LEARNINGLEARNINGINHERITED

BEHAVIOURS AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Humans are born very poorly equipped for Humans are born very poorly equipped for independent survival and must spend most of the independent survival and must spend most of the first 10 to 15 years of their lives learning to survive. first 10 to 15 years of their lives learning to survive.

The word The word learninglearning refers to the relatively refers to the relatively permanent changes in behaviour and cognition as permanent changes in behaviour and cognition as a result of experience. a result of experience.

It is ongoing, adaptive, can be intentional or It is ongoing, adaptive, can be intentional or unintentional, active or passive. unintentional, active or passive.

Defining LearningDefining Learning

Learning is Learning is relatively relatively permanent…permanent…

Learning is defined as being relatively permanent Learning is defined as being relatively permanent because it cannot be something that is present because it cannot be something that is present one moment and gone the next, or ‘here today and one moment and gone the next, or ‘here today and gone tomorrow.’gone tomorrow.’

Learning can be Learning can be intentional intentional or or unintentional…unintentional…

Learning can occur Learning can occur intentionally;intentionally; such as when such as when someone makes the choice to learn how to play someone makes the choice to learn how to play the piano and takes lessons. the piano and takes lessons.

Learning can be Learning can be unintentional; unintentional; such as while such as while watching or hearing someone else playing the watching or hearing someone else playing the piano. piano.

Learning can be Learning can be activeactive or or passive…passive…

Learning can be Learning can be activeactive, such as reciting your times , such as reciting your times tables in order to remember them. tables in order to remember them.

Learning can be Learning can be passivepassive, such as when hearing , such as when hearing about an important event on the news or reading about an important event on the news or reading something in the newspaper. something in the newspaper.

Learning is a Learning is a changechange in in behaviour…behaviour…

The notion of change is an important part of the The notion of change is an important part of the definition of learning, because something must be definition of learning, because something must be different about the organism after learning has different about the organism after learning has taken place. taken place.

This change may be immediate, or it may be This change may be immediate, or it may be delayed and occur over a period of time after the delayed and occur over a period of time after the learning. learning.

BEHAVIOUR NOT BEHAVIOUR NOT DEPENDENT ON LEARNINGDEPENDENT ON LEARNING

Learning account for most of the Learning account for most of the behaviours that are observed in humans behaviours that are observed in humans and animals, however not all behaviour and animals, however not all behaviour has to be learned. has to be learned.

What are some behaviours you can think What are some behaviours you can think of that are not learned?of that are not learned?

BEHAVIOUR NOT BEHAVIOUR NOT DEPENDENT ON LEARNINGDEPENDENT ON LEARNING

ReflexesReflexes

Fixed-action patternsFixed-action patterns

REFLEX ACTIONSREFLEX ACTIONS

Automatic, involuntary behaviours that do not Automatic, involuntary behaviours that do not require prior experience and occur in the same require prior experience and occur in the same way each time are known as way each time are known as reflexes.reflexes.

Blinking when wind blows in your faceBlinking when wind blows in your face Moving your hand from a hot objectMoving your hand from a hot object

Reflexes allow people to deal with specific stimuli Reflexes allow people to deal with specific stimuli that are important for their protection or survival that are important for their protection or survival through rigid, automatic responses. through rigid, automatic responses.

FIXED-ACTION PATTERNSFIXED-ACTION PATTERNS

A A fixed-action patternfixed-action pattern of behaviour occurs when of behaviour occurs when all members of a species produce an identical all members of a species produce an identical response to the same specific environmental response to the same specific environmental stimuli. stimuli.

The mechanisms that control the behaviours are The mechanisms that control the behaviours are ‘fixed’, in that they are genetically programmed into ‘fixed’, in that they are genetically programmed into the animal’s nervous system and appear to be the animal’s nervous system and appear to be unable to be changed as a result of learning. unable to be changed as a result of learning.

A fixed-action pattern of behaviour is a behaviour A fixed-action pattern of behaviour is a behaviour inheritedinherited by every individual member of a species, by every individual member of a species, or if the behaviour is sex-specific, by all members or if the behaviour is sex-specific, by all members of one sex in the species. of one sex in the species.

