stilllack behind economically. Self contented with the pouring profit fromtheir energy resources and raw material, they became less innovativecompared to those without their own resources. It is just the repetitionof the history of the 17th century.The Muslim nations should start thinking seriously on steps to generateeconomic growth in their countries. They should invent practicalmanouvers to increase intra OIC trade and investment so that theircitizens can share in the prosperity and superior technology throughbetter governance.


4.3 Future Direction

4.3.1 Centrally based scientific leadership

The importance of a central scientific leadership is unquestionable.Theformation of the Network of Academies of Science in Countries of theOrganization of Islamic Conference (NASIC) on the 17th March 2004 atIslamabad was a happy augury for the future. Founded by 15 NationalScience Academies of the OIC Member States, it has selected Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman from Pakistan as its president with the Pakistan Academy ofSciences as the secretariat of the network. They have agreed to establisha formal network to provide each other with mutual support and todiscuss the scientific aspects of problems of common concern. Hopefullythe network could help to build a unified approach to capacity buildingin science and technology within OIC member states.

Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, who is Pakistan's federal minister of science andtechnology, is also the coordinator-general of COMSTECH, the OIC'sStanding Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation.

NASIC is intended to be an autonomous, non-governmental, non-political and non-profit organisation. Its tasks will include developingscientific research collaborations between members of the network;promoting cooperation between academies in OIC countries; assistingin building the capacities of academies in OIC countries to improve theirrole as independent expert advisors to governments; and assistingscience communities in OIC countries to set up national independentacademies where such bodies do not exist.

In pursuing its objectives, it was also agreed that NASIC shouldcollaborate with other academies both inside and outside the OIC, aswell as with regional and international organisations concerned withproblems in OIC countries.

It is our hope that through NACIS the linkages between the scientists inOIC countries can be strengthened, leading to exchange of scientists,initiation of programmes in education and training in various fields ofscience and technology, together with promotion of joint research in


priority fields.

The flourishing numbers of international based association of Muslimprofessionals were also an important development for a better future ofscience. This includes the International Muslim Association of Scientistsand Engineers (IMASE) and the Federation of Islamic MedicalAssociation (FIMA).Futher collaboration with Internat….SocialScientist and the Fatwa

The International Muslim Association of Scientists and Engineers(IMASE) is a global networking organisation of researchers, scholars,technologists and professionals that aims to nurture and exploitknowledge, with an Islamic framework, for the benefit of mankind.IMASE strives to achieve this by gathering and focussing theknowledge, talents and experience of its members from around theworld, to identify and address the scientific and technologicalchallenges facing developing communities. They work to deal withthese challenges by delivering distinctive contributions throughresearch, action and publication. Their areas of focus includetechnology for development, water issues, enterprise and Muslimscience policy.

IMASE aims to be a practical consulting and problem-solvingorganisation that draws upon its network of members from thescientific community's finest, in order to assist in the development ofindividuals, organisations and nations across the world.Their FocusGroup aims to nurture and employ attitudes and practices of an Islamiccharacter towards science while their Islam and Science Forum aims toresearch and deliver coherent and realistic seminars, discussions andstudies on matters related to science, technology, society anddevelopment.

By pooling their disciplinary resources and engaging their collectivecuriosity towards contemporary challenges, they hope to play abeneficial role in building capability and confidence in Muslimknowledge structures on an Ummah level.The practical dimension of this group is in Translation, which refers tothe translation of an Islamic Philosophy of Science, to a deliverableScience Policy for Muslim nations and institutions. Through


consultations, surveys and publications, they will work to identify andbuild awareness amongst drivers of research priorities in contemporaryMuslim societies.

The Federation of Islamic Medical Association (FIMA), wasestablished in 1981, by a group of Muslim physicians and health careprofessionals from Canada, United State of America, India, Pakistan,Indonesia, Jordan, South Africa, Sudan, Nigeria, United Kingdom ofEire, who first met in Orlando, Florida, USA. They discussed the needfor an organization to unite all Islamic Health Care association in theworld under one banner. Currently it has over 24 member organizationsfrom all over the world.

Amongst the major objectives of FIMA are to foster the unity andwelfare of Muslim medical professionals all over the world and topromote Islamic medical activities including health services, educationand research, through cooperation and coordination among memberorganization. It also strives to promote the understanding theapplication of Islamic principal in the field of medicine, to mobilizeprofessional and economic resources in order to provide medical careand relief to affected areas and people. It also has the role to promoteexchange of medical information and technical data among memberorganization.

