learning the mystery language of egyptian hieroglyphics

An

Egyptian

Primer To Learn To Read Egyptian Hieroglyphics

Version 2009-01-01

Robert Cowen, Jr.

An Egyptian PrimerAn Egyptian PrimerAn Egyptian PrimerAn Egyptian Primer

THE WORLD OF BOOKS

IS THE MOST REMARKABLE CREATION OF MAN

NOTHING ELSE THAT HE BUILDS EVER LASTS

MONUMENTS FALL

NATIONS PERISH

CIVILIZATIONS GROW OLD AND DIE OUT

AND AFTER AN ERA OF DARKNESS

NEW RACES BUILD OTHERS

BUT IN THE WORLD OF BOOKS ARE VOLUMES

THAT HAVE SEEN THIS HAPPEN AGAIN AND AGAIN

AND YET LIVE ON

STILL YOUNG

STILL AS FRESH AS THE DAY THEY WERE WRITTEN

STILL TELLING MEN'S HEARTS

OF THE HEARTS OF MEN CENTURIES DEAD

From a pamphlet written by Clarence Day, Jr. in 1920 for his brother George, President of the Yale University Press, for a fund raising effort of the Yale University Press. George Macy, President of the George Macy Companies (The Heritage Press, The Limited Editions Club, etc.) divided the lines in the fashion of a wall-motto and persuaded Carl Purington Rollins, Printer to Yale University, to print it as a poster, which Macy then disseminated in 1938 to members of The Limited Editions Club and to libraries world-wide.1111

1 The Monthly Letter of the Limited Editions Club, New York, December 1954, Number 257.


Those who came before,

Their portals and mansions have crumbled,

Their ka-servants are gone; Their tombstones are covered with soil,

Their graves are forgotten.

But writers' names are pronounced over their books,

Which they made while they had being;

Good is the memory of their makers,

It is for ever and all time!

Be a scribe, take it to heart,

That your name may become as theirs.

Better is a book than a graven stela,

Than a solid tomb-enclosure.

Books act as chapels and tombs

In the heart of him who speaks their name;

Surely useful in the graveyard

Is a name in people's mouth!

Man decays, his corpse is dust,

All his kin have perished;

But a book makes him remembered

Through the mouth of his reciter.

Better is a book than a well-built house,

Better than tomb-chapels in the west,

Better than a solid mansion,

Better than a stela in the temple!

Death made their names forgotten,

But books made them remembered! 2222

2 Adapted from M. Lichtheim's translation, "The Immortality of Writers" in Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom, Univ. of California Press, 1976, pp. 175-178. The original papyrus, Chester Beatty IV, is in the British Museum.


CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS Introduction

1. The Basic Instructional Chapter

2. Nouns

3. Plural Nouns

4. Signs as Logograms

5. Signs as Phonograms: Uniphonics

6. Signs as Phonograms: Biphonics

7. Signs as Phonograms: Triphonics

8. Signs as Determinatives

9. Plural Determinatives

10. Dual Nouns

11. Possessive Suffix Pronouns – Singular Form

12. Possessive Suffix Pronouns – Plural Form

13. Present/Future Tense Verb with Suffix Pronoun Subject

14. Present/Future Tense Verb with Noun Subject

15. Past Tense Verb Form

16. Noun Subject + Noun Direct Object

17. Suffix Pronoun Subject + Noun Direct Object

18. Suffix Pronoun Subject + Singular Dependent Pronoun Direct Object

19. Suffix Pronoun Subject + Plural Dependent Pronoun Direct Object

20. Pronoun Direct Object with Noun Subject

21. The Attributive Adjective

22. The Predicate Adjective

23. The Genitival Adjective

24. The Demonstrative Adjective

25. Quantifiers and Cardinal Numbers

26. The Simple Preposition m

27. Compound Prepositions with m 28. The Preposition n 29. The Noun Indirect Object

30. The Suffix Pronoun Indirect Object

31. The Simple Preposition r 32. Compound Prepositions with r 33. Nisbe Adjectives Formed from Nouns

34. Nisbe Adjectives Formed from Prepositions

35. The Adverb Phrase


CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS (Continued)(Continued)(Continued)(Continued) 36. The Adverb Clause

37. The Direct Genitive

38. The Infinitive and the Gerund

39. Negation

40. The Passive

APPENDIX A – LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDIX B – GLOSSARY

APPENDIX C – EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY

APPENDIX D – EGYPTIAN DICTIONARY

APPENDIX E – CHAPTER WHERE SIGN FIRST DESCRIBED

APPENDIX F – ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

PRINT BIBLIOGRPAHY


ARTICLESARTICLESARTICLESARTICLES

2.4 Egyptian Cosmogony 3.4 Geographical Description of Egypt 4.4 Egyptian Chronology 5.4 The Paleolithic Period 700,000-14,000 BP 6.4 Egyptian Pre-History 12,500-3,500 BCE 7.4 The Language 8.4 Shu, Tefnut, Geb, and Nut 9.4 The Corvée and ššššbtybtybtybty [shwabty] Statues 10.4 The Calendar 1 1.4 The Fourth Dynasty 12.4 The Osiris Legend According to Plutarch 13.4 The Egyptian Concept of maat 14.4 The Scribe 15.4 The Step Pyramid Complex of King Djoser 16.4 Imhotep 17.4 Religious Organization 18.4 Osiris in the Egyptian Records 19.4 Sakkara 20.4 The Principal Crowns of Egypt 2 1.4 Honorific Transposition and Abbreviations 22.4 Pre-Dynastic and Early Old Kingdom Royal Names 23.4 The Development of the Mastaba Tomb 24.4 The Egyptian Concept of the Spirit 25.4 The Cubit 26.4 Abydos, The Burial Place of Osiris 27.4 Osiris and His Epithets 28.4 The Pyramid Texts, The Coffin Texts, and The Book of the Dead 29.4 The Faiyum 30.4 The First Intermediate Period 2181-2040 3 1.4 The Egyptian Legal System 32.4 The Amarna Period 33.4 The Second Intermediate Period 1786-1567 34.4 The ḥḥḥḥb-sd [Heb-Sed] Festival 35.4 Egyptian Vessels 36.4 Some Egyptian Titles from the Old Kingdom 37.4 The Nine Bows and Other Egyptian Enemies 38.4 Symbols of Royalty 39.4 The Design and Function of the Egyptian Temple 40.4 The Greeks in Egypt


ILLUSTRATIONSILLUSTRATIONSILLUSTRATIONSILLUSTRATIONS

Photographs and figures published by courtesy of the museums which provided them to the author. Items from publications, individuals, and web sites are accredited accordingly. 2.4-1 The sky goddess Nut supported by the god Shu. BM 10554/87; neg. 037181. 3.4-1 Nilometer on the east bank of the Nile at Kom Ombo, 40 km. north of Aswan. Robert Cowen, Jr., July 4, 1984. 4.4-1 The king list of Usermaatre Ramesses from his temple in Abydos. BM 117, neg. 130053. 6.4-1 Pre-dynastic ivory comb, MMA 1915 (30.8.224). MMA website, T.M. Davis Bequest. 6.4-2 Pre-dynastic decorated ware. MMA 07.228.136, 10.176.14, 12.184.41, 15.2.34, 19.2.14, 20.2.10, 30.8.203; neg. 93248-B-L-S. 6.4-3 Pre-dynastic burial. BM 32751; neg. 201106. 7.4-1 Narmer's palette. EM JE 32169 (after C. Aldred's The Egyptians, pp. 82-3). 7.4-2 The Rosetta Stone. BM neg. E/C 839. 8.1-1 Hunting scene on the wall of the Dynasty 5tomb of Re-em-kuy. MMA 26327; neg. MM6421. 9.4-1 Four green faience šwbty statues belonging to the Admiral of the Fleet Pa-n-hebu, Dynasty 26. MMA 10.130.1047 A-D; neg.8021-LS-B. Gift of Miss Helen Miller Gould, 1910. 10.4-1 Astronomical scenes with 12 discs for months, tomb of Senenmut (T353), Dynasty 18, c. 1500 BCE, by Charles K. Wilkinson, MMA neg. 214724-tf-B. 11.4-1 The Giza plateau necropolis. R. Cowen, Jr., July 12, 1984. 12.4-1 Triad of deities: Isis, Osiris, and Horus-the-Child. Ptolemaic bronze statuette. MMA 42.2.3; neg. 129622-A-LS. MMA Rogers Fund, 1942. 13.4-1 Weighing of the Heart Ceremony from Hunefer's Book of the Dead . BM 9901/3; neg. 212561. 14.4-1 Seated scribe from Dynasty 5. EM JM 30252. Heather MacDonald, March 1993. 14.4-2 Scribal palettes in the British Museum: (L) BM 12784 with brushes, (R) BM 5512, neg. E/D 1478. 15.4-1 Djoser's mortuary complex (after N. Ionides in The Egyptians, C. Aldred, p. 96). 15.4-2 Djoser's Step Pyramid at Sakkara showing a portion of the temenos wall in the foreground. R. Cowen, Jr., June 30, 1984. 19.4-1 Constructing a wall from the Dynasty 18 tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt, c. 1450 BCE. From scholarsresource.com, Tomb of Rekhmire. 19.4-2 Engraving and polishing vases in silver and gold from the Dynasty 18 tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt,c. 1450 BCE. From scholarsresource.com, tomb of Rekhmire. 19.4-3 Fowling scene from the tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 BCE. British Museum website. 20.4-1 Coronation scene at Edfu. R. Cowen, Jr., July 5, 1984. 20.4-2 Facade of the relocated temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. R. Cowen Jr., July 2, 1984. 21.4-1 Statues of the Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret, Dynasty 4. EM CG3/4. Robert I. Cowen, Sr., November 30, 1958. 23.4-1 The five stages of construction of Djoser's Step Pyramid (after P. Winton in The Complete Pyramids, M. Lehner, p. 87). 24.4-1 False door to the tomb of Ramka, Sakkara, Dynasty 5. MMA 08.20.1E; neg. 124459 LS. MMA Rogers Fund, 1908. 24.4-2 Ba bird over the corpse of Ani, from his Book of the Dead. BM 10470/17; neg. E/E 1703. 25.4-1 Cubit Rod of Maya, Treasurer of Tutankhamun, photo by J. Bodsworth, Journal of Creation, 20(3) 2006, p. 72., website. 25.4-2 Close-up of Cubit Rod in Fig. 25.4-1. 26.4-1 The entrance to the burial place of Osiris at Abydos. R. Cowen, Jr., July 8, 1984. 32.4-1 King Akhenaten and his wife Queen Nefertiti offering to the Aten. EM RT 30.10.26.12; MMA neg. C(21- 22)11. 32.4-2 Queen Nefertiti. Source: Nefertiti - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 35.4-1 Fishing with nets from reed boats from the tomb of Meketre, Dynasty 11, c. 2000 BCE. EM 46715; neg. MMA neg. MC 135. 35.4-2 The royal ship of Khufu, Giza. R. Cowen, Jr., July 12, 1984. 37.4-1 Tutankhamun's sandals. MMA neg. TAA 600. 38.4-1 Right side of head and bust of a red granite seated statue of Queen Maatkare Hatshepsut from her valley temple at Deir al-Bahri showing the pigtail-like appendage to her nemes. MMA 29.3.3; neg. 136038 B. MMA Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1929. 38.4-2 Tutankhamun's gold mask. EM JE 60672; MMA neg. TAA 504.


ILLUSTRATIONS (CONTIILLUSTRATIONS (CONTIILLUSTRATIONS (CONTIILLUSTRATIONS (CONTINUED)NUED)NUED)NUED)

39.4-1 Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir al-Bahri. R. I. Cowen, December 4, 1958. 39.4-2 Hypostyle hall at Karnak. R. I. Cowen, December 3, 1958. 39.4-3 Holy-of-Holies of the relocated temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. R. Cowen, Jr., July 2, 1984. 40.4-1 Bust of Ptolemy I Soter. Source: Ptolemy I Soter – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 40.4-2 Medical instruments at the temple of Sobek and Horus, Kom Ombo. R. Cowen, Jr., July 4, 1984.

MAPSMAPSMAPSMAPS

All maps by author except where noted. 2.4-1 Important Religious Sites. 3.4-1 Egypt (after Aldred, The Egyptians, p. 26). 11.4-1 Dynasty 4 Pyramid Locations: Dahshur, Giza, Maidum, Sakkara. 15.4-1 Sites relevant to Djoser's Mortuary Complex: Abydos, Aswan, Giza, Nubia, Sakkara, Tura. 16.4-1 Sites relevant to Imhotep: Edfu, Esna, Giza, Heliopolis, Kom Ombo, Memphis, Sakkara. 17.4-1 Sites relevant to Religious Organization in Egypt: Heliopolis (Cairo), Karnak, Memphis, Thebes (Luxor). 18.4-1 Sites relevant to Osiris: Abydos, Biga, Busiris, Memphis, Philae, Sakkara. 19.4-1 Sites of the Memphis Necropolis: Abu Rawash, Abusir, Cairo, Dahshur, Giza, Sakkara, Zawyet el- 'Aryan. 19.4-2 Schematic of the Sakkara Necropolis 20.4-1 Sites relevant to the Principal Crowns of Egypt: Abu Simbel, Buto, Edfu, Elephantine (Aswan), Giza, Nekhen (Hierakonpolis), Nubia. 22.4-1 Sites relevant to Old Kingdom Royal Names: Luxor, nḫb (el-kab), pr-w3ḏyt (Buto). 23.2-1 Countries South of Egypt: Irtjet, Medja, Wawat, Yam. 23.4-1 Mastaba Development: Abydos, Aswan, Giza, Sakkara, Tura. 26.4-1 Abydos and This: Abydos, Elephantine, Heliopolis. 27.4-1 Osiris and His Epithets: Abydos, Busiris, Heliopolis, Memphis. 29.4-1 Location of the Faiyum. 29.4-2 Faiyum Region: Bahr Yusuf, Crocodopolis, Hawara, Herakleopolis, ìṯ-t3wy. 30.4-1 First Intermediate Period Capitals: Herakleopolis, Memphis, Thebes. 32.4-1 Amarna Period Sites: Abydos, 3ḫt-ìtn, Bubastis, Dendera, Edfu, Elephantine, Faiyum, Heliopolis, Hermopolis, Memphis, Sais, Thebes, Tuna el-Gebel. 33.4-1 Second Intermediate Period Sites: ḥwt-wrt (Avaris), ìṯ-t3wy, Thebes, Xois. 37.4-1 Old Kingdom Locations of the Nine Bows. 40.4-1 The Greeks in Egypt: Alexandria, Aswan, Defenneh, Edfu, the Faiyum, Karnak (Thebes), Kom Ombo, Memphis, Naucratis, Raphia, Siwa.


i

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Most of the books written for the student of the ancient Egyptian language assume a working knowledge

not only of English grammar but also of French and German. In addition, references to many other

languages including Greek, Latin, Arabic, Coptic, Akkadian, and Hebrew are often found scattered

throughout these texts. This book is written for the individual who is interested in the ancient Egyptian

language but has no prior knowledge of any foreign language, nor a thorough grounding in English grammar.

Therefore, each Egyptian grammatical point is introduced by first explaining its English equivalent.

Moreover, each chapter contains a CCCCOMMENTARYOMMENTARYOMMENTARYOMMENTARY which discusses the grammatical point presented. Initially, Egyptian words are shown with spaces between the signs, and not until the student has had a

feel for the language are the spaces reduced in size, eventually being eliminated altogether. Similarly,

the phonetic pronunciation is omitted once the student has learned how to sound out the words. To help

the student, there are exercises at the end of each chapter, which review both the new and the previous

material learned. Each chapter contains an ARTICLEARTICLEARTICLEARTICLE concerning some aspect of ancient Egypt. In this way, the student is

introduced to the Egyptian civilization as well as its language. The articles cover a broad range of topics

and are not arranged in any particular order. In order to help learn the various time periods, dates are provided throughout. In addition, locations are

geographically defined and maps provided to enable the student to develop a physical perspective of

Egypt and her neighbors. At the end of the PPPPRIMERRIMERRIMERRIMER are six APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICES:::: AAAA LLLLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSIST OF ABBREVIATIONSIST OF ABBREVIATIONSIST OF ABBREVIATIONS commonly used in the field of

Egyptology; A GLA GLA GLA GLOSSARYOSSARYOSSARYOSSARY; A CHA CHA CHA CHRONOLRONOLRONOLRONOLOOOOGYGYGYGY; A DA DA DA DICTIONARYICTIONARYICTIONARYICTIONARY; A LISTA LISTA LISTA LIST OF WHERE EACH SIGN WOF WHERE EACH SIGN WOF WHERE EACH SIGN WOF WHERE EACH SIGN WAS FIRSTAS FIRSTAS FIRSTAS FIRST ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED; and

AAAANSWERS NSWERS NSWERS NSWERS TOTOTOTO THE ETHE ETHE ETHE EXERCISESXERCISESXERCISESXERCISES.... The PRINT PRINT PRINT PRINT BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY represents the source books used and provides a

reference list for those students who desire more information on a particular topic or wish to expand

their knowledge of ancient Egypt. As there are a large number of websites on ancient Egypt, I have not

attempted to list any of the ones I consulted in the bibliography. THE EXERCISE DRILL PTHE EXERCISE DRILL PTHE EXERCISE DRILL PTHE EXERCISE DRILL PROGRAMROGRAMROGRAMROGRAM replicates not only the set of exercises found at the end of each chapter but

also many of the words and phrases found in the chapter studied. These drills may be used sequentially

or randomly, as well as quickly or slowly, and they obviate the need to make flip cards for vocabulary

drills. My thanks go to Nestor Sulikowski who wrote the program and designed the web site. He may be

reached at [email protected]. And finally, a note of thanks to my daughter, Peggy Ronn, who was my editor.

Without her encouragement this PPPPRIMERRIMERRIMERRIMER could not have been completed and

her many suggestions and emendations were invaluable. Robert Cowen, Jr.

Convent Station, NJ USA January 2009


1

CHAPTER 1

THE BASIC INSTRUCTIOTHE BASIC INSTRUCTIOTHE BASIC INSTRUCTIOTHE BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL CHAPTERNAL CHAPTERNAL CHAPTERNAL CHAPTER

1.11.11.11.1 DEFINITIONDEFINITIONDEFINITIONDEFINITION

The basic instructional chapter is divided into 6 parts: 1. A definition of the topic to be discussed 2. Hieroglyphic examples of the topic 3. A grammatical or syntactical commentary 4. An article pertaining to the art, culture, history, or religion 5. A description of the new signs encountered in the chapter 6. An exercise pertaining to the material covered

1.21.21.21.2 EXAMPLESEXAMPLESEXAMPLESEXAMPLES

Examples of the grammatical points presented in each chapter are provided in hieroglyphic and

transliterated forms with an accompanying English translation.

1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY

A grammatical or syntactical analysis of the examples is presented. A review of the English grammar and

syntax is presented prior to the discussion of a similar Egyptian grammatical point.

1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 ARTICLESARTICLESARTICLESARTICLES

The pictographic style of written Egyptian was more intimately associated with the art, history, culture,

and mores of its time than modern day languages. Therefore, the modern student must delve into the

everyday life of ancient Egypt, not only to understand the language but also to appreciate its nuances.

For this reason, each chapter includes an article containing some background information which will be

helpful to the student for a more complete understanding of the civilization of ancient Egypt, and hence

its language.

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE SDESCRIPTION OF THE SDESCRIPTION OF THE SDESCRIPTION OF THE SIGNSIGNSIGNSIGNS

In this section, every new sign encountered either in the grammatical analysis or commentary is

described. The descriptions were taken from the Sign List in Sir Alan Gardiner's EEEEGYPTIAN GYPTIAN GYPTIAN GYPTIAN GGGGRAMMARRAMMARRAMMARRAMMAR,,,, 3333RD RD RD RD

EEEEDITIONDITIONDITIONDITION,,,, RRRREVISED EVISED EVISED EVISED 1957,1957,1957,1957, REPRINTED REPRINTED REPRINTED REPRINTED 1111988,988,988,988, Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 1998, pp. 442-543.

Henceforth referred to as EG 3.

1.6 EXERCISES1.6 EXERCISES1.6 EXERCISES1.6 EXERCISES

Hieroglyphs encountered in the current chapter as well as in previous chapters are presented to be

transliterated and translated. Answers to the exercises may be found in Appendix F. A drill exercise

program may be downloaded which enables the student to review the glyphs presented in each chapter

either sequentially or randomly in a "flip card" presentation.


2

Chapter 2

NOUNSNOUNSNOUNSNOUNS

2.12.12.12.1 NOUNSNOUNSNOUNSNOUNS NAME PE NAME PE NAME PE NAME PEOPLEOPLEOPLEOPLE, PLACE, PLACE, PLACE, PLACESSSS, THING, THING, THING, THINGSSSS, , , , QUALITIESQUALITIESQUALITIESQUALITIES, , , , OR IDEAOR IDEAOR IDEAOR IDEASSSS.... PROPER NOUNSPROPER NOUNSPROPER NOUNSPROPER NOUNS are the names

of specific people, places, or things: Tutankhamen, Egypt, Karnak Temple.1111 COCOCOCOMMONMMONMMONMMON NOUNS NOUNS NOUNS NOUNS name

general ideas, qualities, and things: hope, education, sand, money, bread, homework, chess,

lightening, etc. Unlike English, Egyptian nouns are either masculine or feminine. 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 SINGULAR NOUNSSINGULAR NOUNSSINGULAR NOUNSSINGULAR NOUNS PROPERPROPERPROPERPROPER MASCULINE FEMININE

Pepi Ipt ppppììììppppìììì (pronounced [pep-ee]) ììììptptptpt (pronounced [ee-pet]) COCOCOCOMMONMMONMMONMMON MASCULINE FEMININE

wall a type of bread

ììììnbnbnbnb [ee-neb]2222 bItbItbItbIt [beet] poor man expedition nnnnḏḏḏḏssss [ned-jes] n'tn'tn'tn't [naht] man woman ssss [seh] stststst [set] obelisk boat ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn [tekh-en] dptdptdptdpt [dep-et]

army thing mmmmšššš'''' [meh-sha] ḫḫḫḫtttt [khet]

water knowledge mmmm wwww [moo] rrrr ḫḫḫḫtttt [rekh-et] 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: Egyptian signs were read HORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLY either from left-to-right or right-to-left. Thus, the word for

army, mš , might be written or , and were read from the direction in which they faced.

Alternatively, signs might also be written VERTICALLY VERTICALLY VERTICALLY VERTICALLY from top-to-bottom, with the signs facing in either

direction: or . Left-to-right horizontally was the most favored, but for artistic considerations

sometimes the right-to-left or top-to-bottom format was utilized. Interestingly, some texts employed

the hieroglyhs facing either horizontally or vertically as well as left-to-right and right-to-left.

1 While English capitalizes all proper nouns, the ancient Egyptians had no indication for such usage. 2 Note that the word "pronounced" will be omitted henceforth; the word in brackets [ ] represents the conventional pronunciation of the transliteration.


3

BBBB:::: The Egyptian language has two genders: MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE and FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE. Some words are obviously masculine,

e.g. man, ssss, or feminine, e.g. woman, stststst. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to determine the gender of most words. For example, wall, inbinbinbinb, is masculine and a boat, dptdptdptdpt, is feminine. While many nouns in

Egyptian are masculine, it is easy for the reader to spot most feminine nouns because they usually include

a , the sign for the letter tttt, as in "woman" stststst.

CCCC:::: In Egyptian, most words are TRILITERALTRILITERALTRILITERALTRILITERAL, i.e. they contain three letters, which are called the root letters

of the word, e.g. ìnbìnbìnbìnb, bìbìbìbìtttt, nnnnḏḏḏḏssss, n'tn'tn'tn't, etc. ḫḫḫḫtttt, things, is an example of a word with only two root letters. The third root letter was probably a weak sound and was lost over the millennia of spoken Egyptian.

DDDD:::: Note that the letter ssss is found in two forms: and . The high ssss is sometimes written śśśś in a transliteration to indicate that it, rather than , appeared in the original text. is always written ssss. In the earliest stages of the language, the two letters were distinct and not interchangeable.

2.42.42.42.4 EGYPTIAN COSMOGONEGYPTIAN COSMOGONEGYPTIAN COSMOGONEGYPTIAN COSMOGONYYYY

Egyptian beliefs about the creation of the world were expressed in several myths, the three most famous

being identified with the three important cities of Heliopolis,3333 Hermopolis,4444 or Memphis,5555 as noted in

Map 2.4-1.

The HELIOPOLITAN HELIOPOLITAN HELIOPOLITAN HELIOPOLITAN CREATION CREATION CREATION CREATION MYTMYTMYTMYTHHHH:::: Chaos, the universe before the creation, consisted of a vast ocean of

chaotic waters, called Nun [noon], from which ATUM [ah-tum] emerged, standing upon a sacred mound.6

Then Atum through a combination of masturbating, spitting, and sneezing, created the first deity of the

air, SHU, followed by Shu's wife, TEFNUT [tef-noot], the goddess of moisture. Shu and Tefnut begot the

god of the earth, GEB, and the goddess of the sky, NUT [noot]. Geb and Nut, while brother and sister,

were also husband and wife. They in turn engendered four children: OSIRIS and his wife ISIS, and SETH

his wife NEPHTHYS. These nine gods, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys

formed the great divine ENNEAD OF HELIOPOLIS, which many years later came to be known as a single

divintiy and worhsipped as such.

3 Heliopolis is a Greek name ("helios" = "sun" and "polis" = "city") for the Egyptian city of On where the worship of Re, the sun god of the Egyptian pantheon, was centered. Heliopolis is located on the east bank of the river Nile in a northern suburb of modern Cairo. While the Heliopolitan cosmogony is attested in Dynasty 3 (c. 2700 BCE), it was probably developed c. 3000 BCE at the time of Dynasty 1. [The letter c., an abbreviation for the Latin "circa", indicates "about". BCE indicates "Before the Common Era".] 4 The ibis-headed god, Thoth, the inventor of writing and the scribe of the Egyptian pantheon, had his chief cult at Hermopolis. The Greeks identified Thoth with their god Hermes. In Egyptian, Hermopolis was called ḫmnw [khem-en-oo], "Eight Town", referring to the Ogdoad (a group of eight deities) which had originally ruled there. Hermopolis, the Greek for "Eight City" or "City of Hermes", was located about 275 kilometers (170 miles) south of Heliopolis on the west bank of the Nile. 5 Memphis was located on the west bank of the Nile approximately 24 km. (15 miles) southwest of Heliopolis and was the site of the royal residence for much of Egyptian history. 6 Called the bnbn, . See Chapter 4 for signs such as used as an ideogram.


4

The goddess Nut is usually portrayed nude, being physically supported by the standing Shu. In Fig. 2.4-1,

Geb lies supine between Nut's hands and feet. Nut's representation stretches over the earth and the

sky, encompassing the entire heavens. She is sometimes depicted with stars on her body.

The Ennead was usually portrayed as a mythological judicial council which also had temporal power. For

instance, in an inscription of Merneptah (19th Dynasty, 4th king, c. 1236-1223 BCE), he recorded that the

Ennead condemned a Libyan prince, Merey, to defeat at his hands.7777 The HERMOPOLIS CREATION HERMOPOLIS CREATION HERMOPOLIS CREATION HERMOPOLIS CREATION MYTMYTMYTMYTHHHH:::: On a sacred mound8888 in Hermopolis, an egg was created from which the

sun god, RE, emerged. He then proceeded to create the other gods and goddesses that make up the

balance of the Egyptian pantheon, as well as creating all life on earth. He brought order to chaos.

Chaos was composed of four pairs of deities, each consisting of a male with his female complement: water

(or primeval abyss) - NUN and NUNET; space (or infinity) – HEH and HEHET; darkness – KEK and KEKET; and

invisibility (or hidden power) – AMUN and AMUNET.9999 This divine group of eight was called the OGDOAD OF

HERMOPOLIS.

7 Inscriptions were sometimes self-serving propaganda, full of assertions that were clearly prevarications, and often punctuated with solemn assertions of their veracity. 7 This primeval mound was called "the bnbn , . 9 Note that the four complementary deities of the Ogdoad represent the feminine forms of the masculine name of their consorts.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 2.42.42.42.4----1111.... THE SKY GODDESS NU THE SKY GODDESS NU THE SKY GODDESS NU THE SKY GODDESS NUT SUPPORTED BY THE AT SUPPORTED BY THE AT SUPPORTED BY THE AT SUPPORTED BY THE AIR GODIR GODIR GODIR GOD,,,, SHU SHU SHU SHU....


5

MMMMAAAAP P P P 2.42.42.42.4----1111.... IMPORTANT RELIGIOU IMPORTANT RELIGIOU IMPORTANT RELIGIOU IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS SITESS SITESS SITESS SITES....

The MEMPHITE CREATMEMPHITE CREATMEMPHITE CREATMEMPHITE CREATION MYTION MYTION MYTION MYTHHHH:::: Our current knowledge

about the Memphite theology is based on the Shabaka

Stone, a basalt stela erected by the 25th Dynasty

pharaoh Shabaka (25-4, 713-698 BCE). This stela

(which allegedly reproduced an Old Kingdom text

supposedly found by the pharaoh Shabaka himself)

incorporated a text which may date to Dynasty 5 (c.

2500-2400 BCE).10101010 This third creation story centers

around PTAH, both the creator god and chief god of

the Memphite region. When Ptah, who was self-

conceptualized in an unexplained fashion, conceived the

idea of the cosmos, and spoke about it, the cosmos

sprung into being. Ptah gave birth to Atum in his

combined form as Ptah-Nun, "the father who begot

Atum" and Ptah-Nunet, "the mother who gave birth to

Atum".

As a consequence of Ptah giving birth to Atum, he was

considered the father of all life. After Atum was

created, the Ennead was created and finally "Ptah

rested when he had made every thing and issued every

divine command. He gave birth to the gods, he made

the cities, he founded the nomes".11111111 Another of

Ptah's epithets was "Ptah the great, he is the heart

and tongue of the Ennead".

Thus, eight gods were now contained within Ptah, some

from the Ennead of Heliopolis and some from the Ogdoad of Hermopolis: AAAATUMTUMTUMTUM, considered to hold a

privileged position as a type of demiurge; NNNNUNUNUNUN and NNNNUNETUNETUNETUNET, who were now part of Ptah; and TTTTATENENATENENATENENATENEN,12121212 a

Memphite god who symbolized the emergence of the fertile Nile silt after each annual inundation (another

example of order from chaos).

10 Recent scholarship casts doubt on Shabaka's claim and infers that the text of this stela is a late invention, cleverly imitating the form, diction, and grammar of an Old Kingdom inscription. Such pious forgeries appear throughout Egyptian history. 11 The political divisions of the country were called "nomes". The number and location of these districts varied, but they eventually totaled 42 in Roman times. Each was governed by a nomarch. 12 Tatenen, lit. "The Risen Land".


6

Four additional deities (although their names are not known with certainty) were also incorporated within

Ptah: HHHHORUSORUSORUSORUS, the falcon deity and son of Osiris and Isis; TTTTHOTHHOTHHOTHHOTH; NNNNEFERTUMEFERTUMEFERTUMEFERTUM, god of the lotus and son of Ptah and SSSSAKHMETAKHMETAKHMETAKHMET, a lion-headed goddess worshipped in Memphis and the bringer of destruction to the enemies of Re.

Some scholars believe that this third creation story may have been conceived when Memphis became the

capital city of a unified Egypt, c. 3000 BCE. As the parent of Atum or Re, Ptah had to, a priori, pre-date

the Ennead. It is not clear whether this theology was actually a genuine, independent cosmogony or was a

consequence of the fact that the chief god of Memphis, Ptah, could not be subservient to Atum or Re, as

both these cities now owed their allegiance to the pharaoh at Memphis. If the latter is valid, then this

third creation story may be seen to contain some "political" compromises to appease the priests at

Heliopolis and Hermopolis as a result of the loss of their hegemony to the priesthood of Ptah at

Memphis.13131313 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF S2.5 DESCRIPTION OF S2.5 DESCRIPTION OF S2.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D21:D21:D21:D21: rrrr [air] MOUTHMOUTHMOUTHMOUTH.... D36:D36:D36:D36: '''' [ah] FOREARMFOREARMFOREARMFOREARM.... This letter corresponds to the Hebrew 'ayin or the Arabic 'ain. How the Egyptians pronounced it is unknown.14141414 Although Its true vocalization probably differed from (Sign G1), for our purposes we will vocalize both of them as "ah." D4D4D4D46666:::: dddd HANDHANDHANDHAND....

D58:D58:D58:D58: bbbb FOOTFOOTFOOTFOOT.... G1:G1:G1:G1: 3333 [ah] EGYPTIAN VULTUREEGYPTIAN VULTUREEGYPTIAN VULTUREEGYPTIAN VULTURE.... The letter corresponds to the Hebrew aleph and Arabic 'alif. See D36 for note on vocalization. G17:G17:G17:G17: mmmm OWLOWLOWLOWL.... I10:I10:I10:I10: ḏḏḏḏ [dj] COBRA IN REPOSECOBRA IN REPOSECOBRA IN REPOSECOBRA IN REPOSE.... M17:M17:M17:M17: ìììì, , , , jjjj [ee] FLOWERING REEDFLOWERING REEDFLOWERING REEDFLOWERING REED.... Some authors use jjjj. Doubled, see §5.2. N35:N35:N35:N35: nnnn RIPPLE OF WATERRIPPLE OF WATERRIPPLE OF WATERRIPPLE OF WATER.... N37:N37:N37:N37: šššš [sh] GARDEN POOLGARDEN POOLGARDEN POOLGARDEN POOL....

13 If the Memphite priesthood did insert Ptah at the inception of the Egyptian pantheon, then they neatly instituted their own primacy in the practical, operating, day-to-day functioning of the Egyptian religion, As the temples held large tracts of land and collected taxes, this theology increased the power of Ptah's priesthood politically, economically, and religiously. 14 For a discussion of vocalization, see W.V. Davies, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, pp. 36-7 or EG 3, pp. 428-433.


7

2.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)ONTINUED)ONTINUED)ONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRDESCRDESCRDESCRIPTIONIPTIONIPTIONIPTION O25: O25: O25: O25: OBELISKOBELISKOBELISKOBELISK.... Logogram15151515 or determinative16161616 in , var. ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn, "obelisk". O34:O34:O34:O34: ssss, , , , zzzz DOOR BOLTDOOR BOLTDOOR BOLTDOOR BOLT.... Some authors use zzzz. Q3:Q3:Q3:Q3: pppp STOOL OF REED MATTINSTOOL OF REED MATTINSTOOL OF REED MATTINSTOOL OF REED MATTINGGGG.... S29:S29:S29:S29: ssss, , , , śśśś FOLDED CLOTHFOLDED CLOTHFOLDED CLOTHFOLDED CLOTH.... Some authors use ś. X1:X1:X1:X1: tttt BREAD LOAFBREAD LOAFBREAD LOAFBREAD LOAF.... Aa1:Aa1:Aa1:Aa1: ḫḫḫḫ HUMAN PLAHUMAN PLAHUMAN PLAHUMAN PLACENTACENTACENTACENTA???? Pronounced roughly like the "ch" in "loch". 2.6 EXERCISES2.6 EXERCISES2.6 EXERCISES2.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:

15 See Chapter 4 for a discussion of Logograms. 16 See Chapter 8 for a discussion of Determinatives.


8

Chapter 3

PLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNS

3.13.13.13.1 PLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNS NAME MORE THAN ONE PERSON, PLACE, OR THING. 3.23.23.23.2 PLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNSPLURAL NOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL wall walls ììììnbnbnbnb ììììnbwnbwnbwnbw [ee-neb-oo] poor man poor men nnnnḏḏḏḏssss nnnnḏḏḏḏswswswsw [ned-jes-oo] official officials srsrsrsr [sair] srsrsrsr wwww [sair-oo] obelisk obelisks ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn [tekh-en] ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn wwww [tekh-en-oo]

army armies mmmmšššš'''' mmmmšššš'''' wwww [meh-sha-oo]

water water1111 mmmm wwww [moo] mmmm wwww FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL

sycamore fig tree sycamore fig trees nhtnhtnhtnht [neh-et] nhnhnhnhwwwwtttt [neh-oot] ship ships

dptdptdptdpt dptwtdptwtdptwtdptwt [dep-oot] thing things ḫḫḫḫtttt [khet] ḫḫḫḫwtwtwtwt [khoot]

1 In Egyptian, "water" can be either singular or plural, unlike in English where "water" is singular.


9

MMMMAP AP AP AP 3.43.43.43.4----1.1.1.1. EGYPT EGYPT EGYPT EGYPT....

3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: As you may have noticed, the masculine plural is expressed by the addition of the letter wwww after

the last root letter, as in srwsrwsrwsrw, "officials", from the singular srsrsrsr . For the feminine, wwww is

inserted before the final tttt as in dpwtdpwtdpwtdpwt, "boats", from the sing. dptdptdptdpt . If the word is

masculine with a final root letter tttt , then the wwww is added after the final tttt . However, such masculine nouns are rare. 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 GEOGRAPHICAL DEGEOGRAPHICAL DEGEOGRAPHICAL DEGEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF EGYPTSCRIPTION OF EGYPTSCRIPTION OF EGYPTSCRIPTION OF EGYPT

Modern Egypt's boundaries are similar to ancient

Egypt's. Egypt is located in the northeast corner of

Africa bordering the eastern portion of the

Mediterranean Sea. Its northern border is the

eastern portion of the southern shore of the

Mediterranean Sea and is approximately the same

latitude as the state of Florida's northern limit. To

the south is the Sudan (ancient Nubia) and this border

is roughly equivalent to the latitude of Key West,

Florida. Egypt's eastern boundary is the Sinai

Peninsula and the Red Sea, and to the west it

borders Libya. While Egypt is approximately the size

of California, Nevada, and Oregon combined, only 3% of

its 386,000 square miles are suitable for any sort of

agriculture, the balance being desert.

The country is divided into four geographic areas:

the WESTERN DESERTWESTERN DESERTWESTERN DESERTWESTERN DESERT (whose eastern segment is often

referred to as the Libyan Desert), the NILE VALLEYNILE VALLEYNILE VALLEYNILE VALLEY, the

EASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERT (sometimes called the Arabian Desert),

and the SINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULA.

The WESTERN WESTERN WESTERN WESTERN DESERT DESERT DESERT DESERT lies west of the Nile and covers

about two-thirds of Egypt. It is part of the Great

Sahara Desert, which continues west across Africa,

until it reaches the Atlantic Ocean.

There are a series of oases in the Western Desert (Bahariya, Farafra, el-Dakhla, and el-Kharga) which

parallel the Nile River: the closest one is 85 kilometers (50 miles) from the river and the furthest is 400

kilometers (240 miles) west of the Nile. In the past, this land of the Western Desert was savannah filled

with lakes, which over time either disappeared or were reduced to oases. These oases were destinations


10

for Egyptian trading expeditions and sometimes even military conquest. Remains of early man have been

found near the ancient shores of the many evaporated lakes deep in the desert.

The EASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERTEASTERN DESERT lies east of the Nile, between it and the Red Sea. Numerous wadis 2222 are found in the

Eastern Desert, the most famous being the Wadi Hammamat, which served as the major conduit between

the Red Sea and the Nile Valley. Egyptian expeditions used this wadi to access the Sinai or sail down the

Red Sea to Punt, a land believed to be located somewhere in the Horn of Africa.

The triangular SINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULASINAI PENINSULA is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Aqaba and on the west by the Gulf of

Suez. To its south lies the Red Sea, which separates Egypt from Saudi Arabia. In antiquity, its minerals

and semi-precious stones were mined.

The majority of Egyptians lived along the NILE VALLEYNILE VALLEYNILE VALLEYNILE VALLEY, which is further sub-divided into two distinct

fertile areas: UPPER EGYPTUPPER EGYPTUPPER EGYPTUPPER EGYPT stretching almost 1,000 miles from the Sudan to near Cairo, and LOWER EGYPTLOWER EGYPTLOWER EGYPTLOWER EGYPT,

which encompasses the NILE DELTANILE DELTANILE DELTANILE DELTA. 3333 The first cataract 4444 at Aswan was the nominal southern border of

Egypt, until the country was expanded by military conquest southward.

The 4,160 mile NNNNILEILEILEILE is the world's longest river, beginning its journey from Lake Victoria in central Africa

as the WWWWHITE HITE HITE HITE NNNNILEILEILEILE. While draining central Africa, many streams and rivers add to its waters as it heads

north, until it is joined by the BBBBLUE LUE LUE LUE NNNNILEILEILEILE at Khartoum in the Sudan. From there the Nile flows steadily

northward, receiving the water from only one other tributary, the Atbara, which drains central Ethiopia,

until it empties into the Mediterranean. The alluvial material from Central Africa was deposited by the

Nile in the surrounding countryside for millenia, prior to the construction of the modern dams at Aswan.

As there is only minimal rainfall in Egypt, especially in the south, the Nile has been the main source of the

fresh water necessary to sustain the life of the region and its fertile valley has been cultivated since

ancient times. For millenia the Nile overflowed its banks annually between July and October, cresting

sometime between late July and early August, depositing the soil it had been carrying onto the fields

along its banks. The ancient Egyptians diverted part of the Nile's overflow into ponds from which they

continued to release water for several months after the flooding had ceased, thus enabling agriculture to

be sustained during the period of low water.5555

2 A "wadi" is the channel of a watercourse that is dry except during periods of rainfall. 3 A river delta is plain of alluvial deposit between diverging branches of a mouth of a river, often, though not necessarily triangular. As it is similar to the shape of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, Δ, "delta", the word has been applied to this type of land mass which is created by a river at its discharge into a larger body of water. Naturally enough, the Greeks were the first to use the expression "delta" to describe this part of the Nile river system. 4 A "cataract" is where large blocks of stone impede a river's normal flow. In most cases, a ship cannot pass this obstacle. 5 This practice is called "basin irrigation".


11

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 3.43.43.43.4----1.1.1.1. NILOMETER NILOMETER NILOMETER NILOMETER ON THE EAST BANK OF ON THE EAST BANK OF ON THE EAST BANK OF ON THE EAST BANK OF THE NILE THE NILE THE NILE THE NILE AT AT AT AT KOM OMBOKOM OMBOKOM OMBOKOM OMBO,,,, 40404040 KILOMETERS NORTH OF KILOMETERS NORTH OF KILOMETERS NORTH OF KILOMETERS NORTH OF ASWANASWANASWANASWAN,,,, 1984.1984.1984.1984.

