learning

Learning Manish Sharma

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning

2–2

Learning• Involves change• Is relatively permanent• Is acquired through experience

LearningAny relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

EXPLICIT AND TACIT KNOWLEDGEWhen employees/individuals learn, they

acquire knowledge.According to Nonaka (1994) individual

knowledge can be classified into two forms:Explicit KnowledgeTacit Knowledge

EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGEExplicit knowledge refers to codified knowledge

that can be transmitted and communicated in formal, systematic language.

Explicit knowledge can be recorded in documentation , is readable and transferable through technologies or formal communication.

Example - work manual, which contains knowledge on the appropriate procedures to perform a task.

TACIT KNOWLEDGEExplicit knowledge is only the tip of the

knowledge iceberg. Most of what we know is tacit knowledge.Tacit knowledge is rooted in individual’s

mindset and its articulation is applicable and transferable in the form of doing and watching .

Unconsciously acquired from the experiences one has in his life time.

Example - the ability to ride a bicycle. We know how to do it, but trying to explain to someone is practically impossible.

Tacit knowledge is “knowing how” while explicit knowledge is “knowing that”

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING They are highly useful for trainer in order to

impart maximum knowledge and skills to the trainees.

1. Motivation – Motivation is something that moves a person to action and continues him in the course of action already initiated. Without motivation learning does not take place or, at least, is not evident. Motivation levels may differ in different situations.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING2. Reinforcement – it is the process by which

certain types of behaviour are strengthened. It can either be positive or negative.

Positive reinforcement strengthens and increase behavior by the presentation of desirable consequences.

Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the threat of and the use of an undesirable consequence or the termination or withdrawal of an undesirable consequence.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGNegative reinforcement is not synonymous with

punishment. While Punishment weakens and decreases the

probability of occurrence of a particular behaviour, negative reinforcement strengthens and increases it.

Negative reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of a desired behavior, where as punishment is used to decrease the frequency of an undesired behavior.

One could even describe negative reinforcement as a form of social blackmail, which makes a person behave in a particular manner.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING3. Whole versus part learning – A great deal

of work has been done to find out whether learning a whole job is better or breaking the job into parts and then learning the parts.

In parts learning, the individual is not only required to learn each part but must be able to combine the separate parts so that the whole performance can be accomplished.

But till now, no overall conclusion has been reached about its effectiveness and this area is still explored.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING4. Learning Curves – the trainer should

understand that learning proceeds in stages – called curves.

There is great enthusiasm to learn at the commencement of a training session called as initial spurt.

Many trainers exploit this initial spurt by selecting important items to be communicated and presenting them as a package to the learners.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING Then comes learning plateau. At this

point in learning process there is flattening off in terms of improvement because of fatigue.

The last stage is the end spurt. When the training session draws nearer to an end, and the trainee realizes this, there occurs resurgence of interest and efforts to learn more.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING5. Meaningfulness of material – The more

meaningful the material, the learning is more effective. Means material should be simpler to understand.

Also, when learner is familiar with learning materials, he can learn more quickly as compared to when he is unfamiliar.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING6. Learning Styles refers to the ability of an

individual to learn.A manager’s long-term success depends

more on the ability to learn than on the mastery of specific skills or technical knowledge.

There are four styles people use when learning based on two dimensions: Feeling versus Thinking and Doing versus Observing.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGAccommodator – learns by doing and

feeling. He/she tends to learn primarily from hands on experience.

He or she tends to act on gut feeling rather than on logical analysis.

Tends to rely more heavily on people for information while making decisions.

Seeks action oriented careers such marketing, public relations, politics, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGDiverger – A diverger learns by

observing and feeling. The diverger has the ability to view real life situations from different angles.

When solving problems, diverger enjoys brainstorming. He or she takes time and analyses many alternatives.

Diverger is imaginative and sensitive to the needs of the other people.

He or she seeks careers in entertainment, arts and services sector.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGConverger – Learns by doing and

thinking. The converger seeks practical use for information.

Tends to prefer dealing with technical tasks and problems rather than social and interpersonal issues.

Seeks technical careers in various scientific fields and work at engineering, production supervision, IT, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGAssimilator – learns by observing and

thinking. Is effective at understanding a wide

range of information and putting into concise and logical form.

Seeks careers in education, information and science.

Learning- Explicit and Tacit Knowledge

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Explicit knowledge is organized and can be communicated from one person to another. It can be documented.

Tacit knowledge is the idea that one knows more than what he or she can tell. Implied knowledge is embedded in our actions and ways of thinking. It cannot be documented.

Learning Styles

Learning Styles

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Accommodator: An accommodator learns by doing and feeling i.e. through hands on experience. They go for action oriented careers like marketing, PR etc.