Over the years, Muslim medical professionals under FIMA banner,were capable of making history in overcoming and bypassingboundaries and divisions of politics, ethnicity and geography, and tostep forward as brothers in Islam, descendants of one great Islamiccivilization and culture.Over the past few years, Islamic MedicalAssociations all over the world were able to develop their activities invarious areas of medical, educational, scientific, humanitarian and otherfields of action. FIMA, as an umbrella organization, becameinstrumental in coordination, bridging and guidance, to bring aboutsound cooperation and planning among member associations.

To fulfill the Aims and Objectives layed down in December 1982, FIMAhas embarked on major projects including medical relief work indisaster areas, Islamic University Consortium, Islamic HospitalConsortium, High Technology Center, Medical Professional Database,


international and regional scientific conventions, medical studentactivities including scholarship summer and winter camps, and otheractivities in collaboration with various member associations. Otherprojects are awaiting genuine efforts, initiatives and leadership ofsuccessive and devoted professionals.

'Organized Islamic medical work is in dire need for dedication anddiligent innovation from all of us, in our continuous strife to regain theproper leading and dignified status of our Ummah in science, and allwalks of life' as once stressed by the past-president Dr. Aly Mishal, anendocrinologists who he himself is the director of the Islamic Hospitalin Jordan.

The Islamic Academy of Sciences (AIS) establishment was proposedby the Organisation of the Islamic Conference; (OIC) StandingCommittee on Scientific and Technological Co-operation(COMSTECH), and approved by the Fourth Islamic Summit held inCasablanca in 1984.Upon the invitation of Jordan, the FoundingConference of the Academy was held in Amman (Jordan) in October1986, under the patronage of HRH Prince Al-Hassan, who kindlyaccepted the patronage of the Academy together with the President ofPakistan.the secretariat is currently in Amman,Jordan.

IAS's mission is to provide an institutional set up for the utilisation ofScience and Technology for the development of Islamic countries andhumanity at large. It aims to increase interaction among scientists andfacilitate the exchange of views on development issues, and to functionas the Islamic Brain Trust helping the Islamic and Developing Worldsin the field of science and technology.

The Annual Academy Conferences represent open fora at whichexperts meet and discuss a particular topic, with the aim of arriving ata common understanding of that topic and formulating core policiesthat can help developing countries overcome their developmentdifficulties. In 2003, the thirteenth IAS Conferencewas held in Malaysia (Kucing,Serawak) and at the conclusion of thefour-day conference the Academy adopted the IAS KuchingDeclaration on Energy for Sustainable Development and Science for theFuture of the Islamic World and Humanity.


The declaration re-iterated the fact that the teachings of Islamemphasize the importance of prudently using all resources for Man'slasting well-being, and explicitly emphasize that human-beings' relationto nature should be one of stewardship and not of unrestricted mastery,and that Islam promotes a balance between all living creatures and theirlife-sustaining environment. It further called for the implementation ofan R&D policy that addresses the complex interconnections amongtechnological advance and societal responses and needs includingsustainability.

Through the declaration, the IAS re-iterated that science is a major assetof humanity, an asset that in the 21st century offers new opportunitiesand faces new challenges as well as old ones, challenges related to theprevalence of sustainable development, justice, tolerance, dialoguebetween civilisations and peace. It promulgated that the internationalscience/academic community must lead the way in bridging prevailingcivilisational, social, economic, even political divides between thepeoples of the world.

The Academy has been publishing the Journal of the Islamic Academy ofSciences since August 1988.For the first ten years of its existence theJournal was a broad-based scientific publication on average carryinggeneral scientific articles. However it has been re-launced in 1998 as aspecialised medical Journal thus becoming the Medical Journal of theIslamic Academy of Sciences.

4.3.2 Identification of the expertise (Muslim Who's who in Science)

Despite the fact that there are bountiful of Muslim scientists in thewestern countries, identification and bringing them together was not aneasy process. This can partly be attributed to the result of continuousassault on Islam. The label given to Islam and Muslims, from 'poor,underdeveloped countries', 'authoritarian religion and regimes' and'terrorist' has been repetitively emphasized by the media andpopularity-gainer politicians. This has led to the inferior complex withinthe Muslims themselves to their religion.

The consequences of this are variable. First, residing in foreign countries


which gave full support to their career advancement and their giftedintellectuality, and working under great western scientists orinstitutions, some of the Muslim scientists prefer to keep Islam withintheir inner self, afraid it will be a hindrance to their future careerdevelopment. Their active involvement in their professional societiesfar superseded their own contributions to promote scientific generationto the Muslim community, if any.