As a result of this yearly flooding, the

Egyptians became adept at measuring the

river's rise by constructing nilometers (see

Fig. 3.4-1) at many places along its banks.

The rise of the river was an indication of how

much alluvial soil and water would be

deposited on the fields for the coming year,

thus functioning not only as an indicator of

the size of the harvest to be expected but

also as a measure of the taxes to be

collected. Concomitantly, the Egyptians

became expert at measuring and surveying, as

they were required to redefine their fields

after each year's flooding. With the

construction of the two dams at Aswan in

1902 and 1971, this annual inundation became

an event of the past.

3.5 DESCRIPTION OF 3.5 DESCRIPTION OF 3.5 DESCRIPTION OF 3.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION G43:G43:G43:G43: wwww QUAIL CHICKQUAIL CHICKQUAIL CHICKQUAIL CHICK.... (N35)(N35)(N35)(N35):::: mmmm wwww THREE RIPPLES OF WATTHREE RIPPLES OF WATTHREE RIPPLES OF WATTHREE RIPPLES OF WATERERERER.... O4:O4:O4:O4: hhhh REED SHELTER IN FIELREED SHELTER IN FIELREED SHELTER IN FIELREED SHELTER IN FIELDSDSDSDS....


12

3.6 EXERCISES3.6 EXERCISES3.6 EXERCISES3.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


13

Chapter 4

SIGNS AS LOGOGRAMSSIGNS AS LOGOGRAMSSIGNS AS LOGOGRAMSSIGNS AS LOGOGRAMS 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 A A A A SIGN (HIEROGLYPH) SIGN (HIEROGLYPH) SIGN (HIEROGLYPH) SIGN (HIEROGLYPH) MAY BE CLASSIFIED ASMAY BE CLASSIFIED ASMAY BE CLASSIFIED ASMAY BE CLASSIFIED AS A A A A LOGOGRAM, A PHONOGRLOGOGRAM, A PHONOGRLOGOGRAM, A PHONOGRLOGOGRAM, A PHONOGRAM, AM, AM, AM, AND/OR A AND/OR A AND/OR A AND/OR A

DETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVE:::: 1]1]1]1] AAAA logogram (sometimes called ideogram) pictorially represents its meaning; 2] A

phonogram indicates the sound of all or part of the word; and 3] A determinative indicates a

particular meaning or category of a word.

If English was written without vowels, what would the word "frfrfrfr" be? It could be "fairfairfairfair", "farfarfarfar", "farefarefarefare", "firfirfirfir", "firefirefirefire",

"forforforfor", "fourfourfourfour", "furfurfurfur", etc., and therefore an additional indication would be needed to determine the correct word. As

Egyptian was written without vowels, it was often necessary for a logogram, a phonogram, and/or a

determinative to be included with the written word.

The translator needs how to interpret the sign in one of its three possible categories, because a sign can

serve as a logogram in one context, as a phonogram in another context, and as a determinative in a third

context. Additionally, a sign may do double duty in a given word, being both a logogram and a phonogram,

or a phonogram and a determinative, or a logogram and a determinative.

While English is composed of phonograms (the alphabet represents the sounds), logograms are often used

on highway signs: e.g. to indicate that gasoline is available at the next exit. 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 SIGNS SERVING AS A LSIGNS SERVING AS A LSIGNS SERVING AS A LSIGNS SERVING AS A LOGORAMOGORAMOGORAMOGORAM

represents a house represents the sun or day prprprpr [pair] rrrr ’’’’ [rah] or hrwhrwhrwhrw [hair-oo]

represents a man represents a woman ssss stststst

represents a boat dptdptdptdpt 4.34.34.34.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: When a short vertical stroke appears beneath a sign, this may be an indication that the sign is

a logogram. Thus, the signs enumerated in §4.2 might appear in a text as prprprpr or rrrr ’’’’ when serving as a logogram. Other signs which are commonly used as logograms are:

wall army or soldier papyrus book inbinbinbinb mmmmšššš’’’’ m m m mḏḏḏḏ3t3t3t3t [medj-aht] obelisk official mouth

ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn sr sr sr sr r r r r BBBB:::: Many of the animal, fish, reptile, and bird signs generally serve as logograms and therefore may be

found without a short vertical stroke beneath them.


14

CCCC:::: Two examples of signs found in combination as a single logogram are: N7 ẖẖẖẖrtrtrtrt----hrwhrwhrwhrw, [hair-et-hair-oo], a

"prescribed ritual of a day", which is a combination of N5 and T28, and O2 prprprpr----ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏ, [pair-hedj],

"treasury", a combination of O1 and T3 . DDDD:::: Signs may have more than one meaning, ex. may mean dptdptdptdpt, "boat", or ḥḥḥḥ’w’w’w’w [ha-oo], "ships".

Therefore, context is most important when translating a text. Feminine words, when written logographically use both the ending tttt and the stroke, , together, as in mmmmḏḏḏḏ3333 tttt

. 4.44.44.44.4 EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY

1111 Egyptian chronology is divided into the following broad categories:

PaleolithicPaleolithicPaleolithicPaleolithic c.c.c.c. 700,000 700,000 700,000 700,000----14,000 BP14,000 BP14,000 BP14,000 BP 2222

PrePrePrePre----HistoryHistoryHistoryHistory 12 12 12 12,000,000,000,000----3333,,,,500 BCE500 BCE500 BCE500 BCE PrePrePrePre----DynasticDynasticDynasticDynastic 3500 3500 3500 3500----3100310031003100 Early DynasticEarly DynasticEarly DynasticEarly Dynastic 3 3 3 3111100000000----2686268626862686 Old Kingdom (OK)Old Kingdom (OK)Old Kingdom (OK)Old Kingdom (OK) 2686 2686 2686 2686----2181218121812181 1111stststst Intermediate Period (FIP) Intermediate Period (FIP) Intermediate Period (FIP) Intermediate Period (FIP) 2181 2181 2181 2181----2040204020402040 Middle Kingdom (MK)Middle Kingdom (MK)Middle Kingdom (MK)Middle Kingdom (MK) 2133 2133 2133 2133----1786178617861786 2222ndndndnd Intermediate Period (SIP) Intermediate Period (SIP) Intermediate Period (SIP) Intermediate Period (SIP) 1786 1786 1786 1786----1111567567567567 New Kingdom (NK)New Kingdom (NK)New Kingdom (NK)New Kingdom (NK) 1567 1567 1567 1567----1085108510851085 3333rdrdrdrd Intermediate Period (TIP) Intermediate Period (TIP) Intermediate Period (TIP) Intermediate Period (TIP) 1085 1085 1085 1085----664664664664 Saite RenaissanceSaite RenaissanceSaite RenaissanceSaite Renaissance 664 664 664 664----525525525525 Late Dynastic/PersianLate Dynastic/PersianLate Dynastic/PersianLate Dynastic/Persian 525 525 525 525----332332332332 Macedonian DominationMacedonian DominationMacedonian DominationMacedonian Domination 332 332 332 332----304304304304 Ptolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic Dynasty 304 304 304 304----30303030 Roman EmRoman EmRoman EmRoman Empppperorserorserorserors 30 BCE 30 BCE 30 BCE 30 BCE----395 CE395 CE395 CE395 CE

Scholars have further subdivided each of the post Pre-Dynastic phases by dynasty or group of blood

related rulers. A dynasty generally terminated when its line of rulers ended. In some cases, dynasty

dates overlapped if differnet pharaohs ruled concurrently in other parts of the country. For example,

note the FIP and MK overlap of dates, occasioned by the division of the country into two different

kingdoms.

A word of caution regarding ancient dates: the further back in time one probes, the greater the margin

of error. Today, dates in the OK are known within ± 50 years, whereas most scholars agree dating in the

NK falls within ± 4 years. From the Late Dynastic/Persian times, dates are considered accurate within a

year.

Henceforth, a date may not be qualified with the c. abbreviation. The student should keep in mind that

almost all dates cited in reference to a particular event or reign decrease in accuracy the older the date.

All dates will be BCE unless so indicated.

1 For a detailed chronology, see Appendix C. 2 BP indicates "Before the Present" and is used for a broad range of dates where the accuracy is assumed to be a few thousand years. Note that 14,000 BP and 12,000 BCE are equivalent. The dates shown here have been taken from CAH 3 , 1964-75, and rounded.


15

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 4.44.44.44.4----1 1 1 1 THE KING LIST OF USETHE KING LIST OF USETHE KING LIST OF USETHE KING LIST OF USERMAATRE RAMESSESRMAATRE RAMESSESRMAATRE RAMESSESRMAATRE RAMESSES....

SSSSEQUEQUEQUEQUENCING OF THE DYNASTENCING OF THE DYNASTENCING OF THE DYNASTENCING OF THE DYNASTIES AND INDIVIDUAL RIES AND INDIVIDUAL RIES AND INDIVIDUAL RIES AND INDIVIDUAL RULERS IS BASED ON SEULERS IS BASED ON SEULERS IS BASED ON SEULERS IS BASED ON SEVERAL ANCIENT SOURCEVERAL ANCIENT SOURCEVERAL ANCIENT SOURCEVERAL ANCIENT SOURCESSSS:::: 1.1.1.1. TTTTHE HE HE HE PPPPALERMO ALERMO ALERMO ALERMO SSSSTONETONETONETONE.... So-called because the largest piece of this stela is in the Museo Nazionale in Palermo, Sicily. Contiguous pieces in the Cairo Museum3333 and University College, London, list the kings of the 1st through the 5th Dynasties (3100-2345) and for each regnal year the principal event (or events) as well as the height of the Nile inundation. Numerous gaps, called "lacunae", exist when all the known pieces are drawn to scale in a reassembled form in order to represent the complete stela. There are several proposed reconstructions, each supporting a different chronology. 2.2.2.2. TTTTHE HE HE HE TTTTURIN URIN URIN URIN RRRROYAL OYAL OYAL OYAL CCCCANONANONANONANON papyrus (so-called because it is in the Egyptian Museum of the Accademia delle Scienze in Turin, Italy) was probably compiled during the reign of Ramesses II (19-3, 1324-1237). It follows a list of the reigns of the gods and spirits with the kings of the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890), beginning with Menes fl.

4444 3100, and continuing through the 2nd Intermediate Period, which ended in 1567 BCE. The rulers are listed in chronological order and the length of each reign in years, months, and days is given. Lengths of dynasties are also shown, as well as groups of dynasties. As a result of its poor state of preservation, the Turin papyrus also contains sizable lacunae. 3.3.3.3. TTTTHE HE HE HE KKKKING ING ING ING LLLLIST OF IST OF IST OF IST OF MMMMENMAAENMAAENMAAENMAATRE TRE TRE TRE SSSSETIETIETIETI, also known as Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304), is in his temple at Abydos. 4.4.4.4. TTTTHE HE HE HE KKKKING ING ING ING LLLLIST OF IST OF IST OF IST OF UUUUSERMAATRE SERMAATRE SERMAATRE SERMAATRE RRRRAMESSESAMESSESAMESSESAMESSES, also known as Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237), from his temple in Abydos and is now in the British Museum. See Fig. 4.4-1.

5.5.5.5. MMMMANETHOANETHOANETHOANETHO''''S S S S CCCCHRONOLOGYHRONOLOGYHRONOLOGYHRONOLOGY. Manetho, a High Priest in Heliopolis during the early part of the Ptolemaic period in the 3rd Century BCE, compiled a chronology. While his work is no longer extant, references to it have survived in the works of some ancient authors, particularly Josephus, the Jewish historian who chronicled the Roman assault on Israel in the 1st Century CE. Modern scholarship has determined that while Manetho’s king list contained some serious flaws, his division of the rulers of Egypt into 31 Dynasties was essentially valid and so it is still in use today. 6.6.6.6. TTTTRANSLATIONS OF ANCIERANSLATIONS OF ANCIERANSLATIONS OF ANCIERANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT TEXTS FOUND IN ORNT TEXTS FOUND IN ORNT TEXTS FOUND IN ORNT TEXTS FOUND IN OR ON TOMBS ON TOMBS ON TOMBS ON TOMBS,,,, TEMPL TEMPL TEMPL TEMPLESESESES,,,, MONUMENTS MONUMENTS MONUMENTS MONUMENTS,,,, AND PAPYRUS DOCUMEN AND PAPYRUS DOCUMEN AND PAPYRUS DOCUMEN AND PAPYRUS DOCUMENTSTSTSTS.... Contributing to fixing the reigns of rulers are instructions to Egyptian officers as well as letters to and from foreign rulers.

3 Fragments of this stela, which recorded rulers and major events in each reign, may be copies of the original stela. The pieces wherever located, are generically called "The Palermo Stone". 4 fl. abbr. for the Latin "floruit", the period in which a person flourished, especially when the exact birth and/or death dates are not known with certainty.


16

It should be noted that the Egyptians did not reckon their history in consecutive years from a fixed point in

the past. Thus, to accurately establish a chronology for Egypt, one is dependent on integrating data from

numerous sources, often incomplete.5555 Egyptian chronology is a field which continues to this day to re-

examine and refine the generally accepted dates as new texts are discovered or old material reworked.

One further caution about which the student should be aware: sometimes king lists were altered to remove

the names of kings whom their successors believed for one reason or another should not be considered as

legitimate rulers. The successors of Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362), for example, removed his name from

various monuments as a result of his religious beliefs, which were considered heretical to those who came

after him. 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A1:A1:A1:A1: SEATED MANSEATED MANSEATED MANSEATED MAN.... Rarely as a logo. "man", "I", "me". Det. for men, their occupations and relationships. A12:A12:A12:A12: ms’ms’ms’ms’ [meh-sha] SOLDIER WITH BOW ANDSOLDIER WITH BOW ANDSOLDIER WITH BOW ANDSOLDIER WITH BOW AND QUIVER QUIVER QUIVER QUIVER.... Logo. for "army" or "troops". A21:A21:A21:A21: srsrsrsr MAN HOLDING A STICK MAN HOLDING A STICK MAN HOLDING A STICK MAN HOLDING A STICK IN ONE HAND AND A HAIN ONE HAND AND A HAIN ONE HAND AND A HAIN ONE HAND AND A HANDKERCHIEF IN THE OTNDKERCHIEF IN THE OTNDKERCHIEF IN THE OTNDKERCHIEF IN THE OTHERHERHERHER.... Logo. for "official" or "noble". B1:B1:B1:B1: SEATED WOMANSEATED WOMANSEATED WOMANSEATED WOMAN.... Rarely as a logo. "woman". Det. for "women", their occupations and relationships. N5:N5:N5:N5: rrrr ’’’’,,,, hrw hrw hrw hrw SUNSUNSUNSUN.... Logo. rrrr ’’’’, "sun" and hrwhrwhrwhrw , "day", "daytime". N7:N7:N7:N7: ẖẖẖẖrtrtrtrt----hrwhrwhrwhrw DAYTIMEDAYTIMEDAYTIMEDAYTIME,,,, lit. "what belongs to the day"; "The prescribed rituals performed during the day", is a combination of N5 and T28. O1:O1:O1:O1: prprprpr HOUSEHOUSEHOUSEHOUSE.... Logo. prprprpr, "house". O2:O2:O2:O2: prprprpr----ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏ TREASURYTREASURYTREASURYTREASURY,,,, lit. "white house".

5 Relative chronologies are developed from different sources, e.g., if a tomb description mentions a pharaoh and a cuneiform tablet from Mesopotamia mentions that same pharaoh in connection with a Babyonian king whose reign is known, it can be assumed that the pharaoh was his contemporary. Absolute methods of dating in use today are: Carbon 14 dating (a measure of radioactive decay found in once living cells, useful in measuring dates prior to 50,000 BP); Radioactive Potassium-Argon dating (a measure of the radioactive decay of potassium into argon, useful for a sample from 10,000 to 2,000,000 BP); Thermoluminescence (a measure of the radiation absorbed since the sample was last heated, useful for the range from 300-10,000 BP); and Dendrochronology (tree ring dating, useful from the present day to 10,000 BP). Each method has its own margin of error as well as being subject to mistakes arising from contamination of samples.


17

4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF SSSSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (COIGNS ENCOUNTERED (COIGNS ENCOUNTERED (COIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)NTINUED)NTINUED)NTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION O36:O36:O36:O36: ììììnbnbnbnb [ee-neb] WALLWALLWALLWALL.... Logo. "wall". P1:P1:P1:P1: dptdptdptdpt [dep-et], BOAT ON WATERBOAT ON WATERBOAT ON WATERBOAT ON WATER.... Logo. "boat(s)", "ship(s)". ḥḥḥḥ'''' wwww [hah-oo] T3:T3:T3:T3: ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏ [[[[hedj] MACE WITH PEARMACE WITH PEARMACE WITH PEARMACE WITH PEAR----SHAPED HEADSHAPED HEADSHAPED HEADSHAPED HEAD.... T28T28T28T28:::: ẖẖẖẖrrrr [hair] BUTCHERBUTCHERBUTCHERBUTCHER''''S BLOCKS BLOCKS BLOCKS BLOCK.... Y1:Y1:Y1:Y1: , , , , mmmmḏḏḏḏ3t3t3t3t PAPYRUS ROLLED UPPAPYRUS ROLLED UPPAPYRUS ROLLED UPPAPYRUS ROLLED UP,,,, TIED TIED TIED TIED,,,, AND SEALED AND SEALED AND SEALED AND SEALED.... Logo. "papyrus roll", "book". Also [medj-aht] found vertically. Z1:Z1:Z1:Z1: A SINGLE STROKEA SINGLE STROKEA SINGLE STROKEA SINGLE STROKE,,,, POSSIBLY A SINGLE D POSSIBLY A SINGLE D POSSIBLY A SINGLE D POSSIBLY A SINGLE DOWELOWELOWELOWEL.... After a logogram it indicates it is the actual thing it depicts. 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


18

CHAPTER 5

SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: UNIPHONICS UNIPHONICS UNIPHONICS UNIPHONICS 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 PHONOGRAMSPHONOGRAMSPHONOGRAMSPHONOGRAMS1111 ARE SIGNS WHICH INDIARE SIGNS WHICH INDIARE SIGNS WHICH INDIARE SIGNS WHICH INDICATE THE CATE THE CATE THE CATE THE SOUND(S)SOUND(S)SOUND(S)SOUND(S) OF ALL OR PART OF A OF ALL OR PART OF A OF ALL OR PART OF A OF ALL OR PART OF A WORD WORD WORD WORD....

Phonograms may appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word. Sometimes their

location is determined by artistic considerations rather than where they might normally fall in the

proper vocalization of a word. Phonograms may be divided into three categories: (1) UNIPHONICUNIPHONICUNIPHONICUNIPHONIC or alphabetic signs which

represent a single sound as in ìììì [ee],[ee],[ee],[ee], nnnn [e[e[e[ennnn],],],], bbbb [bee]; (2) [bee]; (2) [bee]; (2) [bee]; (2) BBBBIPHONICIPHONICIPHONICIPHONIC signs which combine two

sounds as in prprprpr [pair]; [pair]; [pair]; [pair]; or (3) TTTTRIPHONICRIPHONICRIPHONICRIPHONIC signs which combine three letters as in nfrnfrnfrnfr [ [ [ [eeeennnn----efefefef----er].er].er].er]. 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 UNIPHONIC SIGNSUNIPHONIC SIGNSUNIPHONIC SIGNSUNIPHONIC SIGNS NOT YET EN NOT YET EN NOT YET EN NOT YET ENCOUNTERED IN THE COUNTERED IN THE COUNTERED IN THE COUNTERED IN THE PRIMERPRIMERPRIMERPRIMER ::::y, f, y, f, y, f, y, f, ḥḥḥḥ, , , , ẖẖẖẖ,,,, ḳḳḳḳ , k, g, , k, g, , k, g, , k, g, andandandand ṯṯṯṯ .... other, m. the number 4 kykykyky [kee] fdwfdwfdwfdw [fed-oo] clothes body ḥḥḥḥbsbsbsbs [heb-ess] ẖẖẖẖtttt [het] a type of boat you, m. ḳḳḳḳ3333ḳḳḳḳ3w3w3w3w [kah-kah-koo] ntkntkntkntk [en-tek] black ibis you, f. gmtgmtgmtgmt [gem-et]2222 ntntntntṯṯṯṯ [ent-tchet] 5.3 C5.3 C5.3 C5.3 COMMENTARYOMMENTARYOMMENTARYOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: The Egyptian alphabet in modern, artificial, dictionary order, is: 3, 3, 3, 3, ìììì, y, ', w, b, p, f, m, n, r, h, , y, ', w, b, p, f, m, n, r, h, , y, ', w, b, p, f, m, n, r, h, , y, ', w, b, p, f, m, n, r, h, ḥḥḥḥ, , , , ḫḫḫḫ, , , , ẖẖẖẖ, s, , s, , s, , s, šššš, , , , ḳḳḳḳ, k, g, t, , k, g, t, , k, g, t, , k, g, t, ṯṯṯṯ, d,, d,, d,, d, and and and and ḏḏḏḏ.... The alphabetic signs are all uniphonic. BBBB:::: In the modern Egyptian dictionary, the words are alphabetized according to their stem letters in the

above sequence. Where a word is found in the dictionary can be confusing at times, as can be seen by the

words , stststst, "woman" and , stststst "it". Thus, is found before the words beginning with s3s3s3s3, as its

stem letter is "ssss" and its letter "tttt " is merely a marker for the feminine, while the pronoun3333 , "it", which

is found after the words beginning with sgsgsgsg because its "tttt " is a true stem ending. 1 Strictly speaking, the term phonogram is not entirely accurate because we actually have little or no idea how these syllables were pronounced. The terms uniliteral, biliteral, and triliteral, which focus merely on the numbers of letters involved, are often used to describe these different groupings. 2 The g in Egyptian is hard, pronounced like the g in "give". 3 A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more nouns, such as "he", "him", or "his".


19

5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 THETHETHETHE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD PALEOLITHIC PERIOD PALEOLITHIC PERIOD PALEOLITHIC PERIOD 700,000 700,000 700,000 700,000 –––– 14,000 BP 14,000 BP 14,000 BP 14,000 BP Egypt in the Paleolithic went through numerous weather changes, cycling between arid conditions similar to

today and periods of intense rains and flooding. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITENVIRONMENTAL CONDITENVIRONMENTAL CONDITENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN EGYPT AND NUIONS IN EGYPT AND NUIONS IN EGYPT AND NUIONS IN EGYPT AND NUBIABIABIABIA4444 CONDITIONCONDITIONCONDITIONCONDITION DATEDATEDATEDATE pluvialpluvialpluvialpluvial 700,000 BP 700,000 BP 700,000 BP 700,000 BP semisemisemisemi----aridaridaridarid 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 semisemisemisemi----pluvialpluvialpluvialpluvial 150,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 pluvialpluvialpluvialpluvial 120,000 120,000 120,000 120,000 aridaridaridarid 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 floodingfloodingfloodingflooding 30,000 BCE 30,000 BCE 30,000 BCE 30,000 BCE aridaridaridarid 24,000 24,000 24,000 24,000 ariariariarid/floodingd/floodingd/floodingd/flooding 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 semisemisemisemi----arid/floodingarid/floodingarid/floodingarid/flooding 14,500 14,500 14,500 14,500 The intermittent pluvial conditions occurring over the last 700,000 years changed the face of Egypt.

During pluvial times, large lakes would form, the wet lands would expand, and a savannah would spread to

encompass almost the entire land. In arid times, the lakes created earlier would shrink in size and the

savannah would return to desert. Present day remnants of the lakes created earlier during the last

period of extensive flooding and rains became the string of oases 85-400 kilometers (50-240 miles)5555 west

of the Nile valley and the FFFFAIYUMAIYUMAIYUMAIYUM, the intensively cultivated area of northern Upper Egypt, approximately

60 km. (40 miles) southwest of Cairo. The desert depressions of today are all that remain of the many

lakes which dried up as the water table fell. Stone tools indicative of Neanderthal men (fl. 60,000-

30,000 BP) have been found not only on the edges of these depressions, which were once lake shores, but

in the Nile Valley as well.

The NNNNILE ILE ILE ILE DDDDELTAELTAELTAELTA, which was to become LLLLOWER OWER OWER OWER EEEEGYPTGYPTGYPTGYPT, was affected not only by changes in the level of the

Mediterranean Sea but also by the amount of Nile flooding. The DELTADELTADELTADELTA began in its present form c. 17,000

years ago and its expansion continued until the construction of the dams on the Nile, the first of which

was completed by the British at Aswan in 1902. These dams have caused a build up of almost all of the

Nile's alluvial material, thus blocking large amounts of silt from being deposited on top of the fields along

the river's edge, and all the way north throughout the DELTADELTADELTADELTA.6666

4 M.A. Hoffman, Egypt before the Pharaohs, p.21. 5 1 kilometer (abbreviated km.) = .62 miles. 6 An unintended consequence of the retention of silt by the upstream dams has been the infiltration of salt water into the fresh water table underneath the Delta, endangering the long term growth of crops in this richly fertile area of Egypt. Many ancient monuments are also in peril due to the lack of silt, which coated the sides of the water channels and prevented the local seepage of water into the ancient sites. These stone monuments, when subjected to continued dampness, tend to erode and the sandstone (from which many were constructed) once again becomes nothing but granules of sand.


20

When the intense pluvial period from 90,000-120,000 years ago ended, it in turn was followed by an

increase in moisture in the region until, between 30-50,000 years ago, the area included many springs,

rivulets, and lakes as the desert became savannah once again. There is evidence of early man during this

period, especially on the banks of the now dried up lakes. A ring of stones to anchor a tent, estimated to

be between 40-50,000 years old, has been discovered at the Dunqul Oasis, some 120 km. west of the Nile

between Abu Simbel and Aswan. Additionally, stone projectile points have been found at various locations

throughout the desert. As indicated by their remains at butchering sites, animals roaming the savannah in

this period included both herbivores such as elephant, giraffe, water buffalo, rhinoceros, camel, various

gazelle, antelope, and hartebeest (a form of antelope) and predators such as fox, jackal, spotted hyenas.

The last glacial period from 28,000-10,000 BP had its maximum advance about 20,000 BP and two

distinct cultures began to emerge in the area: nomadic hunters of the savannah and the more static

groups inhabiting the Nile valley. During the latter part of this period, the savannah once again

returned to desert and some scholars believe that the "sand dwellers"7777 may have resettled in the Nile

valley while others remained and clung to the ever shrinking lakes and oases. Although during the late

Paleolithic c. 15,000 BCE, Egypt was once again arid, this was then followed by a period of expansion of

the savannah from 7,000 to 3,100 BCE during a short period of increased moisture. Since then, Egypt and

North Africa have once more returned to an arid state and the savannah has been transformed into what

we know today as the Sahara desert.8888

The two cultures are evidenced by their different tools. The remains of the Nile riverine culture not only

include the usual arrow points and knives, but also microlithic (small stone) flakes for insertion into wood

or bone shafts for use as rudimentary scythes or sickles. By 15,000 BP, grinding stones and sickle blades

were in use, having been found in numerous sites which have been dated to this time. During the period

15,000-12,500 BP, the number and size of inhabited sites increased dramatically, especially in southern

Egypt and northern Nubia.

After 12,500 BP, the grinding stones and sickle blades disappear, indicating a change in the population to

hunter/gatherers. Whether the indigenous riverine population was replaced by another or whether they

simply adapted to a period of Nile flooding with which their rudimentary agriculture could not cope, has

not been determined.

7 "Sand Dwellers" was an Egyptian pejorative term for the nomads of the deserts surrounding ancient Egypt. 8 The Sahara is still expanding southwards at a rate of 20-30 miles per year.


21

5.5 DESCRIPTION OF 5.5 DESCRIPTION OF 5.5 DESCRIPTION OF 5.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNSIGNSIGNSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDS ENCOUNTEREDS ENCOUNTEREDS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION F32:F32:F32:F32: ẖẖẖẖ ANIMALANIMALANIMALANIMAL''''S BELLYS BELLYS BELLYS BELLY,,,, SHOWING TEATS AND T SHOWING TEATS AND T SHOWING TEATS AND T SHOWING TEATS AND TAILAILAILAIL.... F35:F35:F35:F35: nfrnfrnfrnfr [en-ef-er] HEART AND WINDPIPEHEART AND WINDPIPEHEART AND WINDPIPEHEART AND WINDPIPE.... I9:I9:I9:I9: ffff HORNED VIPERHORNED VIPERHORNED VIPERHORNED VIPER.... M17:M17:M17:M17: yyyy TWO FLOWERING REEDSTWO FLOWERING REEDSTWO FLOWERING REEDSTWO FLOWERING REEDS.... Sign M17 twice. N29:N29:N29:N29: ḳḳḳḳ,,,, q q q q SANDY HILL SLOPESANDY HILL SLOPESANDY HILL SLOPESANDY HILL SLOPE.... Some authors use qqqq. VVVV3:3:3:3: ṯṯṯṯ [tch] ROPE FOR TETHERINGROPE FOR TETHERINGROPE FOR TETHERINGROPE FOR TETHERING ANIMALS ANIMALS ANIMALS ANIMALS.... V28:V28:V28:V28: ḥḥḥḥ WICK OR TWISTED FLAXWICK OR TWISTED FLAXWICK OR TWISTED FLAXWICK OR TWISTED FLAX.... V31:V31:V31:V31: kkkk [eck] WICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WITH HANDLETH HANDLETH HANDLETH HANDLE.... W11:W11:W11:W11: gggg (1) (1) (1) (1) RING STAND FOR JARSRING STAND FOR JARSRING STAND FOR JARSRING STAND FOR JARS; (2) ; (2) ; (2) ; (2) RED EARTHENWARE POTRED EARTHENWARE POTRED EARTHENWARE POTRED EARTHENWARE POT, pronounced as a hard "g" as in guard. 5.6 EXERCISES5.6 EXERCISES5.6 EXERCISES5.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


22

Chapter 6

SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: BIPHONICS BIPHONICS BIPHONICS BIPHONICS 6.1 THERE ARE LESS T6.1 THERE ARE LESS T6.1 THERE ARE LESS T6.1 THERE ARE LESS THAHAHAHAN 100 SIGNS WHICH ARN 100 SIGNS WHICH ARN 100 SIGNS WHICH ARN 100 SIGNS WHICH ARE BIPHONICE BIPHONICE BIPHONICE BIPHONIC ( ( ( (COMBINCOMBINCOMBINCOMBINING ING ING ING TWO SOUNDSTWO SOUNDSTWO SOUNDSTWO SOUNDS)))).... 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 BIPHONIC SIGNSBIPHONIC SIGNSBIPHONIC SIGNSBIPHONIC SIGNS as in long as in great house 3w3w3w3w 3w 3w 3w 3w '3'3'3'3 pr pr pr pr----'3'3'3'3 1111 [ah-oo] [ah-ah] [pair-ah-ah] as in man servant as in maid servant b3b3b3b3 bak bak bak bak b3b3b3b3 bakt bakt bakt bakt [bah] [bahk] [bah] [bah-ket] as in copy of a documentcopy of a documentcopy of a documentcopy of a document as in water mmmmìììì m m m mììììtttt mwmwmwmw mw mw mw mw [mee] [meet] as in lord and in the masc. as in lady and in the fem. adj. nbtnbtnbtnbt,,,, all nbnbnbnb nb nb nb nb adjective2222 nbnbnbnb,,,, all nbnbnbnb nbt nbt nbt nbt [neb] [neb-et] as in the number 1,000 as in but ḫḫḫḫ3333 ḫḫḫḫ3333 swswswsw swt swt swt swt [khah] [soo] as in son as in daughter s3s3s3s3 s3 s3 s3 s3 s3s3s3s3 s3t s3t s3t s3t [sah] [saht] 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: A biphonic is normally accompanied by a single consonant, ex. 3w3w3w3w, ( = 3w3w3w3w and = wwww ) which complements one of the two letters, leading to its characterization as a "phonetic complement". Either

the first letter, or the second letter, or both letters may be complemented. Usually, however, it is the

second letter which is so complemented by a following uniphonic sign.3333 There are occasions when the

biphonic sign, e.g. , may be preceded as well by a phonetic complement, ex. the bbbb precedes and the 3333 follows as in , , . In all cases it is transliterated simply as b3b3b3b3.

1 In the OK, the Egyptian referred to the palace as the pr-'3, and in some rare instances this term referred to the ruler himself. The word probably passed into English as "pharaoh" from either the Hebrew or the Greek. 2 An adjective is a word used to describe a noun. See Chapter 21. 3 In English we do not write in a repetitive manner, e.g. "That was a go- good -od idea." In Egyptian, the hieroglyphs might be repeated for artistic consideration by filling in an open space in the text. The extra sounds were not pronounced when read.


23

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 6.46.46.46.4----1.1.1.1. PRE PRE PRE PRE----DYNASTIC IVORY COMBDYNASTIC IVORY COMBDYNASTIC IVORY COMBDYNASTIC IVORY COMB,,,, METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF USEUM OF USEUM OF USEUM OF ART ART ART ART,,,, NEW YORK NEW YORK NEW YORK NEW YORK....

BBBB:::: The numerals usually follow the noun they were quantifying and that noun was expressed in its singular,

not its plural form: pr pr pr pr ḫḫḫḫ3333 "house 1,000" meaning "1,000 houses".

6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 EGYPTIAN PREEGYPTIAN PREEGYPTIAN PREEGYPTIAN PRE----HISTORY 12,500 HISTORY 12,500 HISTORY 12,500 HISTORY 12,500 –––– 3,500 BCE 3,500 BCE 3,500 BCE 3,500 BCE EEEEGYPTIAN PREGYPTIAN PREGYPTIAN PREGYPTIAN PRE----HISTORY IS DIVIDED IHISTORY IS DIVIDED IHISTORY IS DIVIDED IHISTORY IS DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING PENTO THE FOLLOWING PENTO THE FOLLOWING PENTO THE FOLLOWING PERIODSRIODSRIODSRIODS:::: Upper Paleolithic IUpper Paleolithic IUpper Paleolithic IUpper Paleolithic I >12000 BCE>12000 BCE>12000 BCE>12000 BCE Upper Paleolithic IIUpper Paleolithic IIUpper Paleolithic IIUpper Paleolithic II 12000 12000 12000 12000----8000800080008000 MesolithicMesolithicMesolithicMesolithic 8000 8000 8000 8000----4500450045004500 NeoliNeoliNeoliNeolithicthicthicthic 4500 4500 4500 4500----3500350035003500 with cultures developing with cultures developing with cultures developing with cultures developing in the Mesolithic and in the Mesolithic and in the Mesolithic and in the Mesolithic and NeolithicNeolithicNeolithicNeolithic called:called:called:called: BadarianBadarianBadarianBadarian 5500 5500 5500 5500----4000400040004000 NaqadaNaqadaNaqadaNaqada I I I I 4000 4000 4000 4000----3500350035003500 Naqada IINaqada IINaqada IINaqada II 3500 3500 3500 3500----3150315031503150

During the UUUUPPER PPER PPER PPER PPPPALEOLITHIC ALEOLITHIC ALEOLITHIC ALEOLITHIC IIII period, the population appeared

to be composed of mainly nomadic food gatherers. In UPUPUPUP IIIIIIII,

however, both camps of fishermen along the banks of the lakes

in the western desert and camps of rudimentary agricultural

settlements along the banks of the Nile began. One of the

noted advancements of the Mesolithic Age was the introduction

of the bow and arrow. Towards the end of the period, copper

came into widespread use, which is why this period is called the

CCCCHALCOLITHIC HALCOLITHIC HALCOLITHIC HALCOLITHIC ((((or or or or CCCCOPPEROPPEROPPEROPPER/S/S/S/STONETONETONETONE)))) AAAAGEGEGEGE.

The oldest culture discovered to date in Upper Egypt is called

the BBBBADARIANADARIANADARIANADARIAN, named after the excavations at the village of el-

Badari, located approximately 300 km. (185 miles) south of Cairo

on the east bank of the Nile. Similar cultural remains have been

found in the north close to el-Badari and as far as 250 km. (155

miles) to the south. The Badarians were farmers who cultivated

wheat and barley, harvested the ripened plants with sickle

blades, and stored their harvests in mat lined underground silos.

As a Stone Age people, the Badarians made their arrow points from chert, as well as hammers and maces

from harder stones, and knives from flint (a form of chert). Needles and other tools were made from

bone.

Badarian cemeteries were often at the edge of the desert, outside the confines of their settlements.

Generally, their graves were oval or circular pits with the bodies placed in a fetal position with the head

to the north and the face to the east. The bodies were wrapped in animal skins or mats. Grave goods


24

FFFFIG IG IG IG 6.46.46.46.4----2.2.2.2. PREPREPREPRE----DYNASTIC DECORATED WDYNASTIC DECORATED WDYNASTIC DECORATED WDYNASTIC DECORATED WAREAREAREARE,,,, METROPOLITAN METROPOLITAN METROPOLITAN METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART,,,, NY NY NY NY....

placed next to the body included small pottery figurines and a variety of thin walled pottery shapes with a

distinct red polished body and blackened rim. Pottery was made using the red Nile silt. Although not

wheel made, it developed from a coarse ware into a thin walled red and black ware, pieces of which

became the indicator sherds of their culture for the archaeologist of today. Stone vases and slate

palettes for cosmetic use have also been found in the graves. The Badarians used plant oils as cleansing

agents and the cosmetic palettes show remains of green eye-paint. Other items accompanying the

deceased were personal articles such as bone and ivory combs, shell and ivory bracelets, stone and copper

beads, and weapons.

Remains of Badarian clothing indicate that they knew how to tan hides and weave linen. They were not

hunter/gatherers as they domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and geese to maintain their sources of

protein. In addition, bone fish hooks and barbs have been found indicating that the Badarians fished the

Nile to supplement their food supply.

Evidence of the NNNNAQADA AQADA AQADA AQADA IIII culture has been discovered over a distance of some 360 km. (225 miles) in the

Nile valley, encompassing all of the Badarian area of settlement as well as extending further south to the

1st Nile cataract at Aswan. Basaltic jars with flat or footed bases were copied in clay and fired. Naqada I

graves were similar in construction to the Badarian, although in such burials the bodies were usually

placed with the head to the south and the face to the west.

Remains of the NNNNAQADA AQADA AQADA AQADA IIIIIIII culture have been found in an area comprising all of Egypt and some of northern

Nubia as well. Naqada II graves differed from the earlier Badarian and Naqada I in construction. They

were larger and had matted roofs with walls lined with wood. Some tombs had plaster and brick lined

walls. These burial structures were the precursors of the mastaba tombs which were the preferred


25

method of burial in the Early Dynastic period (3500-3100). Naqada II bodies were still placed in a fetal

position. Stone containers for grave goods were placed near the head while larger storage jars were

placed near the feet. A pre-dynastic burial, which has been transported to the British Museum, is shown

below.

6.5 DESCRIPTION O6.5 DESCRIPTION O6.5 DESCRIPTION O6.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION F40:F40:F40:F40: 3w 3w 3w 3w [ah-oo] PORTION OF ANIMAL BAPORTION OF ANIMAL BAPORTION OF ANIMAL BAPORTION OF ANIMAL BACKBONE WITH SPINAL CCKBONE WITH SPINAL CCKBONE WITH SPINAL CCKBONE WITH SPINAL CORD ISSUING AT BOTH ORD ISSUING AT BOTH ORD ISSUING AT BOTH ORD ISSUING AT BOTH ENDSENDSENDSENDS.... G29:G29:G29:G29: b3 b3 b3 b3 [bah] STORKSTORKSTORKSTORK. . . . Logo. "soul". G39:G39:G39:G39: s3s3s3s3 [sah] PINTAIL DUCKPINTAIL DUCKPINTAIL DUCKPINTAIL DUCK.... Logo. "son". M12:M12:M12:M12: ḫḫḫḫ3333 [khah] LEAFLEAFLEAFLEAF,,,, STALK STALK STALK STALK,,,, AND RHIZOME OF LOTU AND RHIZOME OF LOTU AND RHIZOME OF LOTU AND RHIZOME OF LOTUSSSS. . . . Logo. for the number 1,000. M23:M23:M23:M23: swswswsw [soo] PLANT REGARDED AS TYPLANT REGARDED AS TYPLANT REGARDED AS TYPLANT REGARDED AS TYPICAL OF UEPICAL OF UEPICAL OF UEPICAL OF UE.... O29:O29:O29:O29: , , , , '3 '3 '3 '3 [ah-ah] WOODEN COLUMNWOODEN COLUMNWOODEN COLUMNWOODEN COLUMN,,,, also written vertically.

FFFFIG IG IG IG 6.46.46.46.4----3.3.3.3. PRE PRE PRE PRE----DYNASTIC BURIALDYNASTIC BURIALDYNASTIC BURIALDYNASTIC BURIAL,,,, BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM,,,, LONDON LONDON LONDON LONDON.... NOTE THE FETAL POS NOTE THE FETAL POS NOTE THE FETAL POS NOTE THE FETAL POSITON OF THE ITON OF THE ITON OF THE ITON OF THE CORPSE AND THE CORPSE AND THE CORPSE AND THE CORPSE AND THE LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE GRAVE GOODS SURROUNDGRAVE GOODS SURROUNDGRAVE GOODS SURROUNDGRAVE GOODS SURROUNDINGINGINGING IT IT IT IT....


