learning english grammar

7/31/2019 Learning English Grammar

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LEARNING ENGLISH

GRAMMARGRAMMARGRAMMARGRAMMARFor :

School of Agriculture Development(SPP) Negeri Pelaihari

Editor :

Warih Nugroho, DVM


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Preface

Alhamdulillah, thanks to Allah that has given His bless to editor to finish this book. This

book is a collection of articles To Learn English that editor got from the internet. So, if reader

finds any mistakes from this book please visit www.tolearnenglish.com as reference. Editor

needs to collect these articles because of these articles are easy to use. So, the editor thinks these

articles will help the students to learn English in School of Agriculture Development if they are

made in to the book.

In order to finish this book the editor was helped by many people that have an interest in

progress of English language. So, the editor doesnt forget to say thanks to:

1. Mr. A K Permana Alamsjah, DVM the headmaster of School of AgricultureDevelopment of Pelaihari

2. Mr. Ir. Dwi Priyanto, the English teacher in School of Agriculture Development.3. Warih Pamungkas Yoga Utomo, editors brother that has given the articles and all of his

support to editor.

4. Endang Marlina and Najwa Ulya Nugrahaini editors wife and daughter for their support5. Member of Teenager English Club School of Agriculture Development for their

motivation to learn English and other people that cant told one by one for their

sympathize and other help.

Editor knows that this book is not prefect and needs revision in the future. Editor hopes there

are any critics and suggests from the reader to make this book better. Editor warns to reader that

this book only use in School of Agriculture Development. This book isnt printed for commercial

use and printed in limited edition.

Pelaihari, February 2008

Warih Nugroho, DVM


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Contents

Page

Preface i

Contents ii

Present Simple 1

Present Continuous (Be +ing) 2

Present Simple or Present Continuous 3

Past Simple 4

Preterite Be + Ing 5

Present Prefect 6

Pluperfect 7

Future 8

Future Prefect and Future Progressive 9

The Passive Voice 10

Comparatives 11

Superlative 12

Direct and indirect discourse 13

The Imperative 14

Asking A Question 15

Interrogative Word 17

Modals : Can, May, Must, Have to 18

Some, Any, No 19

Present Participles 20

Reflexive Pronouns 21The Subjunctive 22

Which, Who, Whose, Where 23

Non Defining Relative Clauses 24

Defining Relative Clauses vs Non Defining Relative Clauses 25

Adverbs 27


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Adjectives: Form & Usage 28

Adjective Placement 29

Conditional 30

Making Suggestions 31

References 32


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Present Simple

Main uses: permanent situations, regular habits and daily routine; feelingsSyntax: In the positive form, add an 's' to the base form of the 3rd person singular. If the verbends in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to ies

Examples:I wake upYou wake upHe/She/It wakeS upWe wake upYou wake upThey wake up

Negative: Conjugate 'do' + not (don't and doesn't) + the base form of the verb to make negatives.I don't wake up at 9.30 am

She doesn't wake up at 9.30 am

Question: Conjugate 'do' (do or does) + the base form of the verb in question forms.Do you wake up at 9.30?Does she wake up at 9.30?Answers:Do you wake up at 9.30 ?Long answer: Yes, I wake up at 9.30 No, I don't wake up at 9.30Short answer: Yes, I do. No, I don't.

TEST

1. The cinema _______________ (close) at 7 pm.2. The _______________ (not/think) that you should buy this dress.3. We usually _______________ (take) a taxi to go to work.4. How often _______________ (you go) to the swimmingpool?5. Courses _______________ (begin) the third of September.6. When _______________ (he arrive) home in the evenings?7. They _______________ (not/live) in Washington, they _______________ (live) in New York.8. We usually _______________ (take) a taxi to go to work.9. He _______________ (get up) early on Mondays.10. I _______________ (not/believe) in witches.11. The Sun's rays _______________ (take) eight minutes to reach the Earth.