Second, many previously prominent scientist or scholars prefer to takea defensive stand when it came to Islamic issues. Not only that theyhave to spent unnecessary time to re-explain Islam in the mostdiplomatic way, they also feel that some attachment to the any Islamicassociation or interest group not of utmost important. They prefer toportray their scientific achievement as individual achievement ratherthan representing a collective effort of Muslims.

Third and most unfortunate phenomenon is that some of the scientistswith Muslim name tag behind them do not even practised Islam in theirdaily life. Islam has long been left behind back home, and it isunderstandable that they do not appreciate the role of Islam in theirintellectual upbringing, if not an obstacle for their scientificachievement in the Muslim world.

In general, despite their excellent scientific intellectualities, many ofMuslim scientists abroad are morally depressed, consciously orsubconsciously.Their moral should be boosted with proper approachand encouragement. Individual effort is appreciated but theorganizational impact is much more effective.

Academy of Sciences of each Muslim country should identify and traceall their scientists, locally and abroad. Those abroad should be invitedto join the academy of their respective countries so that they have thesense of belonging to a Muslim organization. They should be invited togive speeches of their speciality or appoint as honorary lecturer withtheir local university. Student should be sent to them for attachment.These kind of efforts will be much more appreciated by them and willboost their moral to participate in further scientific programme for thebenefit of the Muslims.


Efforts should be made to produce Islamic Who's who in Science. Thiswill not only give the recognition to their works but will serve as a directsource of networking among the Muslim scientists. Furthermore it willmotivate the young budding generation of Muslim scientists readingthrough the journey of success of their older generations. Muslimculture has a long tradition of biographical compilations. One of theearliest biographical dictionaries was that of Ibn Khalikan, born in Erbilin Iraq in 1211, who compiled the seven volume 'Wafayat al-A'yan waAnba' Abna' al-Zaman' (The Obituaries of Eminent Men).

During the course of this research, the author himself felt the difficultiesin identifying the prominent modern time Muslim scientists.Uncountable days passed in order to search, select and authenticitate forthe prominent one. The problems are numerous. Some had their Islamicname modified for some particular reason. Some with Muslim's namehad not potrayed or even hint in their formal or informal presentationor life that they are Muslim. Some had to be reconsidered and re-edit forbecause of their openedly exposed routine habit that is not inline withIslam itself. In general, the author had taken the 'face' value of Islam foreveryone, as the rest is between them and God.

Despite that one obvious thing that every one should know is that weare not lack of credible scientists. What we are in dire need is theirability to come forward and let themselves to be known at least to theMuslim world. No matter how uncomfortable it may make the Westernworld, Muslim scientists are now as much a part of the West as the East.In the future, an American-born Muslim scientist might win the NobelPrize and Muslim children would have a new type of Western rolemodel, far removed from the standard movie stars and sports figures.

This was explicitly pointed by Dr. Iqbal Unus, in his article, "MuslimScientists & Engineers: From Then to Now," confirming what as beensaid earlier by Abdus Salam:"Strange as it may sound, there are morehighly qualified Muslim science and engineering professionals in NorthAmerica than in any one single Muslim Country. This unique scienceand engineering community has become a source of much expectationand hope in the Muslim world. Distinguished by the quality of itsachievements, and its access to the best in research and developmentfacilities, it holds the promise of a better tomorrow for a world stuck


seemingly forever in a 'developing?' phase. The promise is yet to befulfilled, but the potential is there, as is the challenge."

4.3.3 Reorganization of material and human resources

As for any successful organization the material assets should be wellinvested and human resources should be efficiently utilized. Theabundant wealth scattered all over the Muslim world should neither bewasted unnecessarily nor kept hidden unexplored. At the same time,the excessive human resources should neither be neglected norexploited to benefit the others outside the nation.

Muslim world is facing economic inferiority complex because the lackof effective implementor rather than economic gurus. Similar tragedyoccurred to the intellectual pool, the brain drain of the talented Muslimscientists superceded the production capability of the intellectual'factories' throughout the Muslim countries.The emigration ofscientists, disenchanted by factors ranging from a lack of investment inresearch to social and political instability in the region, is threateningthe future technological and scientific development of the Muslimworld.