Diverger: A diverger learns from observing and feeling. He has the ability to view concrete situations from different angles. He is imaginative and can take up careers in entertainment and arts.

Converger: He learns by doing and thinking. He seeks practical use for information. When dealing with problems, the convergers looks into the solutions. E.g. IT, engineering and managerial professionals.

Assimilator: An assimilator learns from observing and thinking. He is effective in understanding a wide range of information and putting it into concise and logical form. He can seek careers in science, education, information etc.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

They are highly useful for trainer in order to impart maximum knowledge and skills to the trainees.

1. Motivation – Motivation is something that moves a person to action and continues him in the course of action already initiated. Without motivation learning does not take place or, at least, is not evident. Motivation levels may differ in different situations.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING2. Reinforcement – it is the process by which

certain types of behaviour are strengthened. It can either be positive or negative.

Positive reinforcement strengthens and increase behavior by the presentation of desirable consequences.

Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the threat of and the use of an undesirable consequence or the termination or withdrawal of an undesirable consequence.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGNegative reinforcement is not synonymous with

punishment. While Punishment weakens and decreases the

probability of occurrence of a particular behaviour, negative reinforcement strengthens and increases it.

Negative reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of a desired behavior, where as punishment is used to decrease the frequency of an undesired behavior.

One could even describe negative reinforcement as a form of social blackmail, which makes a person behave in a particular manner.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING3. Whole versus part learning – A great deal

of work has been done to find out whether learning a whole job is better or breaking the job into parts and then learning the parts.

In parts learning, the individual is not only required to learn each part but must be able to combine the separate parts so that the whole performance can be accomplished.

But till now, no overall conclusion has been reached about its effectiveness and this area is still explored.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING4. Learning Curves – the trainer should

understand that learning proceeds in stages – called curves.

There is great enthusiasm to learn at the commencement of a training session called as initial spurt.

Many trainers exploit this initial spurt by selecting important items to be communicated and presenting them as a package to the learners.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING Then comes learning plateau. At this

point in learning process there is flattening off in terms of improvement because of fatigue.

The last stage is the end spurt. When the training session draws nearer to an end, and the trainee realizes this, there occurs resurgence of interest and efforts to learn more.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING5. Meaningfulness of material – The more

meaningful the material, the learning is more effective. Means material should be simpler to understand.

Also, when learner is familiar with learning materials, he can learn more quickly as compared to when he is unfamiliar.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING6. Learning Styles refers to the ability of an

individual to learn.A manager’s long-term success depends

more on the ability to learn than on the mastery of specific skills or technical knowledge.

There are four styles people use when learning based on two dimensions: Feeling versus Thinking and Doing versus Observing.

Theories of Learning


Theories of Learning

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Key Concepts• Unconditioned stimulus• Unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus• Conditioned response

Classical ConditioningA type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Classical Conditioning


Theories of Learning (cont’d)

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Key Concepts• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior• Conditioned (learned) behavior• Reinforcement

Operant ConditioningA type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

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Cognitive Process assumes that the people are conscious and active participants in how they learn.

Firstly, people draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for present behaviour. These behaviour represent presumed knowledge or cognitions.

Secondly, people make choices about their behaviour.

Thirdly, People recognise the consequences of their choices.

Finally people evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning , which effect future choices.

Social Learning Theory

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This refers to the ability of an individual to learn by observing others. Others generally, include teachers, peers, media, etc. It is also known as observational theory.


Types of Reinforcement

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Positive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior. Primary reinforcers

satisfy basic biological needs and include food, water etc. Secondary reinforcers include money, trophies, status etc.

Negative reinforcementRemoving an unpleasant consequence when the desired

behavior occurs. Punishment

Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its

cessation. It is the weakening of a behaviour by ignoring it or making sure it is not enforced.


Schedules of Reinforcement

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Continuous ReinforcementA desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent ReinforcementA desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

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Fixed-Interval ScheduleRewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval ScheduleRewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

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Fixed-ratio

E X H I B I T 2–4

Reinforcing the Healthy WalkHorton’s Group, the Chicago-based insurance broker rewards staff who take at least 7,000 steps each day. Health insurance giant Humana introduced a similar program where data from pedometers are uploaded to a website. The more steps one takes the higher the reward.

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Attitudes

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Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or eventsThree components of an attitude:

Attitude

Behavioral

Cognitive

Affective

The emotional or feeling segment of an attitudeThe opinion or

belief segment of an

attitude An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something

See E X H I B I T 3–1

Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?

