leadership studies.pptx

8/14/2019 LEADERSHIP STUDIES.pptx

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LEADERSHIP STUDIES


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NEED FOR LEADERSHIP

Most organizations are highly structured, have relatively clear lines ofauthority, stated objectives, and momentum to carry them forward

Why, then is leadership necessary, a need for incremental influence beyondthe routine directives and formal job requirements?

Of every one hundred new business establ ishments star ted, approxi matelyf if ty, or one hal f , go out of business withi n two years by the end of f iveyears, only one- thi rd of the original one hundred wil l stil l be in business

- George R Terry


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NEED FOR LEADERSHIP

Incomplete organizational structure A degree of incompleteness in every organization design Social organizations not designed to be like machines: simply turned on

and allowed to run untouched Leaders needed to structure tasks, decide who should do what, delegate

work assignments Leaders help subordinates to accomplish collective goalsExternal change The organization exists in a changing environment. As the external environment changes, leaders are needed to identify the

strategic mission of the organization and help it adapt to its changingenvironment


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NEED FOR LEADERSHIP (cont)

Internal change Leadership is needed to coordinate the efforts of diverse organizational

units, particularly during periods of rapid growth or decline Leadership is necessary to solve internal conflicts and settle differences of

opinionMotivate and inspire Need to motivate people and maintain their involvement in the organization Individuals are not permanent fixtures within the organization: they come

and go, and when they are present, their needs and interests change Effective leadership provides meaning and purpose by creating a vision of

where the \organization is going Inspire, motivate and transform subordinates into committed contributors to

the organization is the function of leadership


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MANAGEMENT

Use of author ity inherent in designated formal r ank to

obtain compliance f rom organizational members


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LEADERSHIP THEORY ISSUES

Are leaders born that way or do they learn leadership behaviours? (Traits vs Behaviours)

Is there one best way to lead in all situations? (Universal vs

Contingency) If Contingency, what variables are important?

eg, Followers, Task, Environment How much should the leader allow subordinates to participate in

decisions? How can you improve leadership?


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LEADERSHIP THEORIES

TRAITS

BEHAVIOURS

UNIVERSAL

TYPE I:TRAIT THEORIES

TYPE II: OHIO,MICHIGAN,LEADERSHIP GRID

CONTINGENT

TYPE III: FIEDLER

TYPE IV: HERSHEY& BLANCHARD

LEADERATTRIBUTES

APPLICABILITY


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TRAIT THEORIES

Theories that consider personality, social, physical orintellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non-leaders rnde.

Leaders are born, not made

A trait is any distinguishing, relatively enduring way inwhich an individual differs from others


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TRAITS OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS

Adaptable Alert to social environment Achievement oriented

Assertive Cooperative Decisive Dependable

Persistent Self -confident Tolerant of stress Willing to assume responsibility


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SKILLS OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS

Intelligent Conceptually skilled Creative

Diplomatic Tactful Good speaking ability Knowledgeable of groups

Persuasive Socially skilled


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TRAIT THEORIES: LIMITATIONS

* No universal traits found that predict leadership in all

situations

* Traits successful in one situation not automatically transferableto other situations: traits do not generalize across situations

* Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship ofleadership and traits

* Better predictor of the appearance of leadership thandistinguishing effective and ineffective leaders

* Better at predicting leader emergence than leader effectiveness


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BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

Leadership behaviours can be taught

Theories proposing that specific behaviours differentiate leadersfrom non-leaders

Leadership behaviors can

e taught


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ROBERT TANNENBAUM & WARRENSCHMIDT (1958, 1973): TYPE II

The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum is a simple model which showsthe relationship between the level of freedom that a manager chooses togive to a team, and the level of authority used by the manager.

As the team's freedom is increased, so the manager's authority decreases.Tannenbaum and Schmidt recognized that in an interaction between aleader and his or her team there is a trade-off between the control exercised

by the leader and the control exercised by the team. No one ever has 100 per cent control, because even if a leader gives a direct order, the teammembers retain control over, for example, how enthusiastically they obeythe order.

They highlight four distinct leadership styles, labeled telling, selling,consulting and participation.