As for the material resources, The Organisation of Islamic Conference(OIC) representing one-fifth of the world's population and possessedrich natural resources and mineral reserves must create the necessary'economic mass'in order to have influence over international traderelations. The fact is that if the Muslim countries do not enter into someform of economic co-operation within the OIC, they risk having to bearthe brunt of extreme competition from the global trading system. Internal review of OIC found that a large portion of the wealthgenerated in some member countries do not get invested in other OICcountries. Even the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)report in 2003 pointed out that Arab rulers invest much of their oilmoney in the United States and other foreign countries, rather thanusing it to develop their own nations, and import technical know-howinstead of educating ample numbers of their own citizens to bescientists and engineers.

The Muslim nations need to focus on the economic development of


Muslim countries to gain political clout and they must start byunderstanding the causes and effects of economic backwardness insome members so that specific programmes can be tailored to sustaintheir future growth.Trade should be seen within the context of enrichingMuslims and developing their economies.

To start with, the domestic economic policies of the OIC countriesshould be reform and the key areas of reform include foreigninvestment laws, tax and trade regimes, currency and exchange controlsystems, corporate governance, stock exchanges and the judiciary. Thefinal outcome should be an attractive and easy intra-OIC flow ofinvestments.

Further, active participation in regional economic groupings especiallyamongst the OIC countries and their neighbourhood such as ASEAN,African Union,and others should be encourage or activated, with theview of benefiting the Muslim countries involved. While large businessgroups can afford to conduct due diligence and make intelligent tradeand investment decisions, a concerted effort should be launched toassist medium-sized enterprises.Support should be given to innovativefirms in emerging industries.

There is a huge potential for leveraging the cultural affinities within theMuslim countries to build robust brands. The success of Al-Jazeera andMecca Cola are examples of the penetrative effect of successful brands,learnt probably from the speed with which Nike and Starbucks haveexpanded their businesses around the world as a testimonial to effectivebranding. Another area of cooperation is the global market for "halal"food, potentially worth up to 500 billion dollars a year with some 1.8billion consumers. Even Malaysia had openly offered contract farmingor contract manufacturing arrangements with other OIC members tobring it into reality.

Muslims should realize their strength in consumerism. With a betterunderstanding of playing the globalization game and a new awarenessof their own purchasing power, they can fight back with substitutegoods and services. Even in America the spectrum ranges from "AbuAmmar" potato chips to local substitutes for DisneyWorld has shownpromising signs.And the purchasing power of Muslims has not gone


unnoticed, even in the US and and Britain. And in another sign ofcreative flexibility, longtime economic pariah Iran is succeeding in itsefforts to market bonds in international markets. Western financialmarkets have responded with Islamic indices and investment funds,such as those by Dow Jones and HSBC Investment Bank. These are yetthe early potential of the Muslim economy.

The OIC's collective gross domestic product is less than five percent ofthe global total, and trade among its members is estimated at 800 billiondollars annually which constitutes only six to seven percent of worldtrade.These numbers are relatively small given the total population sizeof the OIC. As such, the Muslim countries should work hard to realisethe huge growth potential for trade and investment in the OIC, quicklyand effectively.

One of the effective measurements is by identifying a cluster ofindustries for focused attention in promoting intra-OIC venturesinstead of dissipating our energies on too many sectors and industries.To begin with the following four sectors had been suggested for theirsynergies within the OIC: Energy, Agri-business, Financial Services,Information and Communications Technology.

Other steps include developing investment funds to facilitate jointventures and accelerate direct investment within the OIC especially byutilizing the experience of the Islamic Development Bank, exploringmechanisms for allowing trading across the stock exchanges of OICcountries and leverage of new technologies for the rapid transfer ofinformation about OIC business opportunities which include sharinginformation on best practices and creating directories and data bases.

The abovementioned steps are actually not new to OIC, yet past effortsto enhance economic relations within OIC failed because of twofundamental reasons: a lack of an institutional framework forimplementation and a lack of involvement of the business and privatesector. And as proposed by the President Musharraf during a recentmeeting in Kuala Lumpur, a Joint Economic and Business Teamconsisting of top officials and top businessmen from OIC countriesseems to be an acceptable remedy for the future.Given the increasing links between science and technology, state-


owned corporations have a potentially important scientific role. Linkageshould be build with university and researcher institutes, locally orwithin the OIC member countries. For example, adaptive research in thepetroleum and petrochemical industries can provide incentives for jointventures in research with state-owned companies. This will enhancescientific progress while maximizing the available resources

The very fact that the Muslim nations can offer unlimited opportunitiesin the oil, gas, mining and energy sectors, in tourism and infrastructuredevelopment, in the IT and telecommunication sector, in privatizationof state enterprises and in small and medium enterprises confirmed thatphysically they a fit for the future success. What left to be 'treated' or'tuned' is their 'mind'and 'attitude'.The Muslim nation has to beemancipated. They have to develop the capability to realise theirpotential and purify their willingness to help each other in optimisingtheir strength.