26

6.5 DESCRIPTION OF 6.5 DESCRIPTION OF 6.5 DESCRIPTION OF 6.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CSIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)ONTINUED)ONTINUED)ONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSRANSRANSRANSLITERATIONLITERATIONLITERATIONLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION V30:V30:V30:V30: nbnbnbnb [neb] WICKERWORK BASKETWICKERWORK BASKETWICKERWORK BASKETWICKERWORK BASKET,,,, "lord", masc. adj. "all". W19:W19:W19:W19: mmmmìììì [mee] MILK JUG CARRIED IN MILK JUG CARRIED IN MILK JUG CARRIED IN MILK JUG CARRIED IN A NETA NETA NETA NET.... 6.6 EXERCISES6.6 EXERCISES6.6 EXERCISES6.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


27

Chapter 7

SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS:SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: TRIPHONICS TRIPHONICS TRIPHONICS TRIPHONICS 7.1 THERE7.1 THERE7.1 THERE7.1 THERE ARE APPROXIMATELY 5 ARE APPROXIMATELY 5 ARE APPROXIMATELY 5 ARE APPROXIMATELY 50 TRIPHONIC SIGNS.0 TRIPHONIC SIGNS.0 TRIPHONIC SIGNS.0 TRIPHONIC SIGNS. 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 COMMON TRIPHONIC SIGCOMMON TRIPHONIC SIGCOMMON TRIPHONIC SIGCOMMON TRIPHONIC SIGNSNSNSNS as in life ''''nhnhnhnh 'nh 'nh 'nh 'nh [a-hen-kh] and as in or true of voice, i.e. deceased m3' m3' m3' m3' ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw [man-ah-kh-air-oo] as in beauty nfrnfrnfrnfr nfr nfr nfr nfr [en-ef-er] as in go to rest, i.e. die ḥḥḥḥtptptptp ḥḥḥḥtp m 'ntp m 'ntp m 'ntp m 'nḫḫḫḫ [het-ep em a-hen-kh] as in dung beetle ḥḥḥḥprprprpr ḥḥḥḥprprprpr rrrr [kh-ep-er-er] as in hear ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm s s s sḏḏḏḏmmmm [se-dj-em-em] as in , , or Upper Egypt ššššm'm'm'm' ššššmmmm''''wwww ššššm'm'm'm'wwww t3 t3 t3 t3----ššššm'm'm'm'wwww [tah-shem-oo] 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: Triphonic signs may also be accompanied by a single consonant which complements the final sound, e.g.

the rrrr in ḫḫḫḫprprprpr [kh-ep-er-erererer] or the mmmm in ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm [se-dj-em-emememem]. As with the biliterals, any

combination of the three signs may appear with the triphonic as a complementary letter, as the ffff and r r r r in

nfrnfrnfrnfr. Note that the Egyptians would write the feminine version of this word as nfrtnfrtnfrtnfrt, thus preserving the symmetrical appearance of the group, while not portraying Sign I9, . BBBB:::: m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrw rw rw rw was an epithet attached to the names of deceased persons, much as we would say "the late" when referring to an individual who had recently died. CCCC:::: Note that the seated man, A2, in m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrrrrwwww, and the land marked with irrigation

runnels N24 in t3t3t3t3----ššššmmmm''''wwww, do not contribute any sound value but they are used to help

"determine"1111 what the word connotes. 7.4 THE LANGUAGE7.4 THE LANGUAGE7.4 THE LANGUAGE7.4 THE LANGUAGE The Egyptian language went through many developments from its inception in Pre-Historic times (12,000-

3,500). Towards the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period (3200-3100), this spoken language began to be

represented in pictorial form, an example of which may be found on slate pallet, attributed to the time of

1 See Chapter 8 for a discussion of Determinatives..


28

FFFFIG IG IG IG 7.47.47.47.4----1.1.1.1. NARMER NARMER NARMER NARMER''''S PALETTES PALETTES PALETTES PALETTE:::: OBVERSE OBVERSE OBVERSE OBVERSE ((((LLLL),),),), REVERSE REVERSE REVERSE REVERSE ((((RRRR).).).).

Narmer (1-1, fl. 3100 BCE). Here, one finds a combination of pictorial art and signs, some of which may

have evolved into hieroglyphs.2222 Note also the signs on the ivory comb in Fig. 6.4-1 which fall into the same

category as those on the Narmer Palette. Some scholars have divided the language of the ancient Egyptians into the following dialects: Old Egyptian, Dynasties 1Old Egyptian, Dynasties 1Old Egyptian, Dynasties 1Old Egyptian, Dynasties 1----8 (31008 (31008 (31008 (3100----2160)2160)2160)2160) MidMidMidMiddle Egyptian, Dynasties 9dle Egyptian, Dynasties 9dle Egyptian, Dynasties 9dle Egyptian, Dynasties 9----13 (216013 (216013 (216013 (2160----1633)1633)1633)1633) Late Egyptian, Dynasties 18Late Egyptian, Dynasties 18Late Egyptian, Dynasties 18Late Egyptian, Dynasties 18----24 (156724 (156724 (156724 (1567----715)715)715)715) based on grammatical3333, syntactical4444, and artistical analysis.

2 For a discussion of the signs on the pallet, see W.A. Fairservis, Jr., "A Revised View of the Na'rmer Palette", JARCE XXVIII (1991), pp. 1-20. Another example, perhaps of an even earlier date, might be found on the so- called "Libyan Palette". O. Goelet has observed that the , ḫpr, on that palette, although partially preserved, appears to have the r sign, D21, , beneath it. 3 Grammatical analysis of a language is based on its morphemes, defined as the smallest unit of sound which has meaning, e.g. "the", "write", or the "-ed" in "waited". 4 Syntactical analysis is based on the rules and patterns for the formation of sentences or clauses in a language.


29

During the Old Kingdom (2686-2160), HIEROGLYPHIC HIEROGLYPHIC HIEROGLYPHIC HIEROGLYPHIC writing came into its own. Composed of logograms,

phonograms, and determinatives, it fully expressed the spoken language, even though the vowels were not

written.

As mentioned in §2.3, hieroglyphic texts were written horizontally either left-to-right or right-to-left, as

well as vertically from top to bottom. Signs always faced in the direction they were to be read. It should

be noted that the preferred direction was horizontally right-to-left.5555 The expression "the sun is in the

sky", rrrr ' m pt' m pt' m pt' m pt, consists of the following signs: .

Compare the examples of these signs when presented in various orientations:

RIGHT TO LEFTRIGHT TO LEFTRIGHT TO LEFTRIGHT TO LEFT LEFT TO RIGHTLEFT TO RIGHTLEFT TO RIGHTLEFT TO RIGHT HORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLY

VERTICALLYVERTICALLYVERTICALLYVERTICALLY

Notice how the hieroglyphics fill the space allotted for them. The artist usually attempted to fill the

block in an artistically pleasing and satisfying manner, as the written language was truly an art form of the

spoken language. When a text contained both orientations (right-to-left and left-to-right) of a group of

signs, the artist usually made an effort to have the signs face each other, similar to the representations

shown above.

When reading a horizontal text, at the end of a given line, one drops down one line and moves to the

beginning of that line as indicated by which way the glyphs are facing. When reading vertical texts, the

orientation of the glyphs indicates which column is to be read next. Thus, if they face left, the next

column to be read is to the right. If they face right, the next column is to the left of the column just

read.

The last known use of hieroglyphs is in a Roman temple, dated to 394 CE, from the Nile island of Philae6666

at Aswan. As the Egyptian civilization developed, so too did a cursive writing called HIERATICHIERATICHIERATICHIERATIC.7777 Hieratic, 5 Some scholars believe this is due to the fact that right-handedness predominates in mankind. Thus, when a hieroglyph was being chiseled, the stone cutter held the chisel in his left hand and the striking mallet in his right. 6 After the construction in 1898-1902 of the first dam at Aswan, for most of the year the monuments were submerged in the waters impounded by the dam. With the building of the newer High Dam (1960-1971), all the monuments were relocated to a neighboring island, Agilkia, where they may be visited year round. 7 From the Greek hieratikos, "priestly".


30

written from right to left, was also the precursor to a second cursive script, DEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTIC,8888 which came into

use about 700 BCE. HIERATICHIERATICHIERATICHIERATIC was the script used by the scribes in their papyrus letters, it being far easier to write in this

cursive script than to draw individual signs. During the Old Kingdom, hieratic forms were quite similar to

their hieroglyphic counterparts, differing only in that they were rounded and stylized as a result of being

written with a pen rather than the angular form of the sign when chiseled in stone. As time went on,

Hieratic developed a character of its own, until eventually it was used only in religious texts. It was

almost always confined to papyri or ostraca,9999 although Hieratic has been found in some graffiti and on

some stelae.

Towards the end of the 3rd Intermediate Period (1084-664), DEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTIC came into common use. It was, what

might be called, a "speed writing" or "shorthand" form of Hieratic. It became the writing of choice for

documents and books. Demotic, however, is more than a mere cursive script – it is a distinct dialect,

representing one of the last written forms of the ancient Egyptian tongue.

From c. 200 CE on, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt spoke COPTICCOPTICCOPTICCOPTIC, the final descendent of the Egyptian

language. It was written in an adapted form of the Greek alphabet and included the vowels which had

been omitted in the previous stages of the language. It became extinct 1,300 years later, Arabic having

replaced it.

The Rosetta Stone (see Fig. 7.4-2) was discovered by an officer of Napoleon's army in Egypt in 1799 near

the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. It was part of the war booty brought to England after the surrender of

the French forces and is currently in the British Museum. On it is carved a decree of Ptolemy V

Epiphanes (PT-5, 204-180) in three scripts: HIEROGLYPHICHIEROGLYPHICHIEROGLYPHICHIEROGLYPHICSSSS, DEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTICDEMOTIC, and GREEKGREEKGREEKGREEK. The Greek inscribed on it

enabled a French scholar, Jean François Champollion le Jeune (1790-1832), to decipher the hieroglyphs.

The stone is granodiorite and not black basalt,10101010 as was commonly believed for many years.

8 From the Greek demotikos, "of the people". 9 An ostracon, from the Greek ostrakon, is a potsherd, or scrap piece of pottery. In Greece they were sometimes used as a ballot upon which the name of a person voted to be ostracized was inscribed. 10 From a personal communication email received by the author from Dr. R. B. Parkinson, Assistant Keeper, Dept. of Ancient Egypt and Sudan, British Museum on April 30, 2002: "The Stone was conserved as part of the bicentenary celebrations in 1999 (see BM website on exhibition 'Cracking Codes'), following suspicions that it was not black basalt. The stone is granodiorite, but it has not been possible to suggest exactly which quarry it is from. The investigation was undertaken by the BM's Department of Scientific Research, in collaboration with Prof. D. Klemm. The French savants had used the Stone as a printing block to take copies of its inscriptions, and when it entered the museum it was covered in a layer of wax (a common practice at that time) to protect the surface. This [the wax] has subsequently absorbed the dirt from the London atmosphere."


31

FFFFIG IG IG IG 7.47.47.47.4----2222. THE ROSETTATHE ROSETTATHE ROSETTATHE ROSETTA STONE WITH THE UPPE STONE WITH THE UPPE STONE WITH THE UPPE STONE WITH THE UPPER SECTION IN HIEROGR SECTION IN HIEROGR SECTION IN HIEROGR SECTION IN HIEROGLYPHICSLYPHICSLYPHICSLYPHICS,,,, THE CENTER THE CENTER THE CENTER THE CENTER SECTION IN DEMOTICSECTION IN DEMOTICSECTION IN DEMOTICSECTION IN DEMOTIC,,,, AND THE LOWER SECTI AND THE LOWER SECTI AND THE LOWER SECTI AND THE LOWER SECTION IN GREEK ON IN GREEK ON IN GREEK ON IN GREEK ((((COLORS REVERSED FOR COLORS REVERSED FOR COLORS REVERSED FOR COLORS REVERSED FOR BETTER VISIBILITY OFBETTER VISIBILITY OFBETTER VISIBILITY OFBETTER VISIBILITY OF THE INSCRIPTION THE INSCRIPTION THE INSCRIPTION THE INSCRIPTION).).).).


32

7.5 DESCRIPTION OF 7.5 DESCRIPTION OF 7.5 DESCRIPTION OF 7.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A2: MAN WITH HAND TO MOUMAN WITH HAND TO MOUMAN WITH HAND TO MOUMAN WITH HAND TO MOUTHTHTHTH. . . . Det. in "eat", "hungry", "drink", "be silent", "relate", "think", "devise", "feel", "love" – all words concerned with emotions or activities of the mind or mouth. F21:F21:F21:F21: ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm [sedj-em] EAR OF AN OXEAR OF AN OXEAR OF AN OXEAR OF AN OX???? H6:H6:H6:H6: ššššwwww [shoo] FEATHERFEATHERFEATHERFEATHER. . . . Logo. "feather", "truth".

L1:L1:L1:L1: ḫḫḫḫprprprpr [khep-er] SCARAB SCARAB SCARAB SCARAB or or or or DUNG BEEDUNG BEEDUNG BEEDUNG BEETLETLETLETLE. M26:M26:M26:M26: ššššm'm'm'm' [shem-a] SEDGE GROWING FROMA SEDGE GROWING FROMA SEDGE GROWING FROMA SEDGE GROWING FROMA SIGN FOR LAND RESEMBSIGN FOR LAND RESEMBSIGN FOR LAND RESEMBSIGN FOR LAND RESEMBLING LING LING LING N17N17N17N17 .... M27:M27:M27:M27: ššššm'm'm'm' COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M26 M26 M26 M26 ANDANDANDAND D36 D36 D36 D36 .... N1:N1:N1:N1: ptptptpt [pet] SKYSKYSKYSKY.... N16:N16:N16:N16: tttt3333 [tah] FLAT ALLUVIAL LAND WFLAT ALLUVIAL LAND WFLAT ALLUVIAL LAND WFLAT ALLUVIAL LAND WITH GRAINS OF SAND ITH GRAINS OF SAND ITH GRAINS OF SAND ITH GRAINS OF SAND BENEATH ITBENEATH ITBENEATH ITBENEATH IT.... N17:N17:N17:N17: t3t3t3t3 ALTERNATIVE FOALTERNATIVE FOALTERNATIVE FOALTERNATIVE FORM OFRM OFRM OFRM OF N16 N16 N16 N16 .... N24:N24:N24:N24: LAND MARKED OUT WITHLAND MARKED OUT WITHLAND MARKED OUT WITHLAND MARKED OUT WITH IRRIGATION RUNNELS IRRIGATION RUNNELS IRRIGATION RUNNELS IRRIGATION RUNNELS.... Logo. or det. in "district", "nome", "garden", etc. N33:N33:N33:N33: šššš'y'y'y'y SAND OR OBJECT CONSISAND OR OBJECT CONSISAND OR OBJECT CONSISAND OR OBJECT CONSISTING OF SMALL PARTISTING OF SMALL PARTISTING OF SMALL PARTISTING OF SMALL PARTICLES OR PIECESCLES OR PIECESCLES OR PIECESCLES OR PIECES.... P8P8P8P8 , , , , ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw OAROAROAROAR, , , , often horizontally. R4:R4:R4:R4: ẖẖẖẖtptptptp [het-ep] LOAFLOAFLOAFLOAF X2X2X2X2 ON A REED MAT ON A REED MAT ON A REED MAT ON A REED MAT. . . . Logo. "altar". S34:S34:S34:S34: 'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ [ankh] TIE TIE TIE TIE or or or or STRAPSTRAPSTRAPSTRAP,,,, especially a sandal strap or floral garland, as a symbol of life. Known as the "the ankh". U1:U1:U1:U1: m3m3m3m3 [mah] SICKLESICKLESICKLESICKLE.... U4:U4:U4:U4: COMINATION OF COMINATION OF COMINATION OF COMINATION OF U1 U1 U1 U1 and and and and AAAAaaaa11111111 . . . . Found in m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't "truth" and related words. X2:X2:X2:X2: tttt LOAFLOAFLOAFLOAF.... Aa11:Aa11:Aa11:Aa11: , , , , m'3m'3m'3m'3 [mah-ah] DODODODOUBTFULUBTFULUBTFULUBTFUL,,,, POSSIBLY A STATUE POSSIBLY A STATUE POSSIBLY A STATUE POSSIBLY A STATUE BASEBASEBASEBASE.... Often written vertically. Used phon. in words related to "truth".


33

7.7.7.7.6 EXERCISES6 EXERCISES6 EXERCISES6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


34

FFFFIG IG IG IG 8.18.18.18.1----1.1.1.1. HUNTING SCENE ON T HUNTING SCENE ON T HUNTING SCENE ON T HUNTING SCENE ON THE WALL OF THE DYNASHE WALL OF THE DYNASHE WALL OF THE DYNASHE WALL OF THE DYNASTY TY TY TY 5555 (2494(2494(2494(2494----2345)2345)2345)2345) TOMB OF REM TOMB OF REM TOMB OF REM TOMB OF REM----EMEMEMEM----KUYKUYKUYKUY,,,, METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN M METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ARTUSEUM OF ARTUSEUM OF ARTUSEUM OF ART,,,, NEW YORK NEW YORK NEW YORK NEW YORK....

CHAPTER 8

SIGNS AS DETERMINATISIGNS AS DETERMINATISIGNS AS DETERMINATISIGNS AS DETERMINATIVESVESVESVES 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 A HIEROGLYPH SEVES A HIEROGLYPH SEVES A HIEROGLYPH SEVES A HIEROGLYPH SEVES AS AS AS AS A DETERMINATIVE WHENA DETERMINATIVE WHENA DETERMINATIVE WHENA DETERMINATIVE WHEN IT PROVIDES INFORMA IT PROVIDES INFORMA IT PROVIDES INFORMA IT PROVIDES INFORMATION ABOUT THE TION ABOUT THE TION ABOUT THE TION ABOUT THE

WORD TO WHICH IT IS WORD TO WHICH IT IS WORD TO WHICH IT IS WORD TO WHICH IT IS ATTACHED. AS IT HASATTACHED. AS IT HASATTACHED. AS IT HASATTACHED. AS IT HAS NO VOCALIC MEANING, NO VOCALIC MEANING, NO VOCALIC MEANING, NO VOCALIC MEANING, IT IS NEVER TRANSLI IT IS NEVER TRANSLI IT IS NEVER TRANSLI IT IS NEVER TRANSLITERATTERATTERATTERATED.ED.ED.ED.

Words with the same root letters and different determinatives have different meanings. Thus,

words with different root letters and the same determinatives have related meanings.

Determinatives are generally placed near or at the end of a word. Words may have more than one

determinative in order to further define the word.

Determinatives are needed to clarify a word, e.g. , wwwwḏḏḏḏ3333, as in = "hale", "uninjured", or

"prosperous"; in = "go", "proceed"; and in = "storehouse" or "magazine". The

DETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVEDETERMINATIVESSSS , , and are required to "determine" the meaning of the word.

From time-to-time rather than using a determinative, a picture may provide the clue as to the correct

translation. Fig. 8.1-1 includes two such examples where instead of the determinative being in the word, it

is in the picture directly below the spelling of the word. The determinative for "ibex", , nnnnìììì3333, is

(E30). It is pictorially represented and is not part of the hieroglyphic spelling for the word nnnnìììì3333 . A full

spelling of nwnwnwnw, "hunter", is , which contains two determinatives (D4 and A1 to

indicate a man looking about as a hunter would look for game). In this depiction where the hunter is

lassoing an ibex, the word nwnwnwnw is represented in the text by U20 and W24 , while the portrayal of

the hunter himself actually lassoing the ibex is used instead of the determinative for the word nnnn wwww. 1111

1 See Fisher's Egyptian Studies II, The Orientation of Hieroglyphs, Part 1, Reversals, p.4, Fig.1, for a further discussion of the illustration. Note the text spḥ nì3 ìn nw, "lassoing the ibex by the hunter", is over the scene of that action.


35

8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 DETERMINATIVESDETERMINATIVESDETERMINATIVESDETERMINATIVES A. A. A. A. THE SAME ROOT LETTERTHE SAME ROOT LETTERTHE SAME ROOT LETTERTHE SAME ROOT LETTERS WITH VARIED DETERMS WITH VARIED DETERMS WITH VARIED DETERMS WITH VARIED DETERMINATIVES:INATIVES:INATIVES:INATIVES: daily malady2222 mntmntmntmnt [men-et] mntmntmntmnt swallow2222 thigh of a man mntmntmntmnt mntmntmntmnt B. B. B. B. THE SAME DETERMINATITHE SAME DETERMINATITHE SAME DETERMINATITHE SAME DETERMINATIVE WITH DIFFERENT ROVE WITH DIFFERENT ROVE WITH DIFFERENT ROVE WITH DIFFERENT ROOT LETTERS:OT LETTERS:OT LETTERS:OT LETTERS: perish bad, evil 3333ḳḳḳḳ [ahk] bbbbììììnnnn [been] ill small mrmrmrmr [mair] nnnnḏḏḏḏssss narrow, defective empty ḥḥḥḥnsnsnsns [hen-ess] ššššwwww [shoo] C. C. C. C. ADDITION OF A SECONDADDITION OF A SECONDADDITION OF A SECONDADDITION OF A SECOND DETERMINATIVE TO CH DETERMINATIVE TO CH DETERMINATIVE TO CH DETERMINATIVE TO CHANGE A RELATED MEANIANGE A RELATED MEANIANGE A RELATED MEANIANGE A RELATED MEANING:NG:NG:NG: small commoner, a small man, i.e. low status

nnnnḏḏḏḏssss nnnnḏḏḏḏssss hungry hungry (man), the hungry one ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr [hek-er ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: As there are many words with the same root letters, the sign which serves as a determinative enables

the reader to distinguish among similar words. If no determinative is present, then the context must

provide the clues for a proper translation.

BBBB:::: Notice that the words with the same determinative G37 , have a related meaning: "small", "narrow",

"defective", "bad", "empty", "ill", "perish", etc. When the seated man A1 is added to nnnnḏḏḏḏssss, the meaning

changes to "commoner", "citizen", "poor man", "wretch", etc. Similarly when is added to ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr, the meaning shifts from "hungry" to "the hungry" (a collective), "the hungry one", or "hungry man".

2 Note that the sparrow (G37) has a rounded tail while the swallow (G36) has a forked tail.


36

CCCC:::: Most likely, words with the same root letters but different determinatives were vocalized differently

and were not homonyms, i.e. words that sound alike but differ in meaning. DDDD:::: mrmrmrmr, is a biphonic sign complementing the in the word "ill". 8.4 SHU, TEFNUT, GEB8.4 SHU, TEFNUT, GEB8.4 SHU, TEFNUT, GEB8.4 SHU, TEFNUT, GEB, , , , andandandand NUT NUT NUT NUT

In the HHHHELIOPOLELIOPOLELIOPOLELIOPOLITANITANITANITAN myth of creation, SSSSHUHUHUHU, the god of sunlight and air, was the first deity created by

AAAATUMTUMTUMTUM. His sister and wife, TTTTEFNEFNEFNEFN UTUTUTUT, perhaps the goddess of moisture, was the second deity created by

Atum.

The first appearance of Shu is in the Old Kingdom, where he is depicted in human form with upraised

arms supporting the nude sky goddess NNNNUTUTUTUT, while separating her from her husband GGGGEBEBEBEB, the earth god.3333

On his head he wears a plume, the form of which is replicated in the typical headdress of the Egyptians.

His bones, possibly a reference to the clouds in the sky, are the path which the king follows when he

ascends to heaven at his death. The pharaoh was purified by the lakes of Shu, a possible identification

with the early morning mists of the Nile.

In the OK, Shu's responsibilities were enacted daily as he brought the sun god, Re, as well as the pharaoh,

to life each morning. During the AAAAMARNA PERIODMARNA PERIODMARNA PERIODMARNA PERIOD, the pharaoh Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362) worshipped

the sun, the AAAATENTENTENTEN,4444 in which Shu resided.

Tefnut was also created by Atum's ejaculations and as he "spat her out", her symbolic representation is a

pair of lips splitting. In the PPPPYRAMID TEXTSYRAMID TEXTSYRAMID TEXTSYRAMID TEXTS5555 she urinates pure water in which the king may wash his feet.

In Lower Egypt, in some cases Tefnut and Shu were represented as a pair of lions and were worshipped

as such. Other iconographic forms of Tefnut were as a serpent or scepter. She was worshipped at

Heliopolis in a sanctuary of the temple to her father, Atum.

In one myth, she quarreled with her father and departed for Nubia. The god Thoth (god of the moon,

knowledge, and writing) was dispatched to retrieve her. As a means of coaxing her to return, he not only

flattered her but also told her fables to entertain her on the journey back to Egypt.6666

Shu and Tefnut were the parents of Geb and Nut. Geb was called "the eldest of Shu" and is portrayed in

the OK with one arm raised to the sky and one arm on the earth. In the New Kingdom, he may be found

reclining on his side, one arm bent at the elbow. A white fronted goose, G38 , was the OK hieroglyph

to indicate his name. As a chthonic deity, Geb's body was often colored green to indicate the fertility of

the earth. At times he was shown with an erection, his phallus extended upwards towards his sister and

wife, Nut.

3 See §2.4 and Fig. 2.4-1. 4 See §32.4. 5 See §28.4. 6 M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period, pp. 156-7.


37

Geb's laughter was responsible for earthquakes and as he had the power to imprison the dead (thus

preventing their movement in the land of the dead), he was dreaded. On the other side of the ledger, he

was responsible for the food of the earth by which all mankind was sustained, especially barley which

sprung from his ribs. He is also mentioned in magical texts where he could cause the curing of various

ailments. Atum designated Geb as the one to preside over the feud of his grandsons, Horus and Seth, for

the right to the throne of Egypt.

Nut was usually depicted in human form but on occasion she was represented as the Sky Cow. In one OK

text she is portrayed as a bee with great powers. Her children with Geb were Osiris, Isis, Seth, and

Nephthys. One of the myths regarding Nut was that she swallowed her children each night and gave birth

to them each dawn, which angered Geb greatly.

As the sky goddess, she prevented the chaotic forces in the cosmos from destroying the earth. Her

laughter was responsible for the thunder heard in the heavens. In the tombs of the kings of the 20th

Dynasty (1200-1085), Nut is portrayed swallowing the sun god, who then traveled through her body,

emerging at dawn from her vulva.

Some myths relating the same story differed significantly in their content, although existing concurrently

in the Egyptian religion. As there was no unique "holy book" which canonized the stories that were

acceptable and disregarded those that were not, the Egyptian felt no need to reconcile two or more

religious views into a single "accepted" interpretation. Their religion tended to include rather than

exclude disparate versions. 8.5 DESCRIPTION OF 8.5 DESCRIPTION OF 8.5 DESCRIPTION OF 8.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D4:D4:D4:D4: ììììrrrr [eer] EYEEYEEYEEYE.... Logo. "eye". Det. in "see". D56D56D56D56:::: rdrdrdrd [red] LEGLEGLEGLEG.... Logo. "foot. Det. in "leg", parts of leg, actions of leg. E30:E30:E30:E30: IBEXIBEXIBEXIBEX.... Det. in n3wn3wn3wn3w, "ibex", OK form nnnnìììì3333. G36:G36:G36:G36: wrwrwrwr [wair] SWALLOW SWALLOW SWALLOW SWALLOW or or or or MARTINMARTINMARTINMARTIN.... Det. "great". Note the forked tail which differentiates the swallow from G37, the sparrow. G37:G37:G37:G37: SPARROWSPARROWSPARROWSPARROW.... Det. connoting "small", "bad", "ill", "narrow", "defective", "perish", "diseased", "empty" etc. Note rounded tail which differentiates the sparrow from G36, the swallow.


38

8.5 DE8.5 DE8.5 DE8.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUENCOUNTERED (CONTINUENCOUNTERED (CONTINUENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)D)D)D) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION G38:G38:G38:G38: gbgbgbgb WHITE FRONTED GOOSEWHITE FRONTED GOOSEWHITE FRONTED GOOSEWHITE FRONTED GOOSE. . . . OK det. for the god "Geb". M2:M2:M2:M2: ḥḥḥḥnnnn HERBHERBHERBHERB. . . . Det. "plant", "flower". U19:U19:U19:U19: nwnwnwnw ADZEADZEADZEADZE.... U20:U20:U20:U20: nwnwnwnw ADZEADZEADZEADZE.... OK form of the adze U19, and always distinct from the similar U21. U21:U21:U21:U21: ssssttttpppp ADZE AT WORK ON A BLADZE AT WORK ON A BLADZE AT WORK ON A BLADZE AT WORK ON A BLOCK OF WOODOCK OF WOODOCK OF WOODOCK OF WOOD.... U23:U23:U23:U23: mrmrmrmr [mair], CHISELCHISELCHISELCHISEL???? 3b3b3b3b [ahb] U28: U28: U28: U28: ḏḏḏḏ3333 [djä] DRILL USED TO MAKE ADRILL USED TO MAKE ADRILL USED TO MAKE ADRILL USED TO MAKE A FIRE FIRE FIRE FIRE.... Phon. in "remainder", "ferry across", "pillage".

Used as an abbr. for wwwwḏḏḏḏ3333 in the formula ‘‘‘‘nnnnhhhh w w w wḏḏḏḏ3 snb3 snb3 snb3 snb, "may he live, be prosperous, be healthy". W24:W24:W24:W24: nwnwnwnw [noo] BOWLBOWLBOWLBOWL.... Y5Y5Y5Y5:::: mnmnmnmn GAMING BOARDGAMING BOARDGAMING BOARDGAMING BOARD.... 8.6 EXERCISES8.6 EXERCISES8.6 EXERCISES8.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


39

Chapter 9

PLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVESSSS 9.1 IN OLD EGYPTIAN,9.1 IN OLD EGYPTIAN,9.1 IN OLD EGYPTIAN,9.1 IN OLD EGYPTIAN, WHICH FLOURISHED FR WHICH FLOURISHED FR WHICH FLOURISHED FR WHICH FLOURISHED FROM DYNASTIES 1 THOUGOM DYNASTIES 1 THOUGOM DYNASTIES 1 THOUGOM DYNASTIES 1 THOUGH 8 (3100H 8 (3100H 8 (3100H 8 (3100----2160), THREE 2160), THREE 2160), THREE 2160), THREE

DETERMINATIVES INDICDETERMINATIVES INDICDETERMINATIVES INDICDETERMINATIVES INDICATED THE PLURALATED THE PLURALATED THE PLURALATED THE PLURAL.... BY MIDDLE BY MIDDLE BY MIDDLE BY MIDDLE EGYPTIANEGYPTIANEGYPTIANEGYPTIAN TI TI TI TIMES, DYNASTIES 9MES, DYNASTIES 9MES, DYNASTIES 9MES, DYNASTIES 9----13 (216013 (216013 (216013 (2160----

1633), THE TENDENCY 1633), THE TENDENCY 1633), THE TENDENCY 1633), THE TENDENCY WAS TO INDICATE A PLWAS TO INDICATE A PLWAS TO INDICATE A PLWAS TO INDICATE A PLURAL NOT ONLY WITH RURAL NOT ONLY WITH RURAL NOT ONLY WITH RURAL NOT ONLY WITH REPETITIVE DETERMINATEPETITIVE DETERMINATEPETITIVE DETERMINATEPETITIVE DETERMINATIVES IVES IVES IVES

BUT ALSO WITH: BUT ALSO WITH: BUT ALSO WITH: BUT ALSO WITH: 1)1)1)1) THREE SHORT PARALLE THREE SHORT PARALLE THREE SHORT PARALLE THREE SHORT PARALLEL STROKESL STROKESL STROKESL STROKES , , , , 2)2)2)2) THREE SHORT STROKES THREE SHORT STROKES THREE SHORT STROKES THREE SHORT STROKES SET SET SET SET

VVVVERTICALLYERTICALLYERTICALLYERTICALLY orororor , , , , 3)3)3)3) THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES SET HORIZONTALLY SET HORIZONTALLY SET HORIZONTALLY SET HORIZONTALLY , , , , 4444)))) THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES THREE SMALL CIRCLES

SET SET SET SET VERTICALLYVERTICALLYVERTICALLYVERTICALLY , , , , 5)5)5)5) A SMALL CIRCLE SET A SMALL CIRCLE SET A SMALL CIRCLE SET A SMALL CIRCLE SET OVER THE THREE SHORTOVER THE THREE SHORTOVER THE THREE SHORTOVER THE THREE SHORT VERTICAL STROKES VERTICAL STROKES VERTICAL STROKES VERTICAL STROKES .... 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 PLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVEPLURAL DETERMINATIVESSSS SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL , house , houses prprprpr prwprwprwprw

armyarmyarmyarmy , armies mmmmšššš'''' mmmmšššš'''' wwww [meh-sha-ōō]1111 god , , gods nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr nnnnṯṯṯṯrwrwrwrw [netch-er-ōō] official officials srsrsrsr srwsrwsrwsrw [sâr-ōō] , gold

2222 nbwnbwnbwnbw 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: When writing plurals, it was quicker and easier for the three determinatives indicating the plural to be

replaced by three strokes or circles, and as a result, such plural indicators came into widespread use. The

three short horizontal plural indicators were set under the single sign, while the vertical representations

were placed immediately following the determinative.

BBBB:::: Using three determinatives to indicate the plural enjoyed a rebirth from time-to-time, such as during

the Saite Period (664-525), when it was revived as a deliberate archaism, particularly for use in religious

texts.

1 From this point forward, long vowels will no longer be expressed as "-ah-", "air", "-ay-", "-ee-", or "oo-" but rather as ä as in "alms", "art", "calm"; â(r) as in "air", "dare", "Mary"; ā as in "aid", "cape", "way"; ē; or ōō; the symbols found in most dictionaries. Note that the letter "o" represents the sound "-oh-" and therefore is not used for "-ōō-", as in the English word "boot". 2 Gold could be either plural or singular.


40

CCCC:::: Note also that in one form of the plural for house, prwprwprwprw, the combination of the determinative

with the single vertical stroke following it and with the three plural strokes placed beneath them both.

DDDD:::: Plural writing varied according to the space available. In other words, depending on the space allotted

for the glyphs, the scribes would fill the space either efficiently or in an artistically pleasing

presentation, e.g. note the differences between , , and , nnnnṯṯṯṯ rwrwrwrw. 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 THE CORVTHE CORVTHE CORVTHE CORVÉÉÉÉEEEE

3333 and and and and ššššbtybtybtybty STATUESSTATUESSTATUESSTATUES

Almost all ancient societies relied on both slave and conscript labor for public works construction as well

as to provide other necessary services to the state, such as farming, husbandry, and military service.

Slaves were originally obtained by force of arms and their descendants usually formed a distinct caste

within their owner's society. They were bartered for goods and services just as any other commodity and

had an economic value to their owner.4444 Conscript labor5555 also provided much of the manpower in ancient

societies. Scholars call this system in which conscript labor is provided, the corvée.

After each annual Nile inundations, the corvée provided the labor for the repairs necessary for the

maintenance of the irrigation canals and the dikes bordering the fields. Corvée labor was utilized in both

temple and pyramid construction. While artisans might be in the direct employ of the institution or the

crown, the corvée supplied much of the part-time labor, such as fishermen, hunters, farmers, bakers,

brewers, weavers, tanners, and construction workers. The local lord called upon his peasant work force to

supply the labor for his corvée, just as the nomarch called upon him and the king upon the nomarch.

Similarly, lower ranking priests were organized into four companies, or phyles, and served one month in

each of the three seasons. Such priests were called w'w'w'w' bbbb, lit. "the pure ones" and are

translated as "wab-priests". As well as the priests, groups of manual laborers were occasionally

organized into phyles or work gangs.

Some individuals and sometimes entire villages would be exempt from the corvée, as is known from a

decree of Pepi I (6-3, c. 2300 BCE), exempting two agricultural settlements in payment for maintaining

the two pyramids constructed by the pharaoh Snoferu (4-1, 2613-2589):

3 Pronounced "corvāy", this French word is derived from the Latin "corrogata", "contribution". 4 In the Code of Laws of Hammurabi (king of Babylon c. 1750 BCE), values were promulgated for slaves and their services and expressed in gold, silver, or commodity equivalents. 5 While we think of labor as either free or slave, almost all labor in the ancient world was not free. Besides outright slavery (the usual fate of war captives and their families) in most ancient societies, each individual was generally under the jurisdiction of an immediate higher authority. Chattel slavery, i.e. one in which the individual could be sold to another individual, existed in the Middle Kingdom as well as under the Ptolemies. Chattel slavery in Egypt differed from European medieval serfdom. Under that system, the serf could not be sold individually, because he was considered an integral part of the estate on which he lived, much the same as the fields, houses, farm equipment, and animals.


41

FFFFIG IG IG IG 9.49.49.49.4----1.1.1.1. FOUR GREEN FAIENCE FOUR GREEN FAIENCE FOUR GREEN FAIENCE FOUR GREEN FAIENCE ššššwbtywbtywbtywbty STATUES BELONGING TOSTATUES BELONGING TOSTATUES BELONGING TOSTATUES BELONGING TO THE ADMIRAL OF THE THE ADMIRAL OF THE THE ADMIRAL OF THE THE ADMIRAL OF THE FLEETFLEETFLEETFLEET,,,, PA PA PA PA----NNNN----HABUHABUHABUHABU,,,, DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY 26262626 (664(664(664(664----525),525),525),525), METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART OF ART OF ART OF ART,,,, NY NY NY NY....

My majesty has commanded that these two pyramidMy majesty has commanded that these two pyramidMy majesty has commanded that these two pyramidMy majesty has commanded that these two pyramid----towns be exempt for him in towns be exempt for him in towns be exempt for him in towns be exempt for him in the course of eternity from doing any work of the Palace, from doing any forced the course of eternity from doing any work of the Palace, from doing any forced the course of eternity from doing any work of the Palace, from doing any forced the course of eternity from doing any work of the Palace, from doing any forced labor labor labor labor for any part of the Royal Residence in the course of eternity, or for doing any for any part of the Royal Residence in the course of eternity, or for doing any for any part of the Royal Residence in the course of eternity, or for doing any for any part of the Royal Residence in the course of eternity, or for doing any corvcorvcorvcorvééééeeee at the word of any at the word of any at the word of any at the word of anybody in the course of eternity.body in the course of eternity.body in the course of eternity.body in the course of eternity. 6666

As the corvée could take an individual away from home and livelihood,7777 wealthier individuals often "paid"

others to serve in their stead. Such an individual who would serve for another was originally called a

ššššwbtywbtywbtywbty. [shwabty].

Extension of this concept to the magical realm of the afterlife led to a small ššššwbtwbtwbtwbtyyyy statue,8888 complete with tiny tools being placed in the tombs of many individuals and even those of the

pharaohs. These figurines accompanied the mummy in order to perform any physical tasks required of the

deceased in the next world. They were often inscribed with a supplication similar to the following:

6 J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 99. 7 This could be for an extended period of time, especially when called for service in the army. 8 By the New Kingdom, c. 1500, the term šwbty was applied to these figures and during the Late Dynastic/Persian c. 500 they were called wšbty.


42

O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which has to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implhas to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implhas to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implhas to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implaaaanted by you nted by you nted by you nted by you therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion of maof maof maof making arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to king arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to king arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to king arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to west; 'Here am I,west; 'Here am I,west; 'Here am I,west; 'Here am I, 'you shall say.'you shall say.'you shall say.'you shall say. 9999

The oldest ššššbtybtybtybty-statuettes were made of wax and wood in the form of a mummy. Probably beginning in Dynasty 18 (1567-1320) of the New Kingdom, these figurines were covered by a glazed material.

Originally buried one to a tomb, the practice changed so that by the Late Dynastic/Persian (525-332),

some individuals were buried with as many as 365 ššššbtybtybtybty-figurines plus "overseer" statuettes to supervise this work force in the next world.10101010 9.9.9.9.5 DESCRIPTION OF SI5 DESCRIPTION OF SI5 DESCRIPTION OF SI5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDGNS ENCOUNTEREDGNS ENCOUNTEREDGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A6: A6: A6: A6: MANMANMANMAN RECEIVING RECEIVING RECEIVING RECEIVING PURIFICATIONPURIFICATIONPURIFICATIONPURIFICATION. . . . Logo. w'bw'bw'bw'b. "pure", "clean", was replaced by

D60 in ME. A53:A53:A53:A53: UPRIGHT MUMMYUPRIGHT MUMMYUPRIGHT MUMMYUPRIGHT MUMMY.... Det. in , wwwwìììì, "mummy". D60:D60:D60:D60: COMBINATION COMBINATION COMBINATION COMBINATION OFOFOFOF D58D58D58D58 WITH A VASE FROM WHWITH A VASE FROM WHWITH A VASE FROM WHWITH A VASE FROM WHICH WATER FLOWSICH WATER FLOWSICH WATER FLOWSICH WATER FLOWS.... Logo. ,

"pure", "clean", var. w'bw'bw'bw'b. Replaced the earlier OK Sign A6 in ME. M8:M8:M8:M8: šššš3333 [shä] POOLPOOLPOOLPOOL WITH WITH WITH WITH LOTUS LOTUS LOTUS LOTUS FLOWERSFLOWERSFLOWERSFLOWERS. . . . Logo. for "meadow", "lotus pool". When used

in Group Writing,11111111 or is used for šššš. (N33):(N33):(N33):(N33): , , , , GRAINS GRAINS GRAINS GRAINS OF SANDOF SANDOF SANDOF SAND,,,, PELLETS PELLETS PELLETS PELLETS,,,, OR THE LIKE OR THE LIKE OR THE LIKE OR THE LIKE. . . . Represents the plural, and is found in both vertical and horizontal representations. Often used as a det. for "metal". R8:R8:R8:R8: nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr [netch-er] CLOTH WOUND ON A POLCLOTH WOUND ON A POLCLOTH WOUND ON A POLCLOTH WOUND ON A POLEEEE,,,, emblem of divinity. S12:S12:S12:S12: nbwnbwnbwnbw [neb-ew] COLLAR OF BEADSCOLLAR OF BEADSCOLLAR OF BEADSCOLLAR OF BEADS.... Logo. in and nbwnbwnbwnbw, "gold". V4:V4:V4:V4: wwww3 [wä] LASSOLASSOLASSOLASSO.... Z2:Z2:Z2:Z2: STROKE STROKE STROKE STROKE Z1Z1Z1Z1, , , , , , , , REPEATED REPEATED REPEATED REPEATED THREE THREE THREE THREE TIMES TIMES TIMES TIMES HORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLYHORIZONTALLY.... Det. for "plurality". Z3:Z3:Z3:Z3: ,,,, STROKE STROKE STROKE STROKE Z1Z1Z1Z1,,,, , , , , REPEATED THREE TIMEREPEATED THREE TIMEREPEATED THREE TIMEREPEATED THREE TIMES VERTICALLY OR THRS VERTICALLY OR THRS VERTICALLY OR THRS VERTICALLY OR THREEEEEEEE HORIZONTAL LINESHORIZONTAL LINESHORIZONTAL LINESHORIZONTAL LINES STACKED VERTICALLYSTACKED VERTICALLYSTACKED VERTICALLYSTACKED VERTICALLY.... Det. for "plurality". Z4:Z4:Z4:Z4: yyyy TWO DIAGONAL STROKESTWO DIAGONAL STROKESTWO DIAGONAL STROKESTWO DIAGONAL STROKES.... Semi-phonetic det. for "duality".