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ROBERT TANNENBAUM &WARREN SCHMIDT (1958, 1973)


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SELL

Manager makes decision and then "sells" decision A persuasive style: the leader gives clear direction and supervises closely

but also explains decisions, encourages suggestions and supports progress Most useful when motivation is lacking: also the best style where a task is

non-negotiable but where the team's motivation is vital to achieve theresults required

For this style to work you need to: Develop team skills, monitoring how those skills are implemented; Spend time with each individual addressing standards, skills and motivation Monitor closely and be directive to keep performance to agreed standards; Listen to the team's feelings but stand your ground in relation to the goal; Reward positive behaviour.


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CONSULT/SHARE

Manager presents ideas and invites questions Manager presents tentative decision subject to change Manager presents problem, get suggestions, makes decision A collaborative style in which the leader discusses the task and listens to

the team's ideas and makes the key decisions

Most useful when the team has sufficient skills and competence to make acontribution but where the leader feels a need to retain control from animbalance between the team's competence and the risk involved in the task

For this style to work you need to: Focus on morale and team spirit Encourage participation, straight comment and feedback. Specify objectives but let the team discuss how to achieve them Explain fully, and encourage 'buy-in' to major decisions while minimizing

directives and suggestions from yourself, except in exceptionalcircumstances


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PARTICIPATE/DELEGATE

Manager defines limits; asks group to make decision Manager permits subordinate to function within limits defined by superior A facilitating style in which the leader allows the team maximum

responsibility, this is most useful when the team is competent and has a positive attitude towards the task. You can let them get on with it and usethis style as an important part of their development

For this style to work you need to: Act as a resource that the team can call on when needed Delegate increased responsibilities Allow team members to manage themselves once you have agreed clear

objectives - allow them to administer day-to-day monitoring and control Represent the team to others, when necessary tackling anything thatinterferes with their performance


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TANNENBAUM & SCHMIDT:LEADERSHIP STYLES

Choice of practicable and desirable leadership style will depend upon the following factors:The Leader

Leader behaviour is influenced by personality, background, knowledge, and Experience andincludes : (a) Value systems (b) Confidence in subordinates (c) Leadership inclinations(d) Feelings of security in an uncertain situation

The SubordinatesPersonality of the subordinates and expectations from the leader influences their behaviour thatincludes: (a) Readiness to assume responsibility in decision-making (b) Degree of tolerance forambiguity (c) Interest in the problem and feelings as to its importance (d) Strength of the needsfor independence (e) Knowledge and experience to deal with the problem (f) Understanding andidentification with the goals of the OrganizationThe Situation

The environmental and general situations also affect leader behaviour. These include: (a) Type ofOrganization (b) Group effectiveness (c) Nature of the problem (d) Time pressure


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TANNENBAUM & SCHMIDT:ADVANTAGES

Gives managers a range of choices for involvement

Presents criteria for involvement and delegation Focuses decision maker on relevant criteria (e.g., forces &

time) Emphasizes employee development and empowerment Is heuristic--encourages research to see how effective

delegation may be under the model


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TANNENBAUM & SCHMIDT:LIMITATIONS

Involves only the initial step of assigning a task to someone,not the following processes that may determine theeffectiveness of the outcome

Assumes the manager has sufficient information to determinedisposition to self or team

Assumes "neutral" environment without social bonds or politics

Simplifies complex decisions to a two-polar dimension; moresimple than reality is


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MICHIGAN STUDIES (RENSIS LIKERT):TYPE II

Identified two forms of leader behavior Job-centered behavior Employee-centered behavior The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to

be at opposite ends of the same continuum


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OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY MODEL:TYPE II

Early research began in 1945 and identified two styles of leadership behaviour plotted on two separate axes as opposed to being on a single continuum: Consideration and I ni tiating Structure

These two dimensions are independent: Consideration and Initiating

Structure exi st simultaneously and in different amounts

Initiating structure behaviours were essentially task behaviours

Consideration behaviours were relationship behaviours A matrix wascreated that showed the various combinations and quantities of theelements

The Ohio State framework attempts to include behavioural concepts as wellas attitudinal items


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INITIATING STRUCTURE

Behaviors by means of which the leader defines or facilitates groupinteraction toward goal attainment. The leader does this by planning,scheduling, criticizing, initiating ideas, organizing the work, definingmember roles, assigning Tasks, and pushing for production This leadership style is task-oriented Letting group members know what is expected of them Maintaining definite standards of performance Scheduling the work to be done Asking that group members follow standard rules and regulations