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Present Continuous (BE + ING)

Main use: action which is being done at the same moment.Syntax: Auxiliary BE (conjugated) + Verb ending in ING

Examples:I am playing football.You are playing football.He/She/It is playing football.We are playing football.You are playing football.They are playing football.

Negation: I am not playing football, you are not playing football...Question: Am I playing football? Are you playing football? Is he playing football? ...

Answers:Are they playing football?Long answers: Yes, they're playing football. No, they aren't playing football.Short answers: Yes, they are. No, they aren't.

TEST Fill in the gaps

1. They ........................ (study) at the moment.2. She ........................ (watch) TV.3. What ........................ (you/read) at the moment?4. I ........................ (cook) dinner tonight. Would you like to come?5. It ........................ (work). I think it's broken.6. He ........................ (learn) German for his job.


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Present simple or Present continuous?

Put the verbs into the correct tense (present simple OR present continuous):

The train always ________________(1: leave) on time.

"What's the matter? Why ________________(2: cry/you)?"That's strange. They________________(3: not to watch) TV.He________________(4: not to speak) very good English.Please be quiet! I________________(5: do) my homework.Where________________(6: live/they)?Listen! John ________________ music! (7: play)I never ________________(8: go) to the swimming pool.

Harold Black's a famous pianist. He________________(9: give) two or three concertsevery week. He ________________(10: travel) a lot and this week he's in New York.He________________(11: stay) at an expensive hotel. He's at his hotel now.

He________________(12: have) his breakfast in the diningroom.He________________(13: drink) a cup of coffee and he________________(14: read) a

newspaper. Harold's always very busy. He________________(15: play) the piano regularly.He________________(16: practise) for four hours every day. He________________(17: go) tobed late and he always ________________(18: get up) early. But hesometimes________________(19: get) dressed too quickly, and this morninghe________________(20: wear) one blue sock and one red one!


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Past Simple (Preterite)

Main use: past action (dated and definite)

REGULAR VERBS

Did they play football yesterday?>> Yes, they played football yesterday.= Yes, they did.>> No, they didn't play football.= No, they didn't.

IRREGULAR VERBS

Did they win yesterday?>> Yes, they won.= Yes, they did.No, they didn't win yesterday.

= No, they didn't.

TEST Fill in the gaps:____________ (1: you/go) to London yesterday?Yes, I ____________ (2): I ____________ (3: take) the Eurostar and I ____________ (4: arrive)at Waterloo Station. I ____________ (5: meet) old friends there. They ____________ (6: be) allvery happy to see me. I___________ (7: visit) the town with them and I even ____________ (8:see) Prince Charles! I ____________(9: go) to Buckingham Palace too! It ____________ (10: be) a wonderful journey!


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PRESENT PERFECT

Main uses:

1. Past actions with results/consequences in the present.Paul has eaten all the cookies.

When was the action done? In the past: a few minutes ago/yesterday.

Consequence? There is no cookie left. There is nothing left for me.

2) Actions which began in the past and are still in progress.Paul has lived in London for 10 years.When did it start? 10 years ago.

Is it finished? No, it isn't. Paul is still in London. He lives in London.

SYNTAX: HAVE (or HAS with he/she/it) + PAST PARTICIPLE

I have done my homework. She has done her homework (verb: do)

NEGATIVE:I have not done my homework. = I haven't done my homework. She has not done her homework.= She hasn'tdone her homework.

QUESTION:Have you done your homework? Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.

TEST: Present perfect Conjugate the verbs:

1. Peter _____________ (steal) my trainers!2. I ________________ (buy) this magazine.3. We ______________ (write) three pages this afternoon.4. _________________ (ever/you/be) to London?5. I ________________ (finish) my work yet.


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Pluperfect

The pluperfect is formed with the auxiliary HAD, followed by the past participle of the

main verb:

He had always wanted to travel in Africa.She had already left when Philippe arrived.I bought the book that Corinne had recommended to me.

The pluperfect shows that the action has been done before another action (in the past).