As for the intellectual 'brain drain', the following figures isalarming.According to a new study by Cairo's Gulf Centre for StrategicStudies, the emigration of intellectuals from the Arab world accounts forabout one-third of the total 'brain drain' from developing countries tothe West. Arab countries lose half of their newly-qualified medicaldoctors, 23 per cent of engineers and 15 per cent of scientists each year,with three quarters of these moving to the United Kingdom, UnitedStates and Canada. This is estimated to equate to annual losses to Arabstates of more than US$2 billion.

The study also found that 45 per cent of Arab students who studyabroad do not go back to their countries after graduating. As a result, itsays that Western states are the greatest beneficiaries of 450,000 Arabswith higher scientific qualifications.

The study says that a range of political, economic, social and personalfactors are to blame for the brain drain. These include the slowdevelopment in Arab countries, a failure to make adequate use of newtechnologies in the productive sector, low salaries, and the relative lackof opportunities for scientific research.

Broader factors include the political and social instability in many


countries in the region. Iraq, for example, is currently suffering a newbrain drain as intellectuals flood out of the country to avoidunemployment and assassination attempts.

The study recommends an 11-fold increase in spending on scientificresearch and preparation of a strategy for science development in theArab world as part of a strategy to counteract the impact of the braindrain.

It points out that at present only 0.2 per cent of the Arab region's GrossDomestic Product is spent on scientific research, compared to betweentwo and 3.6 per cent in Denmark, France, Japan, Israel, Switzerland andthe United States.

"If the 10,000 Egyptian experts who are working abroad in the medicaland biotechnology sector came back, it would be enough to start a newtechnological revolution in Egypt," says Venice Kamel Gouda, formerEgyptian minister of scientific research. She urges Arab states tosupport the Network of Arab Scientists and Technologies Abroad(ASTA) to act as 'an emigrant think-tank' that would serve as a bridgewith Arab countries through consultancies, sabbaticals and theexchange of information.

Malaysia's last national survey of research and development (R&D),carried out in 2000, indicated that spending on R&D represented only0.5 per cent of gross domestic product, and that there were 15.6researchers per 10,000 of the labour force. The Second National Scienceand Technology Policy, drawn up by Ministry of Science, Technologyand Innovation (MOSTI), aims to increase R&D expenditure to at least1.5 per cent of GDP, and to achieve a competent work force of at least60 researchers per 10,000 labour force by 2010. These goals fall intoMalaysia's broader objectives of achieving the status of a developednation by 2020.

The Prime Minister, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi has also instructedMOSTI to review incentives to attract Malaysian scientists workingoverseas to return home. The country's human resources ministry hasalready agreed to make venture capital, financial assistance andresearch development facilities more accessible. Reports in the


Malaysian press suggest that other moves being explored by the scienceministry may include the encouragement of more research collaborationbetween Malaysians abroad and those at home. Such projects are a goodway of tapping into the knowledge of the former while allowing themto continue working overseas.

In total, 30,000 Malaysian graduates are thought to work in foreigncountries. Some have held scholarships in top universities overseas likethose offered by the Public Service Department, but have decided tostay at the end of their studies."It costs the government a lot of moneyto send our students overseas," said former Prime Minister MahathirMohamad."[Those countries] should pay [Malaysia] for having takenaway our graduates since, by right, the graduates' training andknowledge should be called intellectual property."Other scientists haveleft their country to pursue a research career in well-equippedlaboratories abroad.

In Indonesia, universities are calling for greater autonomy, which theyhope will help reverse the brain drain of science and technologygraduates from the country. According to government statistics, morethan 85,000 Indonesians study overseas each year. Many of theseemigrate permanently.Leading institutions, including the BandungInstitute of Technology (ITB), the University of Indonesia, and thescience and technology campus of the Gadjah Mada University, arecalling for reform of the education system. They want improvedfunding and more control over how they manage courses.The ITB,which is slipping in international academic rankings, is already takingsteps to increase control over its activities. By the end of 2004, it willhave broken away from government funding and will be a semi-privateinstitution.

"The pendulum can swing back," wrote Ibrahim B. Syed of theUniversity of Louisville "Islamic countries have the opportunity andresources to make Islamic science and medicine number one in theirworld once again."