9 R.O. Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, Spell 6, p.36. 10 The number indicates that the individual was taking no chances in having to perform physical labor on any given day after death. 11 Biphonic signs were sometimes used to express uniphonic signs. Such usage is called "Group Writing". For a further discussion, see §31.3.


43

9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


44

Chapter 10 DUAL NOUNSDUAL NOUNSDUAL NOUNSDUAL NOUNS

10.110.110.110.1 A DUAL NOUN OR DOUBLA DUAL NOUN OR DOUBLA DUAL NOUN OR DOUBLA DUAL NOUN OR DOUBLE LOGOGRAM IS THE SAE LOGOGRAM IS THE SAE LOGOGRAM IS THE SAE LOGOGRAM IS THE SAME SIGN DRAWN TWICE ME SIGN DRAWN TWICE ME SIGN DRAWN TWICE ME SIGN DRAWN TWICE AND REPRESENTS A AND REPRESENTS A AND REPRESENTS A AND REPRESENTS A

PAIR OF THINGS OR PEPAIR OF THINGS OR PEPAIR OF THINGS OR PEPAIR OF THINGS OR PERSONS.RSONS.RSONS.RSONS. Other representations include the masculine dual ending of

----wywywywy [wēēēē] and the feminine dual ending of ----tytytyty [tēēēē].

10.2 DUAL NOUNS10.2 DUAL NOUNS10.2 DUAL NOUNS10.2 DUAL NOUNS

SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL DUALDUALDUALDUAL house houses two houses

prprprpr prwprwprwprw prwyprwyprwyprwy [pair-ōō-ē]

foot ----- [two] feet rdrdrdrd rdwyrdwyrdwyrdwy [red-wē]

land lands the two lands, i.e. Egypt t3t3t3t3 t3wt3wt3wt3w t3t3t3t3wywywywy [tä-wē]

obelisk obelisks two obelisks ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn ttttḫḫḫḫnwnwnwnw [tekh-en-ōō] ttttḫḫḫḫnwynwynwynwy [tekh-en-ōō-ē]

, eye ----- the [two] eyes ììììrrrrt [ēr-et] ììììrtyrtyrtyrty [ēr-tē]

10.3 COMMENTARY10.3 COMMENTARY10.3 COMMENTARY10.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: Duals were expressed by the repetition of a logogram twice or the addition of the dual ending. Duals

for the body parts were used for the eyes, ears, lips, arms, limbs, and feet.

BBBB:::: Duals were represented as a pair of logograms, either side by side, as in , or placed vertically one

on top of the other, as in . Logograms which are vertical by nature would always be placed side by side, as

in .


45

CCCC:::: Contrast b3kb3kb3kb3k to b3ktb3ktb3ktb3kt (male and female servant) and snsnsnsn and sntsntsntsnt (brother and sister) in the singular, plural, and dual forms:

SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL DUAL DUAL DUAL DUAL

servant (male) servants two servants b3kb3kb3kb3k b3kwb3kwb3kwb3kw b3kwyb3kwyb3kwyb3kwy [bä-kōō-ē]

servant (female) servants two servants b3ktb3ktb3ktb3kt b3kwtb3kwtb3kwtb3kwt b3ktyb3ktyb3ktyb3kty [bäk-tē]

brother brothers two brothers snsnsnsn [sen] snwsnwsnwsnw [sen-ōō] snwysnwysnwysnwy [sen-ōō-ē]

sister sisters two sisters sntsntsntsnt [sen-et] snwtsnwtsnwtsnwt [sen-ōōt] sntysntysntysnty [sen-tē] In ssssnwnwnwnw the nnnn is a phonetic complement for the biphonic snsnsnsn and the nwnwnwnw is a biphonic complement connecting the nnnn and the wwww. Note that the insertion of the serves not only for phonetic

purposes but for aesthetic ones as well by neatly filling in the space in the center of the word.

10101010.4 THE CALENDAR.4 THE CALENDAR.4 THE CALENDAR.4 THE CALENDAR 1111

FFFFOR OR OR OR MOST OF THEIR HISTORMOST OF THEIR HISTORMOST OF THEIR HISTORMOST OF THEIR HISTORYYYY,,,, THE ANCIENT THE ANCIENT THE ANCIENT THE ANCIENT EEEEGYPTIANS EMPLOYEGYPTIANS EMPLOYEGYPTIANS EMPLOYEGYPTIANS EMPLOYED THREE CALENDARSD THREE CALENDARSD THREE CALENDARSD THREE CALENDARS:::: 1. The 1. The 1. The 1. The Lunar CalendarLunar CalendarLunar CalendarLunar Calendar 2. The Civil Calendar2. The Civil Calendar2. The Civil Calendar2. The Civil Calendar 3. The 3. The 3. The 3. The Lunar Civil CalendarLunar Civil CalendarLunar Civil CalendarLunar Civil Calendar

UUUUNLIKE OUR TRADITIONANLIKE OUR TRADITIONANLIKE OUR TRADITIONANLIKE OUR TRADITIONAL FOUR SEASONSL FOUR SEASONSL FOUR SEASONSL FOUR SEASONS,,,, THE THE THE THE EEEEGYPTIANS DIVIDED THEGYPTIANS DIVIDED THEGYPTIANS DIVIDED THEGYPTIANS DIVIDED THEIR IR IR IR 12121212 MONTH YEAR INTO THR MONTH YEAR INTO THR MONTH YEAR INTO THR MONTH YEAR INTO THREE PERIODSEE PERIODSEE PERIODSEE PERIODS::::

TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSEASON OF EASON OF EASON OF EASON OF IIIINUNDATIONNUNDATIONNUNDATIONNUNDATION when the land was flooded (mid-July — mid-November) 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt [ä-khet]

TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSEASON OF EASON OF EASON OF EASON OF PPPPLANTINGLANTINGLANTINGLANTING when the sowing was done (mid-November — mid-March) prtprtprtprt [per-et]

TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSEASON OF EASON OF EASON OF EASON OF HHHHARVESTARVESTARVESTARVEST when the crops were gathered (mid-March — mid-July) šmšmšmšm wwww [shä-mōō]

Normally each season was further divided into four months: 3bd3bd3bd3bd 1111 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt, month 1 of The Season of Inundation; 3bd 3bd 3bd 3bd 2222 3 3 3 3ḫḫḫḫtttt, month 2 of The Season of Inundation; etc.

The original LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR probably came into use in early Pre-dynastic times and in subsequent years its

invention was attributed to the god Thoth. In this calendar, the beginning of the year was measured from

1 This article based primarily on R.A. Parker's The Calendars of Ancient Egypt.


46

the first appearance of the star Sirius, also called "the Dog Star",2222 just above the horizon before sunrise

in mid-summer. An extra month was inserted into the calendar every 2-3 years within a 25 year cycle.3333

This was necessary to synchronize the calendar with the reappearance of Sirius at dawn to signal the end of

šmwšmwšmwšmw and the beginning of 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt. These years of 13 lunar months were called "GGGGreat reat reat reat YYYYearsearsearsears" and the

intercalary month was dedicated to the god Thoth. It should be noted that as the Nile began to rise in mid-

July, the original LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR was probably tied to this event, and only later became associated with the

Sothic rising occurring at or near the same time.

At some point, perhaps during Dynasty 1 (3100-2890), a more orderly calendar, the CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR was

instituted in order to regularize dates within the year. The CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENALENALENALENDARDARDARDAR was not dependent upon years

containing 12 or 13 months, but was based on a total of 365 days as determined from the 25 year cycle

mentioned earlier. This year was divided into three periods of four months each, each month containing 30

days. Before the new year began, a five day period was inserted after the 12th month of the old year (IVIVIVIV

šmwšmwšmwšmw), as a short intercalary month in order to bring the total number of days in the year to 365.

The CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR was probably introduced c. 3000 BCE and it became evident after several centuries had

elapsed that the CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR and the original LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR were no longer synchronized, as the first

lunar month and the first civil month no longer coincided.4444 Rather than change either calendar, as the

original LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR had deep roots in their culture and the 360 day calendar used by the bureaucrats

for the administration of the country was firmly established, the Egyptians neatly solved the problem by

instituting yet a third calendar, the LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCAAAALENDARLENDARLENDARLENDAR, probably c. 2500 BCE. This calendar was

represented by 59 deities, four for each lunar month5555 totaling 354 days plus 11 to round up the year to 365

days.

Thus, for the balance of their history, the ancient Egyptians measured time under three calendars: the

original LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR, the CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR, and the LLLLUNAR UNAR UNAR UNAR CCCCIVIL IVIL IVIL IVIL CCCCALENDARALENDARALENDARALENDAR. One further observation

regarding the Egyptian calendars. Scholars traditionally have assumed that the month began with the

crescent of the new moon at sunset. As the Egyptians began their day at dawn, they most likely would have

begun a new month at dawn on the first day of the new moon. As the moon continued to wane until its

crescent was no longer visible at sunrise, that event (the moon's disappearance), would govern the beginning

of the new month, rather than the next appearance of the moon's crescent in the evening.

2 The rising of Sirius at the same time as the sun is called its heliacal rising and occurs in mid-July. The Egyptians called the star spdt, which the Greeks translated as "Sothis". Sirius was not in view at any time for ≈70 days from the beginning of May until its reappearance in July. Its heliacal rising was called by the Egyptians wp rnpt, "Opener of the Year". 3 For the Egyptians 25 years contained 309 lunar months for a total of 9,125 days. Thus, the lunar lag between the Original Lunar Calendar and the solar year was only .04769 day every 25 years or 1 day per 500 years. 4 There was a discrepancy of 1 day every 4 years between the two calendars. 5 A lunar month varies from 29.26 to 29.80 days, depending on both the moon's distance from the earth and the earth's distance from the sun.


47

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 10.410.410.410.4----1.1.1.1. ASTRONOMICAL S ASTRONOMICAL S ASTRONOMICAL S ASTRONOMICAL SCCCCENES WITH ENES WITH ENES WITH ENES WITH 12121212 DISCS FOR DISCS FOR DISCS FOR DISCS FOR MONTHS MONTHS MONTHS MONTHS,,,, TOMB TOMB TOMB TOMB OF OF OF OF SSSSENENMUTENENMUTENENMUTENENMUT,,,, cccc.... H H H HATSHEPSUT ATSHEPSUT ATSHEPSUT ATSHEPSUT (18(18(18(18----5,5,5,5, 1503150315031503----1482).1482).1482).1482).

The present status of Egyptian Chronology is succinctly stated by William A. Ward:

"The current debate on "The current debate on "The current debate on "The current debate on Egyptian chronoEgyptian chronoEgyptian chronoEgyptian chronology is characterized by divergent logy is characterized by divergent logy is characterized by divergent logy is characterized by divergent opinions on the value of the Manethonian tradition, the lengths of reigns of opinions on the value of the Manethonian tradition, the lengths of reigns of opinions on the value of the Manethonian tradition, the lengths of reigns of opinions on the value of the Manethonian tradition, the lengths of reigns of individual Egyptian kings, the existence of coindividual Egyptian kings, the existence of coindividual Egyptian kings, the existence of coindividual Egyptian kings, the existence of co----regencies, and the astronomical regencies, and the astronomical regencies, and the astronomical regencies, and the astronomical evidence. In each of these categories, there is little concensusevidence. In each of these categories, there is little concensusevidence. In each of these categories, there is little concensusevidence. In each of these categories, there is little concensus [sic] and a wide [sic] and a wide [sic] and a wide [sic] and a wide range of possible solutions; a precise Egyptian chronology is therefore not range of possible solutions; a precise Egyptian chronology is therefore not range of possible solutions; a precise Egyptian chronology is therefore not range of possible solutions; a precise Egyptian chronology is therefore not possible. The present survey of this evidence and the theories derived possible. The present survey of this evidence and the theories derived possible. The present survey of this evidence and the theories derived possible. The present survey of this evidence and the theories derived therefrom emphasizes that modern scholarship wrongly assumes a therefrom emphasizes that modern scholarship wrongly assumes a therefrom emphasizes that modern scholarship wrongly assumes a therefrom emphasizes that modern scholarship wrongly assumes a precision the Egyptprecision the Egyptprecision the Egyptprecision the Egyptians could not achieve, that it is incorrect to speak of ians could not achieve, that it is incorrect to speak of ians could not achieve, that it is incorrect to speak of ians could not achieve, that it is incorrect to speak of astronomical observations made for other than purely local purposes, and that astronomical observations made for other than purely local purposes, and that astronomical observations made for other than purely local purposes, and that astronomical observations made for other than purely local purposes, and that feast days, including the New Year, began on different days at different feast days, including the New Year, began on different days at different feast days, including the New Year, began on different days at different feast days, including the New Year, began on different days at different latitudes along the Nile Valley." latitudes along the Nile Valley." latitudes along the Nile Valley." latitudes along the Nile Valley." 6666

6 William A. Ward, "The Present Status of Egyptian Chronology", BASOR 288, p. 53.


48

10101010.5 DESCR.5 DESCR.5 DESCR.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDUNTEREDUNTEREDUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

N11:N11:N11:N11: CRESCENT MOONCRESCENT MOONCRESCENT MOONCRESCENT MOON (also vertically). (also vertically). (also vertically). (also vertically). Logo. or det. in ì'ì'ì'ì'ḥḥḥḥ, "moon".

Combined with N14 in 3bd3bd3bd3bd, "month"; in dates abbr. as in 3bd 3bd 3bd 3bd 4444, "month 4". N12:N12:N12:N12: CRESCRESCRESCRESCENT MOONCENT MOONCENT MOONCENT MOON,,,, alternate form of N11 beginning in Dynasty 18.

N14:N14:N14:N14: sb3sb3sb3sb3 [sebä] STARSTARSTARSTAR. Logo. or det. in sb3sb3sb3sb3, "star". N23:N23:N23:N23: IRRIGATION CANALIRRIGATION CANALIRRIGATION CANALIRRIGATION CANAL. . . . Det. in "irrigated land". Earlier form of N36 . N36:N36:N36:N36: mrmrmrmr [mair] CHANNEL FILLED WITH CHANNEL FILLED WITH CHANNEL FILLED WITH CHANNEL FILLED WITH WATERWATERWATERWATER. . . . Later form as det. "irrigated land" N23 .

T22:T22:T22:T22: snsnsnsn [sen] TWOTWOTWOTWO----BARBED ARROW HEADBARBED ARROW HEADBARBED ARROW HEADBARBED ARROW HEAD. . . . Indicates "two".



49

Chapter 11

POSSEPOSSEPOSSEPOSSESSIVE SSIVE SSIVE SSIVE SSSSUFFIX UFFIX UFFIX UFFIX PPPPRONOUNS RONOUNS RONOUNS RONOUNS –––– SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM

11.1 A 11.1 A 11.1 A 11.1 A PRONOUN IS A WORD USPRONOUN IS A WORD USPRONOUN IS A WORD USPRONOUN IS A WORD USED IN PLACE OF ONE OED IN PLACE OF ONE OED IN PLACE OF ONE OED IN PLACE OF ONE OR MORER MORER MORER MORE NOUNS. A NOUNS. A NOUNS. A NOUNS. A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN POSSESSIVE PRONOUN POSSESSIVE PRONOUN POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

USUALLY USUALLY USUALLY USUALLY INDICATE POSSESSION INDICATE POSSESSION INDICATE POSSESSION INDICATE POSSESSION OR OWNERSHIP OR OWNERSHIP OR OWNERSHIP OR OWNERSHIP ("("("("mymymymy book", " book", " book", " book", "minemineminemine";";";"; " " " "theirtheirtheirtheir horse", " horse", " horse", " horse", "theirstheirstheirstheirs"""")))). . . . In English, In English, In English, In English,

the Possessive Pronouns are "the Possessive Pronouns are "the Possessive Pronouns are "the Possessive Pronouns are "minemineminemine", "", "", "", "youryouryouryourssss", "", "", "", "hishishishis", "", "", "", "herherherherssss", "", "", "", "itsitsitsits", "", "", "", "oursoursoursours", "", "", "", "theirstheirstheirstheirs"""".1111 THTHTHTHE E E E EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN

POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE IS INDICATED IS INDICATED IS INDICATED IS INDICATED BY THE USE OF A PRBY THE USE OF A PRBY THE USE OF A PRBY THE USE OF A PRONOUN ATTACHED TO THONOUN ATTACHED TO THONOUN ATTACHED TO THONOUN ATTACHED TO THE END OF AE END OF AE END OF AE END OF A WORD WORD WORD WORD....2222 The

Egyptian pronouns are divided between singular and plural, as well as masculine and feminine. The

Egyptian singular possessive forms are: "my", "your", "his", "her", and "its".

11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 POSSESSIVEPOSSESSIVEPOSSESSIVEPOSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS –––– SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM SINGULAR FORM

A. THE SINGULARA. THE SINGULARA. THE SINGULARA. THE SINGULAR MMMMASCULINEASCULINEASCULINEASCULINE PPPPERSONERSONERSONERSON FFFFEMININEEMININEEMININEEMININE

, my 1st , my (later , see '11.3) ⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [ē] ⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [ē] , your 2nd , your

⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk [eck] ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ [etch]

, his, its 3rd , her, its

⋅ffff [eff] ⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss [ess]

B. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULAR AR AR AR FOR SFOR SFOR SFOR SINGULAR INGULAR INGULAR INGULAR NNNNOUNSOUNSOUNSOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE , my house 1st , my house prprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅ì ì ì ì [pair-ē] prprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [pâr-ē]3333 , your thing 2nd ,,,, your thing ḫḫḫḫtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk [khet-eck] ḫḫḫḫtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ [khet-etch] , his mother 3rd , , , , her father mmmm wtwtwtwt⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff [mōōt-ef] ìtìtìtìt⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss [ēt-ess]

1 Many English grammarians refer to "my", "your", "his", "her", "its", "our", and "their" as Possessive Adjectives because, like adjectives, they modify a noun. 2 In transliteration it is separated from the noun by ⋅ (some authors use =). 3 Henceforth, the "air" sound will no longer be expressed as "-air-" but rather as â(r), the phonetic spelling found in most dictionaries.


50

C. USE OF THE SINGULC. USE OF THE SINGULC. USE OF THE SINGULC. USE OF THE SINGULAR FOR PAR FOR PAR FOR PAR FOR PLURAL LURAL LURAL LURAL NNNNOUNSOUNSOUNSOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE , my trees 1st , , , , my sycamore trees ḫḫḫḫt(w)t(w)t(w)t(w)⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [khet-ōō-ē] nh(w)tnh(w)tnh(w)tnh(w)t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [neh-ōōt-ē] , your children 2nd , , , , your ships ẖẖẖẖrd(w)rd(w)rd(w)rd(w)⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk [hâr-dōō-eck] dp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)t⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ [dep-ōōt-etch] , his/its walls 3rd , , , , her/its armies ìnb(w)ìnb(w)ìnb(w)ìnb(w)⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff [ē-neb-ōō-eff] mš'(w)mš'(w)mš'(w)mš'(w)⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss [meh-shä-ōō-ess] 11.3 COMMENTARY11.3 COMMENTARY11.3 COMMENTARY11.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: In transliteration, the possessive pronoun is attached to the end of a noun and preceded by a dot ⋅ .4444

Note that the possessive pronoun expresses the owner's gender and is not affected by the gender of the

noun it modifies. In the 1st person singular, , the seated man is used for both genders.

BBBB:::: , the seated woman does not occur for the feminine 1st person possessive pronoun before Dynasty 19

(1320-1200). In dating an archaeological site or ancient text, such usage, e.g. the employment of as a

possessive, is identified as a terminus ante quem, i.e., a date before which a particular building, burial,

object, text, wall, etc. could not or did not exist. Similarly, a terminus post quem, would be a date after

which a particular building, burial, object, text, wall, etc. could not have been completed. Thus, if a text is

found in which is used for the feminine 1st person possessive, the text is probably no earlier than c. 1300

BCE (onset of the 19th Dynasty) and the context in which such a text was found, e.g. inscribed on a burial

container, could help to establish a terminus ante quem for the burial. Similarly, if the burial chamber was

built over a floor of a previously existing building, then a terminus post quem might possibly be established

for that floor and, therefore, that building.

CCCC:::: Notice the difference in the writing of the plural for "ships": , dpwtdpwtdpwtdpwt, and , dp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)t, the latter form being the norm. Although one might expect , ----wtwtwtwt, or , ----wwww, it is almost never present in

feminine plurals, except for calligraphic reasons. Feminine plurals are normally written showing only the

ending , ----tttt with the addition of plural strokes to the determinative. In such cases where the ----wwww is

omitted but should be part of the word, the transliteration is written with the wwww in brackets (w)(w)(w)(w) to indicate its omission.

DDDD:::: , ìtìtìtìt, "father", contains the I9 sign , apparently as a determinative, as it is not expressed

phonetically. It is also one of the few masculine words ending in ----tttt. This word has a common variant, ,

(ì)t(ì)t(ì)t(ì)t and in both versions the final is frequently omitted.

4 Some authors used =.


51

EEEE:::: Another masculine word ending in tttt is , ḫḫḫḫtttt, "wood", "tree". The one other exception to the rule that words ending in tttt are feminine are foreign countries, which are grammatically feminine while masculine in orthography.

11.4 THE FOUR11.4 THE FOUR11.4 THE FOUR11.4 THE FOURTH TH TH TH DDDDYNASTYYNASTYYNASTYYNASTY

RULERS OF THE RULERS OF THE RULERS OF THE RULERS OF THE 4444TH TH TH TH DDDDYNASTY YNASTY YNASTY YNASTY (2613(2613(2613(2613----2498249824982498 BCE)BCE)BCE)BCE)

RuleRuleRuleRulerrrr Reign LengthReign LengthReign LengthReign Length ReignReignReignReign Greek NameGreek NameGreek NameGreek Name 4444----1111 Snoferu Snoferu Snoferu Snoferu 24 years24 years24 years24 years 2613261326132613----2589258925892589 4444----2222 KhufuKhufuKhufuKhufu 23 23 23 23 2589258925892589----2566 Cheops2566 Cheops2566 Cheops2566 Cheops 4444----3333 RedjedefRedjedefRedjedefRedjedef 8 8 8 8 2566256625662566----2558 Djedefre2558 Djedefre2558 Djedefre2558 Djedefre 4444----4444 KhaefreKhaefreKhaefreKhaefre 25 (?)25 (?)25 (?)25 (?) 2558255825582558----2533 Chephren2533 Chephren2533 Chephren2533 Chephren 4444----5555 Baufre (?)Baufre (?)Baufre (?)Baufre (?) 4444----6666 MenkaureMenkaureMenkaureMenkaure 28 (?)28 (?)28 (?)28 (?) ----2504 Mycerinus2504 Mycerinus2504 Mycerinus2504 Mycerinus 4444----7777 ShepseskafShepseskafShepseskafShepseskaf 4 4 4 4 2504250425042504----2500250025002500 4444----8888 Dedefptah (?)Dedefptah (?)Dedefptah (?)Dedefptah (?) 2222 2500250025002500----2498249824982498 Our knowledge of this group of kings is not derived from written documents,

as no mummies or papyri have yet been found which date from the 4th

Dynasty. Rather it is from their monuments (most notably the pyramids at

Dahshur and on the plateau at Giza), the wall scenes in the many mastaba

tombs, the Palermo stone,5555 and references in works, primarily literary, of

succeeding dynasties.

Some scholars believe that Snoferu probably continued the development of the pyramid design of Dynasty

3, probably completing at Maidum6666 the pyramid of his predecessor, Huni (3-5, 2636-2612), the last king of

the 3rd Dynasty. He selected Dahshur, about 6.5 km (4 miles) south of Sakkara, to erect two additional

stone pyramids, each over 94 m. (310 ft.) high, the largest constructed as of that time. Only a little over 3

km. (about 2 miles) separated the RRRRED ED ED ED PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID (or NNNNORTHERN ORTHERN ORTHERN ORTHERN SSSSTONE TONE TONE TONE PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID) from its southern neighbor,

the BBBBENT ENT ENT ENT PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID, so called because of the change in incline of its sides. It is thought that the Bent

Pyramid was probably the later construction, due to the angle of incline (54E) of its lower elements, while its

upper courses were only 43E, indicating that perhaps the constructors wished to complete the pyramid more

quickly, less stone being required with the change to a shallower angle.7777 The interior design of the Bent

Pyramid also indicates a further development over prior constructions. The personnel who served the

funerary cult for the dead king at these two pyramids were exempted from certain required services to the

pharaoh as indicated in a decree written on a stela dating to the reign of the Dynasty 6 monarch, Pepi I (6-

3, fl. 2300).

5 See §4.4.1. 6 Maidum is 55 km. (34 miles) south of Sakkara [sä-kä-rä]. 7 It should be noted, however, that some scholars believe that the Bent Pyramid is of an earlier construction than the Red Pyramid.

MMMMAP AP AP AP 11.411.411.411.4----1.1.1.1. DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY 4444 PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID L L L LOCATIONSOCATIONSOCATIONSOCATIONS....


52

From the PPPPALERMO STONEALERMO STONEALERMO STONEALERMO STONE we learn that during Snoferu's reign, campaigns were conducted in Nubia and

Libya, while south of Elephantine (modern Aswan) some 280 km. (175 miles), a frontier settlement at Buhen

was established. Also in his reign, the arrival of ships carrying timber was recorded, indicating sea trade,

possibly with Byblos on the Phoenician coast of Asia Minor.

Excavations and inscriptions from the mastaba tomb of one of Snoferu's sons, Kanefer, appear to indicate

that Snoferu's reign was not only a time of centralization of government to a degree not seen before, but it

was also a time of consolidation of power within his immediate family. A further evidence of this is the fact

that he not only might have completed the construction of the pyramid of Huni, but also could have erected

two larger pyramids of his own. These acts, particularly the massive construction programs, could hardly

have been carried to completion without a high degree of command and control over the country, effectively

administered by a central bureaucracy.

Snoferu's son, Khufu, constructed the largest stone building in the world on the plateau at Giza on the west

bank of the Nile near modern Cairo. Together with the other pyramids of Khaefre and Menkaure, it

constituted one of the SSSSEVEN EVEN EVEN EVEN WWWWONDERS OF THEONDERS OF THEONDERS OF THEONDERS OF THE AAAANCIENT NCIENT NCIENT NCIENT WWWWORLDORLDORLDORLD.8888 This pyramid, called either "TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGREAT REAT REAT REAT

PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID" or "TTTTHE HE HE HE PPPPYRAMID OF YRAMID OF YRAMID OF YRAMID OF CCCCHEOPSHEOPSHEOPSHEOPS", was constructed from some 2,300,000 limestone blocks with an

average weight of 2.5 tons each, with some weighing as much as 15 tons. With its capstone intact, it

originally stood about 147 m. (482 ft.) high on a base 230 m. (755 ft.) square.9999 Pits parallel to the sides of

the pyramid contained ships, one of which has been reassembled and is on display above the pit in which it

was stored.10101010

Khufu's successor, Redjedef, started to build a pyramid some 8 km. (5 miles) north of Giza on the plateau at

Abu Rawash. It probably was never completed and has been extensively vandalized. Although little of it

remains today, it appears that it was similar to 3rd Dynasty construction in design.

In its original state, Khaefre's pyramid was 256 m. (704 ft.) on each side and 144 m. (472 ft.) high. Although

slightly smaller in size than Khufu's pyramid, it is situated on slightly higher ground, giving the impression

that it is at least as large. It was standard procedure to encase the pyramids with a very fine limestone

from the Tura quarries, located across the Nile Valley from the Giza plateau. Khaefre's pyramid still

retains its capstone and some of this fine Tura limestone casing. TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSPHINXPHINXPHINXPHINX is thought to represent the

head of Khaefre on a lion's body. It was constructed from a natural outcropping of sedimentary rock and

has been the subject of several restoration attempts in recent years.

8 In chronological order of their completion, the Seven Wonders were: 1) Pyramids of Egypt at Giza, 2) Hanging Gardens of Babylon constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar, 3) Statue of Zeus at Olympia in Greece, 4) Temple of Diana at Ephesus, 5) Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Caria, Asia Minor, 6) Colossus of Rhodes, and 7) Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria in Egypt. 9 The Egyptian unit of measure was the royal cubit, a distance from the king's elbow to the tip of his middle finger. While the length of the cubit varied for different dynasties and different localities, for Khufu's pyramid the dimensions given in cubits is 280 high and 440 per side at ground level. 10 See §35.4 and Illustration 35.4-2.


53

Shepseskaf, the 7th ruler of the 4th Dynasty, did not attempt a tomb on the scale of his predecessors.

Instead he constructed a large stone mastaba at Sakkara, whose appearance reminds one of a large stone

sarcophagus. Perhaps his tomb was more a result of his short reign rather than a diminishment of the

state's resources in manpower and crops. In any case, this period of large pyramid construction ended

with Menkaure and was not to be seen in Egypt ever again. Smaller pyramids and SSSSUN UN UN UN TTTTEMPLESEMPLESEMPLESEMPLES were

constructed by the ensuing dynasties in a southward line from Sakkara along the edge of the Western

Desert.

The corridors and burial chambers of the 4th Dynasty pyramids were plain and devoid of writing. Such

developments did not appear until the pyramid of Unas, the last king of the 5th Dynasty. However, the

mastabas of the king's relatives, retinue, and high officials were decorated with scenes depicting daily living

and religious practices. From these representations come almost all we know of how the Egyptians of the

Old Kingdom lived, ate, played, hunted, farmed, traveled, and dressed.

The 4th Dynasty was a time of relative peace and security for Egypt. The king, who became a divinity,

appears to have further removed himself from the day to day operations of the government by the

appointment of a vizier, or chief official, to administer the land on his behalf. As in life, so too in death, his

family members and retainers continued their fealty by being buried in mastabas or much smaller pyramids

at the foot of his overpowering pyramid. As the king associated himself more and more with the sun god,

Re, the state religion began to shift its emphasis, giving way to the substantial changes found during the 5th

Dynasty.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 11.411.411.411.4----1.1.1.1. TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGIIIIZA PLATEAU NECROPOLIZA PLATEAU NECROPOLIZA PLATEAU NECROPOLIZA PLATEAU NECROPOLISSSS::::THE STHE STHE STHE SPHINX IN THE FOREGROPHINX IN THE FOREGROPHINX IN THE FOREGROPHINX IN THE FOREGROUND WITHUND WITHUND WITHUND WITH KHAEFR KHAEFR KHAEFR KHAEFREEEE''''S PYRAMID AT REARS PYRAMID AT REARS PYRAMID AT REARS PYRAMID AT REAR,,,, 1984198419841984....


54

11.5 DESCRIPTION OF11.5 DESCRIPTION OF11.5 DESCRIPTION OF11.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

A17:A17:A17:A17: ẖẖẖẖrdrdrdrd [hered], CHILD SITTING CHILD SITTING CHILD SITTING CHILD SITTING ((((ONONONON LAP LAP LAP LAP)))) WITH HAND TO MO WITH HAND TO MO WITH HAND TO MO WITH HAND TO MOUTHUTHUTHUTH.... Det. "young", "child", "orphan". msmsmsms [mes]

G14:G14:G14:G14: nrnrnrnr [nâr], VULTUREVULTUREVULTUREVULTURE.... mtmtmtmt [met] MMMM1:1:1:1: ì3mì3mì3mì3m [ēäm], TREETREETREETREE.... Phon. and det. in var. , ì3mì3mì3mì3m, an unknown kind of ìm ìm ìm ìm [ēm] tree. M3:M3:M3:M3: ḫḫḫḫtttt [khet] BBBBRRRRANCHANCHANCHANCH.... Logo. "wood", "tree". Det. "wood", "ebony", "wooden objects", "palanquin", "column". 11.6 EXERCISES11.6 EXERCISES11.6 EXERCISES11.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


55

Chapter 12

POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRPOSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRPOSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRPOSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS ONOUNS ONOUNS ONOUNS –––– PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 JUST LIKE THE SINGULJUST LIKE THE SINGULJUST LIKE THE SINGULJUST LIKE THE SINGULAR POSSESSIVE SUFFIXAR POSSESSIVE SUFFIXAR POSSESSIVE SUFFIXAR POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS, PRONOUNS, PRONOUNS, PRONOUNS, THE THE THE THE PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE SUFFIX SUFFIX SUFFIX SUFFIX PRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNS ARE ATTACHED TO ARE ATTACHED TO ARE ATTACHED TO ARE ATTACHED TO THE END OF THE EGYPTTHE END OF THE EGYPTTHE END OF THE EGYPTTHE END OF THE EGYPTIAN IAN IAN IAN WORDWORDWORDWORD.... Plural possessive forms are: "our", "your", and "their". 12.2 POSSESSIVE 12.2 POSSESSIVE 12.2 POSSESSIVE 12.2 POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS SUFFIX PRONOUNS –––– PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM PLURAL FORM A. THE PLURALA. THE PLURALA. THE PLURALA. THE PLURAL MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE , our 1st ,,,, our ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn [en] ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn , youryouryouryour 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd , your, your, your, your ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [tchen] ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn , their 3rd ,,,, their ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn [sen] ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn B. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURAL FOR SINGULAR NOUNS FOR SINGULAR NOUNS FOR SINGULAR NOUNS FOR SINGULAR NOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE , our city 1st ,,,, our land nnnnìììì wtwtwtwt ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn [nē-ōōt-en] t3t3t3t3 ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn [tä-en] , your motheryour motheryour motheryour mother 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd , your father, your father, your father, your father

mmmm wtwtwtwt ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [mōōt-tchen] ììììtttt ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [ēt-tchen] , their road 3rd ,,,, their house mmmmṯṯṯṯnnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn [metch-en-sen] prprprpr ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn C. USE OF THE PLC. USE OF THE PLC. USE OF THE PLC. USE OF THE PLURAL FOR PLURAL NOUNURAL FOR PLURAL NOUNURAL FOR PLURAL NOUNURAL FOR PLURAL NOUNSSSS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

, our ships 1st ,,,, our farmed lands ḥḥḥḥ' w' w' w' w wwww ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ḫḫḫḫbswbswbswbsw ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn [kheb-sōō-en]

, your weapons 2nd2nd2nd2nd , , , , your countries ḫḫḫḫ' w' w' w' w ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [khä-ōō-tchen] ḫḫḫḫ3s(w)3s(w)3s(w)3s(w) ⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [khä-sōōt-tchen]

, their clothes 3rd ,,,, their walls ḥḥḥḥbs(w) bs(w) bs(w) bs(w) ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn [heb-sōō-sen] ììììnb(w) nb(w) nb(w) nb(w) ⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn


56

12.3 COMMENTARY12.3 COMMENTARY12.3 COMMENTARY12.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: Note that the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural possessives ("our", "your", "their") are identical for both

genders.

BBBB:::: Note that these words refer to different types of land: , ḫḫḫḫ3st3st3st3st, to the "hill country", i.e. "a foreign country"; , t3t3t3t3, to the "flat country" and is generic for "land"; and , ḫḫḫḫbswbswbswbsw, to "cultivated

land" or "ploughlands".

CCCC:::: , Sign Z7, found its way into the sign list from the hieratic form for the quail chick, G43, . was not

used until c. 2150 (Dynasty 9) and by the reign of Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362) it was used quite commonly

by scribes.

12.4 THE 12.4 THE 12.4 THE 12.4 THE LEGEND OF THE GOD LEGEND OF THE GOD LEGEND OF THE GOD LEGEND OF THE GOD OSIRIS ACCORDING TO OSIRIS ACCORDING TO OSIRIS ACCORDING TO OSIRIS ACCORDING TO PLUTARCHPLUTARCHPLUTARCHPLUTARCH 1111

It is possible that a king by the name of OOOOSIRISSIRISSIRISSIRIS ruled over Egypt in pre-dynastic times, although there is

no record of such a ruler. There are many versions of the Osiris legend, one of which was preserved by

Plutarch, a Greek biographer fl. 100 CE. It probably represented a late and somewhat corrupt version

of the ancient Egyptian original. It ran as follows: Osiris was born near Memphis in Upper Egypt and at his birth was acclaimed by a mysterious Osiris was born near Memphis in Upper Egypt and at his birth was acclaimed by a mysterious Osiris was born near Memphis in Upper Egypt and at his birth was acclaimed by a mysterious Osiris was born near Memphis in Upper Egypt and at his birth was acclaimed by a mysterious voice as "Universal Lord". When his father, voice as "Universal Lord". When his father, voice as "Universal Lord". When his father, voice as "Universal Lord". When his father, GGGGEBEBEBEB, , , , went to the Underworld, Osiris succeeded went to the Underworld, Osiris succeeded went to the Underworld, Osiris succeeded went to the Underworld, Osiris succeeded him as king of Egypt. He took his sister, him as king of Egypt. He took his sister, him as king of Egypt. He took his sister, him as king of Egypt. He took his sister, IIIISISSISSISSIS, as his wife and queen., as his wife and queen., as his wife and queen., as his wife and queen. His first royal acts were tHis first royal acts were tHis first royal acts were tHis first royal acts were to:o:o:o: abolish abolish abolish abolish cannibalism, cannibalism, cannibalism, cannibalism, teach his subjects to make agricultural teach his subjects to make agricultural teach his subjects to make agricultural teach his subjects to make agricultural instruments, grow grain for bread and beer, and groinstruments, grow grain for bread and beer, and groinstruments, grow grain for bread and beer, and groinstruments, grow grain for bread and beer, and grow grapes to make wine. As the cult of the w grapes to make wine. As the cult of the w grapes to make wine. As the cult of the w grapes to make wine. As the cult of the gods did not yet exist, he instituted their worship in the first temples in which he placed their gods did not yet exist, he instituted their worship in the first temples in which he placed their gods did not yet exist, he instituted their worship in the first temples in which he placed their gods did not yet exist, he instituted their worship in the first temples in which he placed their statues and images. He was responsible for the invention of two kinds of flutes to be used in statues and images. He was responsible for the invention of two kinds of flutes to be used in statues and images. He was responsible for the invention of two kinds of flutes to be used in statues and images. He was responsible for the invention of two kinds of flutes to be used in the religious songs the religious songs the religious songs the religious songs to be sung to the gods.to be sung to the gods.to be sung to the gods.to be sung to the gods. He built many cities in Egypt and provided a code of laws by which all Egyptians might live. He built many cities in Egypt and provided a code of laws by which all Egyptians might live. He built many cities in Egypt and provided a code of laws by which all Egyptians might live. He built many cities in Egypt and provided a code of laws by which all Egyptians might live. Having brought civilization to Egypt, he left Egypt in the hands of Isis and set forth on the Having brought civilization to Egypt, he left Egypt in the hands of Isis and set forth on the Having brought civilization to Egypt, he left Egypt in the hands of Isis and set forth on the Having brought civilization to Egypt, he left Egypt in the hands of Isis and set forth on the conquest of Asia, accompanied by Thoth,conquest of Asia, accompanied by Thoth,conquest of Asia, accompanied by Thoth,conquest of Asia, accompanied by Thoth,2222 Anu Anu Anu Anubis,bis,bis,bis,3333 and Wepwawet ( and Wepwawet ( and Wepwawet ( and Wepwawet (wpwpwpwp----w3wtw3wtw3wtw3wt).).).).4444 After After After After travelingtravelingtravelingtraveling throughout the whole earth bringing peace and civilization to all lands, Osiris throughout the whole earth bringing peace and civilization to all lands, Osiris throughout the whole earth bringing peace and civilization to all lands, Osiris throughout the whole earth bringing peace and civilization to all lands, Osiris returned to Egypt. He found his kingdom had flourished because Isis had governed well in returned to Egypt. He found his kingdom had flourished because Isis had governed well in returned to Egypt. He found his kingdom had flourished because Isis had governed well in returned to Egypt. He found his kingdom had flourished because Isis had governed well in his absence.his absence.his absence.his absence. In the 28In the 28In the 28In the 28thththth year of his year of his year of his year of his reign, his brother reign, his brother reign, his brother reign, his brother SSSSETHETHETHETH attended a grand banquet at Memphis attended a grand banquet at Memphis attended a grand banquet at Memphis attended a grand banquet at Memphis celebrating Osiris's return to Egypt. At the banquetcelebrating Osiris's return to Egypt. At the banquetcelebrating Osiris's return to Egypt. At the banquetcelebrating Osiris's return to Egypt. At the banquet,,,, Seth presented his brother with a Seth presented his brother with a Seth presented his brother with a Seth presented his brother with a beautifully made chest and told the assembly that whomever the chest fitted exactly might beautifully made chest and told the assembly that whomever the chest fitted exactly might beautifully made chest and told the assembly that whomever the chest fitted exactly might beautifully made chest and told the assembly that whomever the chest fitted exactly might have it. Osiris have it. Osiris have it. Osiris have it. Osiris lay down in the box and it fit him perfectly. At that lay down in the box and it fit him perfectly. At that lay down in the box and it fit him perfectly. At that lay down in the box and it fit him perfectly. At that juncture, Seth, with the aid juncture, Seth, with the aid juncture, Seth, with the aid juncture, Seth, with the aid of 72 accomplices, closed and nailed down the lid. They threw it into the Nile and the chest of 72 accomplices, closed and nailed down the lid. They threw it into the Nile and the chest of 72 accomplices, closed and nailed down the lid. They threw it into the Nile and the chest of 72 accomplices, closed and nailed down the lid. They threw it into the Nile and the chest was carried to the Mediterranean. It floated all the way to Byblos on the Phowas carried to the Mediterranean. It floated all the way to Byblos on the Phowas carried to the Mediterranean. It floated all the way to Byblos on the Phowas carried to the Mediterranean. It floated all the way to Byblos on the Phoenician coast, enician coast, enician coast, enician coast, coming to rest at the foot of a tamarisk tree. The tree miraculously grew rapidly, completely coming to rest at the foot of a tamarisk tree. The tree miraculously grew rapidly, completely coming to rest at the foot of a tamarisk tree. The tree miraculously grew rapidly, completely coming to rest at the foot of a tamarisk tree. The tree miraculously grew rapidly, completely surrounding the chest.surrounding the chest.surrounding the chest.surrounding the chest.