Adverbs such as "already" reinforce this impression.

She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.

The pluperfect is often used in hypothetical expressions with "if", in conjunction with the

past conditional:

I would not have come if I had known he was ill.

With the adverb "just", the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:He had just eaten lunch when I arrived.

TEST Fill in the gaps with the verbs (pluperfect):

1. I went to Paris two days ago. I ___________________ (already / to be) to Europe severalyears before.2. I ate the apple I _________________ (to buy) in the supermarket.3. _________________ you _________________ (to do) your homework when your friend

arrived?Answer 1: Yes, I _________________.Answer 2: No, I _________________.


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FUTURE

WILL:

predictions (John won't win the race; the weather will be very bad tomorrow.) scheduled events (the show will start at 10 tonight). promises: I will help you to do your homework tonight.

Syntax: S + WILL + base formWill you help me?I will help you> You will help you / He will help you / We will help you / You will help you / They will helpyou.

GOING TO:

planned events or intentions (which have been decided on before the moment of speaking andwhich are not very far from this moment).

Syntax: S + BE (present tense) + GOING TO + base formAre you going to buy a car tomorrow?I am going to buy a car tomorrow morning.> You are going to buy a car She is going to buy a car We are going to buy a car You aregoing to buy acar They are going to buy a car

TEST:

1) Put these words into the correct order to build a sentence:a) to / New York / I / tomorrow / fly / am / to / goingb) she / records / will / to / bring / the / her / partyc) am / married / I / get / going / tod) later / guitar / the / play / will / youe) they / eat / to / going / are

2) Fill in these sentencesa) I've just finished my homework so I . (to play) video games.b) She .(to give) a concert at the Town Hall next Saturday night.c) They are hungry; they .(to have) a snack.d) You .(not to use) the phone, are you?


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FUTURE PERFECT AND FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

Future perfectRelatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action which precedes afuture moment or another future action.Moreover, it asserts that these actions will be completed before the principal action. It is formedby adding the modal "will" to the auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:She will have finished before eight o'clock.Tomorrow morning they will all have left.They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost: the simplefuture does not emphasize the completion of the first action:Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they willalready have departed before tomorrow morning.)They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the futureperfect would emphasize that they will havefinished before we arrive.)

Future progressiveThe future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of occurring. It isformed by putting the present progressive into the future: will be + present participle.I will be waiting for you at six o'clock.He will be eating by the time you arrive.Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple future? If it ispossible to use the expression "will be in the process of," it is the future progressive that bestexpresses the action.

The future progressive indicates that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simplefuture suggests that the action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning.Consider these sentences, both of which are grammatically correct:I will be finishing my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I may finish my homework at10:05 or 10:15; I will be nearing completion, in theprocess of completion.)I will finish my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I will finish at 10:00 sharp.)

TEST

Put these words in the correct order to build a sentence. Be careful: one word is not used .1. you / going / present / will / to / party / their / be ?

2. be / I / cake / tomorrow / leaving / will3. she / 9 pm / have / will / by / been / ready / bed4. midnight / eat / will / they / before / left / have / already.


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The Passive Voice

Main use:It is used to put the emphasis on the person or the thing which is affected by an action. It is usedin sentences where the object of the action ismore important than the people who perform the action.

Syntax: Subject + BE (tense of the active sentence) + Past participleImportant: If you need to tell who is doing the action, use BYAmerica was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

Examples:Present (be+ing):Peter is eating an apple.>An apple is being eaten by Peter.

Present Simple:They make shoes in this factory.>Shoes are made in this factory.

Preterite:They built this bridge in the 13th century.>This bridge was built in the 13th century.and so on...

TEST Put the following sentences into the passive voice.

1. They built the house in two months. >help: The house...2. We will carry the luggage upstairs.3. Everyday John feeds the cat.4. They have not caught the murderer yet.5. The fog caused the accident. The police called the ambulance. The insurance will cover thedamage.


