Learning

• Definition: The process of acquiring new and enduring information or behaviors

• Associative learning is the key

• Conditioning – the process of learning associations

3 Major Types of Learning

• Classical conditioning• Operant conditioning• Learning by observation

Does the Name Pavlov Ring a Bell?

• Ivan Pavlov – early 1900’s

Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning

• He noticed that his dogs salivated at sight of food from a cupboard

• Neutral stimuli elicited salivation

• Experiment: Sound a tone -> place food in a dog's mouth -> dog salivates -> after a period of time the dog salivates at the sound of tone

Terms Related to this Process

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)• Unconditioned Response (UR)• Neutral Stimulus (NS)• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Conditioned Response (CR)

How Does Learning Occur?

• NS + US = CS• When the NS is paired with US: The animal (or

person) learns a CS• The CS then elicits the CR

4 Processes Involved in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition• Extinction &

Spontaneous Recovery

• Generalization• Discrimination

Higher-Order Conditioning

• A new NS can become a new CS by becoming associated with an old CS

• e.g., associating a light with a tone

Contributions of Pavlov’s Work

• Is a basic learning process• Applies to a wide variety of stimuli and

species• An internal psychological process like learning

can be studied objectively• Applications to real life

Criticisms of Pavlov

• The importance of cognition on learning was underestimated by Pavlov

• Importance of biological constraints on an organism’s learning capacity

Operant Conditioning

• Behaviors are associated with their consequences

• Operant conditioning - associations are learned between organism's behavior and resulting events that occur after the behavior

B.F. Skinner - the “Godfather” of Operant Learning

• Designed the Skinner box

• Pioneered the Shaping procedure (aka method of successive approximations)

• Shaping based on reinforcement principles

Principles of Reinforcement

• Definition of Reinforcer

• Types of Reinforcers:

• Positive• Negative• Primary • Conditioned • Immediate • Delayed

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous - behavior reinforced every time

• Partial – responses sometimes reinforced

4 Types of Partial Reinforcement

• Fixed-ratio • Variable-ratio • Fixed interval • Variable-interval

Punishment

• Punisher - Aversive consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior

Negative Effects of Punishment

• Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten

• Behavior may reappear in safe settings

• May increase aggressiveness

• Can teach fear of person or place where punishment occurred

Contributions of Skinner’s Work

• Showed the value of reinforcers• Showed that punishers may not be effective• Applications to teaching and learning• Applications to home and the workplace

Some “Interesting” Ideas from Skinner

• “Project Pigeon”• Walden II• “Beyond Freedom &

Dignity”

Criticisms of Skinner’s Work

• Like Pavlov, tends to ignore cognition and biological factors in learning

Learning by Observation (Modeling)

• The process of observing and imitating behavior

• Two types of Learning by Observation:

• Prosocial learning• Antisocial learning

Example: Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Result: VIOLENCE!

Mirror Neurons

• Neurons represent the physiological basis for imitation

• Become active when we observe another’s action

• Brain constructs an internal simulation of the observed action

• May also explain empathy and part of our social interactions