Fixed-action patterns differ from reflexes in that a Fixed-action patterns differ from reflexes in that a reflex, although inborn, usually consists of a single reflex, although inborn, usually consists of a single or simple response, whereas a fixed-action pattern or simple response, whereas a fixed-action pattern is more complex, usually consisting of a sequence is more complex, usually consisting of a sequence of responses. of responses.

Eg. Salmon migrate thousands of kilometres Eg. Salmon migrate thousands of kilometres through ocean waters to spawn in the rivers in through ocean waters to spawn in the rivers in which there were born. which there were born.

BEHAVIOUR DEPENDENT BEHAVIOUR DEPENDENT ON MATURATIONON MATURATION

Maturation Maturation is a developmental process leading is a developmental process leading towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence of changes that occur in the nervous system and of changes that occur in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by genetic other bodily structures controlled by genetic inheritance. inheritance.

Crawling at 8-10 months of age. Crawling at 8-10 months of age. During puberty, the change in a boy’s voice-During puberty, the change in a boy’s voice-

becoming deeper. becoming deeper.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF LEARNINGLEARNING

There are many different ways to learn that are not necessarily There are many different ways to learn that are not necessarily different from one another. different from one another.

An individual can shift from one type of learning to another in many An individual can shift from one type of learning to another in many real-life situations. real-life situations.

The form of learning that we will be looking at is called conditioning. The form of learning that we will be looking at is called conditioning.

ConditioningConditioning is a form of learning that emphasises the relationship is a form of learning that emphasises the relationship between stimuli and responses. Stimuli are events that trigger between stimuli and responses. Stimuli are events that trigger responses. responses.

Conditioning is to do with how learning occurs. Conditioning is to do with how learning occurs.

CLASSICAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov was the first to Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov was the first to

describe classical conditioning as a learning describe classical conditioning as a learning process when he was investigating the digestive process when he was investigating the digestive system of dogs. system of dogs.

He was particularly interested in the role of salivary He was particularly interested in the role of salivary secretions in the digestion of food. secretions in the digestion of food.

Today he is better remembered for his work on Today he is better remembered for his work on classical conditioning. classical conditioning.

Pavlov surgically moved the salivary gland of a Pavlov surgically moved the salivary gland of a dog into its cheek, and put a tube into the gland dog into its cheek, and put a tube into the gland which was attached to a test tube. which was attached to a test tube.

The dog was placed into a harness to prevent any The dog was placed into a harness to prevent any sudden attempts to escape during the test period.sudden attempts to escape during the test period.

Pavlov knew that dogs would salivate if food was Pavlov knew that dogs would salivate if food was placed in their mouths, but he noticed that they placed in their mouths, but he noticed that they would also salivate before they were given food. would also salivate before they were given food.

At the time he believed that digestion involved a At the time he believed that digestion involved a series of reflexes, so he set out to discover what series of reflexes, so he set out to discover what stimulus caused this response of salivation even stimulus caused this response of salivation even before the dogs received food. before the dogs received food.

Various stimuli were presented to the dog, and the Various stimuli were presented to the dog, and the effects on its rates of salivation were measured. effects on its rates of salivation were measured.

Pavlov noticed that the dogs began to salivate to Pavlov noticed that the dogs began to salivate to other stimulus’ other than the food. For example when other stimulus’ other than the food. For example when the lab technician entered the room to give the dogs the lab technician entered the room to give the dogs the food they began to salivate. Salivation was the food they began to salivate. Salivation was caused by the lab technician and not the food. caused by the lab technician and not the food.

Pavlov began to test this using other stimulus’ such Pavlov began to test this using other stimulus’ such as a bell, a musical tone, clapping, a light…as a bell, a musical tone, clapping, a light…

The dogs had learnt to associate different stimuli with The dogs had learnt to associate different stimuli with food which caused them to salivate, rather than the food which caused them to salivate, rather than the food being the cause. food being the cause.

Key elements of classical Key elements of classical conditioningconditioning

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning refers to a form of learning refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. two (or more) different stimuli.

A A stimulusstimulus is any event that elicits (produces) a is any event that elicits (produces) a response from an organism. response from an organism.