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ComparativesMain rule:Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, orequality of one term compared toanother.

Short Adjectives( 1 - 2 syllables)

Long Adjectives(3+ syllables) superiorityADJ + -ER thanfast > X is faster than Y.MORE + ADJ thanexpensive > X is more expensive than Y.

equalitityas ADJ asbig > X is as big as Y.

inferiorityless ADJ thanbeautiful > X is less beautiful than Y.

Examples: Jean is taller than Catherine. Philippe is less tall than Jean. Lela is as tall as Jean.young --> younger | tall --> taller | old --> older

NOTES:If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" :

heavy --> heavier | early --> earlier | busy --> busier | healthy --> healthier | chilly --> chillierIf the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed:

wise --> wiser | large --> larger | simple --> simpler | late --> laterIf the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one adds "--

er" :big --> bigger | thin --> thinner | hot --> hotterComparatives

> Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:good --> better | bad --> worse | far --> farther

TEST - Compare these 2 cars (fictitious data). Use the adjectives.MERCEDES (big car) $200,000 Mini (small car) $10,0001. expensive > .............................................2. cheap > ...................................................3. powerful > ...............................................4. large > ....................................................5. comfortable > ..........................................6. fast > ......................................................


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THE SUPERLATIVEWhen comparing two things one uses the comparative (previous lesson); however, forcomparisons in larger groups, you must use the superlative. The superlative designates extremes:the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.

A. It is the word "most" or the ending "est" that designates the superlative. He is the most efficient worker we have. That is the poorest family in the neighborhood.B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article: He works the fastest of any student I know. She is the tallest woman in town.C. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of,"followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit): It's the best day of my life! She works the best of the whole class. She's the one who arrivedfirst.

Irregular formsMonosyllabic adjectives (and several common twosyllable adjectives) take the ending "est"

in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most."However, these same adjectives will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives ofinferiority:young > the youngest, tall > the tallest, old > the oldest>If the adjective ends in "y" the "y" becomes "i":heavy > the heaviest, early > the earliest, busy > the busiest, healthy > the healthiest,chilly > the chilliest>If the adjective ends in "e" one adds only "st" :wise > the wisest, large > the largest, simple > the simplest, late > the latest,>If the adjective ends in "single vowel + consonant," the consonant is doubled and one adds"est":

red > the reddest, big > the biggest, thin > the thinnest, hot > the hottest>Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:good > the best, bad > the worst, far > the farthest,>Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:the first, the lastTESTFill in the blanks with a comparative or a superlative :a.Canada is (big) ________than the USA but China is(populous) ________country in the world.b. We stayed at (cheap) ________hotel in the town but my cousins campsite was(cheap)________ than our hotel.c. January is generally (bad) ________ than December but February is(cold) ________ month.

d. English is (easy) ________ than German. |e. Chinese is (difficult) ________language.f. Heathrow is one of(busy) ________ airports in Europe.g. My father thinks that the Beatles were (good) ________ than the Rolling Stones, but in myopinion, U2 is (great) ________ band.


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Direct and indirect discourse

When one reports what others have said word for word, this is called "direct discourse." It isgenerally signalled by the presence of quotation marks: Philippe said, "I'll come if I have the time." My roommate said, "Clean the place up, or get outof here!"

When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation, this iscalled "indirect discourse."

Indirect discourse entails certain changes:A. Quotation marks are not used:direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid.B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by "that";however, the inclusion of "that" is optional

She said that she would be late. OR: She said she would be late. They informed us that theplane was delayed. OR: They informed us the plane was delayed.C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitiveconstructions:direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."indirect discourse: He told me to write him.direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb tensesreflect the change in temporal context:direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time."

indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport"indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.

TESTindirect discourse1. Sarah said, "I am ill."2. Paul told me, "Go to the cinema and buy two tickets".3. Thierry explained to us, "I went to Spain during my holidays".4. John said, "I will buy a new computer soon".5. My father told me, "Do your homework!"


