learning

Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY

Learning

Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Types of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning2. Operant Conditioning3. Observational Learning

Association

We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years

ago Associative Learning

learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Behaviorism

John B. Watson viewed psychology as

objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today recommended study of

behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted

by all schools of thought today

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

studied digestive secretions


Pavlov’s device for recording salivation


Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two

stimuli Begins with a reflex a neutral stimulus that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus


Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--

automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth


Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)


Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus

with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)


Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when

a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when

a response is no longer reinforced


Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR


Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest

period, of an extinguished CR

Generalization tendency for stimuli similar

to CS to elicit similar responses


Discrimination in classical conditioning, the

learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When

he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation

dropped.

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of

cognitive processes and biological constraints.

Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology

is isolating elementary behaviors from more

complex ones through objective scientific

procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising

campaigns for a number of organizations,

including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break”

an American custom.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers


Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely


Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Respondent Behavior (Classical) occurs as an automatic response

to stimulus behavior learned through

classical conditioning


B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

developed behavioral technology

Operant Chamber

Skinner Box chamber with a

bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses

Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide

behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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Fred Bavendam

/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

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Principles of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer A learned reinforcer (stimulus)

that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer

secondary reinforcer

1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large

delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each

time it occurs Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction


Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a

specified number of responses faster you respond the more

rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay


Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of

unpredictability


Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after

a specified time has elapsed response occurs more

frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Mail delivery, waiting for cake to bake


Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz, waiting for a busy

phone line to clear.


Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

Discriminative Stimulus

Sd Discriminative stimulus = in operant conditioning, a stimulus (cue) signaling that a response will be reinforced Logos such as golden arches – turn in

here and you will find food Word “Sale” - Others?

Punishment

Punishment aversive event that

decreases the behavior that it follows

powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Punishment

Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear

in its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear

in place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere &

Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for

discounting them.

Skinner’s LegacySkinner argued that behaviors were

shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued

that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of

one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats

act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not

apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Intrinsic MotivationIntrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps

and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.

In School

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Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work


At Home

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

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©H

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Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

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Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire

when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

(born on December 4, 1925 in Mundare, a small town in Alberta, Canada)

He is the leading researcher and theorist in the area of observational learning.

is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others

occurs when an observers behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model

also known as vicarious learning, social learning or modeling

According to Bandura, observational learning may or may not involve imitation.

Social learning theory holds that children in particular, learn by observing and imitating models

Children take an active part in their own learning

The child’s own characteristics influence the choice of models.

It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context.

Observational learning does not require that the behavior exhibited by the model is duplicated.

1.The observer will imitate the model’s behavior if the model possesses characteristics.

2.The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the models behavior.

3.A distinction between an observer’s “acquiring” a behavior and “performing “ a behavior.

(Presence of reinforcement or (Presence of reinforcement or punishment)punishment)

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by

BF Skinner and his associates.

It states that individual’s behavior is a function of its

consequences. (based on law of effect)

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Observer is likely to repeat behavior a model demonstrates

Behavior doesn’t matter, reinforcement received matters.

Negative Reinforcement

Observer is less likely to repeat a beahavior a model demonstarets.

Behavior doenst matter, reinforcement received matters.

- Anything that increase the behavior

- is a consequence of behavior that decreases

the likelihood of repetition.

1.The observer is reinforced by the model

2. The observer is reinforced by a third person

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences

4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously (vicarious reinforcement)

Television and Observational Learning

learning

Education

nausea conditioning

pavlovian conditioning

conditioning ucs food

neutral conditioned

irrelevant stimulus

mouth neutral stimulus

ucs extinction cs

immune response