A A responseresponse is a reaction by an organism to a is a reaction by an organism to a stimulus. stimulus.

There are four key elements of classical conditioning. There are four key elements of classical conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, The unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.

The The unconditioned stimulus (UCS)unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response. (Food). occurring, automatic response. (Food).

The The unconditioned response (UCR)unconditioned response (UCR) is the is the response that occurs automatically when the UCS is response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. presented.

It is reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably It is reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by a UCS. (Salivation). caused by a UCS. (Salivation).

The The conditioned stimulusconditioned stimulus (CS)(CS) is the stimulus that is is the stimulus that is neutralneutral at the start of the conditioning process and at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned does not normally produce the unconditioned response. (Lab technician).response. (Lab technician).

Through repeated association with the UCS, the CS Through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS. UCS.

Association Association refers to the pairing or linking of one refers to the pairing or linking of one stimulus with another stimulus. Lab technician and stimulus with another stimulus. Lab technician and food. food.

The The conditioned response (CR) conditioned response (CR) is the learned is the learned response that is produced by the CS. (Salivation).response that is produced by the CS. (Salivation).

Classical conditioning Classical conditioning example:example:

Flora has a cat name Tiger. Tiger loves eating Flora has a cat name Tiger. Tiger loves eating FishDelish, a brand of cat food, which Flora feeds to FishDelish, a brand of cat food, which Flora feeds to Tiger every night. Flora is curious about Tiger’s Tiger every night. Flora is curious about Tiger’s behaviour, and she wants to understand how Tiger has behaviour, and she wants to understand how Tiger has come to behave and respond in a particular way. come to behave and respond in a particular way.

Flora’s routine when she comes home from work is as Flora’s routine when she comes home from work is as follows: she puts her keys on the kitchen sink (which follows: she puts her keys on the kitchen sink (which makes a clanging noise each time), then she prepares makes a clanging noise each time), then she prepares Tiger’s dinner. Tiger’s dinner.

After several days of this routine, Flora noticed that After several days of this routine, Flora noticed that Tiger would run up to her and salivate whenever she Tiger would run up to her and salivate whenever she put her keys on the sink. put her keys on the sink.

Neutral stimulus Neutral stimulus (NS):(NS):

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS):stimulus (UCS):

Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR):response (UCR):

Neutral stimulus Neutral stimulus (NS):(NS):

Conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS):(CS):

Conditioned response Conditioned response (CR):(CR):

Conditioned response Conditioned response (CR):(CR):

BEFORE BEFORE CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

DURING DURING CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

AFTER AFTER CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

Learning Activity 3: Identifying elements of classical conditioning.

KEY PROCESSES IN KEY PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGCLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The key processes in classical conditioning are:The key processes in classical conditioning are:

- AcquisitionAcquisition

- ExtinctionExtinction

- Stimulus generalisationStimulus generalisation

- Stimulus discriminationStimulus discrimination

- Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery

ACQUISITIONACQUISITION In classical conditioning, each paired presentation of In classical conditioning, each paired presentation of

the CS with the UCS is referred to as a the CS with the UCS is referred to as a trial.trial.

Acquisition Acquisition is the overall process during which the is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate two events (the CS and organism learns to associate two events (the CS and the UCS). the UCS).

During acquisition, the presentations of the CS and During acquisition, the presentations of the CS and the UCS occur close together and always in the the UCS occur close together and always in the same sequence. same sequence.

The duration of the acquisition phase is determined The duration of the acquisition phase is determined by how many trials is takes for the CR to be learned. by how many trials is takes for the CR to be learned.

The shorter the period of time between the The shorter the period of time between the presentation of the CS and the UCS the faster the presentation of the CS and the UCS the faster the acquisition. acquisition.

The end of the acquisition phase is said to occur The end of the acquisition phase is said to occur when the CS alone produces the CR. At this point, when the CS alone produces the CR. At this point, conditioning is said to have taken place.conditioning is said to have taken place.

EXTINCTIONEXTINCTION A conditioned stimulus-response association is not A conditioned stimulus-response association is not

necessarily permanent. necessarily permanent.

The strength of the association may fade over time or The strength of the association may fade over time or disappear altogether.disappear altogether.

ExtinctionExtinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented. presented.