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The imperative

Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping the word"to"); in the first person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or: "let us"): Speak! Finish your homework! Let's eat! Close the door!

The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the imperative form; inthe first person plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not") : Let's not forget who helped us. Don't leave me! Don't walk on the grass! Please don't eat the daisies!

The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence.

TEST Find the imperative forms of these phrases:1) you / go to the supermarket.2) we / have a drink3) you / not to smoke4) we / not to take the car


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ASKING A QUESTION

A) THE RULEinterrogative pronoun/adverb + auxiliary + subject + verb + ...ExamplesWhy did you go to Spain?

Exception: when WHO is the subject of the sentence:ExampleWho went to Spain?

B) THE MAIN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS / ADVERBS

WHO

Peter has broken the vase.Who has broken the vase?

WHATJohn took an orange.What did John take?

WHICHWhich pullover do you want? The blue one or the red one?

WHEN

I went to Spain in 1998. When did you go to Spain?

WHYI am sad because my dog is ill.Why are you sad?

WHAT... FORI save money to buy a new car.What do you save money for?

HOW + adjective

HOWI go to Belgium by car. How do you go to Belgium?

HOW FAR

I am 5 miles from Paris. How far are you from Paris?

HOW LONG

This movie lasts for 2 hours.


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How long does this movie last?HOW MUCH + singulierI want two bottles of milk.How much milk do you want?HOW MANY + pluriel

I want three potatoes. How many potatoes do you want?HOW OFTENI go to Spain twice a week.How often do you go to Spain?HOW OLD

I am 24 years old. How old are you?

TEST : Ask a question about the underlined words:

Yesterday, Sandra went to the shopping centerShe bought a beautiful dress.She got back home. She was unhappy because it was too large.

Her father phoned the shop.He went back to the shop.


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INTERROGATIVE WORD

When?I bought a new car yesterday. When did you buy a new car?

Where?I went to Paris. Where did you go to?

How much + Singular / How many + PluralI ate two apples. How many apples did you eat?

Why?I went to the hospital because I was ill. Why did you go the hospital?

Which

when a choice must be made between 2 things: Which film do you want to see? "Impossible Mission" or "Pretty Woman"? Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?

TEST

Ask a question about the underlined words:

1. I saw that movie in a big cinema.2. I will see my girlfriend next summer.3. I would like to buy three bottles of milk.4. I love this film because I love Tom Cruise.5. Sandra stole my keys!

6. I ate a big cake.7. I spoke to Sarah.


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MODALS: CAN, MAY, MUST, HAVE TO-

CAN

1. AbilityI can drive

2. PossibilityI can come

MUST

1. ObligationI must do my home work

2. For an opinion that you think hasa good possibility of being trueLook at his uniform. He must be apoliceman.

MAY

1) ProbabilityShe may come tomorrow

2) In a very polite questionMay I open the window?

HAVE TO

1)In the affirmative: HAVE TO has ameaning similar to MUST.

I have to go to the school.

2) In the negative: HAVE TO has adifferent meaning:"you don't need to dot that"

It's Sunday! I don't have to go to school.

TEST : Fill in the gaps with CAN/CAN'T, MAY/MAY NOT, MUST/MUSTN'T, HAVE

TO/DON'T HAVE TO

JOHN: "_________ you come to the match this afternoon?"PETER: "I'm sorry. I _________ . I _________ wash my father's car."JOHN: "But it's raining! You _________ wash it!"PETER: "I know, but my parents say the rain _________ stop soon. And I _________ go outwith you tonight because I _________ go to my grandmother's birthday party and I_________come back late."

To


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SOME, ANY, NO

SOME: used in positive sentences for countable and uncountable nouns.

Example: I have some friends.

ANY: used in negative sentences or questions for countable and uncountable nouns.Example: Do you have any cheese? He doesn't have any friends in Chicago.