1 Plutarch, a Greek who lived in the 1st Century CE, was an essayist and biographer who traveled extensively through Greece, Italy, and Egypt. 2 The moon god, also the god of scribes and knowledge. 3 The canine god of the cemetery and embalming. 4 The jackal god of Upper Egypt whose name means "Opener of Ways". His adze was used to ceremonially open the king's mouth at the time of burial to permit his continued life in the Underworld. A yearly ritual called "The Procession of Wepwawet" is described on the stela of Ikhernofret, fl. 1865 BCE, wherein enemies seeking to attack the deity sailing in his "neshmet bark" were driven off.


57

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 12.4.1.12.4.1.12.4.1.12.4.1. BRONZE STATUETTE O BRONZE STATUETTE O BRONZE STATUETTE O BRONZE STATUETTE OF TRIAD OF DEITIESF TRIAD OF DEITIESF TRIAD OF DEITIESF TRIAD OF DEITIES:::: I I I ISISSISSISSIS,,,, OSIRISOSIRISOSIRISOSIRIS,,,, AND AND AND AND HORUSHORUSHORUSHORUS----THETHETHETHE----CHILD CHILD CHILD CHILD ((((NNNNOTE OTE OTE OTE THE CHILDTHE CHILDTHE CHILDTHE CHILD’’’’S HAIRLOCKS HAIRLOCKS HAIRLOCKS HAIRLOCK),),),), FROM FROM FROM FROM THE THE THE THE PTOLEMAIC PE PTOLEMAIC PE PTOLEMAIC PE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD RIOD RIOD RIOD (304(304(304(304----30),30),30),30), M M M METROPOLIETROPOLIETROPOLIETROPOLITAN TAN TAN TAN MUSEUM OFMUSEUM OFMUSEUM OFMUSEUM OF A A A ARTRTRTRT....

The king of Byblos was building a new palace and ordered the tree cut down to support his The king of Byblos was building a new palace and ordered the tree cut down to support his The king of Byblos was building a new palace and ordered the tree cut down to support his The king of Byblos was building a new palace and ordered the tree cut down to support his roof. As this was being done, troof. As this was being done, troof. As this was being done, troof. As this was being done, the tree gave off such an exquisite odor that when news of this he tree gave off such an exquisite odor that when news of this he tree gave off such an exquisite odor that when news of this he tree gave off such an exquisite odor that when news of this reached Isis she immediately understood its significance. She reached Isis she immediately understood its significance. She reached Isis she immediately understood its significance. She reached Isis she immediately understood its significance. She traveledtraveledtraveledtraveled to Byblos and was to Byblos and was to Byblos and was to Byblos and was able to reclaim the tree. She was able to draw the chest from the treeable to reclaim the tree. She was able to draw the chest from the treeable to reclaim the tree. She was able to draw the chest from the treeable to reclaim the tree. She was able to draw the chest from the tree and then and then and then and then hurried back hurried back hurried back hurried back to Egyptto Egyptto Egyptto Egypt where shewhere shewhere shewhere she hid it from Seth in a swamp. By chance Seth was able to locate the chest hid it from Seth in a swamp. By chance Seth was able to locate the chest hid it from Seth in a swamp. By chance Seth was able to locate the chest hid it from Seth in a swamp. By chance Seth was able to locate the chest and chopped the body of Osiris into 14 piecesand chopped the body of Osiris into 14 piecesand chopped the body of Osiris into 14 piecesand chopped the body of Osiris into 14 pieces,,,, which he scattered far and wide across Egypt. which he scattered far and wide across Egypt. which he scattered far and wide across Egypt. which he scattered far and wide across Egypt. Isis, in a series of adventures, recovered all but one of the pieces, namely tIsis, in a series of adventures, recovered all but one of the pieces, namely tIsis, in a series of adventures, recovered all but one of the pieces, namely tIsis, in a series of adventures, recovered all but one of the pieces, namely the phallus of he phallus of he phallus of he phallus of Osiris. She reassembled the body and then embalmed her husband and through the rites Osiris. She reassembled the body and then embalmed her husband and through the rites Osiris. She reassembled the body and then embalmed her husband and through the rites Osiris. She reassembled the body and then embalmed her husband and through the rites there performed for the first time, she restored her husband to eternal life. Moreover, through there performed for the first time, she restored her husband to eternal life. Moreover, through there performed for the first time, she restored her husband to eternal life. Moreover, through there performed for the first time, she restored her husband to eternal life. Moreover, through her womanly charms she was able to conceive a posthumous soher womanly charms she was able to conceive a posthumous soher womanly charms she was able to conceive a posthumous soher womanly charms she was able to conceive a posthumous son, n, n, n, HHHHORUSORUSORUSORUS, from his corpse., from his corpse., from his corpse., from his corpse.5555 She and Horus continued to hide from Seth, until Horus was of sufficient age and strength to She and Horus continued to hide from Seth, until Horus was of sufficient age and strength to She and Horus continued to hide from Seth, until Horus was of sufficient age and strength to She and Horus continued to hide from Seth, until Horus was of sufficient age and strength to engage in combat with Seth in order to regain the throne of his father.engage in combat with Seth in order to regain the throne of his father.engage in combat with Seth in order to regain the throne of his father.engage in combat with Seth in order to regain the throne of his father.

5 See §26.4.


58

Some scholars believe that the Osiris legend is based on some actual facts from the dim past of pre-

dynastic history. Perhaps there were two brothers who contended for the throne of Upper Egypt, and

after one killed the other through some subterfuge, ruled the country until his nephew in turn

dispatched him.

The Greek's called Horus-the-Child "Harpokrates" because that is how the Egyptian (ẖẖẖẖrrrr----p3p3p3p3----ẖẖẖẖrdrdrdrd)

sounded to them. 12.5 DESCRIPTION OF12.5 DESCRIPTION OF12.5 DESCRIPTION OF12.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

G41:G41:G41:G41: ḫḫḫḫnnnn [khen] PINTAIL DUCK ALIGHTIPINTAIL DUCK ALIGHTIPINTAIL DUCK ALIGHTIPINTAIL DUCK ALIGHTINGNGNGNG.... Det. in "road", "speech", "sentence". ṯṯṯṯnnnn [tchen]

K1:K1:K1:K1: ìnìnìnìn [ēn] FISHFISHFISHFISH.... Det. in ììììntntntnt, "fish". Phon. in ìnbìnbìnbìnb, , "wall", and ìntìntìntìnt, , "valley". N25:N25:N25:N25: SANDY HILLSANDY HILLSANDY HILLSANDY HILL----COUNTRY OVER EDGE OFCOUNTRY OVER EDGE OFCOUNTRY OVER EDGE OFCOUNTRY OVER EDGE OF GREEN C GREEN C GREEN C GREEN CULTIVATIONULTIVATIONULTIVATIONULTIVATION.... Logo. or det. in "hill country", "foreign land", "desert", "necropolis". N28:N28:N28:N28: ḫḫḫḫ3333 [khä] HILL OVER WHICH ARE HILL OVER WHICH ARE HILL OVER WHICH ARE HILL OVER WHICH ARE THE RAYS OF THE RTHE RAYS OF THE RTHE RAYS OF THE RTHE RAYS OF THE RISIISIISIISINGNGNGNG SUN SUN SUN SUN. . . . Logo. "hill of the sunrise" and "appear in glory". N31:N31:N31:N31: ROAD BORDERED BY SHRROAD BORDERED BY SHRROAD BORDERED BY SHRROAD BORDERED BY SHRUBSUBSUBSUBS.... Logo. "road" and related words. Det. in "road", "here", "that". O49:O49:O49:O49: VILLAGE WITH CROSS RVILLAGE WITH CROSS RVILLAGE WITH CROSS RVILLAGE WITH CROSS ROADSOADSOADSOADS.... Logo. "village". Det. in "inhabited region", "village", "town".

S28:S28:S28:S28: STRIP OF CLOTH WITH STRIP OF CLOTH WITH STRIP OF CLOTH WITH STRIP OF CLOTH WITH FRINGEFRINGEFRINGEFRINGE,,,, COMBINED WITH FOLDE COMBINED WITH FOLDE COMBINED WITH FOLDE COMBINED WITH FOLDED CLOTHD CLOTHD CLOTHD CLOTH, S29, , S29, , S29, , S29, .... Det. in

, ḥḥḥḥbsbsbsbs, "clothing".

Z7:Z7:Z7:Z7: wwww [ōō] HIEROGLYPHIC ADAPTATHIEROGLYPHIC ADAPTATHIEROGLYPHIC ADAPTATHIEROGLYPHIC ADAPTATION OF THE HIEION OF THE HIEION OF THE HIEION OF THE HIERATIC ABBREVIATED FORATIC ABBREVIATED FORATIC ABBREVIATED FORATIC ABBREVIATED FORM OF RM OF RM OF RM OF G43G43G43G43, , , , ....


59



60

Chapter 13

PRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB VERB VERB VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT 13.113.113.113.1 A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES EXISTENCE ("EXISTENCE ("EXISTENCE ("EXISTENCE ("isisisis"), "), "), "), ACTION ACTION ACTION ACTION ("("("("runrunrunrunssss"), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE ("happenshappenshappenshappens"). "). "). "). When the

subject1111 is a pronoun, it is attached as a suffix to the verb. The pronoun subject of the Egyptian

verb is attached to the verb in a similar manner to the possessive pronoun's attachment to its noun

('''''''' 11, 12).

In Egyptian, there was only one tense to express the present ("now") and future ("something that is

going to occur"), and therefore only context determines whether the verb should be translated as

present or future.

This form of the Egyptian present/future verb tense with a suffix pronoun appended is called "the the the the

ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff verb formverb formverb formverb form".2222 13.2 13.2 13.2 13.2 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECT

SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

I go, I will go 1st I go, I will go ššššmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [shem-ē] ššššmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

you see, you will see 2nd you see, will see

m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk [mä-ä-eck] m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ [mä-ä-etch]

he says, he will say 3rd she says, she she says, she she says, she she says, she will saywill saywill saywill say ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff [djed-ef] ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss [djed-ess] PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

we give, we will give 1st we give, we will give rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn [red-ē-en] rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn

you take, you will take 2nd you take, you will take ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn [ētch-tchen] ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn

they write, they will write 3rd they write, they will write ssssšššš⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn [sesh-sen] ssssšššš⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn

1 The subject is the word or phrase the verb describes. 2 Pronounced "sedj-em-ef".


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13.3 COMMENTARY13.3 COMMENTARY13.3 COMMENTARY13.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: The same suffix pronouns are used for both possessive pronouns and subject pronouns. The singular

forms are: , "I" (m.,f.); , "you" (m.); , "you" (f.); ,, "he"; and , "she". The masculine and the

feminine plural subject pronouns for both are: "we"; , "you"; and , "their".

BBBB:::: Whether the verb should be translated in the present or future tense is determined by context.

CCCC:::: The verb , rdrdrdrdìììì, "give", may be written with , X8, alone. In such cases where the , rrrr, is omitted, it is customary to write the transliteration as (r)d(r)d(r)d(r)dìììì, indicating to the reader that the , rrrr, was deliberately omitted from the text.

DDDD:::: The verb "give" had two forms which were used interchangeably: and , rdrdrdrdìììì , as well as and ,

ddddìììì . 13.4 13.4 13.4 13.4 THE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPT OF OF OF OF maatmaatmaatmaat The goddess Maat embodied the attributes implied in the word, , m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't, which meant "truth", "rightful order", "an ordered way of life", "justice", "righteousness", and "proper conduct". In

combination together, they composed the ethical code of the gods. The pharaoh was entrusted with maat

by the gods and was charged with insuring that Egypt and his kingship conducted their affairs according to

these precepts embodied in the very meaning of her name. The first references of this concept to appear

in connection with the pharaoh began in the 3rd Dynasty (2686-2613). The ruler was now accepted as Re

incarnate, ruling the land through the precepts of maat. As the one entrusted with maat by the gods, when

he spoke, his word was law. The orderliness of the state, of nature, of the sun, moon, and stars, everything

that was good was a result of maat. If something lacked maat, it was bad or evil. Maat was often

characterized by a state of balance and fullness. Thus, the concept of maat encompassed every facet of

life in ancient Egypt. Maat might be called "a code of ethics" and served Egypt well during the OK. Later

generations would look back to this time as a Golden Age when truth, justice, and morality flourished.

As the OK ended and the turmoil of the FIP seized the land, the plaintive cry for a return to the old values

was expressed. As a result of this turbulence, maat was extended to the common people during the FIP

(2181-2040). Whereas in the OK maat was primarily between the pharaoh and the gods, during the FIP,

when anarchy was rampant and there was no central authority to stabilize society, the individual increasingly

assumed more responsibility for maat. Following the chaos of the FIP, in the MK (2133-1786) the sense of

maat once again changed to include the proper conduct by which those in power should rule the people.

Administrators were implored not only to govern by applying maat to their actions but the ruler was now also


62

seen as the Good Shepherd responsible for his people. 3333 This daily ritual of supplication to the goddess was

to assure that she would be pleased and confer her benefits upon the gods who in turn would pass them onto

Egypt and its inhabitants.

In TTTTHE HE HE HE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD,,,,4444 the central theme was the weighing of the deceased's heart against an ostrich

feather, the symbol for maat. The Egyptians believed that a person's heart was where the mind and will resided. In the weighing of this seat of character against the feather of truth, if the heart was found

wanting, this would prevent the individual from joining the gods in perpetual afterlife. In fact, the

composite monster, Ammit, attended the ceremony for the sole purpose of devouring the deceased's heart

should it be found to weigh more than the feather, presumably because it was laden with sin.

Fig. 13.4-1 shows the WWWWEIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE HHHHEART EART EART EART CCCCEREMONYEREMONYEREMONYEREMONY of Hunefer, Royal Scribe and Steward of Menmaatre

Seti (19-2, 1318-1304). At the left Hunefer is seen being led by Anubis to the weighing ceremony. Anubis

then conducts the actual weighing while the monster, Ammit, sits nearby ready to devour Hunefer's heart

should it be found to be sinful. The god Thoth records the results of the judgment. Hunefer is then

brought by Horus before Osiris who is seated on a throne, attended by Isis and Nephthys. The four sons of

Horus stand on a lotus plant before Osiris and welcome Hunefer to everlasting life in the company of Osiris.

3 In a MK text, known as "The Eloquent Peasant", an evil overseer, Nemtynakht, tricks a peasant, Khun-anup, into causing damage to his master's crops. Then the overseer beats up the peasant and seizes his donkey. Khun-anup pleads his case before the local magistrate, who is moved by this unlettered but articulate man. He reports it to the pharaoh who orders the magistrate not to grant the peasant justice just yet and to require him to put his pleas in writing only. After nine eloquent petitions, when Khun-anup is ready to give up trying, does justice prevail: the donkey is returned; Nemtynakht is stripped of his land and job which are given to Khun-anup in recompense (the overseer is now as poor as the peasant once was); and the principles of maat are served. 4 This name is used by modern scholars when referring to the collection of ancient Egyptian religious and magical texts which accompanied the deceased, and would ensure the deceased's living forever in the company of the gods.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 13.413.413.413.4----1.1.1.1. W W W WEIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONY,,,, THE THE THE THE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER,,,, THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH MUSEUMUSEUMUSEUMUSEUM....


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13.5 DESCRIPTION OF13.5 DESCRIPTION OF13.5 DESCRIPTION OF13.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A24:A24:A24:A24: MAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STICKICKICKICK.... Det. in "strike", strong", "take away", "plunder", "teach".

D37: D37: D37: D37: dìdìdìdì [dē], FOFOFOFOREARMREARMREARMREARM D36D36D36D36 WITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDING X8X8X8X8. . . . Sometimes employed as a ìmììmììmììmì [ēmē] phon. [d], [mē], or [m]. D54:D54:D54:D54: LEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKING.... Logo. "come". Det. in "go", "hasten", "stop", "linger". N40:N40:N40:N40: šššš [sh] COMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OF N37N37N37N37 AND AND AND AND D54D54D54D54.... U2:U2:U2:U2: m3m3m3m3 [mä] SICKLESICKLESICKLESICKLE.... Det. in "reap", "crookedness". V15:V15:V15:V15: ììììṯṯṯṯ [ētch] COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF V13V13V13V13 AND AND AND AND D54D54D54D54 ....

X8:X8:X8:X8: (r)dì(r)dì(r)dì(r)dì [redē], CONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAF???? Logo. "give". dìdìdìdì [dē]

Y3:Y3:Y3:Y3: sšsšsšsš [sesh] SCRIBESCRIBESCRIBESCRIBE''''S OUTFITS OUTFITS OUTFITS OUTFIT,,,, CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALETTETETETE,,,, BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWDERED ERED ERED ERED PIGMENTSPIGMENTSPIGMENTSPIGMENTS OROROROR WATERWATERWATERWATER,,,, AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER. . . . Logo. "scribe", "writings", and related words. Det. in "scribe", "writings", "write", "smooth", "red".


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13.6 EXERCISES13.6 EXERCISES13.6 EXERCISES13.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATEANSLATEANSLATEANSLATE::::


65

Chapter 14

PRESENTPRESENTPRESENTPRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB W/FUTURE TENSE VERB W/FUTURE TENSE VERB W/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH NOUN SUBJECTITH NOUN SUBJECTITH NOUN SUBJECTITH NOUN SUBJECT

14.1 TTTTWHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH SENTENCE, THE TYPICASENTENCE, THE TYPICASENTENCE, THE TYPICASENTENCE, THE TYPICAL WORD ORDER IS SUBJL WORD ORDER IS SUBJL WORD ORDER IS SUBJL WORD ORDER IS SUBJECT, VERB, IN ECT, VERB, IN ECT, VERB, IN ECT, VERB, IN

EGYPTIAN THE WORD OREGYPTIAN THE WORD OREGYPTIAN THE WORD OREGYPTIAN THE WORD ORDER DER DER DER IS IS IS IS THE THE THE THE VERB FOLLOWED BY VERB FOLLOWED BY VERB FOLLOWED BY VERB FOLLOWED BY THETHETHETHE SUBJECT, WHETHER TH SUBJECT, WHETHER TH SUBJECT, WHETHER TH SUBJECT, WHETHER THAAAAT ST ST ST SUBJECT UBJECT UBJECT UBJECT

BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, OR OR OR OR NOUN PHRASENOUN PHRASENOUN PHRASENOUN PHRASE.... Thus, in Egyptian, just as the pronoun subject follows

the verb, so too does a noun subject. 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE TENSE TENSE TENSE VERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJECTCTCTCT

the sun rises/will rise wbn rwbn rwbn rwbn r '''' [web-en-rä]

the official travels/will travel downstream, i.e. northwards ḫḫḫḫd srd srd srd sr [khed sâr]

the officials travel/will travel northward ḫḫḫḫd sr(w)d sr(w)d sr(w)d sr(w) [khed sâr-ōō]

the maid servants hear/will hear ssssḏḏḏḏm b3k(w)tm b3k(w)tm b3k(w)tm b3k(w)t [sed-jem bä-kōō-et]

His Majesty goes (walks)/will go (will walk) ššššm m m m ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff [shem hem-ef]

the maid servant says/will say ḏḏḏḏd b3ktd b3ktd b3ktd b3kt [djed bä-ket]

the scribe teaches/will teach sb3 ssb3 ssb3 ssb3 sšššš [seb-ä-sesh]

the student learns/will learn rrrr ḫḫḫḫ sb3 sb3 sb3 sb3 [rekh-seb-ä] 14.3 COMMENTARY14.3 COMMENTARY14.3 COMMENTARY14.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: Note that the root letters of the verb do not change whether the noun subject is singular or plural.

BBBB:::: As mentioned in §13.1, whether the verb should be translated as a present or future tense is dependent

entirely on the context.

CCCC:::: As discussed in §11.3, when the , wwww, is omitted, as in , b3k(w)tb3k(w)tb3k(w)tb3k(w)t, it should be enclosed in brackets to indicate that fact to the reader. It is customary in translations to use the following: < > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included< > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included< > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included< > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included ( ) to enclose a character usually omitte( ) to enclose a character usually omitte( ) to enclose a character usually omitte( ) to enclose a character usually omitted but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the word [ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator[ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator[ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator[ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.


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14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 THE SCRIBETHE SCRIBETHE SCRIBETHE SCRIBE In contrast to Mesopotamia where the clay tablet was the medium of choice, papyrus1111 was the primary

material upon which the Egyptians wrote. The papyrus plant grew throughout the Nile Valley in ancient

times but today exists in Egypt in limited areas only. The plant was also extensively used throughout

Egyptian history for the construction of reed shelters, as in O4, , and for the construction of boats, as in

P1, . While we do not have any ancient Egyptian description of papyrus making, what we do know of the

process is supplied to us largely in a description written by the Roman naturalist, Pliny the Elder, 23-79 CE.

To make paper from papyrus, it was first cut into strips, peeled, and then slit into thin slices which were

placed flat in a vertical direction. Another layer was placed horizontally on top of the first layer and then

the two were pressed together. The two layers stuck together as a result of the fibers interlocking, with

the natural juices of the plant also acting as a natural adhesive. The horizontal layer is called the "recto"

and the under surface is called the "verso". Papyrus sheets were made ≅ 43 cms. (17 inches) in width by 48

cms. (19 inches) in height. Individual panels were pressed together at their edges to form a document of

great length.2222

Two rolls of blank papyrus were found in the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890) tomb of Den (1-5). An uninscribed

roll was also discovered in the 1st Dynasty tomb of Hemaka in Sakkara, attesting to its usage 5,000 years

ago. The earliest written samples discovered to date are temple accounts from the 5th Dynasty (2494-

2345) found at Abusir. On the walls of the 6th Dynasty (2345-2181) tomb of Harkhuf is recorded his

written message sent to the ruler Pepi II (6-5) as well as the pharaoh's reply regarding a pygmy which

Harkhuf had obtained and was bringing to the king.

Written records also survive in the form of ostraca, which in ancient Egypt were usually pieces or flakes of

limestone upon which short messages or practice exercises were written.

If manual labor was the driving force of ancient Egypt, then the scribe was the one who wrote the orders

that managed that force and who recorded the results. The scribes were knowledgeable not only in reading

and writing but in mathematics as well. These skills enabled them to occupy a unique place in Egyptian

society, which was, like most ancient societies, predominantly illiterate. Many of their letters have survived

and give the modern Egyptologist an insight into all facets of life in ancient Egypt. Scribal training was a

prerequisite for the priesthood, for administrative positions, for the practice of medicine, and for the

profession which we call civil engineering.

1 From the Greek papyros and from which the English word "paper" is derived. One possibility is that the

Greeks derived their word from the Egyptian p3 pr-'3, , "that of the great house", as paper making may have been a royal prerogative and monopoly. 2 The so-called "Harris Papyrus" in the British Museum is 41 meters (1342 feet) long.


67

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 14.414.414.414.4----1111 SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATING FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY 5555 (2484(2484(2484(2484----2345).2345).2345).2345).

The symbol for the scribe, sšsšsšsš, Y3, , consists of his palette,3333 a bag for pigments or water jar, and a brush

holder. Usually the scribe wrote on papyrus with brush and two inks: red 4444 for section headings and deficits

in accounts, and black for the body of the work. His writing instrument was stored in a slot on a palette

(usually made of wood) which also contained holes for the storage of dried cakes of pigment used for the

ink. The black ink was carbon based and the red was finely ground red ocher. The pigments were mixed

with a gum so that they could dry into small cakes. These were used in a manner similar to the watercolor

paints of today. The brushes were reeds, cut at an angle, with the end chewed by the scribe to form a point

with multiple fiber strands.

3 The Egyptians believed that writing was devised by the god Thoth. As a result, he was worshipped by the scribes as their divine patron and invocations to him were often written on their palettes. 4 Our word "rubric" (red) refers to this practice. First started by the Egyptians, it is still in use today.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 14.414.414.414.4----2222 SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES.... NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS....


68

The scribe held his hand away from the papyrus and painted the signs either in vertical columns or

horizontal rows. When writing in a columnar manner, the scribe often started in the upper right-hand

corner of the papyrus, working his way down the column until he reached the bottom of the document.

After completing the first section, the scribe then rolled up the papyrus in his right hand, unrolled a blank

area from his left hand, and began to write again at the top of the next column, continuing in this manner

until the document was complete. The width of each section of horizontal rows would vary, depending both

on the amount of the material to be written and the aesthetic factors. Hieratic writing, unlike hieroglyphic

writing, always proceeded from right to left, dropping to the next row as each row was completed.

One reference to the advantages of being a scribe is found in the so-called SSSSATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE TTTTRADESRADESRADESRADES.5555 In this

text, a father who is accompanying his young son to a scribal school, contrasts the benefits of being a scribe

compared to other occupations. The papyrus begins: I have seen many beatingsI have seen many beatingsI have seen many beatingsI have seen many beatingsCCCC SSSSet your heart on books!et your heart on books!et your heart on books!et your heart on books! I watched those seizedI watched those seizedI watched those seizedI watched those seized for labor for labor for labor for laborCCCC There's nothing better than books!There's nothing better than books!There's nothing better than books!There's nothing better than books! It's like a boat on water.It's like a boat on water.It's like a boat on water.It's like a boat on water. And continues: I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother,I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother,I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother,I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother, I'll make its beauties stand before you;I'll make its beauties stand before you;I'll make its beauties stand before you;I'll make its beauties stand before you; It's the greatest of all callings,It's the greatest of all callings,It's the greatest of all callings,It's the greatest of all callings, There's none like it iThere's none like it iThere's none like it iThere's none like it in the land.n the land.n the land.n the land. Barely grown, still a child,Barely grown, still a child,Barely grown, still a child,Barely grown, still a child, He is greeted, sent on errands,He is greeted, sent on errands,He is greeted, sent on errands,He is greeted, sent on errands, Hardly returned he wears a gown.Hardly returned he wears a gown.Hardly returned he wears a gown.Hardly returned he wears a gown. I never saw a sculptor as envoy,I never saw a sculptor as envoy,I never saw a sculptor as envoy,I never saw a sculptor as envoy, Nor is a goldsmith ever sent;Nor is a goldsmith ever sent;Nor is a goldsmith ever sent;Nor is a goldsmith ever sent; But I have seen the smith at work,But I have seen the smith at work,But I have seen the smith at work,But I have seen the smith at work, At the opening of his furnace;At the opening of his furnace;At the opening of his furnace;At the opening of his furnace; With fingers like claws of a crocodileWith fingers like claws of a crocodileWith fingers like claws of a crocodileWith fingers like claws of a crocodile He stinks more than fish roe.He stinks more than fish roe.He stinks more than fish roe.He stinks more than fish roe. After comparing many other professions, the father says: See, there's no profession without a boss,See, there's no profession without a boss,See, there's no profession without a boss,See, there's no profession without a boss, Except for the scribe: he is the boss.Except for the scribe: he is the boss.Except for the scribe: he is the boss.Except for the scribe: he is the boss. Hence if you know writing,Hence if you know writing,Hence if you know writing,Hence if you know writing, It will do better for youIt will do better for youIt will do better for youIt will do better for you TTTThan those professions I've set before you,han those professions I've set before you,han those professions I've set before you,han those professions I've set before you, EachEachEachEach more wretched than the other. more wretched than the other. more wretched than the other. more wretched than the other.

5 See M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume 1: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, pp. 184-92, for the complete text. The earliest fragments of this text date to Dynasty 18 (1567-1320).


69

14.5 DESCRIPTION OF14.5 DESCRIPTION OF14.5 DESCRIPTION OF14.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION G40:G40:G40:G40: p3p3p3p3 [pä] PINTAIL DUCK FLYINGPINTAIL DUCK FLYINGPINTAIL DUCK FLYINGPINTAIL DUCK FLYING....

U36:U36:U36:U36: ḥḥḥḥmmmm CLUB USED BY CLOTH MCLUB USED BY CLOTH MCLUB USED BY CLOTH MCLUB USED BY CLOTH MAKERSAKERSAKERSAKERS.... Logo. "cloth maker", "Majesty". Phon. in

ḥḥḥḥmmmm, "slave", whereas ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff, would most likely mean "His Majesty". 11114.6 EXERCISES4.6 EXERCISES4.6 EXERCISES4.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


70

Chapter 15

PAST TENSEPAST TENSEPAST TENSEPAST TENSE VERB FORM VERB FORM VERB FORM VERB FORM 15.115.115.115.1 IN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIAN,,,, THE PAST THE PAST THE PAST THE PAST TENSE TENSE TENSE TENSE IS INDICATED BY AFFIIS INDICATED BY AFFIIS INDICATED BY AFFIIS INDICATED BY AFFIXING THE LETTERXING THE LETTERXING THE LETTERXING THE LETTER , , , , nnnn,,,, TO THETO THETO THETO THE ROOT ROOT ROOT ROOT

LETTERS OF THE VERB LETTERS OF THE VERB LETTERS OF THE VERB LETTERS OF THE VERB BEFOREBEFOREBEFOREBEFORE THETHETHETHE SUFFIX PRONOUN OR N SUFFIX PRONOUN OR N SUFFIX PRONOUN OR N SUFFIX PRONOUN OR NOUN SUBJECT.OUN SUBJECT.OUN SUBJECT.OUN SUBJECT. In transliteration, this nnnn is separated from the verbal stem by a dot, , , , ⋅⋅⋅⋅ e.g.... ssssdddd____mmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff,,,, "he heard" or ssssdddd____mmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅n stn stn stn st,,,, "the woman heard". This construction, in which the verb in the past tense is followed by the subject, is called

the ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff form.1111 15.2 15.2 15.2 15.2 PAST TENSPAST TENSPAST TENSPAST TENSE VERBS WITH SUFFIX E VERBS WITH SUFFIX E VERBS WITH SUFFIX E VERBS WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN OR NOUN SUBJECTOR NOUN SUBJECTOR NOUN SUBJECTOR NOUN SUBJECT

A. PAST TENSE TERBS A. PAST TENSE TERBS A. PAST TENSE TERBS A. PAST TENSE TERBS WITH SWITH SWITH SWITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTSTSTSTS SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSO PERSO PERSO PERSONNNN FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

I went 1st 1st 1st 1st I loved šmšmšmšm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì [mâr-n-ē]

you saw 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd you loved m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ

he said 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd she loved ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss PPPPLURALLURALLURALLURAL MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSO PERSO PERSO PERSONNNN FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

we gave 1st 1st 1st 1st we lovedwe lovedwe lovedwe loved (r)dì(r)dì(r)dì(r)dì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn

you took 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd you loved ììììṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn

they wrote 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd they loved sšsšsšsš⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn

1 Pronounced "sedj-em-en-ef".


71

B. B. B. B. PPPPAST AST AST AST TTTTENSE ENSE ENSE ENSE VVVVERBS WITH ERBS WITH ERBS WITH ERBS WITH NNNNOUN OUN OUN OUN SSSSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTS

His Majesty went šmšmšmšm⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

the maid servant said ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅n b3ktn b3ktn b3ktn b3kt

the sun rose wbwbwbwb⋅⋅⋅⋅n rn rn rn r ''''

the official traveled northward ḫḫḫḫdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅n srn srn srn sr

the officials traveled downstream ḫḫḫḫdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅n sr(w)n sr(w)n sr(w)n sr(w)

the servants heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅n b3kwn b3kwn b3kwn b3kw

the scribe wrote sšsšsšsš⋅⋅⋅⋅n sšn sšn sšn sš

the vizier went out the vizier went out the vizier went out the vizier went out prprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ṯṯṯṯ3ty3ty3ty3ty 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 COMMENTACOMMENTACOMMENTACOMMENTARYRYRYRY

A:A:A:A: The ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff form is indicated by nnnn, affixed immediately after the verb stem (i.e. the root letters)

or determinative. 15151515.4 THE STEP PYRAMID .4 THE STEP PYRAMID .4 THE STEP PYRAMID .4 THE STEP PYRAMID COMPLEX OF KING DJOSCOMPLEX OF KING DJOSCOMPLEX OF KING DJOSCOMPLEX OF KING DJOSERERERER Imhotep was probably the designer of the SSSSTEP TEP TEP TEP PPPPYRAMID COMPLEXYRAMID COMPLEXYRAMID COMPLEXYRAMID COMPLEX built for King Djoser2222 (3-2, 2668-2649) at

the edge of the western desert at Sakkara. This pyramid and its outlying buildings were surrounded by a

rectangular temenos wall 10 m. (33 ft.) high, 500 m. (1,640 ft.) long on its eastern and western sides, and

250 m. (820 ft.) long on its northern and southern sides. The wall contained 13 artificial doors with only a

single true portal. This entrance door lead to a long corridor before opening out into the center of the

complex.

2 The name of the second king of the 3rd Dynasty was Netjerykhet. In time the walled complex was considered to be ḏsr, "holy" or "sanctified", and Netjerykhet was referred to only by that epithet.


72

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 15.415.415.415.4----1.1.1.1. D D D DJOSERJOSERJOSERJOSER''''S MORTUARY COMPLEXS MORTUARY COMPLEXS MORTUARY COMPLEXS MORTUARY COMPLEX:::: 1111----PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID,,,, 2222----HOUSE OF LOWER EGYPTHOUSE OF LOWER EGYPTHOUSE OF LOWER EGYPTHOUSE OF LOWER EGYPT,,,, 3333----HOUSE OF UPPER EGYPTHOUSE OF UPPER EGYPTHOUSE OF UPPER EGYPTHOUSE OF UPPER EGYPT,,,, 4444----SERDABSERDABSERDABSERDAB,,,, 5555----ALTARALTARALTARALTAR,,,, 6666----CHAPELSCHAPELSCHAPELSCHAPELS,,,, 7777----SOUTH COURT WITH MARSOUTH COURT WITH MARSOUTH COURT WITH MARSOUTH COURT WITH MARKERSKERSKERSKERS,,,, 8888----SOUTH TOMBSOUTH TOMBSOUTH TOMBSOUTH TOMB,,,, 9999----TEMENOS WALLTEMENOS WALLTEMENOS WALLTEMENOS WALL,,,, 10101010----ENTRANCE PORTALENTRANCE PORTALENTRANCE PORTALENTRANCE PORTAL,,,, 11111111----ARTIFICIAL DOORSARTIFICIAL DOORSARTIFICIAL DOORSARTIFICIAL DOORS....

The centerpiece of the entire monument was the six tiered pyramid,3333 the first large scale building in the

world made entirely of cut stone. The pyramid, which is almost 60 m. (200 ft.) high, duplicated the prior

mud brick mastaba constructions in limestone blocks of similar size.4444 The fine limestone quarries of Tura,

located across the Nile on the east bank, were the source for the facing on the pyramid and the numerous

buildings in the enclosure. These buildings included a mortuary temple with a serdab,5555 chapels, several

houses, magazines, storage chambers,6666 a jubilee court7777 with shrines to the nome gods of Upper and Lower

Egypt, and a tomb adjacent to the inner southern wall facing Abydos.

In Iaddition to the Tura limestone, sandstone and red Aswan granite were also used throughout the

complex, the latter being used extensively in the lining of the burial chambers. Black granite from Aswan

was also used in the portrayal of the heads of foreigners (usually Nubians) in order to differentiate them

from the indigenous Egyptians. Panels of blue faience8888 tiles lined the subterranean gallery walls of the main

pyramid, as well as the interior walls of the tomb embedded in the southern wall. Significant portions

of the complex have been restored by a team directed by Jean-Philippe Lauer.9999

3 Each face of the pyramid was aligned with a cardinal point of the compass. 4 For how this pyramid developed from its original modest mastaba to the pyramid as it now stands, see §23.4. 5 The small chamber in a mortuary temple containing the statue or statues of the deceased to which offerings were proffered. 6 Over 40,000 stone vessels were excavated from these chambers. 7 The Heb-Sed, or jubilee festival, was celebrated by the king after thirty years of rule. See '34.4 for a more complete discussion. 8 Glazed earthenware. 9 P-J. Lauer, 1902-2001, spent 70 years excavating at Sakkara.


73

MMMMAP AP AP AP 15.415.415.415.4----1.1.1.1. SITES SITES SITES SITES RELEVANT TO RELEVANT TO RELEVANT TO RELEVANT TO §§§§15.4.15.4.15.4.15.4.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 15.415.415.415.4----2.2.2.2. DJOSER DJOSER DJOSER DJOSER''''S SS SS SS STEP PYRAMID SHOWING TEP PYRAMID SHOWING TEP PYRAMID SHOWING TEP PYRAMID SHOWING A PORTION OF THE TEMA PORTION OF THE TEMA PORTION OF THE TEMA PORTION OF THE TEMENOS WALL IN ENOS WALL IN ENOS WALL IN ENOS WALL IN THE FOREGROUNDTHE FOREGROUNDTHE FOREGROUNDTHE FOREGROUND,,,, 1984.1984.1984.1984.

Placed in the courtyard, between this tomb and the southern face of the

pyramid, were two sets of markers (see no. 7 in Fig. 15.4-1), each set being

shaped like a pair of hooves. They were probably used at Djoser's jubilees

when he ritually took possession of the land in a ceremony that included his

running an encircling route around both markers. This ritual, depicted on

panels buried under the pyramid and courtyard, portrays the king running the

course around the markers.

Included in the monument were tombs for royal family members. The entire

complex was in reality a city of the dead, cared for and attended to by a

corps of priests endowed by Djoser to perpetuate his memory and to continue

the worship of his k3k3k3k3, or soul.

The engineering required for Djoser's Step Pyramid was the basis for all the

ensuing monumental building works, especially those a century later at Giza.

Those pyramids would not have been possible without the prior work done in

Dynasty 3, particularly in the design, engineering, and construction of Djoser's

Step Pyramid complex.


74

15.5 DESCRIPTION OF15.5 DESCRIPTION OF15.5 DESCRIPTION OF15.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIRANSLITERATIRANSLITERATIRANSLITERATIONONONON DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

G47:G47:G47:G47: ṯṯṯṯ3333 [tchä] DUCKLINGDUCKLINGDUCKLINGDUCKLING.... Logo. "nestling". U6:U6:U6:U6: mr mr mr mr [mâr] HOEHOEHOEHOE.... Det. in "cultivate", "hack up". Phon. in "love", "unguent". U7:U7:U7:U7: mrmrmrmr ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF U6U6U6U6 . . . . Used interchangeably with U6.

15151515.6 EX.6 EX.6 EX.6 EXERCISESERCISESERCISESERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


75

Chapter 16

NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT O NOUN DIRECT O NOUN DIRECT O NOUN DIRECT OBJECTBJECTBJECTBJECT 16161616.1 A DIRECT OBJECT .1 A DIRECT OBJECT .1 A DIRECT OBJECT .1 A DIRECT OBJECT RECEIVES THE ACTION RECEIVES THE ACTION RECEIVES THE ACTION RECEIVES THE ACTION OF THE VERB OF THE VERB OF THE VERB OF THE VERB AND MUST BE A NOUNAND MUST BE A NOUNAND MUST BE A NOUNAND MUST BE A NOUN, NOUN PHRASE, , NOUN PHRASE, , NOUN PHRASE, , NOUN PHRASE,

OR OR OR OR A A A A PRONOUN.PRONOUN.PRONOUN.PRONOUN.1111 It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" as shown in the following examples

[the subject is in black, the verb in red, and the direct object in green]:

The manThe manThe manThe man seesseesseessees the housethe housethe housethe house. The womanThe womanThe womanThe woman woreworeworewore a a a a dressdressdressdress. The boatThe boatThe boatThe boat struckstruckstruckstruck a rocka rocka rocka rock.

The word order in an Egyptian sentence which contains both a noun subject and a noun direct object

is: VERB VERB VERB VERB ++++ NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT ++++ NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT 16.2 NOUN DIRECT OB16.2 NOUN DIRECT OB16.2 NOUN DIRECT OB16.2 NOUN DIRECT OBJECTJECTJECTJECT FOLLOWING NOUN SUBJ FOLLOWING NOUN SUBJ FOLLOWING NOUN SUBJ FOLLOWING NOUN SUBJECTECTECTECT

TTTThe official counted the troops. ìpìpìpìp⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn sr sr sr sr ṯṯṯṯswtswtswtswt [ēp-en sâr tches-ōōt]

His Majesty made an obelisk. ìrìrìrìr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ttttḫḫḫḫnnnn

My brother loves our sister. mrmrmrmr sn sn sn sn⋅⋅⋅⋅ì ì ì ì sntsntsntsnt⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn

Your servant made a fire. ssssḫḫḫḫprprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn b3k b3k b3k b3k⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k ḫḫḫḫtttt [seh-khep-är-en bäk-eck khet] 16.3 COMMENTARY16.3 COMMENTARY16.3 COMMENTARY16.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: As there are generally no articles in Old or Middle Egyptian, the words "a", "an", and "the" must be

assumed from the context. BBBB:::: The verb , ssssḫḫḫḫprprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn, "created" or "made" is used differently from , ìrìrìrìr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn, "made". sssshhhhprprprpr is used with direct objects which were brought into being or created, such as "fire", "the land", "the gods", etc.,

while ìrìrìrìr is used for direct objects which were constructed, such as a "ship".

1 Such a verb, takes an object, is called a transitive verb. Intransitive verbs, e.g. "arrive", "sleep", etc., do not take objects. Many verbs in English may be either transitive or intransitive. So too in Egyptian.


76

16.4 IMHOTEP16.4 IMHOTEP16.4 IMHOTEP16.4 IMHOTEP

Imhotep, , ìììììììì----mmmm----hhhhtptptptp, "The One Who Comes in Peace", fl. 2700 BCE, was the high priest of the sun

god at Heliopolis (located slightly east of modern Cairo). In his office as counselor to Netjerykhet2222 (3-2,

2668-2649), he wielded great power religiously and politically. He was later deified as a god of healing and

wisdom and came to be considered as the individual from whom all Egyptian culture emanated. Couples who

were barren and desired children prayed to him. When their prayers were answered, they often

reciprocated by dedicating statues and chapels to him, thereby maintaining and enhancing the lore about

Imhotep and his mystic powers.

Long after his demise, the corpus of work attributed to Imhotep steadily

increased. He was remembered for his design and construction of stone

monuments,3333 for his having revealed the secrets of astronomy (which the

priests jealously guarded), for his sage advice, and for his knowledge of

medicine.

He was the architect for Djoser's Step Pyramid, built at the edge of the

western desert at Sakkara.4444 Imhotep's true genius lay in the design and

engineering required for the construction of Djoser's Step Pyramid. Its

assemblage was the basis for the 4th Dynasty, a century later, in the

construction of the three great pyramids at Giza from monumental limestone

blocks. Those buildings would not have been possible without the prior

structural and technological innovations incorporated in his Step Pyramid design.