Leaders with high structure and low consideration behaviour useone-way communications, and decisions are made by the managers


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OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Low High

Initiating Structure

Low

High

C o n s i

d e r a

t i o n

Low Structure, High

Consideration

High Structure, High

Consideration

Low Structure, Low

Consideration

High Structure, Low

Consideration


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BLAKE MOUTON MODEL


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LEADERSHIP STYLES: BLAKE &MOUTON

Impoverished Management (1, 1) Managers with this approach are low on both the dimensions and exercise

minimum effort to get the work done from subordinate The leader has low concern for employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a

result disharmony and disorganization prevail within the organization The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action is merely aimed at

preserving job and seniority.Task management (9, 1) Also called dictatorial or perish style Leaders are more concerned about production and have less concern for people:

based on theory X of McGregor Employees needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end The leader believes that efficiency can result only through proper organization of

work systems and through elimination of people wherever possible. Such a style can definitely increase the output of organization in short run but due

to the strict policies and procedures


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LEADERSHIP STYLES: BLAKE &MOUTON

Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5) Leader does not push the boundaries of achievement resulting in average performance for

organization Neither employee nor production needs are fully metCountry Club (1, 9)

C ollegial style characterized by low task and high people orientation where the leader givesthoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them with a friendly andcomfortable environment

Leader feels that such a treatment with employees will lead to self-motivation and will find people working hard on their own

However, a low focus on tasks can hamper production and lead to questionable results

Basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to maintain a balance between goalsof company and the needs of peopleTeam Management (9, 9) Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is based on the theory Y of McGregor

and has been termed as most effective style according to Blake and Mouton The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and respect are the key elements in

creating a team atmosphere which will automatically result in high employee satisfaction and production.

A O O A AG A


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BLAKE MOUTON MANAGERIALGRID: LIMITATIONS

The model ignores the importance of internal and external constraints, context,circumstances and situation

There is an underlying supposition that a single, universally-applicable leadershipstyle will fit all situations

Blake and Mouton claim that when the Managerial Grid model is used, research

consistently supports the 9,9 style as the one best style The grid itself suggests that management is best at a 9,9 co-ordinates: but a question

is whether this is always appropriate, either all the time or at different times There are more dimensions of leadership that can be relevant The theoretical basis of Blake and Moutons' approach has been questioned, critics

have pointed to a lack of substantial research evidence for the effectiveness of GridOrganization Development programmes The Managerial Grid tends to be an attitudinal model that measures the values and

feelings of a manage r


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LEADERSHIP A DYNAMIC PROCESS

LEADER

LEADERSHIP

GROUP SITUATION


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FIEDLERs CONTINGENCY THEORY

(Type III)Leader Traits Relationship-oriented Leader(High LPC*)

-Close and positive relationships-Prioritize relationship before task

Task-oriented Leader (Low LPC)-Put task first and turn to relationship onlyafter work-progress

(Fiedler believed it is easier to change asituation than to change a leaders characteristics)*LPC ( Least Preferred Co-worker: a person with

whom a leader has worked and would now

least prefer to work again) A high LPC leader scores the other person as positive and a low LPC leader scores theother person as negative

Situational Variables Leader-Member Relations

Good vs Poor Task Structure

Structured (High) vsUnstructured (Low) Leader Position Power

Strong vs Weak


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FIEDLERs CONTINGENCY MODEL


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FIEDLERs RECOMMENDATIONS

Task-oriented managers more effective in veryfavourable or very unfavourable situations

Relationship-oriented managers more effectivein moderately favour able situations.

HERSEYAND BLANCHARDs


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HERSEY AND BLANCHARDs

SITUATIONAL THEORY: TYPE IV

One of the most widely practiced leadership model It has been used as a major training device by many

corporations including BankAmerica, Caterpillar, IBM, MobilOil, Xerox, and the military

The theory focuses on followers maturity: the abili ty andwill ingness of people to take responsibility for directing theirown behaviour

Maturity should be considered only in relation to a specifictask to be performed and not in a total sense


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SITUATIONAL THEORY


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COMPONENTS OF MATURITY

Job Maturity Related to the ability to do something Knowledge, skill and experience