EXCEPTION!"some" is used in questions when offering or requesting something that is there.Examples: Would you like some bread? (offer) Could I have some water? (request)

SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE, SOMETHING: Used in positive sentences.Example: He lives somewhere near here.

ANYBODY, ANYWHERE, ANYTHING: Used in negative sentences or questions.Examples: Do you know anything about that boy? She doesn't have anywhere to go.

NOTHING: Used in positive sentences (with a negative meaning).Example: This show is very boring! There's nothing interesting!

TEST

1) A / AN, SOME or ANY?1. I've got . cookbook.2. There is .water in the fridge.3. There isn't.whisky left in the bottle.4. There was.bottle of whisky on the shelf.5. She wants to eat .apple.6. Have we got .chips?2) SOMETHING, ANYTHING OR NOTHING ?1. He's hungry, but there's to eat in the fridge!2. I don't want to eat3. I can see under the table. What is it?4. "Pardon? What did you say?" ""5. Is there interesting to watch on TV tonight?


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PresentParticiplesFormationThe present participle is formed by adding the ending "ing" to the infinitive (dropping anysilent "e" at the end of the infinitive):to sing > singing

to take > takingto bake > bakingto be > beingto have > having

UseA. The present participle may often function as an adjective:That's an interesting book.That tree is a weeping willow.B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity(this form is also called a gerund):

Swimming is good exercise.Traveling is fun.C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot stand byitself as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a pastparticiple:Thinking myself lost, I gave up all hope.Washing clothes is not my idea of a job.Looking ahead is important.D. The present participle may be used with "while" or "by" to express an idea of simultaneity("while") or causality ("by") :He finished dinner while watching television.

By using a dictionary he could find all the words.While speaking on the phone, she doodled.By calling the police you saved my life!E. The present participle of the auxiliary "have" may be used with the past participle to describea past condition resulting in another action:Having spent all his money, he returned home.Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.

TESTA) Find the gerund: 1. to give | 2. to walk | 3. to sit | 4. to helpB) Fill in the blanks with BY or WHILE + a present participle. Une one of these verbs: to look,

to watch, to work1. He passed his exam __________________ very hard.2. He did his homework __________________ TV.3. They found the way to our house __________________ at their map.


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Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the subject of the verb:the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive pronouns correspond to the forms ofthe subject pronouns:

Subject pronouns

I

you

he

she

it

we

you

they

To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of an intransitive

verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple verbs in the sentence, thereflexive pronoun follows the verb to which it applies:

I told myself it would never happen.She talks to herself all the time.Look at yourself in that mirror!I would like to give myself a raise.

At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the subject in thesentence. In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:I would rather do that myself.Can you talk to him yourself?

TESTFill in the gaps with the correct pronouns:

1) The door opens ________________ when someone comes near it.2) Look at your umbrella! You should buy ________________ a new one.3) There was so much noise, I couldn't make ________________ heard.4) " Who taught you Latin?" || " I taught ________________ ."5) They lost the match and were ashamed of ________________ .

Reflexive pronouns

myself

yourself

himself

herself

itself

ourselves

yourselves

themselves


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The subjunctive

The subjunctive is used rarely. One finds vestiges of it in a few hypothetical expressions (using "if + tobe") and in a few set phrases.(In many cases the subjunctive considered archaic or literary is replaced by the modal "would,"

used toexpress the conditional.)Other meanings often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed by modalverbs in English.> In constructions using "if + to be", one should use "were" (instead of "was") with the first and

third persons

singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in much informal writing, "was"

will still be used.)

If I were Muriel, I'd never go back there.If she were alone, I'd stop by to see her.He acts as if he were crazy.

> When you use verbs, the rule is easy to understand:If I had enough money, I would buy a big house.

> Set phrases and proverbs:God help us!Long live the king!Would that I were free!

TESTBuild a sentence with one part from column A and one part from column B. The sentence must be

logical.

eg: If she had time, she would visit you.