Imhotep became venerated as an author of WISDOM LITERATUREWISDOM LITERATUREWISDOM LITERATUREWISDOM LITERATURE,,,, a famous

physician, architect, and counselor to the king. Though there are few written

records in which he is mentioned prior to the New Kingdom, during the intervening millennia, the memory of

his accomplishments was probably kept alive through an oral tradition. One of the written records refers to

an assembly point for an expedition during the reign of Pepi I (6-3, 2332-2283) in a section of Memphis

called "The Door of I(m)hotepThe Door of I(m)hotepThe Door of I(m)hotepThe Door of I(m)hotep".

2 Djoser, see '15.4. 3 Tradition had it that the design for the temples built at Kom Ombo, Edfu, and Esna fell to earth at Sakkara in the days of Imhotep. 4 An inscription on a statue base excavated at this complex, established Imhotep as its architect. Imhotep's titles on this base included: "Seal Bearer of the King of Lower Egypt", "Ruler of the Great Estate", "Chief Priest of Heliopolis", "Chief of the Sculptors, Masons, and of Producers of Stone Vessels".

MMMMAP AP AP AP 16.416.416.416.4----1.1.1.1. SSSSITES ITES ITES ITES MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN ''''16.4.16.4.16.4.16.4.


77

The First Intermediate Period (2160-1991) was a period of turmoil and extensive plundering of the ancient

monuments and tombs. In the HHHHARPERARPERARPERARPER''''S S S S SSSSONGONGONGONG, attributed to this time, Imhotep is remembered:

The gods who lived formerly rested in their pyramids; the beatified dead The gods who lived formerly rested in their pyramids; the beatified dead The gods who lived formerly rested in their pyramids; the beatified dead The gods who lived formerly rested in their pyramids; the beatified dead also, buried in their pyramids, and they who built houses also, buried in their pyramids, and they who built houses also, buried in their pyramids, and they who built houses also, buried in their pyramids, and they who built houses ---- their places are their places are their places are their places are no more. See what has been made of theno more. See what has been made of theno more. See what has been made of theno more. See what has been made of them! I have heard the words of m! I have heard the words of m! I have heard the words of m! I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hordedef, with whose discourses men speak so much Imhotep and Hordedef, with whose discourses men speak so much Imhotep and Hordedef, with whose discourses men speak so much Imhotep and Hordedef, with whose discourses men speak so much CCCC (but) where are their places (now)? Their walls are broken apart, and (but) where are their places (now)? Their walls are broken apart, and (but) where are their places (now)? Their walls are broken apart, and (but) where are their places (now)? Their walls are broken apart, and their places are no more their places are no more their places are no more their places are no more ---- as though they had never been. as though they had never been. as though they had never been. as though they had never been.

5555

In one of the records which has survived, Imhotep is mentioned indirectly in a fanciful tale in a papyrus 6666

from the Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567), as the "Chief Lector Priest" of King Djoser. Found in a

tomb from the time of Amenhotep III (18-9, 1417-1379), is the following text:

The The The The wabwabwabwab----priest may give offerings to your priest may give offerings to your priest may give offerings to your priest may give offerings to your kakakaka. The . The . The . The wabwabwabwab----priests may priests may priests may priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep withImhotep withImhotep withImhotep with the remains of the water bowl. the remains of the water bowl. the remains of the water bowl. the remains of the water bowl.

By the New Kingdom (1570-1200), Imhotep had become a cult figure for the scribes and was portrayed

wearing a priest's apron, holding a papyrus roll, and wearing a cap symbolic of the god Ptah, his divine father

as in , Sign C19, and , Sign C20.

During the Late Dynastic period (525-30), Imhotep's popularity increased greatly. Many statues in bronze

and stone have been found in which he holds a papyrus roll in his lap. A frequently found inscription on the

open roll is: "Water from the water pot of every scribe for your ka, O Imhotep!".

Although Imhotep was not deified until the Late Dynastic Period, there is little doubt that he did live during

Djoser's reign and that after the king, perhaps was the second most important individual in the kingdom.

16.5 DESCRIPTION OF16.5 DESCRIPTION OF16.5 DESCRIPTION OF16.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITRANSLITRANSLITRANSLITERATIONERATIONERATIONERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION C19:C19:C19:C19: ptptptptḥḥḥḥ LLLLOGOOGOOGOOGO.... FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD OF OF OF OF MMMMEMPHISEMPHISEMPHISEMPHIS,,,, PPPPTAHTAHTAHTAH (Dynasty 19 or later).

C20:C20:C20:C20: ptptptptḥḥḥḥ LLLLOGOOGOOGOOGO.... FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD FOR THE CREATOR GOD OF OF OF OF MMMMEMPHISEMPHISEMPHISEMPHIS,,,, PPPPTAHTAHTAHTAH (Dynasty 19 or later). D40:D40:D40:D40: FOREARM WITH HAND HOFOREARM WITH HAND HOFOREARM WITH HAND HOFOREARM WITH HAND HOLDING STICKLDING STICKLDING STICKLDING STICK.... M18:M18:M18:M18: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M17M17M17M17, , , , AND AND AND AND D54D54D54D54,,,, as in ìììììììì, "come". Q7:Q7:Q7:Q7: BRAZIER WITH FLAME ABRAZIER WITH FLAME ABRAZIER WITH FLAME ABRAZIER WITH FLAME AND SMOKE RISING FROMND SMOKE RISING FROMND SMOKE RISING FROMND SMOKE RISING FROM IT IT IT IT.... Det. "fire", "flame", "heat", "hot", "cook", "torch". Abbr. for "temperature".

5 J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 109. Harper's Songs have been found on stelae and tomb walls. They provided advice to the deceased. 6 From the Papyrus Westcar.


78

16.5 DESCRI16.5 DESCRI16.5 DESCRI16.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDNTEREDNTEREDNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION S24:S24:S24:S24: ṯṯṯṯssss KNOT KNOT KNOT KNOT ON A WAISTBANDON A WAISTBANDON A WAISTBANDON A WAISTBAND.... Phon. in ṯṯṯṯst,st,st,st, coll. "troop", "battalion". Semi-

logo. in ṯṯṯṯssss, "tie", "bind".



79

Chapter 17

SUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT + + + + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT 17.1 DIRECT OBJECT17.1 DIRECT OBJECT17.1 DIRECT OBJECT17.1 DIRECT OBJECTS S S S RECRECRECRECEIVE THE ACTION OF AEIVE THE ACTION OF AEIVE THE ACTION OF AEIVE THE ACTION OF A VERB. VERB. VERB. VERB. As shown below, the subject pronoun is in

black, the verb in red, and the noun direct object noun in green.

IIII sawsawsawsaw the housethe housethe housethe house. SheSheSheShe woreworeworewore a new dressa new dressa new dressa new dress. ItItItIt struckstruckstruckstruck a rocka rocka rocka rock.

In an Egyptian sentence containing a suffix pronoun subject and a noun direct object, the word order

is:

VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + SUFFIX SUFFIX SUFFIX SUFFIX SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN + + + + NOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECT 17.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN17.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN17.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN17.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT + + + + NOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECT

You will reach home. ppppḥḥḥḥ⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw [peh-eck hen-ōō]

They made a fire. ssssḫḫḫḫprprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅sn sn sn sn ḫḫḫḫtttt [seh-khep-âr-en-sen khet]

We heard a woman. ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n stststst

I found figs. gmgmgmgm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì d3bwd3bwd3bwd3bw [gem-enē dä-bōō] 17.3 COMMENTARY17.3 COMMENTARY17.3 COMMENTARY17.3 COMMENTARY Remember that the pronunciation of the letter "g" is hard, as the "g" in "guard". The soft "g" as in "gem" is

represented in Egyptian by the letter ḏḏḏḏ.

17.4 RELIGIO17.4 RELIGIO17.4 RELIGIO17.4 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONUS ORGANIZATIONUS ORGANIZATIONUS ORGANIZATION

The pharaoh ruled the land in his duality as both the temporal and spiritual leader of the country. He stood

at the top of the religious hierarchy and represented Horus, the falcon headed god, who was the son of

Osiris and Isis. The local governors (nomarchs) reported to him in their dual capacity as the ruler of the

nome, as well as the head of the local priesthood. This highest level of priests under the god-king were

called , ḥḥḥḥmmmm----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr priests.1111 As each nome had its own god, the nomarch served as the chief priest in the temple of the local god. In addition to his religious duties, the ḥḥḥḥmmmm----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr was responsible for the administration of all the temple properties and revenues.

1 Literally "servants of the god", sometimes translated "head priests", the Greeks called them "prophets".


80

MMMMAP AP AP AP 17.417.417.417.4----1.1.1.1. SITES SITES SITES SITES MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN §§§§17.4.17.4.17.4.17.4.

The , ẖẖẖẖr(y)r(y)r(y)r(y)----ḥḥḥḥb(t)b(t)b(t)b(t) priests, "lector-priests",2222 were the priests who supervised the cult worship

and made prayerful recitations at each temple. They obtained additional power by having access to the

sacred scrolls, thereby gaining not only a knowledge of the rituals required by the god, but also possession

over the god's magical powers.

Each month a new phyle, or company, of , w'bw'bw'bw'b priests,3333

assumed the day to day operation of the temple and its affairs. Four

phyles served each temple on a rotating basis: one month on duty

followed by three months off.

The temples derived their income from several sources: yearly gifts and

permanent endowments from the crown,4444 spoils of war from a monarch

thankful to a particular god for his victory, crop production from the

lands they owned or rented, and donations from the local nobility and

commoners. Donations deposited daily at the temple for the god's

sustenance were placed before the cult statue to satisfy the needs of

the god. A portion was sent to the cult statues of minor gods and the

remainder was stored or consumed by the temple staff. The priests

were paid from the temple revenues as well as from those donations left

by the local parishioners. As the temple precinct was sacred, commoners

were not permitted inside the temple proper, but they could leave their

offerings at the temple entrance.

At the larger temples, such as the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak Thebes, many permanent priests were

needed not only to officiate in the temple's day to day activities, but also to administer its vast land

holdings as well. As the most prominent temples received the largess from so many activities, over time

they began to exert a greater influence in the temporal affairs of the land because of their strong

economic position. Thus, by the time of the New Kingdom's last dynasty, Dynasty 20, drew to a close c. 1100

BCE, the , ḥḥḥḥmmmm----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr----ttttpypypypy, the "High Priest" of the Amun-Re temple at Karnak had became the most powerful man in Egypt, ruling Upper Egypt virtually as a monarch from Thebes.

2 Literally "he who is under (i.e. carries) the ritual book", or "holder of the ritual book". 3 wab-priests, lit. "the pure ones". 4 It is recorded that Ramesses III (20-2, 1198-1166) would annually donate the following, expressed in the standard gold measure, pounds Troy: Gold Silver Copper Temple of Amun at Karnak 139 2,676 6,422 Temple of Re at Heliopolis 143 307 Temple of Ptah at Memphis ____ 24 ______ Annual Total 139 2,842 6,729 Source: J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 273, citing Breasted, ARE. In ancient Egypt the value of gold to silver was set at approximately 2:1.


81


D1:D1:D1:D1: LLLLOGOOGOOGOOGO.... IN IN IN IN tptptptp, , , , """"HEADHEADHEADHEAD"""" AND AND AND AND tpytpytpytpy, , , , """"CHIEFCHIEFCHIEFCHIEF",",",", """"FIRSTFIRSTFIRSTFIRST"""".... F22: F22: F22: F22: ppppḥḥḥḥ [peh] HINDHINDHINDHIND----QUARTERSQUARTERSQUARTERSQUARTERS OF LION OR LEOPARD OF LION OR LEOPARD OF LION OR LEOPARD OF LION OR LEOPARD.... Logo. "end". Det. "reach", "bottom", "strength".

F26: F26: F26: F26: ẖẖẖẖn(w)n(w)n(w)n(w) GOAT SKINGOAT SKINGOAT SKINGOAT SKIN. Phon. in ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw, "interior". [hen-ōō]

G28: G28: G28: G28: gmgmgmgm [gem] BLACK IBISBLACK IBISBLACK IBISBLACK IBIS.... Phon. in gmgmgmgm, "find".

M43:M43:M43:M43: VINE ONVINE ONVINE ONVINE ON PROPS PROPS PROPS PROPS. . . . Det. "vine", "wine", "gardener", "fruit", and various notions connected with vines.

W3:W3:W3:W3: ḥḥḥḥbbbb [heb] BASIN OF ALABASTERBASIN OF ALABASTERBASIN OF ALABASTERBASIN OF ALABASTER AS USED IN PURI AS USED IN PURI AS USED IN PURI AS USED IN PURIFICATIFICATIFICATIFICATIONSONSONSONS.... Abbr. of "ritual book" in W5,

, "lector priest".

W5:W5:W5:W5: ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbtbtbtbt COMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OF T28T28T28T28, , , , AND AND AND AND W3W3W3W3.... Abbr. for "lector priest", lit. "he who is [hery-hebet] under (i.e. carries) the ritual book". 17.6 EXERCISES17.6 EXERCISES17.6 EXERCISES17.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


82

Chapter 18

SSSSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +T +T +T + S S S SINGULAR DEPENINGULAR DEPENINGULAR DEPENINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNDENT PRONOUNDENT PRONOUNDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECT

18.1 DIRECT OBJECTS18.1 DIRECT OBJECTS18.1 DIRECT OBJECTS18.1 DIRECT OBJECTS MAY BE MAY BE MAY BE MAY BE A A A A PRONOUNPRONOUNPRONOUNPRONOUN AS WELL AS AS WELL AS AS WELL AS AS WELL AS A A A A NOUNNOUNNOUNNOUN. As shown in the following, the

subject is indicated in black, the verb in red, and the direct object is the pronoun in green. HeHeHeHe heheheheaaaardrdrdrd memememe.... SSSShe he he he sawsawsawsaw youyouyouyou////hhhhimimimim////herherherher////iiiitttt.... The Egyptians had a separate set of pronouns to express the direct object, which scholars call

DDDDEPENDENT EPENDENT EPENDENT EPENDENT PPPPRONOUNSRONOUNSRONOUNSRONOUNS. When both the subject and the direct object of an Egyptian sentence are

pronouns, then the word order is: VERB VERB VERB VERB ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT ++++ DEPENDENT PRONOUN DEPENDENT PRONOUN DEPENDENT PRONOUN DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS AS AS AS DIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECT

18.2 18.2 18.2 18.2 SINGULAR DEPENDENT PSINGULAR DEPENDENT PSINGULAR DEPENDENT PSINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNRONOUNRONOUNRONOUN USED AS DIRECT OBJE USED AS DIRECT OBJE USED AS DIRECT OBJE USED AS DIRECT OBJECTCTCTCT

A. THE SINGULAR DEPEA. THE SINGULAR DEPEA. THE SINGULAR DEPEA. THE SINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNSNDENT PRONOUNSNDENT PRONOUNSNDENT PRONOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

me 1111stststst me wìwìwìwì [wē] wìwìwìwì

you 2nd2nd2nd2nd you ṯṯṯṯwwww [tchōō] ṯṯṯṯnnnn [tchen]

him, it 3rd3rd3rd3rd , ; , her, it swswswsw [sōō] sy, sy; st, stsy, sy; st, stsy, sy; st, stsy, sy; st, st [sē]; [set]

B. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULB. USE OF THE SINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNAR DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS A DIR AS A DIR AS A DIR AS A DIRECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECT MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSONPERSONPERSONPERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE , You reached me. 1st 1st 1st 1st , You loved me. ppppḥḥḥḥnnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk wì wì wì wì [pe-hen-eck wē] mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k wìwìwìwì

, HHHHe saw you. 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd , HHHHe saw you. m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ṯṯṯṯwwww [mä-ä-en-ef tchōō] m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ṯṯṯṯn n n n , I I I I hearhearhearhear himhimhimhim////itititit.... 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd , HHHHe ferried her/it across. ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ì ì ì ì swswswsw [sedj-em-ē sōō] ḏḏḏḏ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f sysysysy [djä-n-eff sē]

, I answered her/it. wšbwšbwšbwšb⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ì ì ì ì stststst [wa-shab-en-ē set]


83


A:A:A:A: The dependent pronoun can never stand as the first word in an Egyptian sentence.

BBBB:::: The 3rd person singular feminine dependent pronoun was originally written as , ssss, then became , sysysysy,

and subsequently was written , stststst, or simply . In this PrimerPrimerPrimerPrimer, and are used for the 3rd person

singular feminine dependent pronoun. However, it should be remembered that the Egyptian language was not

static, and continually changed over time. As indicated earlier, these changes are useful in helping to date a

given text. 18.4 OSIRIS IN THE 18.4 OSIRIS IN THE 18.4 OSIRIS IN THE 18.4 OSIRIS IN THE EGYPTIAN RECORDSEGYPTIAN RECORDSEGYPTIAN RECORDSEGYPTIAN RECORDS

The origin of the name of Osiris is obscure. One of the earliest forms for his name, (sometimes

written , , or ), is believed to have the phonetic value wsìrwsìrwsìrwsìr. Scholars have attempted to develop derivations from a wide variety of sources, such as: the Assyrian gods Ashur and Ishtar identified

with Osiris and his wife Isis, or "The Eye of the SunThe Eye of the SunThe Eye of the SunThe Eye of the Sun" because the eye is interpreted to be the wwwwḏḏḏḏ3t3t3t3t eye and signified the sun. Other epithets were "He Who Occupies the ThroneHe Who Occupies the ThroneHe Who Occupies the ThroneHe Who Occupies the Throne", "The Seat of the EyThe Seat of the EyThe Seat of the EyThe Seat of the Eye", "The Mighty The Mighty The Mighty The Mighty

OneOneOneOne", and wstwstwstwst----ìrtìrtìrtìrt, "The ThThe ThThe ThThe Throne that rone that rone that rone that BBBBears the Crownears the Crownears the Crownears the Crown".

Osiris is first attested at Sakkara in the pyramid of Unas, last king of the 5th Dynasty (5-9, 2375-2345).

Shortly thereafter, cult centers dedicated to the worship of Osiris were located in Abydos in Upper Egypt

and Busiris in Lower Egypt. In royal tombs of the same period, Osiris is found to be associated more often

with Abydos than with Busiris. However, in non-royal mastabas of the late 5th and 6th (2345-2181)

Dynasties, Osiris is referred to as "Foremost in BusirisForemost in BusirisForemost in BusirisForemost in Busiris,1111 Lord of the Thinite NomeLord of the Thinite NomeLord of the Thinite NomeLord of the Thinite Nome".

Osiris was worshipped in Heliopolis as part of the Heliopolitan Ennead, while in the two cult centers of

Abydos and Busiris, their earlier gods were eventually merged into Osiris. The Osiris cult is an excellent

example of how an Egyptian god assimilated the attributes of other deities and their cults over the course

of time. The original deity of Abydos and its region seemed to have been ḫḫḫḫntyntyntynty----ìmntywìmntywìmntywìmntyw, "Foremost of the Foremost of the Foremost of the Foremost of the

WesternersWesternersWesternersWesterners", while in Busiris the god Andjety was worshipped. In both these centers, the cult of Osiris

assumed the manifestations and prerogatives of these original gods, integrating them into his own persona.

1 Busiris, which seems to be a rendering of the Egyptian words, bw wsìr, "the place of Osiris", is the Greek

name for the Egyptian town of , ḏdw.


84

As the necropolises were usually located at the edge of the Western

Desert, Osiris was intimately associated with death and the rituals

concerned with eternal life after death. Therefore, he eventually

assumed the title "Foremost of the WesternersForemost of the WesternersForemost of the WesternersForemost of the Westerners".

Osiris was also connected with the funerary god of Memphis, Sokar,

giving rise to the dual deity Sokar-Osiris, which eventually led to the

trinity, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. In the CCCCOFFIN OFFIN OFFIN OFFIN TTTTEXTSEXTSEXTSEXTS, as well as the BBBBOOK OF OOK OF OOK OF OOK OF

THE THE THE THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD, Osiris was shown as the judge at "the weighing of the heart

ritual". Another of his epithets was "Lord of Truth Lord of Truth Lord of Truth Lord of Truth (or RighteousnessRighteousnessRighteousnessRighteousness)"

from his association with the goddess of truth and justice, Maat.

Osiris was also affiliated with fertility and the yearly Nile inundation.

In tomb wall paintings, he was often painted dark green, or even black,

to indicate this aspect of his godly powers. This association led to his

being equated to Orion, Isis to Sothis, and their child Horus to spdtspdtspdtspdt, all related to the annual summer Sothic rising

2222 and the beginning of the

Nile inundation.

Only fragments of the Egyptian versions of the Osiris legends have come down to our times. From the

Pyramid texts we learn that Osiris was killed by his brother Seth.3333 Then wife and sister Isis, and along with

his other sister Nephthys, resurrected his body and at the trial following, Seth was convicted of the

murder of Osiris. There are several different allegorical versions of this event. In one version, Horus, the

son of Osiris and Isis, contended with Seth and regained the kingship. In another version, Seth drowned

Osiris, which led to the Egyptian belief that drowning was a good way to die. In any case, Osiris (or Horus)

represented the forces of good and light, while Seth represented the forces of evil and darkness. Whereas

Osiris represented the deceased king, Horus was expressed in the living pharaoh. Thus, the ruling king was

referred to as "The Living HorusThe Living HorusThe Living HorusThe Living Horus".

The grave of Osiris was claimed by several localities: Abydos, Busiris, and Biga Island, adjacent to the island

of Philae at the first cataract. On Biga was the Abaton, the mound that was thought to be the original

mound of creation and the tomb of Osiris. At Abydos, Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) constructed a cenotaph to

Osiris, which succeeding generations venerated as the tomb of Osiris.4444 Also located at Abydos was the

tomb of Djer of the 1st Dynasty (1-3, c. 3000), which came to be honored during New Kingdom times as the

location of the tomb of Osiris.

2 See §10.4, The Calendar in Ancient Egypt. 3 See §12.4 for Plutarch's version. 4 See Fig. 26.4-1.

MMMMAP AP AP AP 18.418.418.418.4----1.1.1.1. SSSSITES MENTIONED ITES MENTIONED ITES MENTIONED ITES MENTIONED IN IN IN IN ''''18.4.18.4.18.4.18.4.


85

18.5 DESCRIPTION18.5 DESCRIPTION18.5 DESCRIPTION18.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERE OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERE OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERE OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDDDD SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

A40: A40: A40: A40: SEATED GODSEATED GODSEATED GODSEATED GOD.... (Note the straight wig and slightly curved beard.) Det. "god", as

in , wsìrwsìrwsìrwsìr, "Osiris", and in , ptptptptḥḥḥḥ, "Ptah".

Q1:Q1:Q1:Q1: stststst [set], SEATSEATSEATSEAT.... Logo. in stststst, "seat". Phon. in , wsìrwsìrwsìrwsìr, "Osiris". ws [wes]

R11:R11:R11:R11: ḏḏḏḏdddd [djed] COLUMN IMITATING A BCOLUMN IMITATING A BCOLUMN IMITATING A BCOLUMN IMITATING A BUNDLE OF STALKS TIEDUNDLE OF STALKS TIEDUNDLE OF STALKS TIEDUNDLE OF STALKS TIED TOGETHER TOGETHER TOGETHER TOGETHER. . . . Logo. in ḏḏḏḏdddd, "djed- column". Z9:Z9:Z9:Z9: wpwpwpwp [wep], TWO STICKS CROSSEDTWO STICKS CROSSEDTWO STICKS CROSSEDTWO STICKS CROSSED. . . . Det. "break", "damage", "be united", "divide", "emit wrwrwrwr [wer], sound", "matter", "boundary", "cross over", "answer". Phon. in "pass by", ssssḏḏḏḏ [sedj], "cut off", "flame", "break", "ploughlands", "mixed", "various", "drink". sw3sw3sw3sw3 [sōō-wä], ḫḫḫḫbsbsbsbs [kheb-ess], šbnšbnšbnšbn [ sheb-en]



86

Chapter 19 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +CT +CT +CT + PPPPLURAL DEPELURAL DEPELURAL DEPELURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNNDENT PRONOUNNDENT PRONOUNNDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OB DIRECT OB DIRECT OB DIRECT OBJECTJECTJECTJECT

19.1 19.1 19.1 19.1 PLURAL DEPENDENT PROPLURAL DEPENDENT PROPLURAL DEPENDENT PROPLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNS NOUNS NOUNS NOUNS ARE USEDARE USEDARE USEDARE USED AS DIRECT OBJECT AS DIRECT OBJECT AS DIRECT OBJECT AS DIRECT OBJECTSSSS.... As shown in the following,

the subject is indicated in black, the verb in red, and the direct object is the pronoun in green. HeHeHeHe heheheheaaaardrdrdrd usususus.... SSSShe he he he sawsawsawsaw youyouyouyou////themthemthemthem.... As in other plural pronouns, both the masculine and the feminine forms are identical and only context

can establish the gender of the dependent pronoun. The word order of the Egyptian sentence with a

suffix pronoun subject is:

VERB VERB VERB VERB ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT ECT ECT ECT ++++ DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN AS AS AS AS DIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECT 19.2 PLURAL DEPENDE19.2 PLURAL DEPENDE19.2 PLURAL DEPENDE19.2 PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUN USED AS DNT PRONOUN USED AS DNT PRONOUN USED AS DNT PRONOUN USED AS DIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECT A. PLURAL DEPENDENT A. PLURAL DEPENDENT A. PLURAL DEPENDENT A. PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNS MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSONPERSONPERSONPERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

us 1st us nnnn nnnn

you 2nd you ṯṯṯṯ nnnn ṯṯṯṯnnnn them 3rd them snsnsnsn snsnsnsn B. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURALB. USE OF THE PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS A DIRECT OBJECTS A DIRECT OBJECTS A DIRECT OBJECTS A DIRECT OBJECT

MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE PERSONPERSONPERSONPERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

He ferried us across. 1st They saw us. ḏḏḏḏ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f nnnn m33m33m33m33 ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅sn sn sn sn nnnn

She loves you. 2nd They sent you. mrmrmrmr⋅⋅⋅⋅s s s s ṯṯṯṯ nnnn h3bh3bh3bh3b ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅sn sn sn sn ṯṯṯṯnnnn

I fought them. 3rd You hear them. '''' ḫḫḫḫ3n3n3n3n⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì snsnsnsn [ä-hä-nē sen] ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k snsnsnsn 19.3 COMMENTARY19.3 COMMENTARY19.3 COMMENTARY19.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: There are many verbs in Egyptian that apparently at one time ended with , ----ìììì, or , ----wwww, but by Middle Egyptian those final letters were rarely written. These verbs, such as , mrmrmrmr, "love", some scholars


87

MMMMAP AP AP AP 19.419.419.419.4----1111 SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN §§§§19.419.419.419.4

transliterate with the final ----ìììì, e.g. mrmrmrmrìììì. Another example of a 3rd weak verb is prprprpr , "go out", which some also transliterate without the final ----ìììì. However, in this PrimerPrimerPrimerPrimer, these verbs will be written without the

final ----ìììì, e.g. mrmrmrmr. BBBB:::: The final ----ìììì has already been encountered with the verbs , ddddìììì, and , rdrdrdrdìììì, "give", and these two verbs will be written with a final ----ìììì . Some other examples of verbs where the third "weak" letter was normally written out1111 are: , smsmsmsmìììì, "report" and , tntntntnìììì, "to grow old". 19.4 SAKKARA19.4 SAKKARA19.4 SAKKARA19.4 SAKKARA The ancient necropolis was located on the west

bank of the Nile and stretched from Abu Rawash

(directly west of modern Cairo) southward some

35 kilometers (22 miles) to Dahshur. Scholars

have divided the necropolis into 6 geographical

sections from north to south: 1) Abu Rawash, 2)

Giza, 3) Zawyet el-'Aryan, 4) Abusir, 5) Sakkara,

and 6) Dahshur.

South of Giza lies the ancient necropolis of

Sakkara. It is located 20 kilometers (13 miles)

southwest of Cairo. and 5 kilometers (3 miles)

west of the ancient city of Memphis, the administrative and religious center of the 1st nome of Lower Egypt.

Sakkara probably derived its name from the god Sokar, the hawk god of the Memphite burial grounds.

The earliest tombs at Sakkara date to Dynasty 1 (3100-2890) and the earliest royal name yet discovered

there is that of Narmer (1-1), which was engraved on a porphyry bowl found in one of the storerooms of the

STEP PYRAMIDSTEP PYRAMIDSTEP PYRAMIDSTEP PYRAMID of the pharaoh Netjerykhet2222 (described in §15.4). In the center of the Sakkara necropolis

lies this Step Pyramid Complex of Djoser ([[[[AAAA]]]] in Fig. 19.4-2). Adjacent to its northeast corner lies the

Pyramid of Userkaf (5-1, 2494-2487) [B][B][B][B]. About 300 meters3333 to its northeast, the Pyramid of Teti (6-1,

2345-2333) [C[C[C[C]]]] is located. In a V-shaped line [[[[DDDD]]]] moving north from Teti's pyramid and returning in a

southwesterly directions towards the northwest corner of Djoser's enclosure wall are to be found the

1 For a selection of the more commonly used third weak verbs where the final - was not written, see EG 3, §281, p. 214. 2 It is thought that Netjerkhet (3-2, 2667-2648) sought to entomb artifacts from an earlier time in his own magazines as a way of returning them to their original, albeit deceased, owners. 3 From now on the metric system will be used, as it is favored by scientists of all nations. The student can easily convert kilometers to miles by multiplying by .6 for a rough approximation and by multiplying meters by 1.1 to obtain the distance in yards.


88

Map Map Map Map 19.419.419.419.4----2. The Sakkara Necropolis2. The Sakkara Necropolis2. The Sakkara Necropolis2. The Sakkara Necropolis SechmaticSechmaticSechmaticSechmatic: A: A: A: A----Djoser Complex, BDjoser Complex, BDjoser Complex, BDjoser Complex, B----Userkaf, Userkaf, Userkaf, Userkaf, CCCC----Teti, DTeti, DTeti, DTeti, D----OK Tombs, EOK Tombs, EOK Tombs, EOK Tombs, E----Serapeum, FSerapeum, FSerapeum, FSerapeum, F----Great Great Great Great Enclosure, GEnclosure, GEnclosure, GEnclosure, G----Unas, HUnas, HUnas, HUnas, H----SekhemkhetSekhemkhetSekhemkhetSekhemkhet

excavated tombs of officials and royalty of the Old

Kingdom. Interconnecting galleries containing the mummified

bodies of ibises, falcons, and baboons are located in the

center of this V-shaped area of the burial grounds.4444

Approximately 500 meters from the northwest corner of

Djoser's monument are located the SSSSERAPEUMERAPEUMERAPEUMERAPEUM and AAAAPIS BULL PIS BULL PIS BULL PIS BULL

GALLERIESGALLERIESGALLERIESGALLERIES [E][E][E][E] which date to the time of Ramesses II (19-3,

1304-1237). Here the mummified bodies of the sacred bulls

were placed in large stone sarcophagi inserted into niches

which were cut into long corridors under the desert floor.

Immediately south of the Apis Bull burial field, about 500

meters west of the Djoser complex, is located an area called

TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGREAT REAT REAT REAT EEEENCLOSURENCLOSURENCLOSURENCLOSURE [[[[F]F]F]F], which is not yet excavated but is

believed to contain a monument of an OK ruler.

Directly to the south of the centrally located Djoser

monument is located the PYRAMID OF UNAS PYRAMID OF UNAS PYRAMID OF UNAS PYRAMID OF UNAS (5-9, 2375-2345)

[G][G][G][G] with its causeway leading eastward to a valley temple.5555

Immediately southwest of the Unas pyramid are the

remains of the STEP PYRAMID OF SEKHSTEP PYRAMID OF SEKHSTEP PYRAMID OF SEKHSTEP PYRAMID OF SEKHEMKHETEMKHETEMKHETEMKHET (3-3, 2648-

2642) [H][H][H][H].

Some 750-2,000 m. south are located Dynasty 6 (2345-

2181) pyramids and another 750 m. further south are the two pyramids of Sakkara dating from Dynasty 13

(1786-1633). Thus, the entire Sakkara necropolis is about 8 km. long and varies from 500-1,500 m. in width.

The full form of a pyramid name generally included the name of the founding king in a CARTOUCHECARTOUCHECARTOUCHECARTOUCHE, 6666 which

preceded the rest of the place name. Often these royal names were omitted and the pyramid city's name

appeared in a shortened form.

4 P-J. Lauer has estimated that in these galleries alone there are over 1,000,0000 mummified ibises, most of which have not been excavated or examined. 5 Unas was the last king of the 5th Dynasty. His pyramid was the first one in which the interior walls were covered with hieroglyphics, the so-called "Pyramid Texts". 6 Cartouche is a French word for an ornamental tablet of stone, wood, or metal that contains an inscription. It is represented by the Sign V10, . The fourth and fifth names of a king's titulary were each enclosed in its own cartouche. The original cartouches were circular in shape, , Sign V9, but as the king's names grew in length, the design was adapted to the elongated configuration. The Egyptian cartouche represented a coiled double rope with its ends tied together. As it symbolically encircled the king's name, so too it probably represented the king as ruler of all "that which is encircled by the sun", as described in EG 3, p. 74.


89

TTTTHE NAMES OF THE HE NAMES OF THE HE NAMES OF THE HE NAMES OF THE 15151515 ROYAL PYRAMIDS FOUN ROYAL PYRAMIDS FOUN ROYAL PYRAMIDS FOUN ROYAL PYRAMIDS FOUND AT D AT D AT D AT SSSSAKKARA AREAKKARA AREAKKARA AREAKKARA ARE:::: PHAROAHPHAROAHPHAROAHPHAROAH REPRESEN REPRESEN REPRESEN REPRESENTTTTATIONATIONATIONATION NAMENAMENAMENAME

NNNNETJERYKHET ETJERYKHET ETJERYKHET ETJERYKHET (3(3(3(3----2)2)2)2) THETHETHETHE STEPSTEPSTEPSTEP PYRAMIPYRAMIPYRAMIPYRAMIDDDD

SSSSEKHEMKHET EKHEMKHET EKHEMKHET EKHEMKHET (3(3(3(3----3)3)3)3) TTTTHEHEHEHE BURIEDBURIEDBURIEDBURIED PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID

UUUUNKNOWNNKNOWNNKNOWNNKNOWN ((((DDDDYNASTY YNASTY YNASTY YNASTY 3333?)?)?)?) TTTTHEHEHEHE GREATGREATGREATGREAT ENCLOSUREENCLOSUREENCLOSUREENCLOSURE

SSSSHEPSESKAF HEPSESKAF HEPSESKAF HEPSESKAF (4(4(4(4----7)7)7)7) THETHETHETHE PURIFIEDPURIFIEDPURIFIEDPURIFIED PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID ḳḳḳḳbbbbḥḥḥḥwwww

UUUUSERKAF SERKAF SERKAF SERKAF (5(5(5(5----1)1)1)1) THETHETHETHE PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID WHICHWHICHWHICHWHICH ISISISIS PUREPUREPUREPURE OFOFOFOF PLACESPLACESPLACESPLACES w'b swtw'b swtw'b swtw'b swt IIIISESI SESI SESI SESI (5(5(5(5----8)8)8)8) THETHETHETHE BEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFUL PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID nfrnfrnfrnfr

UUUUNAS NAS NAS NAS (5(5(5(5----9)9)9)9) THETHETHETHE PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID WHICHWHICHWHICHWHICH ISISISIS BEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFUL OFOFOFOF PLACESPLACESPLACESPLACES nfr swtnfr swtnfr swtnfr swt

TTTTETI ETI ETI ETI (6(6(6(6----1)1)1)1) THETHETHETHE PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID WHICHWHICHWHICHWHICH ISISISIS ENDURINGENDURINGENDURINGENDURING OOOOFFFF PLACESPLACESPLACESPLACES ḏḏḏḏd swtd swtd swtd swt

PPPPEPI EPI EPI EPI IIII (6(6(6(6----3)3)3)3) THETHETHETHE PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID WHICHWHICHWHICHWHICH ISISISIS ESTABLISHEDESTABLISHEDESTABLISHEDESTABLISHED ANDANDANDAND BEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFUL 7777 mmmm n nfrn nfrn nfrn nfr MMMMERENRE ERENRE ERENRE ERENRE (6(6(6(6----4)4)4)4) THTHTHTHEEEE SHININGSHININGSHININGSHINING ANDANDANDAND BEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFULBEAUTIFUL PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID ḫḫḫḫ' nfr' nfr' nfr' nfr

PPPPEPI EPI EPI EPI IIIIIIII (6(6(6(6----5)5)5)5) THETHETHETHE ESTABLISHEDESTABLISHEDESTABLISHEDESTABLISHED ANDANDANDAND LIVINGLIVINGLIVINGLIVING PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID mmmmnnnnn'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ IIIIBI BI BI BI (8(8(8(8----3)3)3)3) UNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWN

MMMMERYKARE ERYKARE ERYKARE ERYKARE (10(10(10(10----?)?)?)?) THETHETHETHE PYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMIDPYRAMID WHICHWHICHWHICHWHICH ISISISIS FLOURIFLOURIFLOURIFLOURISHINSHINSHINSHINGGGG OFOFOFOF PLACESPLACESPLACESPLACES w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ swt swt swt swt KKKKHENJER HENJER HENJER HENJER (13(13(13(13----?)?)?)?) UNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWN UUUUNKNOWNNKNOWNNKNOWNNKNOWN 13?)13?)13?)13?) UNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWNUNKNOWN

7 The great Egyptian city of Memphis, mn nfr, opposite Sakkara in the Nile Valley, derived its name from this pyramid of Pepi I.


90

One of the most famous archaeologists to work at Sakkara, P-J. Lauer, aptly described the lively decoration

of these Memphite tombs of the Old Kingdom:

They would depict most of the daily activities of the owner of the tomb so that his ka could reThey would depict most of the daily activities of the owner of the tomb so that his ka could reThey would depict most of the daily activities of the owner of the tomb so that his ka could reThey would depict most of the daily activities of the owner of the tomb so that his ka could re----live them for ever thanks to the magical polive them for ever thanks to the magical polive them for ever thanks to the magical polive them for ever thanks to the magical powers of the pictures placed at wers of the pictures placed at wers of the pictures placed at wers of the pictures placed at his disposal. The his disposal. The his disposal. The his disposal. The reliefs generally represented the decereliefs generally represented the decereliefs generally represented the decereliefs generally represented the deceased with his wife at his side and his children at his feet, ased with his wife at his side and his children at his feet, ased with his wife at his side and his children at his feet, ased with his wife at his side and his children at his feet, and only during the happier moments of his life, carefully chosen for the ka. and only during the happier moments of his life, carefully chosen for the ka. and only during the happier moments of his life, carefully chosen for the ka. and only during the happier moments of his life, carefully chosen for the ka. I cannot do better I cannot do better I cannot do better I cannot do better than quote from Alexandre Moret's Au temps des pharaons (pp. 183than quote from Alexandre Moret's Au temps des pharaons (pp. 183than quote from Alexandre Moret's Au temps des pharaons (pp. 183than quote from Alexandre Moret's Au temps des pharaons (pp. 183----4), in which he has 4), in which he has 4), in which he has 4), in which he has authoritativauthoritativauthoritativauthoritatively explained the meaning of the development of these scenes: 'All around, ely explained the meaning of the development of these scenes: 'All around, ely explained the meaning of the development of these scenes: 'All around, ely explained the meaning of the development of these scenes: 'All around, servants bring provisions of food, clothing, and the necessary furniture; the making and origin servants bring provisions of food, clothing, and the necessary furniture; the making and origin servants bring provisions of food, clothing, and the necessary furniture; the making and origin servants bring provisions of food, clothing, and the necessary furniture; the making and origin of each offering is used for the decoration. of each offering is used for the decoration. of each offering is used for the decoration. of each offering is used for the decoration. Thus, to explain the offering of a leg Thus, to explain the offering of a leg Thus, to explain the offering of a leg Thus, to explain the offering of a leg of beef, they of beef, they of beef, they of beef, they show animals feeding in the pasture, the mounting of the cow, the birth of the calf, and scenes show animals feeding in the pasture, the mounting of the cow, the birth of the calf, and scenes show animals feeding in the pasture, the mounting of the cow, the birth of the calf, and scenes show animals feeding in the pasture, the mounting of the cow, the birth of the calf, and scenes of agricultural life up to of agricultural life up to of agricultural life up to of agricultural life up to the slaughter of the animal; the offering of bread made it necessary to the slaughter of the animal; the offering of bread made it necessary to the slaughter of the animal; the offering of bread made it necessary to the slaughter of the animal; the offering of bread made it necessary to have scenes of tilling, harvesting and baking; have scenes of tilling, harvesting and baking; have scenes of tilling, harvesting and baking; have scenes of tilling, harvesting and baking; the offering of wine was the excuse to show the offering of wine was the excuse to show the offering of wine was the excuse to show the offering of wine was the excuse to show vineyards and grapevineyards and grapevineyards and grapevineyards and grape----gathering; offerings of furred and feathered game and of fish made it gathering; offerings of furred and feathered game and of fish made it gathering; offerings of furred and feathered game and of fish made it gathering; offerings of furred and feathered game and of fish made it necessary to show scenes of hunting in the desert and fishing by line or net. Each of the necessary to show scenes of hunting in the desert and fishing by line or net. Each of the necessary to show scenes of hunting in the desert and fishing by line or net. Each of the necessary to show scenes of hunting in the desert and fishing by line or net. Each of the objects of the funerary furnituobjects of the funerary furnituobjects of the funerary furnituobjects of the funerary furniture re re re –––– shrine, coffin, bed, vessels, clothing, arms or jewels shrine, coffin, bed, vessels, clothing, arms or jewels shrine, coffin, bed, vessels, clothing, arms or jewels shrine, coffin, bed, vessels, clothing, arms or jewels –––– gave gave gave gave rise to descriptions of the methods of manufacture of these objects; thus we can see, plying rise to descriptions of the methods of manufacture of these objects; thus we can see, plying rise to descriptions of the methods of manufacture of these objects; thus we can see, plying rise to descriptions of the methods of manufacture of these objects; thus we can see, plying their trades, carpenters, foundrymen, armourers, weavers and jewelers. Even the purchase of their trades, carpenters, foundrymen, armourers, weavers and jewelers. Even the purchase of their trades, carpenters, foundrymen, armourers, weavers and jewelers. Even the purchase of their trades, carpenters, foundrymen, armourers, weavers and jewelers. Even the purchase of proproproprovisions in the market and the drawing up of household accounts are used as decorative visions in the market and the drawing up of household accounts are used as decorative visions in the market and the drawing up of household accounts are used as decorative visions in the market and the drawing up of household accounts are used as decorative objects. The soul and the body of the deceased reobjects. The soul and the body of the deceased reobjects. The soul and the body of the deceased reobjects. The soul and the body of the deceased re----lived perpetually the sculpted scenes: the lived perpetually the sculpted scenes: the lived perpetually the sculpted scenes: the lived perpetually the sculpted scenes: the act depicted became a reality, each picture of a being or object recaptured,act depicted became a reality, each picture of a being or object recaptured,act depicted became a reality, each picture of a being or object recaptured,act depicted became a reality, each picture of a being or object recaptured, for a moment, its for a moment, its for a moment, its for a moment, its ka and came to life according to the wish of the god who lived in the tomb ...' ka and came to life according to the wish of the god who lived in the tomb ...' ka and came to life according to the wish of the god who lived in the tomb ...' ka and came to life according to the wish of the god who lived in the tomb ...' 8888

These tomb scenes present a picture of the life and times of ancient Egypt in the OK, albeit idealized, but

they are in many cases our only source for information regarding a particular individual or activity.

