LEARNING & MEMORYLEARNING & MEMORY

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DEFINITON OF LEARNING & DEFINITON OF LEARNING & MEMORYMEMORY

LearningLearning is often understood in terms of is often understood in terms of the acquisition of stimulus-response (S-R)the acquisition of stimulus-response (S-R)

In order to be effective in bringing about a In order to be effective in bringing about a response, stimuli must first evoke an response, stimuli must first evoke an internal connectioninternal connection

Memory Memory requires some effort, is also requires some effort, is also dependent on experience but not dependent on experience but not necessarily tied to a specific situation necessarily tied to a specific situation

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LearningLearning involves the acquisition over time involves the acquisition over time of S-R associationof S-R association

ForgettingForgetting is defined as the breakdown or is defined as the breakdown or loss of S-R associationloss of S-R association

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Information-processing approachInformation-processing approach stresses stresses that learning & memory are best that learning & memory are best understood in terms of cognitive understood in terms of cognitive processes ofprocesses of RegistrationRegistration EncodingEncoding StorageStorage Retrieval of materialRetrieval of material

Other approach – the integrity of the Other approach – the integrity of the network of cells in the brain termed network of cells in the brain termed neuronneuron

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TYPES OF LEARNINGTYPES OF LEARNING

Instrumental learningInstrumental learning – requires learning a – requires learning a sequences of responses that lead to a goalsequences of responses that lead to a goalMotor skill learningMotor skill learning involves either discrete involves either discrete or continuous responsesor continuous responsesA precise A precise bodily movementbodily movement of some kind of some kind must be learnedmust be learnedAge deficitsAge deficits have been found in both have been found in both instrumental learning & motor skill learning instrumental learning & motor skill learning

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Deals with verbal materialDeals with verbal material

Learning in adulthoodLearning in adulthood Rote learningRote learning

Where an association is acquired repetitivelyWhere an association is acquired repetitively Mediated learningMediated learning

The learner utilizes a visual or verbal mediator The learner utilizes a visual or verbal mediator acquired in the pastacquired in the past

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Memory StoresMemory Stores Sensory memory-retains information just long Sensory memory-retains information just long

enough for you to process it enough for you to process it

Iconic memory - is a type of sensory Iconic memory - is a type of sensory memory that is based on the visual systemmemory that is based on the visual system

Echoic - is based on the auditory systemEchoic - is based on the auditory system

*Echoic memories last somewhat longer than*Echoic memories last somewhat longer than

iconic memoriesiconic memories

MEMORY

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Short term memory Short term memory (primary)(primary)

Function-to hold Function-to hold sufficiently small amount sufficiently small amount of information for of information for conscious processingconscious processing

Long term memory Long term memory

( secondary)( secondary)stores information in stores information in terms of abstract terms of abstract symbols and their symbols and their relationship, and is relationship, and is capable of retaining data capable of retaining data from one or two minutes from one or two minutes to a great many years.to a great many years.

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Figure 8.1: Three Stage Model of MemoryFigure 8.1: Three Stage Model of Memory

SENSORY STORES

SHORT TERM MEMORY

LONG TERM

MEMORY

Decay Displacement Interference

Attention Rehearsal

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Figure 8.1 outlines processes that transfer Figure 8.1 outlines processes that transfer information from one store to another.information from one store to another.

Transfer from sensory to short-term Transfer from sensory to short-term memory entails attentionmemory entails attention

Whereas transfer from short term to long Whereas transfer from short term to long term memory requires rehearsal and term memory requires rehearsal and elaborationelaboration

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In this model, 3 different types of forgetting In this model, 3 different types of forgetting correspond to the three memory storescorrespond to the three memory stores Forgetting from sensory stores is thought to Forgetting from sensory stores is thought to

result from simply decayresult from simply decay Forgetting from short term memory results Forgetting from short term memory results

from replacement from replacement Forgetting from long term memory results from Forgetting from long term memory results from

interference. Interference doesn’t destroy interference. Interference doesn’t destroy information in long term memory but simply information in long term memory but simply impairs its retrievabilityimpairs its retrievability