Some behaviours are extinguished quickly, others Some behaviours are extinguished quickly, others take longer to extinguish. take longer to extinguish.

SPONTANEOUS SPONTANEOUS RECOVERYRECOVERY

Extinction of a conditioned response is not always Extinction of a conditioned response is not always permanent. permanent.

Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period, after the CR appears to have been period, after the CR appears to have been extinguished. extinguished.

Spontaneous recovery does not always occur, and Spontaneous recovery does not always occur, and when it does it is short lived. when it does it is short lived.

The CR tends to be weaker than it was originally The CR tends to be weaker than it was originally (during acquisition). (during acquisition).

If the extinction procedure is repeated several If the extinction procedure is repeated several times, eventually the CR will disappear altogether times, eventually the CR will disappear altogether and spontaneous recovery will not occur at all. and spontaneous recovery will not occur at all.

STIMULUS STIMULUS GENERALISATIONGENERALISATION

Once an organism has learned to respond to a Once an organism has learned to respond to a conditioned stimulus, other stimuli that are similar conditioned stimulus, other stimuli that are similar to the CS may also trigger the CR, but usually at a to the CS may also trigger the CR, but usually at a reduced level. reduced level.

Stimulus generalisationStimulus generalisation is the tendency for is the tendency for another stimulus- one that is similar to the original another stimulus- one that is similar to the original CS- to produce a response that is similar (but not CS- to produce a response that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the CR.necessarily identical) to the CR.

The greater the similarity between stimuli, the greater The greater the similarity between stimuli, the greater the possibility that a generalisation will occur. the possibility that a generalisation will occur.

Stimulus generalisation has a valuable adaptive role, Stimulus generalisation has a valuable adaptive role, but can also be detrimental in some situations. but can also be detrimental in some situations.

STIMULUS STIMULUS DISCRIMINATIONDISCRIMINATION

In classical conditioning, In classical conditioning, stimulus discriminationstimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS. similar to the CS.

Eg. If someone is afraid of a particular dog, but is Eg. If someone is afraid of a particular dog, but is not bothered by any other breed of dog in a similar not bothered by any other breed of dog in a similar situation. situation.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF BEHAVIOUROF BEHAVIOUR

Classical conditioning is one of the simplest forms of Classical conditioning is one of the simplest forms of learning. learning.

Classically conditioned behaviours are like reflexes in Classically conditioned behaviours are like reflexes in that they occur involuntarily, however they are unlike that they occur involuntarily, however they are unlike reflexes in that they are learned. reflexes in that they are learned.

A A conditioned reflex conditioned reflex is an automatic response that is an automatic response that occurs as a result of previous experience. occurs as a result of previous experience.

A conditioned reflex requires little conscious thought A conditioned reflex requires little conscious thought or awareness on the part of the learner. or awareness on the part of the learner.

By learning to associate stimuli in our everyday By learning to associate stimuli in our everyday experience, we gain information about our experience, we gain information about our environment, some of which we take for granted but environment, some of which we take for granted but which is nevertheless valuable. which is nevertheless valuable.

Eg. Eg. Packing up your books at the sound of the bell for the Packing up your books at the sound of the bell for the

end of the lessonend of the lesson

Answering the door bell or phone when it ringsAnswering the door bell or phone when it rings

Listening for thunder after a flash of lighteningListening for thunder after a flash of lightening

Conditioned reflexes include a range of behaviours, Conditioned reflexes include a range of behaviours, one of the most researched is the emotional response. one of the most researched is the emotional response.

Sometimes an emotional response such as fear or Sometimes an emotional response such as fear or anger to a specific stimulus is learned through anger to a specific stimulus is learned through classical conditioning. classical conditioning.

A A conditioned emotional response conditioned emotional response is an emotional is an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response. that did not previously trigger that response.

Eg. Cringing at a dentist drill. Eg. Cringing at a dentist drill.

While it might be beneficial to form a fear of While it might be beneficial to form a fear of something that could harm you, it may be something that could harm you, it may be psychologically harmful to form a fear about psychologically harmful to form a fear about something that does not normally harm you. something that does not normally harm you.