Autonomous functioning

Psychological Maturity Willingness or motivation to do something Confidence and commitment Sense of responsibility and self-confidence


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SITUATIONAL THEORY

Telling

For Low maturity: subordinates insecure, unable or unwilling to take responsibilityProvide clear, specific instructions: what, how, when, and whereClosely supervise performanceHigh task and Low relationship behaviour

Selling

For Low to Moderate maturity: subordinates unable but willing to take responsibilityConfident but lack skillsProvides both direction and supportive behaviour to reinforce willingness andenthusiasmSubordinates go along with a decision if they understand the reason: explain decisionsand provide clarificationHigh task and High relationship behaviour


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SITUATIONAL THEORY Participating

For moderate to high maturity: subordinates able but unwilling due insecurity or under-confidenceMain role of the leader is to facilitate communication: supportive, non-directive

participative styleIdeas and decision making is shared

DelegatingFor high maturity: subordinates able, willing and confident to take responsibilityLeader defines the problem but provides little direction and support: subordinatesdecide how, when and whereLow relationship and Low task behaviour


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FOUR BASIC LEADERSHIPSTYLES


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FOUR BASIC LEADERSHIPSTYLESHuman Relations Leader LOW emphasis on performance and high emphasis on people Assumes that people are honest, trustworthy, self-motivated and want to be

involved A participative, permissive, and supportive work environment will lead to happy

and productive workers Relies on teamwork, human relations, participative decision-making, and good

harmony to get the job doneDemocratic Leader HIGH emphasis on performance and people Assumes that people are honest, trustworthy, and work hard to accomplish

meaningful goals and challenging work

Strives for a well organized and challenging work environment with clearobjectives and responsibilities Gets the job done by motivating individuals and groups to use their full potential in

reaching organizational as well as their own personal objectives

FOUR BASIC LEADERSHIP STYLES


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FOUR BASIC LEADERSHIP STYLES(cont)

Laissez Faire Leader LOW emphasis on performance and people. Assumes that people are unpredictable and uncontrollable A leaders job is to do enough to get by, keep a low profile, stay out of trouble, and

leave people alone as much as possible. Relies on abdicating to whomever will rise to the occasion to get the job done

Autocratic Leader HIGH emphasis on performance and a low emphasis on people Assumes that people are lazy, irresponsible, and untrustworthy and that planning,

organizing, controlling, and decision making should be accomplished by the leaderwith minimal employee involvement

Relies on authority, control, power, manipulation and hard work to get the job done


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LEADERSHIP STYLE CONSEQUENCES

Human Relations Leader This style may keep employees happy, but there is little evidence to support the

notion that keeping employees happy and treating them well results in high productivity.

Preoccupation with keeping people happy and involved often interferes with high

achievement, causes employees to lose respect for their leader, results in theemergence of informal leaders, and causes problems to be smoothed over

Such an atmosphere can be frustrating to goal-oriented peopleDemocratic Leader Results in high employee productivity, satisfaction, cooperation, and commitment.

Reduces the need for controls and formal rules and procedures Results in low employee absenteeism and turnover Develops competent people who are willing to give their best, think for themselves,

communicate openly, and seek responsibility


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LEADERSHIP STYLE CONSEQUENCES

Laissez Faire Leader Employees become apathetic, disinterested, and resentful of the

organization and their leader Results in the lowest employee productivity and satisfaction of all the

leadership stylesAutocratic Leader Although the emphasis is on high productivity, it often breeds counter-

forces of antagonism and restriction of output Frequently results in hostile attitudes, suppression of conflict, distorted and

guarded communications, high turnover and absenteeism, low productivityand work quality, and preoccupation with rules, procedures, red tape, statussymbols, and trying to cater to the whims of the boss

Tends to develop dependent and uncreative employees who are afraid toseek responsibility


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STYLE AND SKILLS

Style The emphasis a person places on performance and people and the

characteristics, attitudes, mannerisms, and personality of the leader Blake and Mouton suggested, if a leader continuously changed styles,

employees would be constantly confused in their attempts to predict andadjust to their leaders erratic behaviour

Skills Specific techniques that a person uses to accomplish goals such as staffing,

planning, organizing, controlling, communicating, evaluating performance,

handling problems and conflicts, and managing time Each style of leader tends to apply these skills in a unique way and

emphasizes some skills more than others

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STYLE


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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STYLEAND SKILLS