One of the more spectacular mastabas is that of Ti, a noble of Dynasty 5, located 500 meters northwest of

the Djoser complex and about 200 meters northeast of the Serapeum. The walls of his tomb are covered

with extensive reliefs of every day life in the OK, and include shipwrights at work, fishermen, sculptors,

agricultural pursuits, and offering bearers with their gifts.

In a similar fashion, the mastaba of the vizier Mereruka,9999 which is located adjacent to the northwest corner

of Teti's pyramid, contains representations of hunting and water scenes, watering gardens, goldsmiths and

jewelers at work, adolescents playing various games, and the forced feeding of animals such as goats,

antelopes, and hyenas.

8 P-J. Lauer, Saqqara, p. 14. 9 Mereruka was the husband of Princess Har-watet-khef, a daughter of Teti.


91

FIGFIGFIGFIG.... 19.419.419.419.4----1.1.1.1. CONSTRUCTING A WAL CONSTRUCTING A WAL CONSTRUCTING A WAL CONSTRUCTING A WALLLLL.... FIG FIG FIG FIG.... 19.419.419.419.4----2.2.2.2. ENGRAVIN ENGRAVIN ENGRAVIN ENGRAVING AND POLISHING VASEG AND POLISHING VASEG AND POLISHING VASEG AND POLISHING VASESSSS IN SILVER IN SILVER IN SILVER IN SILVER AND GOLD AND GOLD AND GOLD AND GOLD....

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 19.419.419.419.4----3.3.3.3. FOWLING IN THE MAR FOWLING IN THE MAR FOWLING IN THE MAR FOWLING IN THE MARSHES FROM THE TOMB OSHES FROM THE TOMB OSHES FROM THE TOMB OSHES FROM THE TOMB OF NEBAMUNF NEBAMUNF NEBAMUNF NEBAMUN,,,, CCCC.... 1350,1350,1350,1350, BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM BRITISH MUSEUM,,,, LONDON LONDON LONDON LONDON....

From the tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt, Dynasty 18, c. 1450 BCE:


92


A19:A19:A19:A19: ììììwwww [ēw] BENTBENTBENTBENT MAN LEANING ON A STIMAN LEANING ON A STIMAN LEANING ON A STIMAN LEANING ON A STICKCKCKCK.... Cannot always be distinguished from A21, .

ṯṯṯṯnnnnìììì [tchnē] Logo. or det. in or , ìììì3w3w3w3w, "old". Det. in ṯṯṯṯnnnnìììì, "old man".

D34:D34:D34:D34: ARMSARMSARMSARMS HOLDING SHIELD HOLDING SHIELD HOLDING SHIELD HOLDING SHIELD AND BATTLE AXE AND BATTLE AXE AND BATTLE AXE AND BATTLE AXE.... Logo. in "fight" and derivatives.

M13:M13:M13:M13: wwww3333ḏḏḏḏ [wädj] STEM OF PAPYRUSSTEM OF PAPYRUSSTEM OF PAPYRUSSTEM OF PAPYRUS.... Logo. in w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ, "papyrus column". O24: PYRAMID WITH SIDE OFPYRAMID WITH SIDE OFPYRAMID WITH SIDE OFPYRAMID WITH SIDE OF SURROUNDING WALL SURROUNDING WALL SURROUNDING WALL SURROUNDING WALL.... Det. in mr, "pyramid", "tomb", and in names of specific royal pyramids. Q6:Q6:Q6:Q6: COFFIN COFFIN COFFIN COFFIN ((((VARIES MUCH IN FORMVARIES MUCH IN FORMVARIES MUCH IN FORMVARIES MUCH IN FORM).).).). Det. in ḳrsw, "coffin", and in ḳḳḳḳrsrsrsrs, "bury". V9:V9:V9:V9: CARTOUCHE IN ROUND FCARTOUCHE IN ROUND FCARTOUCHE IN ROUND FCARTOUCHE IN ROUND FORMORMORMORM.... Det. in ššššnwnwnwnw, "cartouche". Possibly a double rope encircling (šnI) the entire region ruled over by the sun or by the king as a later embodiment of the sun. V10:V10:V10:V10: CARTOUCHE IN SECONDACARTOUCHE IN SECONDACARTOUCHE IN SECONDACARTOUCHE IN SECONDARY OVAL RY OVAL RY OVAL RY OVAL FORMFORMFORMFORM.... Det. in ššššnwnwnwnw, "circuit", rrrr nnnn, "name". W14:W14:W14:W14: TALL WATER POTTALL WATER POTTALL WATER POTTALL WATER POT.... Logo. or det. in ḥḥḥḥstststst, "water pot". Phon. in ḥḥḥḥssssìììì, "praise". Det. in snb(t)snb(t)snb(t)snb(t), "jar". W15:W15:W15:W15: WATER POTWATER POTWATER POTWATER POT,,,, W W W W14,14,14,14, WITH WATER POURING WITH WATER POURING WITH WATER POURING WITH WATER POURING FROM ITFROM ITFROM ITFROM IT.... Logo. or det. in ḳḳḳḳbbbbḥḥḥḥ, "libate".


93

11119999.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


94

Chapter 20

PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECPRONOUN DIRECT OBJECPRONOUN DIRECT OBJECPRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTTTT WITH NOUN SUBJECT WITH NOUN SUBJECT WITH NOUN SUBJECT WITH NOUN SUBJECT 20.120.120.120.1 CHAPTERSCHAPTERSCHAPTERSCHAPTERS 16 16 16 16----19191919 SHOW THAT THE WORD SHOW THAT THE WORD SHOW THAT THE WORD SHOW THAT THE WORD ORDER IN THE EGYPTIAORDER IN THE EGYPTIAORDER IN THE EGYPTIAORDER IN THE EGYPTIAN SENTENCE IS:N SENTENCE IS:N SENTENCE IS:N SENTENCE IS:

VERB VERB VERB VERB ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT + NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN DIRECT OBJEDIRECT OBJEDIRECT OBJEDIRECT OBJECTCTCTCT,,,, orororor

VERB VERB VERB VERB + + + + PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT + PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECTDIRECT OBJECT,,,, orororor

VERB VERB VERB VERB ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT +SUBJECT + NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN DIRECT OBJECDIRECT OBJECDIRECT OBJECDIRECT OBJECTTTT.... IN ENGLISH, THE WORDIN ENGLISH, THE WORDIN ENGLISH, THE WORDIN ENGLISH, THE WORD ORDER DOES NOT CHAN ORDER DOES NOT CHAN ORDER DOES NOT CHAN ORDER DOES NOT CHANGE WHEN THE SUBJECT GE WHEN THE SUBJECT GE WHEN THE SUBJECT GE WHEN THE SUBJECT IS A NOUN AND THE IS A NOUN AND THE IS A NOUN AND THE IS A NOUN AND THE

DIRECT OBJECT IS A PDIRECT OBJECT IS A PDIRECT OBJECT IS A PDIRECT OBJECT IS A PRONOUN. RONOUN. RONOUN. RONOUN. However, IN EGYPTIAN IN EGYPTIAN IN EGYPTIAN IN EGYPTIAN THE ORDER CHANGESTHE ORDER CHANGESTHE ORDER CHANGESTHE ORDER CHANGES WHEN WHEN WHEN WHEN THE SUBJECT THE SUBJECT THE SUBJECT THE SUBJECT

IS A NOUN AND THE DIIS A NOUN AND THE DIIS A NOUN AND THE DIIS A NOUN AND THE DIRECT RECT RECT RECT OBJECTOBJECTOBJECTOBJECT IS A PRONOUN IS A PRONOUN IS A PRONOUN IS A PRONOUN. IN THIS. IN THIS. IN THIS. IN THIS CASE, CASE, CASE, CASE, THE PRONOUN DIRECT OTHE PRONOUN DIRECT OTHE PRONOUN DIRECT OTHE PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT BJECT BJECT BJECT

FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE VERBAFTER THE VERBAFTER THE VERBAFTER THE VERB AND PRECEDES THE NO AND PRECEDES THE NO AND PRECEDES THE NO AND PRECEDES THE NOUN SUBJECT. UN SUBJECT. UN SUBJECT. UN SUBJECT. The word order is:

VERVERVERVERB B B B ++++ PRONOU PRONOU PRONOU PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT +N DIRECT OBJECT +N DIRECT OBJECT +N DIRECT OBJECT + NOU NOU NOU NOUN SUBJECTN SUBJECTN SUBJECTN SUBJECT

THE RELATIONSHIP BETTHE RELATIONSHIP BETTHE RELATIONSHIP BETTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWWWWEEN SUBJECT AND DIREEEN SUBJECT AND DIREEEN SUBJECT AND DIREEEN SUBJECT AND DIRECT OBJECT IS EXPRESSCT OBJECT IS EXPRESSCT OBJECT IS EXPRESSCT OBJECT IS EXPRESSED IN THED IN THED IN THED IN THIS IS IS IS RULE:RULE:RULE:RULE:

A NOUN SUBJECTA NOUN SUBJECTA NOUN SUBJECTA NOUN SUBJECT CANNOT PRECEDE A PR CANNOT PRECEDE A PR CANNOT PRECEDE A PR CANNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTONOUN DIRECT OBJECTONOUN DIRECT OBJECTONOUN DIRECT OBJECT 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 EXAMPLES OF THE EXAMPLES OF THE EXAMPLES OF THE EXAMPLES OF THE DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIDEPENDENT PRONOUN DIDEPENDENT PRONOUN DIDEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT FOLLOWINRECT OBJECT FOLLOWINRECT OBJECT FOLLOWINRECT OBJECT FOLLOWING THE VERB ANDG THE VERB ANDG THE VERB ANDG THE VERB AND PRECEDING THE NPRECEDING THE NPRECEDING THE NPRECEDING THE NOUN OUN OUN OUN SUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECT A. SINGULAR DEPENDENA. SINGULAR DEPENDENA. SINGULAR DEPENDENA. SINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUNST PRONOUNST PRONOUNST PRONOUNS

,,,, His Majesty sent me. h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn wwwwìììì ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

,,,, Your lord will send you. h3bh3bh3bh3b ṯṯṯṯwwww nb nb nb nb⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk

,,,, The scribe hears her. ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm sysysysy s s s sšššš

B. PLURAL DEPENDENT B. PLURAL DEPENDENT B. PLURAL DEPENDENT B. PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNSPRONOUNS ,,,, The caravan leaders summoned us.

ìììì3333šššš⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn nnnn ììììmymymymy----r 'wwr 'wwr 'wwr 'ww

,,,, The general summoned you. ìììì3s3s3s3s⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ṯṯṯṯnnnn ììììmymymymy----r mr mr mr mšššš'w'w'w'w

,,,, TTTThe overseer of the estate summoned them. ìììì3333šššš⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn snsnsnsn ììììmymymymy----r r r r ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt


95


20.3 COMMENTARY20.3 COMMENTARY20.3 COMMENTARY20.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: ììììmymymymy----rrrr TITLESTITLESTITLESTITLES:::: ììììmymymymy----rrrr, "overseer", lit. "one who is in the mouth", i.e. "the one who gives the word", is a title usually followed by a particular office. Some of the offices where an ììììmymymymy----rrrr might represent the top administrator included: or ììììmymymymy----r prr prr prr pr, "steward", lit. "overseer of the house" and the OK title

ììììmymymymy----r r r r ḥḥḥḥm(w)m(w)m(w)m(w)----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr, "High PriestHigh PriestHigh PriestHigh Priest", lit. "overseer of priest(s)". Notice that the singular form for

"priest", ḥḥḥḥmmmm----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr was used even though it is clear that an overseer would administer more than one priest. BBBB:::: ììììmymymymy----r nr nr nr nììììwtwtwtwt, "overseer of the city", a title normally held by the vizier. It should be noted that

is often represented by , F20, the tongue of an ox. Since the tongue is "in the mouth", a phrase which

would translate into Egyptian as ìmy-r, such expressions are defined as "sportive writing" because of the implied visual pun.

CCCC:::: is an Old Kingdom writing of ììììmymymymy----rrrr . From the Middle Kingdom on, ììììmymymymy----rrrr was often written , and

thus this form can serve as a terminus ante quem (§11.3) for the text in which it is found. DDDD:::: ììììmymymymy----r mr mr mr mšššš'w 'w 'w 'w , while conventionally translated as "general", is lit. "an overseer of the army".

EEEE:::: The 'ww'ww'ww'ww, were mercenary soldiers or caravaneers, very often from Nubia, the country immediately

to the south of Upper Egypt. FFFF:::: ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt, can be a temple, funeral chapel, administrative district, or an estate. 20.4 20.4 20.4 20.4 THE PRINCIPAL CROWNSTHE PRINCIPAL CROWNSTHE PRINCIPAL CROWNSTHE PRINCIPAL CROWNS OF EGYPT OF EGYPT OF EGYPT OF EGYPT During the Late Pre-Dynastic period (3500-3150), Buto, located in the west

central section of the Nile Delta, emerged as the capital of Lower Egypt.

Its rulers wore the so-called RRRRED ED ED ED CCCCROWNROWNROWNROWN, ddddššššrtrtrtrt. Neith, the goddess of war and hunting, is often portrayed wearing the Red Crown.

At about the same time, Hierakonpolis which lay on the west bank of the

Nile approximately 110 km. north of Elephantine (modern Aswan), became

the capital of Upper Egypt. Its rulers wore a tall, conical crown, the WWWWHITE HITE HITE HITE

CCCCROWNROWNROWNROWN, , ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏtttt. It should be noted that Osiris was often shown wearing the White Crown.

One of the earliest portrayals of a king wearing the Red Crown is on the

obverse of Narmer's Palette (see Fig. 7.4-1), while on the reverse he is

depicted wearing the White Crown. These two scenes have led some

scholars to equate Narmer (1-1, fl. 3100) with Menes, the king of Upper

Egypt who conquered Lower Egypt.


96

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 20.420.420.420.4----1.1.1.1. CORONATION SCENE I CORONATION SCENE I CORONATION SCENE I CORONATION SCENE IN THE TEMPLE AT N THE TEMPLE AT N THE TEMPLE AT N THE TEMPLE AT EDFU EDFU EDFU EDFU.... THE YOUNG PHARAOH THE YOUNG PHARAOH THE YOUNG PHARAOH THE YOUNG PHARAOH IS CROWNED IS CROWNED IS CROWNED IS CROWNED BY THE GODD BY THE GODD BY THE GODD BY THE GODDESS OF LOWER EGYPT ESS OF LOWER EGYPT ESS OF LOWER EGYPT ESS OF LOWER EGYPT ((((LLLL),),),), w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏtttt, , , , AND THE GODDESS OF UAND THE GODDESS OF UAND THE GODDESS OF UAND THE GODDESS OF UPPER PPER PPER PPER EGYPT EGYPT EGYPT EGYPT ((((RRRR),),),), nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt, 1984., 1984., 1984., 1984.

After the unification of Egypt, when the ruler was

functioning as the administrator of Upper Egypt,

he wore the White Crown and while conducting

affairs of state concerning Lower Egypt, he wore

the Red Crown.

3tf3tf3tf3tf, the AAAATEF TEF TEF TEF CCCCROWNROWNROWNROWN 1111 consisted of a central

crown mounted upon two ram's horns and flanked

by two ostrich feathers. The central conical

piece, similar to the White Crown, was sometimes

depicted as a bundle, knotted at the top. The king

and Osiris were often depicted wearing the Atef

Crown, as shown in Fig. 12.4-1.

The first known appearance of the DDDDOUBLE OUBLE OUBLE OUBLE CCCCROWNROWNROWNROWN,

ssssḫḫḫḫmtymtymtymty, was in the reign of Den (1-5). The god Horus was frequently depicted wearing the Double

Crown. Note in Fig. 20.4-1 that w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏtttt, goddess of Lower Egypt, wears the ddddššššrtrtrtrt crown and nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt, goddess of Upper Egypt wears the ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏtttt crown, while the king wears the combined ssssḫḫḫḫmtymtymtymty crown.

In the Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567),

the BBBBLUE LUE LUE LUE CCCCROWNROWNROWNROWN, ḫḫḫḫprprprpršššš, made its first appearance, becoming quite common in the New

Kingdom (1567-1085). It was probably a form of

war crown 2222, made of leather with metal disks sewn upon it to serve as insignia to indicate the pharaoh.

The royal crowns were kept in special shrines under the direct care and supervision of a specific court

official. This procedure not only ensured their safety but also prevented them from falling into

unauthorized hands. Unfortunately, not one single example of an ancient Egyptian crown has been found.

1 The earliet depiction of this crown is from the reign of Sahure (5-2, 2494-2487).

2 In the temple of Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) at Abydos, there is a scene showing the king wearing the Blue Crown, while burning incense to the god Osiris-Andjety.


97

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 20.420.420.420.4----2222 FACADE OF THE REL FACADE OF THE REL FACADE OF THE REL FACADE OF THE RELOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMESSES ESSES ESSES ESSES II,II,II,II, ABU SIMBEL ABU SIMBEL ABU SIMBEL ABU SIMBEL,,,, 1984.1984.1984.1984.

Rulers were often depicted wearing the nemes, or royal headdress, which consisted of a head covering and

two lappets, draped on either side of the head. An uraeus, a representation of the goddess w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏtttt, Wadjet

in her form as an upraised cobra, normally adorned the king's brow when he was shown wearing the nemes.

The earliest example of a nemes dates to Redjedef (4-3, 2566-2558). Two particularly memorable

examples depicting the nemes are the Sphinx (Fig. 11.4-1), probably a statue of Khaefre (4-4, 2558-2533),

and the gold mask of Tutankhamun (18-2, 1361-1352), as shown in Fig. 38.4-2.

Fig. 20.4-2 shows four colossi of the seated Usermaatre Ramesses (19-3, 1304-1237). The statues are 20

meters high and each show the king wearing the ssssḫḫḫḫmtymtymtymty crown with an uraeus affixed to his forehead. The side lappets of his nemes rest upon his shoulders. At his feet are smaller statues of his wives and children.

An earthquake probably caused the fall of the upper section of the headless statue. The temple and its

statues were moved from their original location by an international consortium from 1964 to 1968, when the

rising waters of Lake Nasser threatened their submersion.


98

20.5 DESCRIPTION OF20.5 DESCRIPTION OF20.5 DESCRIPTION OF20.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIONNNN DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A9A9A9A9:::: MAN HOLD BASKET MAN HOLD BASKET MAN HOLD BASKET MAN HOLD BASKET W10W10W10W10 ON HEAD ON HEAD ON HEAD ON HEAD.... Det. in 3tp3tp3tp3tp , "load"; k3tk3tk3tk3t, "work"; 3tpw3tpw3tpw3tpw, "cargo". D28:D28:D28:D28: k3k3k3k3 [kä] ARMS EXTENDED SO AS ARMS EXTENDED SO AS ARMS EXTENDED SO AS ARMS EXTENDED SO AS TO EMBRACETO EMBRACETO EMBRACETO EMBRACE???? Logo. for k3k3k3k3, "soul", "spirit:. F20:F20:F20:F20: nsnsnsns PERHAPS AN OX TONGUEPERHAPS AN OX TONGUEPERHAPS AN OX TONGUEPERHAPS AN OX TONGUE.... Logo. in "tongue". Det. in actions connected with the tongue. Sportive logo. in ììììmymymymy----rrrr , "overseer", lit. "one who is the mouth". G27:G27:G27:G27: ḏḏḏḏsrsrsrsr [deshâr] FLAMINGOFLAMINGOFLAMINGOFLAMINGO.... Also used in "red" and derivatives. O6:O6:O6:O6: RECTANGULAR ENCLOSURRECTANGULAR ENCLOSURRECTANGULAR ENCLOSURRECTANGULAR ENCLOSURE VIEWED FROM ABOVEE VIEWED FROM ABOVEE VIEWED FROM ABOVEE VIEWED FROM ABOVE.... Logo. in "castle", "mansion", "temple", "tomb". O39:O39:O39:O39: STONE SLAB OR BRICK STONE SLAB OR BRICK STONE SLAB OR BRICK STONE SLAB OR BRICK ((((SOMETIMES LARGE LIKESOMETIMES LARGE LIKESOMETIMES LARGE LIKESOMETIMES LARGE LIKE N37N37N37N37)))).... Det. in ììììnrnrnrnr, "stone" or where N37 is similarly used. S1:S1:S1:S1: THE WTHE WTHE WTHE WHITE CROWN OF UPPER HITE CROWN OF UPPER HITE CROWN OF UPPER HITE CROWN OF UPPER EGYPTEGYPTEGYPTEGYPT.... Logo/det. in ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏtttt , "the white crown". S3:S3:S3:S3: THE RTHE RTHE RTHE REEEED CROWN OF LOWER EGYD CROWN OF LOWER EGYD CROWN OF LOWER EGYD CROWN OF LOWER EGYPTPTPTPT.... Logo/det. in ddddššššrtrtrtrt, "the red crown". S5:S5:S5:S5: COMBINED WHITE AND RCOMBINED WHITE AND RCOMBINED WHITE AND RCOMBINED WHITE AND RED CROWNSED CROWNSED CROWNSED CROWNS.... Det. in double crown, , ssssḫḫḫḫmtymtymtymty, "the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt", lit. "the two powerful ones". Note the two parallel strokes to indicate the dual. S7:S7:S7:S7: THE BLUE CROWNTHE BLUE CROWNTHE BLUE CROWNTHE BLUE CROWN.... Logo/det. in ḫḫḫḫprprprpršššš,,,, "the blue crown" or "the war crown". S8:S8:S8:S8: THE ATEF CROWNTHE ATEF CROWNTHE ATEF CROWNTHE ATEF CROWN.... Logo/det. in 3tf3tf3tf3tf, "the atef crown". S25:S25:S25:S25: A GARMENTA GARMENTA GARMENTA GARMENT,,,, POSSIBLY A SKIRT POSSIBLY A SKIRT POSSIBLY A SKIRT POSSIBLY A SKIRT.... Det. in 'w'w'w'w, "caravaneer", "mercenary", "translator". S42:S42:S42:S42: ḫḫḫḫrprprprp [kherep], SCEPTER OF AUTHORITYSCEPTER OF AUTHORITYSCEPTER OF AUTHORITYSCEPTER OF AUTHORITY.... Logo/det. in ḫḫḫḫrprprprp, "be at the head of", "control".

'b3b3b3b3 [äbä], In titles is often read ḫḫḫḫrprprprp as in ḫḫḫḫrp k3trp k3trp k3trp k3t, "controller of the works".

ssssḫḫḫḫmmmm [sekhem] Logo/det. In , , 'b3'b3'b3'b3, "the aba-scepter". Also referred to as the

"sekhem-scepter". Phon. det. in 'b3'b3'b3'b3, "stela". Phon. in ssssḫḫḫḫmmmm, "power". W10:W10:W10:W10: ìììì'b'b'b'b [eäb], CUP CUP CUP CUP ((((PROBABLY SOMETIMES APROBABLY SOMETIMES APROBABLY SOMETIMES APROBABLY SOMETIMES ALSO A BASKETLSO A BASKETLSO A BASKETLSO A BASKET)))). Det in ìììì'b'b'b'b, "cup". Phon.

ḥḥḥḥntntntnt [henet], det. in ìììì'b'b'b'b, "unite". Det. in , ḥḥḥḥntntntnt, "cup". Det. in wswswswsḫḫḫḫ, "be wswswswsḫḫḫḫ [wesekh] wide".


99



100

Chapter 21

THE THE THE THE AAAATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVE 21.1 ADJECTIVES ARE WORDSADJECTIVES ARE WORDSADJECTIVES ARE WORDSADJECTIVES ARE WORDS WHICH DESCRIBE WHICH DESCRIBE WHICH DESCRIBE WHICH DESCRIBE NOUNNOUNNOUNNOUNS OR PRONOUNS.S OR PRONOUNS.S OR PRONOUNS.S OR PRONOUNS. Adjectives indicate "what

kind", "how many", "which one", etc. T T T THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPHERE ARE SEVERAL TYPHERE ARE SEVERAL TYPHERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF ADJECTIVESES OF ADJECTIVESES OF ADJECTIVESES OF ADJECTIVES AND AND AND AND THIS THIS THIS THIS

CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER FOCUSES ON THE LARGEFOCUSES ON THE LARGEFOCUSES ON THE LARGEFOCUSES ON THE LARGEST GROUP, ST GROUP, ST GROUP, ST GROUP, ATATATATTTTTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.RIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.RIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.RIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. In English, the

attributive adjective precedes the word it modifies, e.g. "small dogs", "small black dogs". However,

in Egyptian, an attributive adjective usually follows the noun and agrees with it in number and gender

for the masculine and feminine singular and the masculine plural nouns. It should be noted that for

most feminine plural nouns, the feminine singular adjective is used.

An exception to this rule that an adjective follows the noun it modifies is the adjective "other", which

precedes the noun it modifies.

21.2 NOUN + NOUN + NOUN + NOUN + ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVE

A. A. A. A. SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR NOUNNOUNNOUNNOUN + + + + SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR ADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVE MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE the good man the great lady

s s s s nfrnfrnfrnfr nbt nbt nbt nbt wrwrwrwr tttt

a tall tree the vile country ḫḫḫḫt t t t ḳḳḳḳ3333 ḫḫḫḫ3st 3st 3st 3st ẖẖẖẖstststst B. PLURAL NOUNB. PLURAL NOUNB. PLURAL NOUNB. PLURAL NOUN + + + + PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL ADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVEADJECTIVE MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

the great lords the good countries nbw nbw nbw nbw wrwwrwwrwwrw ḫḫḫḫ3s(w)t 3s(w)t 3s(w)t 3s(w)t nfrnfrnfrnfr tttt

the excellent brothers her little sisters snsnsnsn w w w w ììììḳḳḳḳrwrwrwrw snsnsnsn wtwtwtwt⋅⋅⋅⋅s s s s kttkttkttktt C. C. C. C. DUAL DUAL DUAL DUAL NOUNOUNOUNOUN + DUAL ADJN + DUAL ADJN + DUAL ADJN + DUAL ADJECTIVEECTIVEECTIVEECTIVE MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

a strong pair of brothers a beautiful pair of sisters snsnsnsn wy wy wy wy nnnnḫḫḫḫtwytwytwytwy snty nfr(ty)snty nfr(ty)snty nfr(ty)snty nfr(ty)

two red houses green eyes prwy prwy prwy prwy ddddššššrwyrwyrwyrwy ììììrty rty rty rty w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏtytytyty D. D. D. D. THE ADJECTIVE "THE ADJECTIVE "THE ADJECTIVE "THE ADJECTIVE "OTHEROTHEROTHEROTHER" PRECEDES THE NOUN " PRECEDES THE NOUN " PRECEDES THE NOUN " PRECEDES THE NOUN IT MODIT MODIT MODIT MODIFIESIFIESIFIESIFIES MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

his other name the other city kykykyky rn rn rn rn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff ktktktkt n n n nììììwtwtwtwt PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL

the other courtiers the other bad sisters kywykywykywykywy smr(w) smr(w) smr(w) smr(w) ktktktkt snwt snwt snwt snwt bintbintbintbint


101


A:A:A:A: As a rule, the feminine plural nouns are used with the feminine singular adjective. However, there are a

few exceptions in which the feminine plural noun is used with the feminine plural adjective: or

(nfr(w)t)(nfr(w)t)(nfr(w)t)(nfr(w)t). It is not clear in such cases whether or not the plural strokes have any vocalic value or whether they are simply graphic in nature.

BBBB:::: Dual adjectives are exceedingly rare in Egyptian and are shown here for illustrative purposes only.

CCCC:::: Note that the word ḫḫḫḫtttt, "tree", is one of a small group of masculine nouns in which the stem ends in t and is not a feminine noun. Other examples of such masculine nouns are nnnnḫḫḫḫtttt, "strong man", "champion", and ììììtttt, "fatherfatherfatherfather".

DDDD:::: The masculine adjectives kykykyky and kywykywykywykywy and the feminine adjective ktktktkt, "other", precede the nouns they describe. As is customary with feminine plural adjectives, the singular form is used for the plural. EEEE:::: In English, the word "green" is normally an adjective. However, in a few situations it is a noun: "a putting

green" or "a lawn bowling green". We find a similar usage in Egyptian, as in the word w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ----wrwrwrwr, "the seathe seathe seathe sea", lit. "the great greenthe great greenthe great greenthe great green". 21.4 HONORIFIC TRANS21.4 HONORIFIC TRANS21.4 HONORIFIC TRANS21.4 HONORIFIC TRANSPOSITIONS AND ABBREVPOSITIONS AND ABBREVPOSITIONS AND ABBREVPOSITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONSIATIONSIATIONSIATIONS The ancient Egyptians emphasized references to their deities or kings by placing these glyphs, either as

logograms or spelled out, before rather than after their expected place in a word or sentence. A typical

example is found in the ḥḥḥḥtp dtp dtp dtp dìììì nsw nsw nsw nsw funerary cult offering formula. This expression, lit. "a favor which the king grants", is written with the Sign M23 nswnswnswnsw (here an abbreviation for the fuller writing

nswtnswtnswtnswt), placed at the beginning when its usual position would be directly after the verb, in this case ddddìììì. Contrast the normal word order in "nephewnephewnephewnephew", lit. "the son of your brotherthe son of your brotherthe son of your brotherthe son of your brother", s3 sns3 sns3 sns3 sn⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk, with

s3 nswts3 nswts3 nswts3 nswt, "prince", lit. "son of the king". This latter construction is called an "honorific transposition". Below are a few examples which demonstrate this formation:

ḥḥḥḥm nm nm nm nṯṯṯṯrrrr priest, lit. "servant of god" ẖẖẖẖwt nwt nwt nwt nṯṯṯṯrrrr, temple, lit. "house of god"

ššššs nsw(t)s nsw(t)s nsw(t)s nsw(t), scribe of the kingscribe of the kingscribe of the kingscribe of the king pr nswtpr nswtpr nswtpr nswt, palace, lit. "house of the king"

One further comment regarding nswtnswtnswtnswt. The Sign M23 represents the sedge plant, swtswtswtswt, which was a symbol for Upper Egypt, just as the papyrus plant, M13 w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ, was the heraldic plant of Lower Egypt. The symbol for the king of Upper Egypt was probably derived from nnnnìììì swt swt swt swt, "(the one) belonging to the sedge" or "(he who) belongs to the sedge". nnnnìììì swt swt swt swt appeared as in its original spelling. However, as it was

such a common word, it soon compacted into , which was not only more artistically pleasing, but also

required less space for its presentation. By the MK, most evidence suggests that the tttt had been dropped from the word's pronunciation but remained in the spelling. Consequently, some scholars will


102

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 21.421.421.421.4----1.1.1.1. SEATED STATUES OF SEATED STATUES OF SEATED STATUES OF SEATED STATUES OF THE PRINCE THE PRINCE THE PRINCE THE PRINCE RAHO RAHO RAHO RAHOTEP AND HIS WIFE NOFTEP AND HIS WIFE NOFTEP AND HIS WIFE NOFTEP AND HIS WIFE NOFRETRETRETRET,,,, THE CAIRO M THE CAIRO M THE CAIRO M THE CAIRO MUSEUMUSEUMUSEUMUSEUM,,,, 1958.1958.1958.1958.

transliterate as nswtnswtnswtnswt when dealing with Old Kingdom (2686-2181), texts but use nswnswnswnsw with those texts from the MK and later.

Some other examples of compaction or abbreviation are:

FULL WRITINFULL WRITINFULL WRITINFULL WRITINGGGG COMPACT FORMCOMPACT FORMCOMPACT FORMCOMPACT FORM

'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ w w w wḏḏḏḏ3 snb3 snb3 snb3 snb, "may he live, be prosperous, and healthy", in translation abbr. as l.p.h.

or m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw, deceased, lit. "true of voice".

or ẖẖẖẖry ry ry ry ḥḥḥḥbtbtbtbt, lector priest, lit. "he who is under the ritual book" or "holder of the ritual book".

nnnnḥḥḥḥḥḥḥḥ, eternity. (Note the omission of the initial n in the compacted form.)

nbtynbtynbtynbty, (two) ladies.

s3 rs3 rs3 rs3 r '''', son of Re.

Fig. 21.4-1 shows the two statues from the

Dynasty 4 (2613-2498) mastaba of Prince

Rahotep and his wife Nofret. The left most

column (shown here on left) of the two

groups of three vertical columns over each

of Rahotep's shoulders concludes his

titulary: s3s3s3s3 nswt nswt nswt nswt n n n n ẖẖẖẖtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff r r r r ' ' ' ' ḥḥḥḥtptptptp Prince Rahotep, lit. "Son of the king of his body,

Rahotep". The title indicates that Rahotep

was probably a true son of the king, possibly

Snoferu (4-1, 2613-2589).

The identical titulary glyphs over both of

Nofret's shoulders (shown here on right)

indicate that the king knew her: rrrrḫḫḫḫ nswt nswt nswt nswt nfrtnfrtnfrtnfrt, "An acquaintance of the king,

Nofret". Note the honorific

transposition. The title can also

be transliterated ììììryryryry----ḫḫḫḫ(t) nswt(t) nswt(t) nswt(t) nswt, "one pertaining to the king's property".


103

21.5 DESCRIPTION OF21.5 DESCRIPTION OF21.5 DESCRIPTION OF21.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A28:A28:A28:A28: MAN WIMAN WIMAN WIMAN WITH BOTH ARMS UPRAISETH BOTH ARMS UPRAISETH BOTH ARMS UPRAISETH BOTH ARMS UPRAISEDDDD.... Det. in ḳḳḳḳ3333, "high", ḥḥḥḥ''''ìììì, "joy", ḥḥḥḥ3333ìììì, "mourn". A50:A50:A50:A50: ššššpspspsps [ [ [ [shep-es] A MAN OF RANK SEATEDA MAN OF RANK SEATEDA MAN OF RANK SEATEDA MAN OF RANK SEATED ON A CHAIR ON A CHAIR ON A CHAIR ON A CHAIR.... Can also be found after the names of honored or revered dead. G21:G21:G21:G21: nnnnḥḥḥḥ [neh] GUINEA FOWLGUINEA FOWLGUINEA FOWLGUINEA FOWL.... Phon. in nnnnḥḥḥḥḥḥḥḥ, "eternity". M14:M14:M14:M14: w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ [wädj] COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M13M13M13M13 AND AND AND AND I10I10I10I10 .... Phon. in w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏ----wrwrwrwr, "the sea", lit. "the great green". 21.6 EXERCISES21.6 EXERCISES21.6 EXERCISES21.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


104

Chapter 22

THE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTIVEIVEIVEIVE 22.1 THE PREDICATE A22.1 THE PREDICATE A22.1 THE PREDICATE A22.1 THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE DJECTIVE DJECTIVE DJECTIVE DESCRIDESCRIDESCRIDESCRIBES THE SUBJECT OF TBES THE SUBJECT OF TBES THE SUBJECT OF TBES THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE.HE SENTENCE.HE SENTENCE.HE SENTENCE. In English, it is

called a predicate adjective because it follows a specific type of verb, known as a "linking verb"

(e.g. "be", "become", "look", "seem"), which "connect" the adjective to the subject (ex. "He is tall.").

The most common linking verbs in English are a form of the verb "to be": "am", "is", "are", "was",

"were".

IIIIN EGYPTIANN EGYPTIANN EGYPTIANN EGYPTIAN,,,, A PREDICATE ADJECTIVA PREDICATE ADJECTIVA PREDICATE ADJECTIVA PREDICATE ADJECTIVEEEE NOT ONOT ONOT ONOT ONLY PRECEDES THE WORNLY PRECEDES THE WORNLY PRECEDES THE WORNLY PRECEDES THE WORD IT DESCRIBESD IT DESCRIBESD IT DESCRIBESD IT DESCRIBES BUT IT BUT IT BUT IT BUT ITS S S S NUMBER AND GENDENUMBER AND GENDENUMBER AND GENDENUMBER AND GENDER R R R DO DO DO DO

NOT NECESSARILY AGRENOT NECESSARILY AGRENOT NECESSARILY AGRENOT NECESSARILY AGREE WITH THOSE OF E WITH THOSE OF E WITH THOSE OF E WITH THOSE OF THE NOUTHE NOUTHE NOUTHE NOUNNNN////PRONOUN IT PRONOUN IT PRONOUN IT PRONOUN IT MODIFIESMODIFIESMODIFIESMODIFIES. As there is no verb "to be" in Egyptian,

when an adjective precedes the subject it describes, it is an indication of the predicate adjective

construction, e.g. bbbbììììnnnn s s s srrrr, "The official is bad.", lit. "Bad [the] official [is]." It should be noted that this predicate adjective construction (adjective + subject) is different from the attributive

adjective, which follows the word it modifies (see Chapter 21). For example, we find predicate adjective

usage in nfrnfrnfrnfr s3t s3t s3t s3t, "The daughter is good." but as an attributive adjective s3t s3t s3t s3t nfrnfrnfrnfrtttt, "the good daughter" (nfrtnfrtnfrtnfrt agreeing in number and gender with s3ts3ts3ts3t ).

When the subject is a pronoun, the Egyptians use the dependent pronoun, rather than the suffix pronoun ,

e.g. nfr nfr nfr nfr wwwwìììì , "I am good".

22.2 PREDICATE ADJEC22.2 PREDICATE ADJEC22.2 PREDICATE ADJEC22.2 PREDICATE ADJECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONTIVE CONSTRUCTIONTIVE CONSTRUCTIONTIVE CONSTRUCTION A. A. A. A. PREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVE + NOUN + NOUN + NOUN + NOUN

My path is good. Amun-Re is mighty. nfrnfrnfrnfr m m m mṯṯṯṯnnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nnnnḫḫḫḫtttt ììììmnmnmnmn----rrrr ''''

His daughter is young. Your (pl.) daughter is young. rrrr npynpynpynpy s3t s3t s3t s3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff r r r r npynpynpynpy s3t s3t s3t s3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn

The Nubians are bad. Your (pl.) sons are young. bbbbììììnnnn n n n nḥḥḥḥssssyyyy r r r r npynpynpynpy s3ws3ws3ws3w⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn B. B. B. B. PREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVEPREDICATE ADJECTIVE + + + + DEPENDENT PRONOUNDEPENDENT PRONOUNDEPENDENT PRONOUNDEPENDENT PRONOUN

I am skilled, lit. sharp. We are happy. spdspdspdspd w w w wìììì nfrnfrnfrnfr n n n n

You are skilled. You are bad. spdspdspdspd ṯṯṯṯwwww b b b bììììnnnn ṯṯṯṯnnnn

He is bad. They are good. bbbbììììnnnn sw sw sw sw nfr nfr nfr nfr sn sn sn sn

It is beautiful. nfrnfrnfrnfr st st st st


105

MMMMAP AP AP AP 22.422.422.422.4----1.1.1.1. SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN SITES MENTIONED IN §§§§22.4.22.4.22.4.22.4.

22.3 COMMENTARY22.3 COMMENTARY22.3 COMMENTARY22.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: ḥḥḥḥns mns mns mns mṯṯṯṯnnnn, "the road is narrow" is another example of the predicate adjective plus noun usage, while mmmmṯṯṯṯn n n n ḥḥḥḥnsnsnsns, "the narrow road" is the attributive adjectival form. Remember, when used as a predicate adjective, the adjective is written in its root form, not changing

in the gender or number for the subject it describes.

BBBB:::: While some adjectives were used either as an attributive or predicate adjective, others were not used

interchangeably. When referring to people rrrr nnnnpypypypy "be youthful" or "be young" was used as a predicate adjective in the sense of rejuvenation but was not used to indicate "young". In other words, "My

daughter is young" would be written rrrr nnnnpypypypy s3t s3t s3t s3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì, whereas to indicate "my young daughter", kttkttkttktt would be used as an attributive adjective, as in s3ts3ts3ts3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ktt ktt ktt ktt, "my young daughter", lit. "my little daughter".

22.422.422.422.4 PRE PRE PRE PRE----DYNASTIC AND EARLY ODYNASTIC AND EARLY ODYNASTIC AND EARLY ODYNASTIC AND EARLY OLD KINGDOM ROYAL NAMLD KINGDOM ROYAL NAMLD KINGDOM ROYAL NAMLD KINGDOM ROYAL NAMESESESES

Few contemporaneous examples of Pre-Dynastic (3500-3100) royal

names have survived. Those that are preserved were not written

with phonograms but rather in logographic form. An example of

this is the so-called "Scorpion King", whose name is inferred from

the representation of a scorpion over his image on his mace head.