Read Little Albert. Read Little Albert.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN PRACTICEIN PRACTICE

Classical conditioning is used in many therapeutic Classical conditioning is used in many therapeutic settings, which aim to rid people of undesirable settings, which aim to rid people of undesirable behaviours. behaviours.

Aversion therapyAversion therapy

Systematic desensitisationSystematic desensitisation

Treatment of persistent bedwettingTreatment of persistent bedwetting

AVERSION THERAPYAVERSION THERAPY

When people develop unwanted behaviours (that When people develop unwanted behaviours (that are harmful) such as substance abuse, gambling are harmful) such as substance abuse, gambling addiction, inappropriate sexual behaviours, it is addiction, inappropriate sexual behaviours, it is often difficult to help them permanently stop the often difficult to help them permanently stop the unwanted behaviour. unwanted behaviour.

It is especially hard when the behaviour is followed It is especially hard when the behaviour is followed by a sense of pleasure or relief. by a sense of pleasure or relief.

Aversion therapy Aversion therapy is a form of behaviour therapy is a form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning principles to that applies classical conditioning principles to inhibit (block) or discourage undesirable behaviour inhibit (block) or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating it with an aversive (unpleasant) by associating it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.stimulus.

This may be a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea. This may be a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea.

The aim is to suppress or weaken the undesirable The aim is to suppress or weaken the undesirable behaviour. behaviour.

Eg. To stop nail biting- painting nails with a foul Eg. To stop nail biting- painting nails with a foul tasting substance. tasting substance.

The association between the unpleasant stimulus and The association between the unpleasant stimulus and the unwanted behaviour is learned very quickly. the unwanted behaviour is learned very quickly.

Aversion therapy was first used in the 1930’s to treat Aversion therapy was first used in the 1930’s to treat alcoholism, by giving alcoholics an electric shock alcoholism, by giving alcoholics an electric shock whenever they could see, taste or smell alcohol. whenever they could see, taste or smell alcohol.

Today instead of using electric shocks, alcoholics are Today instead of using electric shocks, alcoholics are given nausea inducing drugs paired with alcohol given nausea inducing drugs paired with alcohol consumption to make the patient feel ill. consumption to make the patient feel ill.

UCS- NAUSEA DRUGSUCS- NAUSEA DRUGS CS- ALCOHOLCS- ALCOHOL UCR- FEELING ILLUCR- FEELING ILL CR- FEELING ILLCR- FEELING ILL

The limitation to this is that some alcoholics will avoid The limitation to this is that some alcoholics will avoid alcohol while taking the drugs but return to it once alcohol while taking the drugs but return to it once therapy is finished. therapy is finished.

This means that the learned aversion often fails to This means that the learned aversion often fails to generalise to situations other than those under which generalise to situations other than those under which the learning takes place. Therefore at times the the learning takes place. Therefore at times the results of aversion therapy are often short lived. results of aversion therapy are often short lived.

SYSTEMATIC SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATIONDESENSITISATION

In most cases, a classically conditioned response will In most cases, a classically conditioned response will become extinguished if the UCS is not paired with the become extinguished if the UCS is not paired with the CS at least occasionally. CS at least occasionally.

Systematic desensitisation Systematic desensitisation is a kind of behaviour is a kind of behaviour therapy that attempts to replace an anxiety or fear therapy that attempts to replace an anxiety or fear response with a relaxation response through a response with a relaxation response through a classical conditioning procedure. classical conditioning procedure.

This means the client must associate being relaxed This means the client must associate being relaxed with the anxiety or fear stimulus by a series of graded with the anxiety or fear stimulus by a series of graded steps. steps.

Joseph Wolpe developed this theory and his steps Joseph Wolpe developed this theory and his steps are as follows:are as follows:

1.1. Teach the person to relax.Teach the person to relax.

2.2. Break down the fear arousing stimulus into a series Break down the fear arousing stimulus into a series of graded steps. of graded steps.

3.3. Steps are graded from most fear arousing to least Steps are graded from most fear arousing to least fear arousing. fear arousing.

Eg. Consider a person with a fear of flying. Eg. Consider a person with a fear of flying.