What an effective contingency leader changes is not his or her style, butrather the selection of skills and the way they are applied dependi ngon the si tuation

Examples

An autocratic leader tends to emphasize centralized planning, organizing,and controlling, and to apply these skills in an authoritative, impersonalway

Thus, an effective leader may change skills depending on the requirementsof the situation and still maintain a consistent leadership style

A democratic leader, for example, does not have to suddenly turn into anautocratic person to use skills such as close supervision and tight controls ifthey are appropriate to the situation.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH


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FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

LEADER

TASK DEMANDSUNDERSTANDS TASK

DANGER

PRESSURE

TIME

SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY

NEED FOR AUTONOMY

MOTIVATION

EXPERTISE

COHESION

MENTALABILITY

COURAGE

MOTIVATION

ENERGY

SOCIALORIENTATION

MATURITY


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TRANSACTIONAL LEADESHIP

Emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on themutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers suchthings as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers

Most often used by the managers Focuses on the basic management process of controlling, organizing, and short-term planning Famous examples of leaders who have used transactional technique include McCarthy and de

Gaulle Transactional leadership involves motivating and directing followers primarily through

appealing to their own self-interest Power of transactional leaders comes from their formal authority and responsibility in the

organization Main goal of the follower is to obey the instructions of the leader. The style can also be

mentioned as a telling style

The leader believes in motivating through a system of rewards and punishment If a subordinate does what is desired, a reward will follow: if he does not, a punishment will

follow Exchange between leader and follower takes place to achieve routine performance goals

-Max Weber (1947) & Bernard Bass (1981)


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TRANSACTIONAL LEADESHIP

Builds on mans need to get a job done and make a living Preoccupied with power and position, politics and perks Mired in daily affairs Short -term and hard data orientated

Focuses on tactical issues Relies on human relations to lubricate human interactions Follows and fulfils role expectations by striving to work

effectively within current systems Supports structures and systems that reinforce the bottom line,

maximize efficiency, and guarantee short-term profits


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TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Bernard Bass developed Burns concept into transformational leadership where theleader transforms followers the direction of influence is thus one-way andtransformational leaders may: Expand a followers portfolio of needs Transform a followers self-interest Increase the confidence of followers Elevate followers expectations Heighten the value of the leaders intended outcomes for the follower Encourage behavioural changeMotivate others to higher levels of personal achievement (Maslows self -actualization)


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TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Tichy N. and Devanna M (1986) in their book Transformational Leadership, New York: Wiley built further on the work of Burns and

Bass in organizational and work contexts: described the hybridnature of transformational as not due to charisma. I t i s abehavioural process capable of being learned

Bass suggested that Transformational l eadershi p is closer to theprototype of leadership that people have in mind when theydescri be thei r ideal leader, and i t i s more l ikely to provide a rolemodel with whi ch subordinates want to identify


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TRANSACTIONAL ANDTRANSORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP


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LEADERSHIP THEORIES:IMPLICATIONS

Know your preferred Style (S) Know and care about your Followers (F) Know and care about the Task (T) Understand the Environment (E) affecting you and your followers


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LEADERSHIP THEORIES:IMPLICATIONS

Fit your Style to your Followers , the Task , and theEnvironment. (This may include making changes inS, F, T, or E.)

Enhance your Referent and Expert Power Visualize the future and prepare your followers for it


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SUCCESSFUL AND EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

EFFECTIVE

SUCCESSFUL

ATTEMPTED RESULTANTLEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR INEFFECTIVE

UNSUCCESSFUL

G A A A S


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GUARANTEEED LEADERSHIPBLUNDERS

Keep them (subordinates) in the dark about the real purpose of their work Make sure you get the credit while they get the blame Never admit that you might be wrong Dont give sincere praise Put them on work for which they are temperamentally unsuited Let them involve themselves in a really serious mistake before you pull them up If they come to you for real help give them platitudes Harp on details while ignoring the real issues Avoid giving advance information about changes that affect them Discourage new ideas Insist that they do their job your way Make it clear that it never pays to step out of line Demonstrate that promotion goes to those who ingratiate themselves rather than those who

perform by using intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence- adapted from Rosabeth M oss Kantor(former editor H arvard Busin ess Review)

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