4.3.4 Selection and establishment of regional scientific centres


Regional scientific centres play an important role in ensuring theimplementation of scientific activities within the region. They shouldfunction not only as a watchdog to the international scientificcommittee but more importantly as a motivator to the continuity ofscientific endevours. In view of practicality, they can be divided intocontinents and should identify their scope of scientific interest andresearch. The collaboration between the regional centres is wellencouraged and should be adequately monitored by the internationalscientific committee.To date there are several excellent and 'state of the art' centres in theMuslim countries, however their religional of merely national role areyet to be clarified. The similar condition applied to the regionalassociation or foundation.

The Arab Science and Technology Foundation in Sharjah, UnitedArab Emirates was form by a group of leading scientists in 2000. Theemirates are among a handful of countries - which include Egypt,Pakistan and Jordan - that lately are investing more in science educationand research. Sheikh Sultan Bin Mohammed Al-Qassimi, the ruler ofSharjah, donated $1 million from his own pocket to start the sciencefoundation and provided its $5 million headquarters building. Thefoundation hopes to raise $100 million so it can provide research grantsand encourage Arab scientists in other countries to return home.

The Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and CommunityDevelopment, backed by the Emir of Qatar is building a vast"Education City" featuring branch campuses of Carnegie Mellon andCornell Universities.

The Association of Muslim Scientists and Engineers (AMSE) based inIndiana, USA is a non-profit scientific, educational and culturalorganization of Muslim scientists and engineers who are citizens of orreside in North America. The objectives of the Association are:encouraging Muslim scientists and engineers to direct their talents tothe betterment of humankind; providing encouragement, guidance andassistance to Muslim professionals and students in science andengineering and lastly gathering, distributing and disseminatingtechnical information. It carries out activities that are scientific,


educational, religious, cultural and charitable in service to the Muslimcommunity in North America.

It is very important to avoid redundancy in the activities of all theseregional or state-based institutions. The central body should take theeffort to identify and recognises their specific role so that there won't beany repetition and waste of material and human resources. Effectivecollaboration and periodic assessment and report should be the routinequality control. The regional centers should be easily accessible withoutmuch red-tape for other scientists within the region its represents. Shortor long term scholarstic exchanges should be maximised so that thespirit of regionality for the benefir of the Muslim nation can bemaintained and their expertise can be fully utilised.

4.3.5 Preservation of scientific heritage

As mentioned earlier, knowing that there are over three thousandmanuscripts of medicine in India which have never been studied byanybody and there are thousands of manuscripts in Yemen which wedon't even know about, and in addition to abundant treasuries ofIslamic manuscripts in Ethopia, many of them in the sciences, thenecessity to assemble Islamic manuscripts from all over the world isunquestionable. Effort should be devoted to compile those manuscriptsand original surveys. Eventhough the process will take a long time,steps has been taken and progress has been made.However continoussupport from everybody should be maintained and the search should bemade obligatory in one mind.

Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation was established in London in1988 by the Yamani Cultural and Charitable Foundation. It is housed ina historic Jacobean manor: Eagle House. The Foundation has as its aimthe documentation and preservation of the Islamic written heritage. It ispursuing this aim principally through its work in surveying,cataloguing, editing and publishing Islamic manuscripts.

Islamic manuscripts are estimated to number three million, coveringsubjects as diverse as the Quran, Prophetic traditions, jurisprudence,logic and philosophy, as well as mathematics, botany, biology, poetry


and literature, and art and crafts. Nowadays these manuscripts are notthe exclusive preserve of Arab and other Muslim countries, or even ofcountries with large Muslim minorities. Manuscripts are foundextensively in Europe, the Americas, Japan, Australia and Africa. Thereis hardly a country that does not possess some manuscripts producedunder the aegis of the Muslim civilisation.

This large and important resource is, tragically, in great danger of beingdamaged or even lost forever. Political conflict, social upheaval ormerely natural causes - whenever and wherever there is a lack ofresources essential for its maintenance and preservation, this heritage isin danger. Al-Furqan Foundation is committed to mobilising everyavailable expertise to preserve these manuscripts and to restore theircontent to the cultural mainstream.

Regional and international Islamic scientific community andassociation have also shown their interest in collecting these invaluableheritages especially the one related to their speciality. This has severaladvantages. Besides the ability of focusing on the details of previousinnovations, they can relate it intelligently with the currentdevelopment and make it more digestable to the ever-eager freshgeneration of Muslim scientists. They can assimilate these historicalachievements into the present education making science a joyful,memorable and spirit-enhancing subject for our children.