Experiencing mid-air turbulenceExperiencing mid-air turbulence

Taking offTaking off

Taxiing down the runwayTaxiing down the runway

Boarding the planeBoarding the plane

Waiting to get on the planeWaiting to get on the plane

Travelling to the airport in a carTravelling to the airport in a car

Buying a plane ticketBuying a plane ticket

Most frightening

Least frightening

The therapist would then ask the patient to imagine The therapist would then ask the patient to imagine the least frightening scene on the list. When they can the least frightening scene on the list. When they can imagine doing this they would be ask to imagine the imagine doing this they would be ask to imagine the next step and so on. next step and so on.

In the end the patient should be able to imagine the In the end the patient should be able to imagine the most fearful stimulus without becoming afraid. most fearful stimulus without becoming afraid.

Real life desensitisation is the most successful. Real life desensitisation is the most successful.

This eventually leads to the fear of flying being This eventually leads to the fear of flying being eventually overcome. eventually overcome.

TREATMENT OF PERSISTENT TREATMENT OF PERSISTENT BEDWETTINGBEDWETTING

Some children persist in wetting their beds long after Some children persist in wetting their beds long after they are toilet trained an out of nappies. they are toilet trained an out of nappies.

This is called This is called enuresis.enuresis.

Although some cases are caused by physiological Although some cases are caused by physiological problems the condition is frequently found to be problems the condition is frequently found to be associated with problems during:associated with problems during:

-toilet training-toilet training

-stressful situations-stressful situations

-underlying emotional responses.-underlying emotional responses.

It is believed that enuresis was caused by an It is believed that enuresis was caused by an individual failing to wake up in response to the stimuli individual failing to wake up in response to the stimuli arising from a full bladder and that classical arising from a full bladder and that classical conditioning could fix this. conditioning could fix this.

If a person could awaken when the bladder was full If a person could awaken when the bladder was full the problem would be fixed. the problem would be fixed.

A buzzer was used to awaken the sleeping person A buzzer was used to awaken the sleeping person following the stimulation from a full bladder.following the stimulation from a full bladder.

After a series of these presentations, in theory, a After a series of these presentations, in theory, a person should awake only to the feeling of a full person should awake only to the feeling of a full bladder and not the buzzer. bladder and not the buzzer.

A gauze pad was positioned appropriately so that the A gauze pad was positioned appropriately so that the first drop of urine was detected and set of a circuit first drop of urine was detected and set of a circuit which sounded the buzzer. which sounded the buzzer.

This proved to be a successful method for curing bed This proved to be a successful method for curing bed wetting. wetting.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDITIONING BEHAVIOURCONDITIONING BEHAVIOUR

Confidentiality- a participants right to privacy, Confidentiality- a participants right to privacy, meaning that in a study details about the meaning that in a study details about the participants identity cannot be revealed unless participants identity cannot be revealed unless their written consent is obtained. their written consent is obtained.

In Little Alberts case, his details were published In Little Alberts case, his details were published along with his photos in a research article without along with his photos in a research article without the written permission from his mother. the written permission from his mother.

Voluntary participationVoluntary participation- - the researcher must try to the researcher must try to ensure that participants’ involvement in the research ensure that participants’ involvement in the research is voluntary. Participants must not be put under any is voluntary. Participants must not be put under any pressure to take part in the study. pressure to take part in the study.

Although Little Alberts mother did volunteer her son Although Little Alberts mother did volunteer her son to participate in the experiment on conditioning, it is to participate in the experiment on conditioning, it is questionable whether she was informed as to what questionable whether she was informed as to what was actually going to happen to her son in the was actually going to happen to her son in the experiment. experiment.

Informed consent- wherever possible participants Informed consent- wherever possible participants must be appropriately informed of the nature and must be appropriately informed of the nature and purpose of the investigation. This must be purpose of the investigation. This must be appropriately documented. appropriately documented.

It is unlikely that Little Alberts mum was properly It is unlikely that Little Alberts mum was properly informed about what was going to occur throughout informed about what was going to occur throughout the experiment and the conditions that she was the experiment and the conditions that she was agreeing to. There is no documented paperwork to agreeing to. There is no documented paperwork to indicate otherwise. indicate otherwise.

