Learning

Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor

and attended to with diligence. Abigail Adams

LearningRelatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience

4 types of learningHabituationClassical conditioningOperant conditioningObservational learningThey all operate under the same principle –

learning by association

HabituationTendency to become familiar with a stimulus merely as a result of repeated exposure Orienting reflex

Eyes widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological arousal

Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus – we habituate

Primitive form of learning Found in all organisms

Decreases the power of reward to motivate

L E A R N IN G :A r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e i n b e h a v i o r t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m

e x p e r i e n c e

PRINCIPLES1 . L e a r n i n g i s a c h a n g e i n m e n t a l s t a t e . C h a n g e o c c u r s

i n s i d e t h e l e a r n e r2 . S e e n o n l y t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n3 . L e a r n i n g i n v o l v e s a c h a n g e o f b e h a v i o r4 . R e s u l t s f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ( r e p e t i t i o n )5 . L e a r n i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t6 . C a n b e a p p l i e d / t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n7 . W a t c h i n g , L i s t e n i n g , R e a d i n g , e t c . a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o

l e a r n i n g

LEARNING is based on an association between stimuli and responses

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Stimulus elicits a Response [S R]

EXAMPLE:

Bell rings, students leave!

I v an P av l o v ( R u s s i a n B i o l o g i s t )

D i g e s t i v e s y s t e m o f d o g s – s a l i v a t i o n a t t h e s i g h t o f f o o d i se x p e c t e d

C a n w e g e t t h e d o g t o s a l i v a t e a t t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f f o o d ? ? ? ?

C a n w e g e t t h e d o g t o r e s p o n d t o a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l u s ? ? ? ?

P a v l o v ’ s d i s c o v e r y l e a d s t o C l a s s i c a l C o n d i t i o n i n g

T h e E le m e n ts : U n C o n d i t i o n e d S t i m u l u s ( U C S )

U n C o n d i t i o n e d R e s p o n s e ( U C R ) N e u t r a l S t i m u l u s ( N S )

C o n d i t i o n e d S t i m u l u s ( C S ) C o n d i t i o n e d R e s p o n s e ( C R )

UCS UCR

NS + UCS UCR

CS CR

THE FORMULA

An unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response

A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response

A conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response

IN OTHER WORDS

Experiment time!

A hop, skip, and a jump!

Go over Classical Conditioning worksheet – numbers 1-10

_____ → _____

UCS UCR

_____ + _____ → _____

NS UCS UCR

_____ → _____

CS CR

Loud Noise Startle

Startle

Startle

Loud NoiseBalloon

Balloon

Classical ConditioningA tendency to connect events that occur together in time and spacePavlov (1849-1936) Psychic secretions led to classical conditioning,

though unintentionally A stimulus comes to elicit a response that it

doesn’t normally elicit

How does this come about? Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the

learning (or acquisition) of a CRKey factors: order and timing of

presentation

ExtinctionThe elimination of a learned response by

removal of the US or reinforcement

Stimulus GeneralizationThe tendency to respond to a stimulus that

is similar to the CS

I don’t care if she is a tape dispenser.I love her!

Stimulus generalization

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the

learning (or acquisition) of a CR Key factors: order and timing of presentation

Extinction The elimination of a learned response by removal

of the US or reinforcement

Generalization The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is

similar to the CS

Discrimination The ability to distinguish between different

stimuli

1. Acquisition

The process of developing a learned response

2. Extinction

• The diminishing of a learned response

• Continuously presenting the CS without the UCS

3. Generalization

• Producing the same response to two similar stimuli

• The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response

• Example: Little Albert

4. Discrimination

• Producing different responses to two similar stimuli

Little Albert – Before Conditioning

Little Albert – During Conditioning

Little Albert – After Conditioning

Little Albert - Generalization

Things to keep in mind…

Classical – associate 2 things, thus anticipate eventsLightening . . . . Thunder!

Unconditioned means unlearnedAssociations should be natural

Response can be the same, but isn’t alwaysContingency – CS should precede UCSSimultaneous pairing takes longer and isn’t as

powerfulBackwards pairing rarely works

Things to keep in mind…

Single-trial (or minimal-trial) learningPhobias

Little AlbertTaste aversions

Cancer patients & chemotherapy

Applying Classical ConditioningConditioned Fears We have preferences for some fears

They are learned more quickly and the associations last longer, even during the extinction phase

Social Behaviors People form strong positive and negative attitudes

toward neutral objects by virtue of their links to emotionally charged stimuli

Immune System Preliminary research shows that we can

slow/bolster the immune system through classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioningAssociate response with its consequenceBehavior becomes more or less probable

depending on its consequences

Law of effectResponses followed by positive outcomes

are repeated whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not

Operant Conditioning

Skinner boxes

Behavioral contingenciesPositive reinforcementNegative reinforcementExtinctionPunishment

ReinforcementReinforcer A consequence that increases the likelihood

that behavior will occur again

Positive reinforcement Providing a positive stimulus Studying earns you a good grade Premack principle

More probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for less probable behavior

Negative reinforcement Removing an aversive stimulus Fastening our seatbelts to turn of the buzzer

PunishmentPunishmentA consequence that decreases the

likelihood that behavior will occur again

Positive punisherProviding an aversive stimulusScolding a child, shocking a lab rat for

pressing the response lever

Negative punisherRemoving a positive stimulusTaking food away from a hungry rat

Shaping and ExtinctionShaping Encouraging a new behavior by reinforcing

successive approximations This is how trainers get animals to do new tricks

Extinction As in classical conditioning, failure to reward the

learned behavior will eventually lead to a cessation of that behavior

If a vending machine stops giving you a Coke, you’ll stop putting your money into it

Things to keep in mind . . .

Primary vs. secondary reinforcersPrimary – stimuli that are innately

reinforcingSecondary – stimuli that are rewarding

because of their association with primary reinforcers

Why don’t the behaviors just keep occurring?Discriminative stimulusRelative degree of satiation

Reinforcement Schedules

ContinuousLearning occurs rapidlySubject to rapid extinction when

discontinued

PartialFixed-Interval (FI)Variable-Interval (VI)Fixed-Ratio (FR)Variable-Ratio (VR)

Behavioral ContingenciesType Consequence

Prob. of behavior Example

Positive reinforce

Add desirable

IncreaseStudy and get an “A”

Negative reinforce

Remove undesirabl

eIncrease

Go to dentist; filling removes

pain

ExtinctionFail to add desirable

DecreaseSay hi. No response.

Stop saying hi

“Positive”Punishment

Addundesirabl

eDecrease Hangover

“Negative” Punishment

Removedesirable

Decrease Get benched for fighting

Observational Learning

Not all learning comes from direct experience!

Sometimes we watch others & see what happens…Older siblings, peers, & parentsVicarious rewards & punishmentsAlso: intrinsic rewards & punishments

Albert Bandura

Bobo doll studies2 stages of observational learningAcquisitionPerformance

4 steps of observational learningAttentionRetentionReproductionMotivation