However, all these encouraging efforts can be effectively utilised ifthese bodies can established formal linkage among themselves,allowing proper monitoring and collection into a central establishedbody or foundation. Otherwise we will be occupied with redundantactivities which will delay if not hamper the progress of rebuilding ourscientific generation.

4.3.6 Awards and scholarship

Historically, Muslim societies have devoted considerable resources tosupport science. The eighth-century Umayyad caliph 'Umar ibn 'Abdal-'Aziz, known as pious, frugal and peaceful, in the early eighthcentury established cash prizes of between 100 and 300 dirhams for


"scholarly works." The eighth to 10th centuries were times of intenseachievement in science, astronomy and medicine in the Islamic worldand translations into Arabic of scholarly works from other cultures weresupported by patrons who included royalty, ranking civil servants andmembers of the political and religious elite.

"Until the rise of modern science, no other civilization engaged as manyscientists, produced as many scientific books, or provided as varied andsustained support for scientific activity," wrote Ahmad Dallal in TheOxford History of Islam. In distinction from religious knowledge, henotes, the exact sciences were often called al-'ulum musbtarakatun baynaal-'umam ("the sciences shared among all the nations").

To date, the King Faisal International Prize (KFIP) can be consideredthe most prestigious award offered by the Muslim world. Founded in1977, the KFIP is the first multidisciplinary, international prizesponsored from the Arab world in modern times. Having nowrecognized 139 laureates from 35 countries in five award categories-science, medicine, Islamic studies, Arabic literature and service to Islam-the KFIP is globally recognized. It is administered by the King FaisalFoundation, a legacy of the third king of Saudi Arabia.

The prize rewards men and women who exceptionally contribute to thepreservation and promotion of Islamic heritage. It also recognizesexcellence in academic and scientific research. The cornerstones of theKFIP are its prizes for service to Islam, Islamic studies and Arabicliterature, which were first awarded in 1979. Yet it was the prizes forscience, begun in 1982, and for medicine (1984) that brought the KFIP toworld attention by generous recognition of advances that benefithumanity as a whole. These categories are assigned a theme each year:The science prize rotates through the disciplines of chemistry, biology,physics and mathematics in a four-year cycle; the medicine prize isawarded for diverse, topical themes.

Next in line is the The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement inSciences Prize, organised by The Islamic Organization for MedicalSciences under the The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement ofSciences (KFAS). They allocated two prizes to be awarded everyalternate year to support and promote scientific research in the field of


Islamic Medical Science in the following areas:

1. Medical practice, addressing professional and well-documentedclinical and laboratory experiments.

2. Appropriate documentation of Islamic Medical Heritageincluding Medical Islamic Jurisprudence

Each Prize consists of a cash sum of K.D. 6.000/-(U.S.$ 20.000/-approx.), a KFAS Shield and a Certificate of Recognition. The winnerswill be invited to receive their prizes at the Prize Awarding Ceremonyduring the commencement of the Organization's conference.

These are the 'hallmark' prizes for the prestigious group of scientistsand are much applauded without forgetting the other prizes andawards that should be similarly initiated at different level of scientificachievement and for different group of people.The Muslimprofessionals, irrespective whether they belong or not to the scientificfraternity should start giving such prizes or awards within theircapabilities. They can even individually sponsor an award at theirchildren's school or colleges or even in their community circle. Theaward should be persistent on annually basis to build up themomentum within their respective target group, and it should includeboth the student and the teacher of science. The Muslimsorganizations, besides giving prizes, can also award a sponsorship forscientific books and material to the library in school, community centreand mosques. The target group gets the useful material andrecognition, while the organization is able to build a scientific bridgewith them.


Conclusions

CONCLUSIONS

'The great task facing Muslim intellectuals and leaders is to recast thewhole legacy of human knowledge from the standpoint of Islam. Thevision of Islam would not be a vision unless it is a vision of something,namely, life, reality, and the world. That vision is the object of study ofvarious disciplines. To recast knowledge as Islam relates to it, is toIslamize it, i.e., to redefine and reorder the parameters and the data, torethink the reasoning and interrelationships of the data, to reevaluatethe conclusions, to re-project the goals, and to do so in such a way as tomake the reconstituted disciplines enrich the vision and the serve thecause of Islam.' Those were the words of Al-Faruqi almost 20 years agowhich still valid up to this day.