Withdrawal rights- The researcher must inform Withdrawal rights- The researcher must inform participants of the nature of the research and that participants of the nature of the research and that they are free to participate or to decline to participate they are free to participate or to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research. or to withdraw from the research.

Little Alberts mother was not with her child when he Little Alberts mother was not with her child when he was being conditioned and Little Albert was too was being conditioned and Little Albert was too young to make the decision himself. Meaning that young to make the decision himself. Meaning that even if he should have been withdrawn he could not even if he should have been withdrawn he could not have. Related to the lack of informed consent. have. Related to the lack of informed consent.

Deception- when it is necessary for scientific reasons Deception- when it is necessary for scientific reasons to conduct a study without fully informing participants to conduct a study without fully informing participants of its true purpose prior to commencement, the of its true purpose prior to commencement, the researcher must ensure that participants do not suffer researcher must ensure that participants do not suffer distress from the research procedure. distress from the research procedure.

If Little Alberts mother was not informed about the If Little Alberts mother was not informed about the exact procedure for the conditioning experiment there exact procedure for the conditioning experiment there is an element of deception involved. This is unethical is an element of deception involved. This is unethical as the experiment did cause distress for Little Albert as the experiment did cause distress for Little Albert and his mother was presumably not informed about and his mother was presumably not informed about this. this.

Debriefing- The researcher must provide an Debriefing- The researcher must provide an opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results and conclusion information about the nature, results and conclusion of the experiment. of the experiment.

According to the experimenters Little Alberts mother According to the experimenters Little Alberts mother moved away before the experimenters had a chance moved away before the experimenters had a chance to debrief her and reverse Alberts conditioned to debrief her and reverse Alberts conditioned behaviour. Other reports suggest that although the behaviour. Other reports suggest that although the experimenters knew well in advance the mother was experimenters knew well in advance the mother was leaving, they did not attempt to follow the debriefing leaving, they did not attempt to follow the debriefing guidelines. guidelines.

ONE-TRIAL LEARNING ONE-TRIAL LEARNING AND TASTE AVERSIONAND TASTE AVERSION

Take a minute to think of a food you don’t like… Why Take a minute to think of a food you don’t like… Why don’t you like it?don’t you like it?

These reasons are These reasons are personalpersonal and and subjective.subjective.

Sometimes our dislike of food occurs suddenly, yet Sometimes our dislike of food occurs suddenly, yet with little consideration. with little consideration.

This is called taste aversion. This is called taste aversion.

TASTE AVERSIONTASTE AVERSION

A A taste aversiontaste aversion is a conditioned response that is a conditioned response that results from a person or animal establishing an results from a person or animal establishing an association between a particular food and being or association between a particular food and being or feeling ill after having consumed it at some time in the feeling ill after having consumed it at some time in the past. past.

There is an association between the CS (taste/smell) There is an association between the CS (taste/smell) and the UCS (nausea), the difference is that it is and the UCS (nausea), the difference is that it is usually acquired with just one trial. usually acquired with just one trial.

ONE-TRIAL LEARNINGONE-TRIAL LEARNING

One-trial learning One-trial learning is a form of learning involving a is a form of learning involving a change in behaviour that occurs with only one change in behaviour that occurs with only one experience. experience.

While one-trial learning has some of the While one-trial learning has some of the characteristics of classical conditioning, there are characteristics of classical conditioning, there are various aspects which do not follow this model. various aspects which do not follow this model.

One-trial learningOne-trial learning

Classically conditioned responses usually take a Classically conditioned responses usually take a number of associations or pairings to occur, and number of associations or pairings to occur, and they can extinguish relatively quickly. they can extinguish relatively quickly.

One-trial learning is quickly acquired and One-trial learning is quickly acquired and considerably resistant to extinction. considerably resistant to extinction.

In classical conditioning the CR occurs In classical conditioning the CR occurs immediately after the CS is presented, whereas in immediately after the CS is presented, whereas in one-trial learning the CR can occur as much as a one-trial learning the CR can occur as much as a day or so after the food. day or so after the food.

One-trial learningOne-trial learning

In one-trial learning generalisation does In one-trial learning generalisation does not normally occur. not normally occur.

Read John Garcia experiment page 457. Read John Garcia experiment page 457.