Aa. She had time.b. John didn't know this beautiful girl.c. They spent too much time on the beach.d. Betty liked exotic food.e. There was enough snow.f. You travelled by bus.g. I had your address.

B1. She would visit you.2. She wouldn't eat at McDonald's every day.3. He wouldn't invite her out.4. I would send you a postcard.5. It would be cheaper.6. They would get sunburnt.7. You would go skiing.


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WHICH, WHO, WHOSE, WHERE

WHICHNon-Human:The dog which is here is very aggressive.

WHOHuman:The girl who is looking at us is called Sarah.

WHOSEPossessive:This singer, whose name I don'tremember, has a beautiful voice.

WHEREPlace:This is the town where I live.

TEST :

A) Fill in these sentences with WHO, WHICH, WHERE or WHOSE1. The man, _____________ is sitting on the chair, is a teacher.2. The dog, _____________ is eating, belongs to Mike.3. This actor, _____________ films are very bad, is really rich.

B) Build 1 sentence with these 2 sentences (use a relative clause):4. John is speaking to his boss. His boss is a famous writer.5. I like the town. You live there.6. I like the painting. It is in this room.


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Nondefining relative clauses

Person ObjectSubject who which

Object who, whom whichPossessive whose whose, of whichExamples:

>> SUBJECT:Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll, came from California.>> OBJECT:Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to show his friends.>> POSSESSIVE:Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, is signing autographs.

The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen.>> NOTE:

In nondefining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.

Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a tshirt, which was a stupidthing to do.

TEST

Choose the right pronoun:1. The girl, _____________ is sitting on the bench, is called Sarah.2. The dog, _____________ John has just bought, is very clever.3. The actor, _____________ films are very famous, is very happy.

Build 1 sentence with a relative clause:4. Peter has met his girlfriend. She is a journalist.5. His house is located near London. It very large.6. Peter has just bought a car. He has found it abroad.


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Defining Relative Clauses VS. Nondefining relative clauses

Nondefining Relative ClausesThey provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding themeaning of the sentence.Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent,lives on the corner."Mrs Johnson lives on the corner" provides a good piece of information. We also know that she

is very intelligent, thanks to the relative clause

(another interesting piece of information).

NB: YOU MUST USE COMMAS!

Defining Relative Clauses their information is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence.

if you remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning at all.Examples:The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.What woman? The woman who lives in apartment n34, not another woman.

A defining relative clause clearly defines who or what we are talking about. Without thisinformation, it would be difficult to know who or whatis meant.NB: NO COMMAS!

Defining Relative Clauses

Subject:

Example:Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.Which is better? which/who OR that?who and which: written Englishthat: oral English

Object:Example:That's the boy ( , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.There's the house (, that, which) I'd like to buy.

Possessive:Example:He's the man whose car was stolen last week.They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.


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TEST

Choose the right pronoun:1. It is the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I've just read.2. She is the girl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sat next to me in the bus.3. They are the people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . helped me.

4. This is the dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . scared me.

Build one sentence (containing a defining relative clause) with these two sentences:5. A robot is a machine. It can replace human workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ..6. A vet is a doctor. He treats animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...7. Pets are animals. They are kept at home as companions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...8. A robot is a machine. It looks like a human being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


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Adverbs

I) Building adverbsA. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "ly" to the adjectival form:intelligent > intelligently, slow > slowly ,precise > precisely

B. If the adjective ends with "le," simply replace the "e" with "y": simple > simply , subtle> subtly ,

C. The adverb corresponding to the adjective "good" is irregular: good > well

D. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: high , low , hard , better , fast

E. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same can be saidof adverbs of quantity: yesterday , today ,

tomorrow , early , soon , late , here , there , less , more , as , very , much , a lot of , little of

II) Where?A. When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before anyprepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):He writes poorly. She pronounced that word well.. Joseph worked diligently. They worked hardbefore coming home.Exceptions: a few adverbs telling the speaker's opinion, such as "probably," "undoubtedly,""surely," "certainly," etc., come at the beginningof the sentence, or between the modal verb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:We are probably going to spend the summer in Corsica. Certainly we would never do that! We

will undoubtedly see a dirty political campaignthis year.

B. Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they may beplaced at the beginning of the sentence if thepredicate clause is long and complicated:I saw her yesterday. We're going to the beach today. She went to bed very early. Tomorrow wewill try to get up early to prepare for our trip.

C. Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or the adverbthey modify:

She was really very happy to see you. It was a brilliantly staged performance.

TESTA) Find the corresponding adverbs: bad, clear, different, sad, simple, calmB) Insert these adverbs into these sentences:1. I like this wine. (very much)2. We will go to the cinema tonight. (probably)3. I lost my temper. (nearly)


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Adjectives: forms & usage

Forms:Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender.a blue car

the great outdoorsa group of young womenHowever, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine.Thus, one says that a woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally begin with a capitalletter, whether they refer to people or objects:She is an American student.They go to a Catholic school.They enjoy Breton music.

Usage:The adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies. When twoadjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction"and." In a seriesof three or more adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.Examples:I like short novels.That fellow will be a competent worker.She writes long and flowery letters.He works long, hard hours.She had a mean, old and overbearing stepmother.An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. (Inrelative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)Examples:He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.She is a woman (who is) true to herself.They were entirely satisfied.

TESTComplete this sentence with an article, a noun and an adjective: Peter has ... adjectives: elegant / short / brown / long / little / blue / warm / curly articles: a / an / (nothing) nouns: coat / gloves / beard / eyes


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Adjective placement

Where should I put my adjectives? When you use several adjectives, please use he followingorder to build your sentence. Please note that sentences containg 4 (or more!) adjectives are veryawkward and should be split into several sentences.

Opinion>> an interesting movie, an exciting journeyDimension>> a large house, a big carAge>> an old boat, a young boyShape>> an oval carpet, a round tableColour>> a grey raincoat, a green doorOrigin

>> French bread, a Japanese townMaterial>> a plastic bottle, a wooden treasure

EXAMPLES:>A wonderful old Italian clock. (opinion age origin)>A big square blue box. (dimension shape colour)>A disgusting pink plastic ornament. (opinion colour material)>Some slim new French trousers. (dimension age origin)

TEST

Build a phrase with this noun and these adjectives1. book >> interesting small Spanish2. house >> beautiful modern small3. cap >> cotton funny green4. picture >> modern ugly rectangular


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Conditional

The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the word "to"). Theconditional is used especially in three contexts:

1) Politeness

I would like the menu, please.Would you have a couple of minutes for me?

2) To indicate the "future within the past":She said she would come to the party.I thought he would arrive before me.

3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the

subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the second clause:

If I had the time, I would do my homework.If you told me the truth, I would believe you.The "if" of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:In your position (= if I were you), I wouldn't stay here!

TEST Build a sentence with all these words:1. rich / would / If / buy / a / house / were / big / I2. said / like / come / She / would / not / to / she3. could / I / big / would / if / give / you / a / ring / I


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Making suggestions

4 ways to tell your friends what you would like to do in the next few days:

1) WHAT ABOUT/HOW ABOUT ... + Base form + INGWhat about going to the pictures tonight?How about going to the pictures tonight?

2) WHY + NegativeWhy don't we go to the swimmingpool tomorrow?

3) IMPERATIVE: Let's + Base formLet's go to the restaurant now!

4) COULDWe could visit Paris next week.

TESTPut these words into the right order to build a sentence.1. tea / have / 's / let / cup / a / of2. a / car / about / buying / huge / what / ?3. don't / why / we / together / cinema / to / the / ? / go4. could / take / we / train / the / Madrid / to


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REFERENCES

Anonym, 2007. To Learn English. www. tolearnenglish.com

FM, Meindar.1991. Kamus Lengkap 10 Juta. Penerbit Eska Media, Jakarta

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