LEARNINGLEARNING

a relatively permanent change in a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of an behavior as the result of an experience.experience.

essential process enabling animals and humans to adapt to their changing environments, and thus survive.

BehaviorismBehaviorism

Explains learning by studying behavior which can be observed & measured

Two main theories which psychologists studying behaviorism use to explain learning:

–Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

–Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

CLASSICAL ConditioningCLASSICAL Conditioning

- Stimulus- something that produces a reaction

-Response- The reaction from a person or animal

June 2

CLASSICAL ConditioningCLASSICAL Conditioning

Simple form of learning in which stimulus and response work together

Neutral stimulus occurs with a stimulus that evokes a response

Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a similar response

PAVLOVPAVLOV

1920s Trained dogs to associate a tone with

a food-reward Before experiment the dogs showed

no reaction to the tone sound After the tone is paired with food –

the dogs begin to salivate when they hear the tone

TermsTerms USUS = (Unconditioned stimulus)

= causes a response that is automatic or not learned

URUR = (Unconditioned response) = Automatic Response to US

CSCS = (Conditioned stimulus) = learned response to a stimulus that was neutral

CRCR = (Conditioned response) = learned response to neutral stim.

Needed Factors for Conditioning:Needed Factors for Conditioning:

Strong stimulus Order in which presented is

important Number of trials Spacing of trials

Conditioning TerminologyConditioning Terminology

Taste AversionTaste Aversion= = learned learned avoidance to a particular foodavoidance to a particular food

ExtinctionExtinction = gradual disappearance of a conditioned response once the conditioned stimulus is no longer reinforced

Conditioning TerminologyConditioning Terminology

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery= = remember the learned behavior remember the learned behavior after time “off”after time “off”

GeneralizationGeneralization = act of responding in the same way to similar stimuli

Discrimination= Responding differently to stimuli that are not similar

Case of “Little Albert” 1920 – published study of “Little

Albert” Albert was a 11th month old boy Was not easily frightened Liked animals – psychologists then

paired a loud, harsh sound with the presence of a rat..Result???

Little Albert Video

Albert became frightened of rats and eventually all small, furry animals

Was this ethical?????

Applications of Applications of classical conditioningclassical conditioning Two methods for reducing fears are based

on the principle of extinction: Maury

FloodingFlooding = a person is exposed to the (fear-provoking) harmless stimulus until the fear is extinguished

Systematic desensitizationSystematic desensitization = person is taught relaxation techniques & then exposed gradually to fearful stimulus

Period 6 – Jan4

OTHER USES FOR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

DESENSITIZATIONDESENSITIZATION

• Step 1Step 1

–PicturesPictures

–From a DistanceFrom a Distance

–Close- up to fearClose- up to fear COUNTERCONDITIONING –COUNTERCONDITIONING –

– PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED W/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUSW/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUS

OPERANT ConditioningOPERANT Conditioning

Learning is strengthened when Learning is strengthened when behavior is followed by behavior is followed by reinforcementreinforcement

Learning from the Learning from the consequencesconsequences of actionsof actions

OPERANT ConditioningOPERANT Conditioning

Principles of Operant Conditioning were developed by B.F. Skinner

Ideas based on studies with animals

Skinner BoxSkinner Box

Typically contains:Typically contains:– one or more levers which an one or more levers which an

animal can press animal can press

– one or more stimulus lightsone or more stimulus lights

– one or more places in which one or more places in which reinforcers like reinforcers like food can befood can be delivered. delivered.   

ReinforcementReinforcement

Process by which Process by which a stimulus a stimulus increases the chances of a increases the chances of a preceding behaviorpreceding behavior

Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers

PrimaryPrimary = reinforcers that function due to biological make-up of the organism

• food, water, warmth

SecondarySecondary =Value must be learned Ex. money, attention, social approval, good grades, etc.

Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers

PositivePositive = increase frequency of the behavior they follow when applied

= receives something they want = brings pleasant consequences

Negative Negative = A particular behavior is increased by the introduction of an unpleasant element

- ex. = discomfort, fear, & social disapproval

Pd1- Jan4

RewardsRewards

Increase the frequency of a behavior

Liked reinforcers increase frequency of behavior– concrete rewardsconcrete rewards (money, toys,

stickers, candy, etc.)

– intangible rewardsintangible rewards (affection, praise, attention, etc.).

PunishmentPunishment

Unwanted events thatUnwanted events that decreasedecrease the frequency of the the frequency of the behavior they follow when behavior they follow when appliedapplied

E.L. Thorndike's E.L. Thorndike's Law of EffectLaw of Effect (1) Rewards increased the likelihood

of responses which preceded them (2) punishments decreased the

likelihood of responses which preceded them.

Therefore, punishment either decreases or eliminates a particular behavior.

Schedule of reinforcementSchedule of reinforcement

Fixed-Ratio (FR)Fixed-Ratio (FR) =

–Reinforcement is given after a set number of times the behavior is performed

• Fixed-Interval (FI)Fixed-Interval (FI) =• Reinforcement is given after a set

amount of time the behavior has been performed

• Variable-Interval (VI)Variable-Interval (VI) =•Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time the behavior has been performed

• Variable-Ratio (VR)Variable-Ratio (VR) =•Reinforcement is given after varying number of times the behavior has been performed

Ex. Playing slot machines

Schedule of Reinforcement

When and how often reinforcement When and how often reinforcement occursoccurs

Continuous- reinforcement every Continuous- reinforcement every time a behavior occurstime a behavior occurs

Partial- Not reinforced everytimePartial- Not reinforced everytime

Extinction- Occurs when performance is repeated without reinforcement

Shaping- Way of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing behavior in steps

Cognitive Psychology

• Studies what people and animals know because of learning

• See learning as purposeful and not mechanical.

Cognitive Psychology

•Psychologists believe many behaviors are learned without reinforcement…

•2 types of learning without reinforcement are:

•Latent Learning

•Observational Learning

Cognitive Psychology•LATENT LEARNING -- Learning that remains hidden until it is needed.

Observation Learning

•We acquire knowledge and skills through observation and imitation.

•Studied by Albert Bandura•Kids learn from parents

•Most learning is done this way•Learning from the media

• Is Aggression Learned?

• How many hours of TV do you watch?

• Most children: 2 - 4 hours a day

• Most children see an average 8,000 murders and 10,000 acts of violence by the end of 6th grade.