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Working memoryWorking memoryCentral executive- responsible for making Central executive- responsible for making decisions about what information is processed & decisions about what information is processed & how that information is to be processedhow that information is to be processed

Articulatory loop - auditory mechanism that Articulatory loop - auditory mechanism that temporarily hold speech based informationtemporarily hold speech based information

Visuospatial scratch- Performs the same function Visuospatial scratch- Performs the same function in regard to visual and spatial information in regard to visual and spatial information

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THREE COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY

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MemoryMemory Generic or semanticGeneric or semantic – general rules or – general rules or

basic meaningbasic meaning Episodic Episodic –specific events–specific events ProceduralProcedural –the influences of previous –the influences of previous

experiences on present performanceexperiences on present performance Explicit Explicit – involves conscious recollection – involves conscious recollection

of previous experiencesof previous experiences ImplicitImplicit – may exists without an – may exists without an

awareness of rememberingawareness of remembering

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Long term memory consists of two major Long term memory consists of two major systems that are functionally and systems that are functionally and neurologically distinctneurologically distinct declarative memory - involves the conscious declarative memory - involves the conscious

recollection of the pastrecollection of the past nondeclarative/procedural memory- reveals nondeclarative/procedural memory- reveals

itself by the influence that past events have itself by the influence that past events have on a person’s current behavioron a person’s current behavior

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The division of long term The division of long term memorymemory

MEMORY

DECLARATIVE NONDECLARATIVE

EPISODIC SEMANTIC SKILLS PRIMING SIMPLE STIMULUS-RESPONS ASSOCIATIONS

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LEARNING AND MEMORY LEARNING AND MEMORY APPROACHAPPROACH

The information processing approachThe information processing approach

Computer metaphor Computer metaphor

Information processing involves Information processing involves perceptionperception attentionattention memorymemory

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Effects of aging on learning and Effects of aging on learning and memorymemory

Three different approaches to the study of Three different approaches to the study of age-related memory and learning deficitsage-related memory and learning deficits neuroscience neuroscience information-processinginformation-processing contextualcontextual

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NEUROSCIENCE APPROACHNEUROSCIENCE APPROACH

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NEUROSCIENCE APPROACHNEUROSCIENCE APPROACH

Age-related memory deficits may be traced to Age-related memory deficits may be traced to change in brain functionchange in brain function Structural changes occur at the neural level as Structural changes occur at the neural level as we age, such as the emerge of senile plaques we age, such as the emerge of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tanglesand neurofibrillary tanglesConcentrations of neurotransmitters diminished Concentrations of neurotransmitters diminished with agewith ageThese changes, along with cell death and These changes, along with cell death and atrophy, occur in varying degrees throughout the atrophy, occur in varying degrees throughout the brain, but are specially prominent within the brain, but are specially prominent within the frontal cortexfrontal cortex

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There are several ways in which age related There are several ways in which age related deterioration of the frontal cortex explains the deterioration of the frontal cortex explains the most prominent losses in explicit memory.most prominent losses in explicit memory.

The hippocampus and frontal cortex are The hippocampus and frontal cortex are involved in the automatic retrieval of declarative involved in the automatic retrieval of declarative memoriesmemories

Automatic retrieval occurs when an individual Automatic retrieval occurs when an individual perceives a specific environmental cue so that a perceives a specific environmental cue so that a memory spontaneously pops into a person’s memory spontaneously pops into a person’s mind mind

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Strategic retrieval occurs when a person is Strategic retrieval occurs when a person is not provided with external cues to prime not provided with external cues to prime memorymemory

Retrieval of declarative memory requires a Retrieval of declarative memory requires a conscious, deliberate strategyconscious, deliberate strategy

Generating and using a retrieval strategy Generating and using a retrieval strategy requires working memoryrequires working memory

Frontal cortex regulate working memoryFrontal cortex regulate working memory

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INFORMATION PROCESSING INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHAPPROACH

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INFORMATION-PROCESSING INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACHAPPROACH

Emphasizes the kinds of cognitive processesEmphasizes the kinds of cognitive processesSome researchers have focused on the nature Some researchers have focused on the nature of age differences in the encoding, storage and of age differences in the encoding, storage and retrieval aspects of memoryretrieval aspects of memoryEncoding refers to the registration or pick up of Encoding refers to the registration or pick up of informationinformationStorage refers to the retention of information in Storage refers to the retention of information in memory memory Retrieval refers to finding or using information in Retrieval refers to finding or using information in memory memory

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Age-related encoding deficitAge-related encoding deficit Elderly person are less capable of engaging Elderly person are less capable of engaging

in the organizational, elaborative and imagery in the organizational, elaborative and imagery process that are helpful in memory taskprocess that are helpful in memory task

Age related retrieval deficitAge related retrieval deficit Older adults cannot develop the strategies Older adults cannot develop the strategies

that would help them find stored informationthat would help them find stored information

Smith and Earles (1996) found that Smith and Earles (1996) found that noncognitive mediators such as years of noncognitive mediators such as years of education and self-reported health status education and self-reported health status did little to attenuate the relationship did little to attenuate the relationship between age and memory between age and memory

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CONTEXTUAL APPROACHCONTEXTUAL APPROACH

Suggests that age differences in memory Suggests that age differences in memory can be explained by understanding the can be explained by understanding the relationship between the characteristics of relationship between the characteristics of the memory task and the characteristics of the memory task and the characteristics of the individual performing the taskthe individual performing the task

Many characteristics of the task and of the Many characteristics of the task and of the person apart from age can determine person apart from age can determine performance in memory taskperformance in memory task

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Whether one is a superior learner or has a Whether one is a superior learner or has a good memory is relative togood memory is relative to The nature of the information to be learnedThe nature of the information to be learned The needs, abilities and motives of the The needs, abilities and motives of the

individual involvedindividual involved The requirements of the situation in which one The requirements of the situation in which one

uses learning and memory skills uses learning and memory skills

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To understand learning and memory To understand learning and memory deficits among adults learners, it would be deficits among adults learners, it would be advantageous toadvantageous to Identify the nature of the memory store Identify the nature of the memory store

involvedinvolved Identify what processes need to be Identify what processes need to be

strengthensstrengthens

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Characteristics of the learner•Skills•Knowledge•Attitudes•Etc.

Criteria task•Recognition•Recall•Transfer•Problem solving

Nature of the materials•Modality(visual, linguistics, etc.)•Physical structure•Psychological structure•Conceptual difficulty•Sequencing of materials•Etc.

Learning activities•Attention•Rehearsal•Elaboration

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Willis (1985) has advocated studying the Willis (1985) has advocated studying the adult learner in terms of efforts to enhance adult learner in terms of efforts to enhance performanceperformance The learner’s characteristicsThe learner’s characteristics: Factual : Factual

knowledge and existing skills that may knowledge and existing skills that may interfere with the learning processinterfere with the learning process

Activities/behaviors the individual is expected Activities/behaviors the individual is expected to engageto engage: asking more questions, more : asking more questions, more effective rehearsal effective rehearsal

Nature of the training/intervention program Nature of the training/intervention program regarding content and processregarding content and process

The specific goal/behaviors the learner is The specific goal/behaviors the learner is expected to acquireexpected to acquire

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NORMAL VS PATHOLOGICAL NORMAL VS PATHOLOGICAL MEMORY LOSSMEMORY LOSS

Apparent memory deficitsApparent memory deficits

Genuine memory deficitsGenuine memory deficits

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APPARENT MEMORY APPARENT MEMORY DEFICITSDEFICITS

Memory problems resulting from ineffective Memory problems resulting from ineffective encoding and retrieval strategiesencoding and retrieval strategies

It can be overcome by inducing individuals It can be overcome by inducing individuals to process information more effectively or to process information more effectively or providing them with effective retrieval aidsproviding them with effective retrieval aids

Normal elderly and depressives would be Normal elderly and depressives would be more like to experience apparent memory more like to experience apparent memory deficits deficits

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GENUINE MEMORY DEFICITSGENUINE MEMORY DEFICITS

Memory problems that persist even after Memory problems that persist even after individuals have carried out effective individuals have carried out effective encoding and retrieval activitiesencoding and retrieval activities

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