3-43

Leon Festinger – No, the reverse is sometimes true!Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or

more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or

dissonance, to reach stability and consistencyConsistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying

the behaviors, or through rationalizationDesire to reduce dissonance depends on:

Importance of elements Degree of individual influence Rewards involved in dissonance

Moderating Variables

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The most powerful moderators of the attitude-behavior relationship are:

Importance of the attitudeCorrespondence to behaviorAccessibilityExistence of social pressuresPersonal and direct experience of the attitude

BehaviorPredictAttitude

s

Moderating Variables

Predicting Behavior from Attitudes

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Important attitudes have a strong relationship to behavior.

The closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship:Specific attitudes predict specific behaviorGeneral attitudes predict general behavior

The more frequently expressed an attitude, the better predictor it is.

High social pressures reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance.

Attitudes based on personal experience are stronger predictors.

?

What are the Major Job Attitudes?

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Job SatisfactionA positive feeling about the job resulting from

an evaluation of its characteristics Job Involvement

It is the degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth.

Psychological EmpowermentBelief in the degree of influence over the job,

competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. Good leaders empower their employees by involving them in decisions and making them feel their work is important.

Another Major Job Attitude

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Organizational CommitmentIdentifying with a particular organization and its goals,

while wishing to maintain membership in the organization.Three dimensions:

Affective – emotional attachment to organization Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying Normative – moral or ethical obligations

Has some relation to performance, especially for new employees.

Less important now than in the past – now perhaps more of an occupational commitment, loyalty to profession rather than a given employer.

And Yet More Major Job Attitudes…

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Perceived Organizational Support (POS)Degree to which employees believe the organization values

their contribution and cares about their well-being.Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in

decision making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.High POS is related to higher Organizational citizenship

Behaviour (OCBs) and performance.Employee Engagement

The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.

Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.

Employee Engagement

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Employee engagement is very high at Wendt India, a manufacturing firm in the area of super abrasive grinding wheels, and special purpose grinding machines and tools. The employees are committed and involved in finding new ways to improve processes, innovate new products and technology, and be a partner in growth of the company. A cross functional team worked on developing a multipurpose diamond disc which may be used for polishing and hacking hard granite or stone surfaces. The product is named ‘chatur’ and reduces the time needed for polishing a granite surface by 48 % and in hacking improves quality by 500%. The product not only reduces time required for polishing but also cuts down on the labour required by floor polishers. Most employees at Wendt are constantly thinking of how to make better and more efficient products.

Are These Job Attitudes Really Distinct?

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No: these attitudes are highly related.

Variables may be redundant (measuring the same thing under a different name)

While there is some distinction, there is also a lot of overlap.

Be patient, OB researchers are working on it!

Job Satisfaction

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Are people satisfied in their jobs?In India, yes. Seventy-one percent of Indian employeessurveyed are satisfied with their jobs.Results vary by employee facets of the job.Compensation, benefits, and incentives are the most

problematic elements in India.

Causes of Job Satisfaction

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Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point.Once an individual reaches a comfortable level of living,

there is no relationship between amount of pay and job satisfaction.

Money may bring happiness, but not necessarily job satisfaction.

Personality can influence job satisfaction.Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs.Those with positive core self-evaluation are more satisfied

with their jobs.


Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction

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Exit• Behavior

directed toward leaving the organization

Voice• Active and

constructive attempts to improve conditions

Neglect• Allowing

conditions to worsen

Loyalty• Passively

waiting for conditions to improve


Active

Passive

ConstructiveDestructive

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

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Job PerformanceSatisfied workers are more productive AND more

productive workers are more satisfied! The causality may run both ways.

Organizational Citizenship BehaviorsSatisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of

fairness.Customer Satisfaction

Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.

AbsenteeismSatisfied employees are moderately less likely to

miss work.

More Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

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TurnoverSatisfied employees are less likely to quit.Many moderating variables in this relationship.

Economic environment and tenureOrganizational actions taken to retain high performers and to

weed out lower performersWorkplace Deviance

Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize, abuse substances, steal, be tardy, and withdraw.

Despite the overwhelming evidence of the impact of job satisfaction on the bottom line, most managers are either unconcerned about or overestimate worker satisfaction.

!

Global Implications

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Are Employees in Some Cultures More Satisfied With Their Jobs?According to some studies, Western workers appear to be

more satisfied than those in Eastern cultures. This may be because Westerners emphasize positive emotions and individual happiness more than do those in Eastern cultures.

Another study showed that Indian employees rated their satisfaction higher than other employees in the Asia-Pacific region.

Summary and Managerial Implications

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Managers should watch employee attitudes: They give warnings of potential problemsThey influence behavior

Managers should try to increase job satisfaction and generate positive job attitudesReduces costs by lowering turnover, absenteeism,

tardiness, theft, and increasing OCBFocus on the intrinsic parts of the job: make work

challenging and interestingPay is not enough

THANKS

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