The weakness of the Muslim nation and commonwealth is a majorcontributing factor to the stagnation of the Muslim scientificdominancy. Remedial measures should be taken to address thisproblem in order to assure a successful scientific re-emergence.Negligence to this important issue will only hamper the collectiveprogress of science in the Muslim nations despite the present ofindividual achievers in their respective field. Muslim scientists are thesupporting brick in the house of Islam. The house and foundationshould be in existence or in progress for the brick to play into function.

The principles of Islam, namely, the unity of truth, the unity ofknowledge, the unity of humanity, the unity of life, the purposefulcharacter of creation, and the subservience of creation to man and ofman to Allah (SWT), must replace the Western categories anddetermine the perception and ordering of reality. So too, the values ofIslam should replace Western values and direct the learning activity inevery field. These values, especially the usefulness of knowledge forman's felicity, the blossoming of man's faculties, and the remolding ofcreation so as to concretize the divine patterns, should be manifested inthe building of culture and civilization

The blessed spiritual, historical and physical assets given by Allah tothe Muslim nation should be maximally utilised in the most effectiveway in order to prove the appreciation of the gift itself. It shouldn't bewasted or left at the disposal and manipulated by the other nation.


The diring need of credible leaders in the Muslim countries similarlyapplied to the scientific fraternity. The Muslim scientists and theMuslim scientists cum politicians or philosophers, whoever andwherever they are, should take the leadership role to steward this shipof scientific geniuses who has unconsciously floating too long in theocean of tribulations. Their collegues should be waken up or evenresuscitated to take part actively so that this valuable ship can reach itharbour of destiny without any significant casualties. More important,is the task it has undertaken, to convey the treasure of knowledgepassed to them by their ancestor when they first sail to the awaitingpredecessor at the port where they anchor their ship.

This leadership role should expand beyond the Muslim dominatedcountries to the international and regional forum, government or nongovernmental organizations (NGO), and political parties both asopponents or opposition to signify their understanding of the necessityof re-building of the Muslim nation and commonwealth as a pre-requisite to future scientific dominancy.

In summary, the success of scientific re-emergence is more of thedomain of the attitude and leadership of the Muslim world rather thanmaterial restriction or insufficient human resources. Even the long term'insults' to Islam are also facing ambivalences. 'The modernization ofMuslim societies, promoted by the Western allies as a buffer againsttraditionalism, seems to wind up fueling Islamism. Modern schoolsproduce Islamists as well as liberals; modern businesses fund Islamist aswell as other causes; modern communications can broadcast Islamist aswell as other messages. Western culture, we are learning, is not the onlyform that modernity may assume' as quoted by Kurtzman.

Lastly, we hope that Allah will keep the doors of knowledge andintelligence open to us. The facts and recommendation laid throughoutthis research are for everyone. This is a general invitation for all theMuslims, which is neither connected to particular group andcommunity, nor it has a bias towards any such thinking or ideology asmay be known for a particular shade of opinion or for some specialattachments, but its attention and activities are always centred roundthe spirit of the religion and its nerve centre.


It is strongly desired that the point of view of all of us should be one,the target before our courage should be one, in order that our effortsshould not go waste, but should be most useful and effective. Weshould encourage collectivism and abhors segregation since the denialof the common highway is infidelity in its eyes. It is a fact that theMuslims did not face any greater test than divisions into groups, aliking for difference and mutual differences and conflict. It is themalady which has eaten up the Muslim nation. If the Muslims weredisgraces and dishounoured, it was due to this. And if they werevictorious in any period, it was by virtue of love, affection and mutualcooperation only. We should remember that the important thing, onwhich the success of our ancestors and their welfare was based, wouldbe the basis of our prosperity and well being. This is the basic fact thatshould have taken a firm root in our hearts and minds. Let thetransition of this beloved heritage of intellectuality and civilization beaccomplished before we met our final destiny.


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Science and Faith

Once Science said to Faith:

"My eye can see all that is in this world;The Entire world is within my net.

I am only concerned with material things,What have I to do with spiritual matters?

I can strike a thousand melodies,And openly proclaim all the secrets that I learn."

Faith said:

"With your magic even the waves in the sea are set ablaze,You can pollute the atmosphere with foul, poisonous gases.

When you associated with me, you were light,When you broke off from me, your light became fire.

You were of Divine origin, But you have been caught in the clutches of Shaytan.

Come, make this wasteland a garden once again.Borrow from me a little of my ecstasy,

And in the world set up a paradise.From the day of creation we have been associates,

We are the low and high tunes of the same melody."

(Allama Iqbal)

leadership role of muslim scientists

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