The traditional royal titulary consisted of a sequence of five names:

TTTTHE HE HE HE HHHHORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAME,,,, THE THE THE THE TTTTWO WO WO WO LLLLADIESADIESADIESADIES ((((OR NBTYOR NBTYOR NBTYOR NBTY)))) NAME NAME NAME NAME,,,, THE THE THE THE GGGGOLDEN OLDEN OLDEN OLDEN HHHHORUS ORUS ORUS ORUS

NAMENAMENAMENAME,,,, THE PRENOMEN THE PRENOMEN THE PRENOMEN THE PRENOMEN,,,, and THE NOMEN THE NOMEN THE NOMEN THE NOMEN. (A useful mnemonic to

remember the sequence of the names is HEAR THE GREAT PHARAHEAR THE GREAT PHARAHEAR THE GREAT PHARAHEAR THE GREAT PHARAOHOHOHOH ''''S S S S

NAMESNAMESNAMESNAMES:::: where H = the Horus name, T = the Two Ladies name, G = the where H = the Horus name, T = the Two Ladies name, G = the where H = the Horus name, T = the Two Ladies name, G = the where H = the Horus name, T = the Two Ladies name, G = the

Golden Horus name, P = the Prenomen, and N = the Nomen.Golden Horus name, P = the Prenomen, and N = the Nomen.Golden Horus name, P = the Prenomen, and N = the Nomen.Golden Horus name, P = the Prenomen, and N = the Nomen.

The HHHHORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAME is first in the king's titulary, usually following Sign

G5, , a falcon representing the god Horus. Most modern

chronologies usually include only the Horus name of the rulers of

the early dynasties. In later dynasties, the Horus name in a

titulary sometimes appears with the Horus falcon followed by the

serekh.


106

By Dynasty 1 (3100-2686), the HHHHORUSORUSORUSORUS NAME NAME NAME NAME 1111 of the king had become the most important of the royal names

and titularies. During the early OK, Horus the falcon god was portrayed sitting atop a rectangular frame

, O33, the serekh, srsrsrsrḫḫḫḫ, which contained the king's name.2222 The name of the king was written in the upper register of the serekh while the lower register contained parallel vertical lines, probably representing a

palace facade. Thus, the name of Aha (1-2), ''''ḥḥḥḥ3333 , "fight", is represented:

Note that the falcon's legs and talons holding the shield and mace are a variant (or more likely a precursor)

of either Sign D34 or D34*, where the arms and hands are so employed. Note that in Aha's serekh, the top

of the shield is rounded in contrast to D34 or D34*. The shield and horizontal mace T1 , phonetically

represent Aha's name.3333

The TTTTWO WO WO WO LLLLADIES NAMEADIES NAMEADIES NAMEADIES NAME, or nebtynebtynebtynebty name, in second position, follows G16, , combining the vulture goddess

Nekhbet nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt, Sign G14, and the cobra goddess Wadjet w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏytytytyt, Sign I12, each sitting atop V30 ,

the sign for lord, nbnbnbnb. This titulary addition began as early as Dynasty 1. nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt was the goddess of the Upper Egyptian city of Nekheb nnnnḫḫḫḫbbbb (in Arabic El-Kab) and w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏytytytyt was the goddess of the Lower Egyptian city of prprprpr----w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏyt yt yt yt (Buto in Greek, in Arabic Tell el-Fara'in) in the central Delta.

1 According to various Egyptian legends, Horus, the son of Osiris, regained the throne of Egypt after defeating his uncle Seth in numerous trials and personal combat. By establishing his allegiance to Horus, an Egyptian ruler put the god's imprimatur (stamp of approval) upon his kingship and thus the legitimacy of his reign. The ruler was referred to as "the living Horus". 2 This format lead to scholar's calling the ruler's first name his "Horus name". 3 Possible translations of his name are: "The Fighter", "He Who Fights", "The Fighting Horus", "The Horus Who Fights", etc. Note that the feet of the falcon descend through the top of serekh to hold the shield and mace.

SIGN DSIGN DSIGN DSIGN D34343434 SIGN D SIGN D SIGN D SIGN D34*34*34*34*


107

The nebtynebtynebtynebty name was inserted into the royal titulary between the Horus name and the nswt bnswt bnswt bnswt bìììì tttt name by smr smr smr smr ẖẖẖẖtttt, Semerkhet

4444 (1-7) Therefore, ḫḫḫḫr smr r smr r smr r smr ẖẖẖẖt t t t nbty nswnbty nswnbty nswnbty nswtttt b b b bìììì tttt, is translated as "The Horus 'Friend-of-the-God's-Body', Two Ladies, King of the Two Lands". Semerkhet's titulary serekh:

Note the little figure beneath the cobra and the vulture – possibly representing Semerkhet's nebtynebtynebtynebty name. The translation of this figure is not known with any degree of certainty.

In Dynasty 2, Peribsen (2-4) replaced the falcon on his serekh with the "Seth animal" , E20.5555 The use of

the representation of Seth for the ruler's first name is of interest because it may indicate a theological

shift from an earlier tradition. Did Seth, the uncle and enemy of Horus, supplant him? Also note that

Peribsen's Seth name is repeated in his nswt bnswt bnswt bnswt bììììtttt name. His serekh:

ststststẖẖẖẖ pr pr pr pr ììììb sn nswt bb sn nswt bb sn nswt bb sn nswt bììììt pr ib snt pr ib snt pr ib snt pr ib sn, possibly "The Seth 'Their-(Horus and Seth?, the King and Seth?)-Heart-goes-Forth', the King of the Two Lands 'Their-Heart-Goes-Forth'".

At least one other Dynasty 2 ruler combined Seth and Horus on his serekh. However, the kings of Dynasty

3 reverted to the Horus atop their serekhs and the use of the Seth animal in the predominant position of

the royal titulary disappeared.

4 smr ẖt, possibly "Friend of the God's Body", from smr, "friend" or "courtier" and ẖt, "body of men (or gods)". 5 The Seth animal used in Peribsen's name is a variant of Sign E20. With a long curved snout and forked tail, the figure does not represent any known animal. Scholars refer to Peribsen's first name as his "Seth name" rather than his Horus name to indicate the use of this hieroglyph. When the falcon and Seth animal were combined in a royal titulary, Egyptologists refer to that name as a "Horus-Seth name".


108

The GGGGOLDEN OLDEN OLDEN OLDEN HHHHORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAMEORUS NAME is third in the titulary and contains S12, , the sign for gold.

The fourth name, the PPPPRENOMENRENOMENRENOMENRENOMEN,6666 follows the Signs L2 and M23 on loaves of bread, , nnnn----swswswsw----bbbbììììtttt (often it contains some reference to Re) and is also called the TTTTHRONE HRONE HRONE HRONE NNNNAMEAMEAMEAME. Den (1-5) was probably the first to add

it into his titulary. It is variously called by scholars "The King of the Two Lands Name", "The King of

Upper and Lower Egypt", or "He of the Bee and the Sedge". It was sometimes used independently or in

conjunction with the Horus name of the king. In later dynasties, the prenomen was written within a

cartouche and was usually compounded with name of the god Re. Den's name was written:

To the right in the serekh are his Horus name as expressed by the two phonograms and , dndndndn. Facing his Horus name is his nswt bnswt bnswt bnswt bììììtttt title, "The King of Upper and Lower Egypt", which surmounts the feminine dual ḫḫḫḫ3sty3sty3sty3sty for "The (Two) Uplands", "The (Two) Deserts", or possibly even "The (Two) Foreign

Countries". Therefore, ḥḥḥḥr dn nswt br dn nswt br dn nswt br dn nswt bììììt t t t ḫḫḫḫ3sty3sty3sty3sty, might be translated "The Horus 'Den': King of the Two Deserts".7777

The NNNNOMENOMENOMENOMEN, the fifth and final name, follows s3 rs3 rs3 rs3 r '''', "the son of Re" and is possibly the name given to the king at birth. It was the name by which the Egyptians themselves referred to their kings. The first

four names were presumably adopted during the coronation ceremonies and sometimes state a monarch's

religious and/or political program. For these reasons, some later kings changed their names during their

reigns, e.g. Neferkheprure Amenhotep (Amenophis IV, 18-10, 1379-1362) to Neferkheperurewe Akhenaten.

See §32.4.

6 As it preceded the ruler's nomen, or name. 7 dn may be a form of (w)dn, "offer", and his name might be translated as "The Horus Who Offers", "The Offering Horus", etc. Other scholars believe that dn is a form of d(w)n, "stretch out" or "spread out", i.e. "The Horus Who-Spreads-Out-(His-Wings)", implying protection over the land of Egypt. Possibly it refers to Den's hegemony over both Upper and Lower Egypt, the Eastern and Western Deserts, or even two foreign countries. As can be seen, the meaning of the names of the early kings is much disputed.


109

22222.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF 2.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTEREDSIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D34*D34*D34*D34*:::: ARMS HOLDING SHIELD ARMS HOLDING SHIELD ARMS HOLDING SHIELD ARMS HOLDING SHIELD AND BATTLE AXEAND BATTLE AXEAND BATTLE AXEAND BATTLE AXE.... OK form of D34, . Logo. in "fight". E20:E20:E20:E20: ANIMAL OF SETHANIMAL OF SETHANIMAL OF SETHANIMAL OF SETH.... Logo. for Seth.

G5:G5:G5:G5: FALCONFALCONFALCONFALCON.... Logo. ḥḥḥḥrwrwrwrw, "(The falcon god) Horus", perhaps meaning "the far- off one. G16:G16:G16:G16: nbtynbtynbtynbty [neb-tē] THE UE VULTURE GODDETHE UE VULTURE GODDETHE UE VULTURE GODDETHE UE VULTURE GODDESS SS SS SS nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt NEKHBET AND THE LE NEKHBET AND THE LE NEKHBET AND THE LE NEKHBET AND THE LE COBRA GODDESS COBRA GODDESS COBRA GODDESS COBRA GODDESS w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏytytytyt,,,, WADJETWADJETWADJETWADJET,,,, ON ON ON ON BASKETSBASKETSBASKETSBASKETS,,,, V30V30V30V30.... I12:I12:I12:I12: ERECT COBRA ERECT COBRA ERECT COBRA ERECT COBRA ((((OFTEN DISPLAYED ON TOFTEN DISPLAYED ON TOFTEN DISPLAYED ON TOFTEN DISPLAYED ON THE FOREHEAD OF THE PHE FOREHEAD OF THE PHE FOREHEAD OF THE PHE FOREHEAD OF THE PHARAOHHARAOHHARAOHHARAOH).).).). Det. "goddesses", esp. to those whom the appearance of a snake was attributed, e.g. w3w3w3w3ḏḏḏḏytytytyt, Wadjet. I13:I13:I13:I13: COBRACOBRACOBRACOBRA,,,, I12 I12 I12 I12,,,, ON THE BASKET ON THE BASKET ON THE BASKET ON THE BASKET V30 V30 V30 V30 .... L2:L2:L2:L2: bbbbììììtttt [bēt] BEEBEEBEEBEE.... Logo. in bbbbììììtttt, "bee". Phon. and logo. in nswt bnswt bnswt bnswt bììììtttt, "King of Upper and Lower Egypt". M4:M4:M4:M4: PALM BRANCH STRIPPEDPALM BRANCH STRIPPEDPALM BRANCH STRIPPEDPALM BRANCH STRIPPED OF LEAVES AND NOTCH OF LEAVES AND NOTCH OF LEAVES AND NOTCH OF LEAVES AND NOTCHED TO SERVE AS A TALED TO SERVE AS A TALED TO SERVE AS A TALED TO SERVE AS A TALLYLYLYLY.... Det. in

rnpyrnpyrnpyrnpy, "be young". Logo. in trtrtrtr, "time", "season", where it

usually appears in the form of M5, or M6, . M5:M5:M5:M5: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M4M4M4M4,,,, AND AND AND AND X1X1X1X1,,,, .... .... With sportive logographic intention (palm

branch planted in ), as in , trtrtrtr, "season". M6:M6:M6:M6: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M4M4M4M4,,,, AND AND AND AND D21D21D21D21,,,, .... With sportive logographic intention (palm

branch on ), as in trtrtrtr, "season". M44:M44:M44:M44: THORNTHORNTHORNTHORN.... Det. in spspspspdddd, "sharp". O33:O33:O33:O33: FACADE OF PALACE OR FACADE OF PALACE OR FACADE OF PALACE OR FACADE OF PALACE OR TOMBTOMBTOMBTOMB.... Det. in srsrsrsrḫḫḫḫ, a palace facade bearing the king's Horus name. T1:T1:T1:T1: mnwmnwmnwmnw [men-ew] PREPREPREPRE----HISTORIC MACE WITH CHISTORIC MACE WITH CHISTORIC MACE WITH CHISTORIC MACE WITH CUPUPUPUP---- OR DISH OR DISH OR DISH OR DISH----SHAPED HEADSHAPED HEADSHAPED HEADSHAPED HEAD.... T14:T14:T14:T14: (1)(1)(1)(1) THROW STICK THROW STICK THROW STICK THROW STICK.... Det. in ḳḳḳḳm3m3m3m3, "throw". (2)(2)(2)(2) CLUB AS A FO CLUB AS A FO CLUB AS A FO CLUB AS A FOREIGN REIGN REIGN REIGN

WEAPON OF WARFAREWEAPON OF WARFAREWEAPON OF WARFAREWEAPON OF WARFARE.... Det. in nnnnḥḥḥḥsysysysy, "Nubian".


110



111

MMMMAP AP AP AP 23.223.223.223.2----1.1.1.1. COUNTRIES SOUTH COUNTRIES SOUTH COUNTRIES SOUTH COUNTRIES SOUTH OF EGYPTOF EGYPTOF EGYPTOF EGYPT....

Chapter 23 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTTHE GENITIVAL ADJECTTHE GENITIVAL ADJECTTHE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEIVEIVEIVE

23.1 T23.1 T23.1 T23.1 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIHE GENITIVAL ADJECTIHE GENITIVAL ADJECTIHE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEVEVEVES ARES ARES ARES ARE "OF", "BELONGING TO""OF", "BELONGING TO""OF", "BELONGING TO""OF", "BELONGING TO", OR, OR, OR, OR "FOR" "FOR" "FOR" "FOR". . . . IN EGYPTIAN, IN EGYPTIAN, IN EGYPTIAN, IN EGYPTIAN, JUST JUST JUST JUST LIKE LIKE LIKE LIKE

THE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTTHE PREDICATE ADJECTIVEIVEIVEIVESSSS, THE, THE, THE, THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVESSSS PRECEDE PRECEDE PRECEDE PRECEDE THE THE THE THE WORD THEY MODIFYWORD THEY MODIFYWORD THEY MODIFYWORD THEY MODIFY. . . .

HOWEVER, UNLIKE PREDHOWEVER, UNLIKE PREDHOWEVER, UNLIKE PREDHOWEVER, UNLIKE PREDICATE ADJECTIVEICATE ADJECTIVEICATE ADJECTIVEICATE ADJECTIVESSSS, THEY, THEY, THEY, THEY AGREEAGREEAGREEAGREE WITH WITH WITH WITH THETHETHETHE NOUN/PRONOUN NOUN/PRONOUN NOUN/PRONOUN NOUN/PRONOUN THEY MODIFY THEY MODIFY THEY MODIFY THEY MODIFY

IN GENDER AND NUMBERIN GENDER AND NUMBERIN GENDER AND NUMBERIN GENDER AND NUMBER.... In Middle Egyptian the Genitival Adjectives are:

MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE nnnn SingulSingulSingulSingularararar ntntntnt , nwnwnwnw Plural Plural Plural Plural ntntntnt Note that the feminine singular and plural forms of the genitival adjective are identical. 23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVE A. THE MASCULINE SINA. THE MASCULINE SINA. THE MASCULINE SINA. THE MASCULINE SINGULAR GENITIVAL ADJGULAR GENITIVAL ADJGULAR GENITIVAL ADJGULAR GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEECTIVEECTIVEECTIVE

, the king of Egypt nsw n kmtnsw n kmtnsw n kmtnsw n kmt

,,,, his army of victory, lit. "victories" mmmmšššš''''⋅⋅⋅⋅f nf nf nf nḫḫḫḫt(w)t(w)t(w)t(w)

,,,, the house of his father pr n (pr n (pr n (pr n (ìììì)t)t)t)t ⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

, the day of the festival of the king's coronation hrw n hrw n hrw n hrw n ḥḥḥḥb b b b ḫḫḫḫ'w'w'w'w----nswtnswtnswtnswt

, I heard a secret of the royal apartment(s). ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì s s s sššššt3 n t3 n t3 n t3 n ììììptptptpt----nswnswnswnsw

B. THE PLURAL MASCULB. THE PLURAL MASCULB. THE PLURAL MASCULB. THE PLURAL MASCULINE GENITIVAL ADJECTINE GENITIVAL ADJECTINE GENITIVAL ADJECTINE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEIVEIVEIVE

, princes, lit. "the great ones", of all the foreign lands wrw nw wrw nw wrw nw wrw nw ḫḫḫḫs(w)t nbts(w)t nbts(w)t nbts(w)t nbt

, the rulers of Irtjet, Wawat, Yam, and ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ3(w) nw 3(w) nw 3(w) nw 3(w) nw ììììrrrrṯṯṯṯt w3w3t t w3w3t t w3w3t t w3w3t ìììì3m m3m m3m m3m mḏḏḏḏ3333 Medja.Medja.Medja.Medja.

, the great ones (i.e. "gods" or "dead ancestors") of Abydos. wrw nw 3bwrw nw 3bwrw nw 3bwrw nw 3bḏḏḏḏwwww

C. THE FEMININE SINGC. THE FEMININE SINGC. THE FEMININE SINGC. THE FEMININE SINGULAR GENTIVAL ADJECTULAR GENTIVAL ADJECTULAR GENTIVAL ADJECTULAR GENTIVAL ADJECTIVEIVEIVEIVE , a boat of 60 cubits a boat of 60 cubits a boat of 60 cubits a boat of 60 cubits , my office of keeper of the secrets

dpt nt mdpt nt mdpt nt mdpt nt mḥḥḥḥ 60 60 60 60 ìììì3t3t3t3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nt nt nt nt ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3t3t3t3


112

23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL A23.2 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTDJECTDJECTDJECTIVEIVEIVEIVE (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) D. THE FEMININE PLURD. THE FEMININE PLURD. THE FEMININE PLURD. THE FEMININE PLURALALALAL GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEGENITIVAL ADJECTIVEGENITIVAL ADJECTIVEGENITIVAL ADJECTIVE

, the cattle of Irtjet mnmnt nt mnmnt nt mnmnt nt mnmnt nt ììììrrrrṯṯṯṯtttt

, the cattle of Irtjet, Wawat, and Yam mnmnt nt mnmnt nt mnmnt nt mnmnt nt ììììrrrrṯṯṯṯt w3w3t t w3w3t t w3w3t t w3w3t ìììì3m3m3m3m , the wives of the chiefs

ḥḥḥḥm(w)t nt wrwm(w)t nt wrwm(w)t nt wrwm(w)t nt wrw 23.3 COMMENTARY23.3 COMMENTARY23.3 COMMENTARY23.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: Father, ììììtttt, was often written without the initial ìììì, as in .... BBBB:::: Note that nbtnbtnbtnbt is not nb(w)tnb(w)tnb(w)tnb(w)t because by Middle Egyptian, plural feminine adjectives were written in the singular form, nbtnbtnbtnbt, without the plural wwww. 1111 In fact, the evidence seems to suggest that by the MK there was

no such thing as a distinct form of the feminine plural adjective, except in very rare cases.

CCCC:::: Irtjet was located in the area of Yam, which was south and west of Upper Egypt. It is believed that

Medja was located in the western desert and that Wawat was directly south of Egypt, bordering both the

eastern and western banks of the Nile in what is present day Sudan. 23.4 THE DEVELOPMENT23.4 THE DEVELOPMENT23.4 THE DEVELOPMENT23.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MASTABA OF THE MASTABA OF THE MASTABA OF THE MASTABA

2222 TOMBTOMBTOMBTOMB During the Pre-historic Period (c. 12,000-3,500 BCE) the indigenous people of the Nile Valley buried their

dead in simple pits,3333 Initially, the body was accompanied by a few grave goods but towards the end of the

period, a grave might contain such items as pottery bowls, weapons, tools, beads, woven baskets, and

clothing. These grave goods were possibly intended to be used by the deceased in the next world and were

indicators of some form of belief in life after death.

By the beginning of the Pre-Dynastic Period (c. 3500-3100), these simple pit burials gave way to a more

developed structure: a pit lined with plaster side walls, a covering roof supported by logs, and the entire

construction covered over with sand. This enlarged structure often contained simple furniture, as well as

personal items of the deceased, and enabled him "to dwell for eternity" in familiar surroundings, possibly

duplicating his home while alive.

1 See §21.1. 2 From the Arabic word for "bench". From a distance these structures resemble the low, stone or mud brick benches found outside the peasant homes throughout Egypt. Such benches may still be seen today. 3 See Fig. 6.4-2.


113

MMMMAP AP AP AP 23.423.423.423.4----1.1.1.1. SSSSITES ITES ITES ITES MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN §§§§23.4.23.4.23.4.23.4.

The royal tombs of the 1st Dynasty (c. 3100-2890) at Abydos (about 2/3 the distance south between Cairo

and the first cataract at Aswan) on the west bank of the Nile and the 2nd Dynasty (c. 2890-2686) tombs at

Sakkara (described in §19.4) continued the development of the burial structures of the earlier period. The

earliest tombs were built from mud brick and later on from cut stone. The pits became more elaborate in

design and eventually contained several underground chambers. The

superstructure no longer consisted of a simple log roof, but was made from

quarried stone. Eventually, the substructure was composed of five

chambers: a central burial room containing a wooden coffin and four storage

rooms for funerary goods. Sometimes the walls of the burial chamber were

decorated, and these painted scenes and sculptured walls are the source for

almost all our knowledge of Old Kingdom history, every day living conditions,

funerary practices, and religious beliefs. Over the centuries, the storage

magazines became larger and their contents more varied and elaborate. In

addition to the utilitarian items found earlier, such items as jewelry, games,

and more extensive food supplies were interred with the corpse.

An unusual feature in the design of the earlier tombs was that the rooms

could only be accessed from the top, there being no interconnecting doors or

corridors. Some time during the reign of Den (1-5) a design change occurred

which enabled the subterranean burial chamber to be assessed through a

stairway. This enabled the tomb to be completed before the death of its occupant in contrast to the earlier

structures which do not appear to have been completed until after the death of the owner.

The 1st Dynasty royal mastabas were built on ground level with their rectangular ground plan varying from

40-60 meters long, 15-25 meters wide, and 7-8 meters high. Later, in non-royal tombs, there was a

separate room called a serdab,4444 which contained one or more statues of the deceased. These were visible

through a small opening from a "chapel" room, where offerings of food and drink might be deposited for the

departed. The number of storage rooms increased from the four found in earlier versions to as many as 45

in later periods. As they were constructed above the desert floor, they were easily robbed, primarily

because the stairway leading to the burial chamber under the edifice provided an access path for any

robbers, even though blocking stones had been inserted into the passageway.

The outer facade of these brick 1st Dynasty tombs consisted of vertical panels of varying width,

represented by Sign O33, .5555 Stone was used sparingly in the earlier mastabas, being limited to the

4 From the Arabic for "cellar". The earliest known serdab has been found at the north face of the step pyramid built by Netjerykhet (3-2, c, 2668-2649) at Sakkara, see Fig. 16.4-1. 5 Recessed brick architecture utilizing interlocking mud bricks has been found throughout Mesopotamia, where it developed before its appearance in Egypt. This interlocking of the bricks strengthened a wall and was the forerunner of the "header/stretcher" technique used later in the building of high stone walls, such as found in the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. This interlocking technique was also used in Djoser's Step Pyramid but utilized small stone blocks.


114

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 23.423.423.423.4----1.1.1.1. FIVE STAGES IN THE FIVE STAGES IN THE FIVE STAGES IN THE FIVE STAGES IN THE CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEP OF THE STEP OF THE STEP OF THE STEP PYPYPYPYRAMIDRAMIDRAMIDRAMID....

doorways, lintels and jams, and in the portcullises which blocked the entry way to the burial chamber.

Beginning with Netjerykhet, the covering of the royal mastaba developed into a pyramidal form, constructed

entirely of stone. As the overall structure increased in size, the quality of the workmanship improved, as

evidenced by the reliefs and blue glazed tiles decorating some of the subterranean passageways and

chambers.

Excavations indicate that in its initial stage (1 in fig.

23.4-1), Djoser's step pyramid was actually a mastaba,

covered by the fine limestone from the quarries at

Tura, located across the Nile and slightly north of

Sakkara. In its second stage, the original mastaba was

surrounded by a limestone casing (2), some four

meters thick. As this second stage addition was

somewhat lower than the initial mastaba, the

construction appeared to be a "step" encompassing it.

The western side of the monument was then extended

(3) an additional eight meters, resulting in yet another

lower "step" on that face. At this point Imhotep (if indeed he was Djoser's architect and builder), changed

the design once again by enclosing all the previous work with a pyramid of four larger steps, as indicated by

the number 4 in Fig. 23.4-1. In time, this too was built upon so that the resultant pyramid contained six

steps, all encased by the Tura limestone and rising some 60 meters above the desert floor.

As the superstructure increased in size, so too did the underground passageways, magazines, and burial

chamber which lay 27 meters deep in the earth and was sealed by a three ton granite block. In addition to

Djoser's burial chamber, eleven other subterranean tombs have been located beneath the pyramid, probably

intended for other royal family members.

Other members of the royal family and some important officials associated with the ruler were often

interred in their own mastabas adjacent to their royal master's pyramid or tomb.6666 The deceased were

originally entombed with victuals for their after-life journey. In time, the custom arose for daily food and

drink to be left at the tomb. Supposedly, a corps of priests devoted themselves to maintaining the

deceased's cult and its necessary daily offerings, although family members, notably the eldest son,

performed this function on special occasions. The mortuary priests derived their sustenance from the right

to cultivate the lands bequeathed by the deceased for the continuing care of his tomb and the perpetuation

of his memory. Few professional priests, as we know them today, existed in Egypt before the New Kingdom

(1567-1085). Priesthood was often a part-time occupation, which was supported by giving the individual land

in "usufruct", i.e. a type of land-holding where the priest could derive the benefits of

6 An example of a 5th Dynasty mastaba may be found in the Egyptian collection of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. See §8.1.


115

crops produced on the property but did not actually own it. This practice prevailed for both royal and

private cults. Such priests and their land holdings were often partially or totally exempt from taxes and

other obligations. As a result of this tax relief, over time the priests maintaining such lands became a

powerful economic and political force in the ancient Egyptian economy.

23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A41:A41:A41:A41: KING KING KING KING ((((NOTE URAEUS ONNOTE URAEUS ONNOTE URAEUS ONNOTE URAEUS ON BROW BROW BROW BROW,,,, STRAIGHT BEARD STRAIGHT BEARD STRAIGHT BEARD STRAIGHT BEARD,,,, AND COIF AND COIF AND COIF AND COIF)))).... Det. in nswnswnswnsw,

"king"; ḥḥḥḥmmmm, "Majesty"; nbnbnbnb, "the lord", i.e. "the king". Logo. or det. "I"

or "me" when the king is speaking, ⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ,,,, ⋅⋅⋅⋅wwwwìììì. D2:D2:D2:D2: ḥḥḥḥr r r r [hâr] FACEFACEFACEFACE.... Logo. in "face" and derivatives. D42:D42:D42:D42: mmmmḥḥḥḥ [meh] FOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OF HAND DOWNWARDS BUT HAND DOWNWARDS BUT HAND DOWNWARDS BUT HAND DOWNWARDS BUT WITH UPPER ARM STRAIWITH UPPER ARM STRAIWITH UPPER ARM STRAIWITH UPPER ARM STRAIGHTGHTGHTGHT....

Logo. or det. in mmmmḥḥḥḥ, "cubit". D52:D52:D52:D52: mtmtmtmt [met] PHALLUSPHALLUSPHALLUSPHALLUS.... Det. in ṯṯṯṯ3y3y3y3y, "male", "man". D53:D53:D53:D53: mtmtmtmt [met] PHALLUS WITH LIQUID PHALLUS WITH LIQUID PHALLUS WITH LIQUID PHALLUS WITH LIQUID ISSUING FROM ITISSUING FROM ITISSUING FROM ITISSUING FROM IT,,,, SOMETIMES INTERCHAN SOMETIMES INTERCHAN SOMETIMES INTERCHAN SOMETIMES INTERCHANGEABLY WGEABLY WGEABLY WGEABLY WITH ITH ITH ITH D52D52D52D52....

Det. in ṯṯṯṯ3y3y3y3y, "male", "man". Det. in mtwtmtwtmtwtmtwt, "poison". In mtwtmtwtmtwtmtwt note the use of D53 as det. in contrast to D52 used as phon. E1:E1:E1:E1: BULLBULLBULLBULL.... Logo. "bull". Det. in k3k3k3k3, "bull"; mnmntmnmntmnmntmnmnt, "cattle". I6:I6:I6:I6: kmkmkmkm [kem] PIECE OF CROCODILPIECE OF CROCODILPIECE OF CROCODILPIECE OF CROCODILE SKIN WITH SPINESE SKIN WITH SPINESE SKIN WITH SPINESE SKIN WITH SPINES.... N26:N26:N26:N26: ḏḏḏḏwwww [dju] SAND COVERED MOUNTAISAND COVERED MOUNTAISAND COVERED MOUNTAISAND COVERED MOUNTAIN OVER EDGE OF GREENN OVER EDGE OF GREENN OVER EDGE OF GREENN OVER EDGE OF GREEN CULTIVATION CULTIVATION CULTIVATION CULTIVATION.... Logo. in ḏḏḏḏwwww,

"mountain". Phon. in 3b3b3b3bḏḏḏḏwwww, "Abydos". N41:N41:N41:N41: ḥḥḥḥmmmm [hem] WELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATER.... Phon. in ḥḥḥḥmtmtmtmt, "woman", "wife". O44:O44:O44:O44: EMBLEM ERECTED OUTSIEMBLEM ERECTED OUTSIEMBLEM ERECTED OUTSIEMBLEM ERECTED OUTSIDE TDE TDE TDE THE TEMPLE OF MINHE TEMPLE OF MINHE TEMPLE OF MINHE TEMPLE OF MIN.... Logo. or det. in ìììì3t3t3t3t, "office", "rank". O45:O45:O45:O45: DOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDING.... Logo. or det. in ììììptptptpt----nswnswnswnsw, "royal apartments". S38:S38:S38:S38: ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ3333 [hekä] CROOKCROOKCROOKCROOK.... Logo. or det. in ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ3333 , "rule"; ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ(3)t(3)t(3)t(3)t, "scepter"; and in ẖḳẖḳẖḳẖḳ3t3t3t3t, "hekat- measure". U2U2U2U29:9:9:9: ḏḏḏḏ3333 [djä] OK FORM OF OK FORM OF OK FORM OF OK FORM OF U28U28U28U28 ,,,, FIRE DRILL FIRE DRILL FIRE DRILL FIRE DRILL.... U30:U30:U30:U30: t3t3t3t3 [tä] POTTERPOTTERPOTTERPOTTER''''S KILNS KILNS KILNS KILN.... Logo. in "kiln".


116

23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF23.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION V19:V19:V19:V19: ṯṯṯṯm3m3m3m3 [tjemä], HOBBLE FOR CATTLEHOBBLE FOR CATTLEHOBBLE FOR CATTLEHOBBLE FOR CATTLE.... Logo. or det. in mmmmḏḏḏḏtttt, "stable". tm3tm3tm3tm3 [temä] V20:V20:V20:V20: mmmmḏḏḏḏ [medj] HOBBLE FOR CATTLE WIHOBBLE FOR CATTLE WIHOBBLE FOR CATTLE WIHOBBLE FOR CATTLE WITHOUT THE HORIZONTALTHOUT THE HORIZONTALTHOUT THE HORIZONTALTHOUT THE HORIZONTAL STROKE AS IN STROKE AS IN STROKE AS IN STROKE AS IN V19V19V19V19 .... Phon. in

mmmmḏḏḏḏwtwtwtwt, "stables"; mmmmḏḏḏḏ in mmmmḏḏḏḏwwww, "ten". V22:V22:V22:V22: mmmmḥḥḥḥ [meh] WHIPWHIPWHIPWHIP.... 23.6 EXERCISES23.6 EXERCISES23.6 EXERCISES23.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


117

Chapter 24

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADTHE DEMONSTRATIVE ADTHE DEMONSTRATIVE ADTHE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVEJECTIVEJECTIVEJECTIVE

24.1 D24.1 D24.1 D24.1 DETERMINERETERMINERETERMINERETERMINERS ARE A TYPE OF ADJES ARE A TYPE OF ADJES ARE A TYPE OF ADJES ARE A TYPE OF ADJECTIVE THAT MAKES THECTIVE THAT MAKES THECTIVE THAT MAKES THECTIVE THAT MAKES THE REFERENCE OF THE NO REFERENCE OF THE NO REFERENCE OF THE NO REFERENCE OF THE NOUN MORE UN MORE UN MORE UN MORE

PRECISEPRECISEPRECISEPRECISE. DETERM. DETERM. DETERM. DETERMINERS DIFFER FROM ATINERS DIFFER FROM ATINERS DIFFER FROM ATINERS DIFFER FROM ATTRIBUTIVE ATRIBUTIVE ATRIBUTIVE ATRIBUTIVE ADDDDJJJJECTIVES IN THAT ONLYECTIVES IN THAT ONLYECTIVES IN THAT ONLYECTIVES IN THAT ONLY ONE DETERMINER ONE DETERMINER ONE DETERMINER ONE DETERMINER

APPEARS IN AAPPEARS IN AAPPEARS IN AAPPEARS IN A PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE....1111 ONE TYPE OF DETERONE TYPE OF DETERONE TYPE OF DETERONE TYPE OF DETERMINER IS THEMINER IS THEMINER IS THEMINER IS THE DDDDEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVEVEVEVE WHICH WHICH WHICH WHICH

SHOWSHOWSHOWSHOWSSSS WHETHER SOMETHING I WHETHER SOMETHING I WHETHER SOMETHING I WHETHER SOMETHING IS NEAR ("S NEAR ("S NEAR ("S NEAR ("THISTHISTHISTHIS", "", "", "", "THESETHESETHESETHESE") OR FAR ("") OR FAR ("") OR FAR ("") OR FAR ("THATTHATTHATTHAT", "", "", "", "THOSETHOSETHOSETHOSE"). "). "). "). "This" and

"that" are the singular forms, "these" and "those" the plural. In Egyptian, the demonstrative

adjectives are: MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE COMMONCOMMONCOMMONCOMMON SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR SING SING SING SINGULARULARULARULAR PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL

this this these pwpwpwpw twtwtwtw nwnwnwnw

this (near me) this (near me) , these (near me) pnpnpnpn tntntntn nnnnnnnn

this, the this, the these, the p3p3p3p3 t3t3t3t3 n3n3n3n3

that that those pfpfpfpf tftftftf nfnfnfnf The definite article, "the", and the indefinite articles "a" and "an" did not exist at all. However, p3p3p3p3, t3t3t3t3, and n3n3n3n3 were sometimes used for the definite article. Whether p3p3p3p3, t3t3t3t3, or n3n3n3n3 was used as a demonstrative adjective or a definite article depended on context.

24.2 24.2 24.2 24.2 DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTDEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTDEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTDEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVESIVESIVESIVES A. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVEATIVE ADJECTIVEATIVE ADJECTIVEATIVE ADJECTIVES WHICH FOLLOW THEIRS WHICH FOLLOW THEIRS WHICH FOLLOW THEIRS WHICH FOLLOW THEIR NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN this man this woman

s pws pws pws pw st twst twst twst tw

this mysterious island, lit. "this this place ììììw pn n k3w pn n k3w pn n k3w pn n k3 island of the k3" st tnst tnst tnst tn

that day that difficult road rrrr ' tf' tf' tf' tf mṯṯṯṯn pf n pf n pf n pf ššššt3t3t3t3 BBBB. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRA. SINGULAR DEMONSTRATIVE ADTIVE ADTIVE ADTIVE ADJJJJECTIECTIECTIECTIVEVEVEVES WHICH PRECEDE THEIS WHICH PRECEDE THEIS WHICH PRECEDE THEIS WHICH PRECEDE THEIR NOUNR NOUNR NOUNR NOUN this papyrus roll p3 p3 p3 p3 ššššfdwfdwfdwfdw

this valley t3 t3 t3 t3 ììììntntntnt

1 In English, as noted in §21.1, more than one attributive adjective may used in a phrase.


118

C. C. C. C. PLURAL DEMONSTRATIVEPLURAL DEMONSTRATIVEPLURAL DEMONSTRATIVEPLURAL DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVES PRECEDE THEIR NOUNS PRECEDE THEIR NOUNS PRECEDE THEIR NOUNS PRECEDE THEIR NOUN AND ARE CONNECTED AND ARE CONNECTED AND ARE CONNECTED AND ARE CONNECTED TO IT TO IT TO IT TO IT WITH WITH WITH WITH THE THE THE THE GENITIVAL GENITIVAL GENITIVAL GENITIVAL ADJEADJEADJEADJECTIVE,CTIVE,CTIVE,CTIVE, nnnn.

these men servants nw n b3kwnw n b3kwnw n b3kwnw n b3kw

these maid servants nw n b3kwtnw n b3kwtnw n b3kwtnw n b3kwt

these officials nn n sr(w)nn n sr(w)nn n sr(w)nn n sr(w)

these ships n3 n dp(w)tn3 n dp(w)tn3 n dp(w)tn3 n dp(w)t

those children nf n nf n nf n nf n ẖẖẖẖrdwrdwrdwrdw 24.3 24.3 24.3 24.3 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: Note that all the masculine Demonstrative Adjectives begin with the letter pppp, the feminine form with the letter tttt, and the plural with the letter nnnn. The plurals had only one form to express both genders. B:B:B:B: When used as epithets (or in a perjorative sense e.g. ḫḫḫḫrw pf rw pf rw pf rw pf ẖẖẖẖssss, "that vile

enemy"), the Singular Demonstrative Adjectives pfpfpfpf, tftftftf, and nfnfnfnf, all followed their noun. However, in such usage the singulars p3p3p3p3 and t3t3t3t3 invariably preceded the noun they described, e.g.. p3 p3 p3 p3 ššššfdwfdwfdwfdw, "this papyrus roll". C: C: C: C: When written in a column, t3t3t3t3, might be seen as rather than in order to fill the space more

aesthetically. D:D:D:D: The wwww in ẖẖẖẖrdwrdwrdwrdw is not in parentheses because ẖẖẖẖrdwrdwrdwrdw was normally written without a , wwww. In 24.2, C. above, note that the is missing in the glyphs for srwsrwsrwsrw and dpwtdpwtdpwtdpwt. Therefore, the wwww in sr(w)sr(w)sr(w)sr(w) and in dp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)tdp(w)t are in parentheses to indicate the omission.

24.4 THE EGYPTIAN CO24.4 THE EGYPTIAN CO24.4 THE EGYPTIAN CO24.4 THE EGYPTIAN CONCEPT OF THE SPIRITNCEPT OF THE SPIRITNCEPT OF THE SPIRITNCEPT OF THE SPIRIT

The concept of soul was embodied by the ancient Egyptians in three separate, yet related, aspects of the

spirit: the k3k3k3k3 ("life force", "soul", "spirit"); the b3b3b3b3 ("personalitypersonalitypersonalitypersonality"); and the 3333ḫḫḫḫ ("ghost").2222

In the Heliopolitan creation myth, Aten emerged from Nun, the primeval waters, and created the first gods:

Shu, god of the air and Tefnut, goddess of moisture. Then Atum, later identified with the sun as Atum-Re,

enveloped Shu and Tefnut in his arms and transmitted his k3k3k3k3 to them. By this act, Atum-Re passed life itself from one generation to the next in perpetuity.

2 The k3 was represented by the sign D26 over Z1, ; the b3 by sign G29 under Z1, ; and the 3ḫ by sign

G25 under Z1, . In an earlier time the 3ḫ was a combination of the k3 and the b3 after the individual's death. The concept of the 3ḫ varied over the course of Egyptian religious life. Scholars still disagree as to the interpretation of these concepts.


119

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 24.424.424.424.4----1.1.1.1. FALSE DOOR TO THE D FALSE DOOR TO THE D FALSE DOOR TO THE D FALSE DOOR TO THE DYNASTY YNASTY YNASTY YNASTY 5555 (2494(2494(2494(2494----2345)2345)2345)2345) TOMB OF RAMKATOMB OF RAMKATOMB OF RAMKATOMB OF RAMKA,,,, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF OF OF OF ARTARTARTART....

The k3k3k3k3 most closely resembled an individual's "life force". It accompanied the individual into his next

life where its existence was ensured by the food

and drink offerings placed in the tomb's serdab,

the location of the statue of the deceased. The

false door to a tomb provided a recess in which

victuals might be deposited on a regular basis by

either family members or a corps of priests

devoted to this task. As the continued existence

of the k3k3k3k3 depended on the sustenance it received, the wall paintings in the tomb3333 served as

surrogates to supply an endless source of food for

those occasions when actual food and drink might

not be supplied by those charged with that task.

The k3k3k3k3 seemed to have possessed a life of its own. Initially, only the deities possessed a k3k3k3k3. In time, it was assumed by the ruler, thus ensuring

his own personal divine nature. Eventually, his

subjects possessed their own k3k3k3k3 but their k3k3k3k3 was not as all encompassing as the king's k3k3k3k3. During the Old Kingdom, the k3k3k3k3 of some of the nobles appears to have been of the pharaoh himself,

indicating that their life and fortune were

inexorably tied to the well being of the ruler.

The 3333ḫḫḫḫ was the individual's personality which emerged upon his death to take up residence in

the sky. Significantly, this term is related to words meaning "to be bright" and "to be effective". It is

often taken to mean essentially "the glorified one", i.e. "the blessed dead". s3s3s3s3ḫḫḫḫ, "prayers". lit. "making into an 3333ḫḫḫḫ ", and were said for the deceased so that his 3333ḫḫḫḫ might continue as a personage in the next world while still protecting his interests in this one.

The Egyptians envisaged a man's b3b3b3b3, portrayed from the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1600 and later) as a bird with a human head, as indicative of a spirit which could both inhabit the real world as well as the

3 The tomb itself was referred to as "the house of the k3".


120

deceased's corpse. It departed the deceased at the moment of death and thus might be equated to our

concept of soul. The b3b3b3b3 had the ability to leave the corpse each morning to wander about in the real world to receive offerings. When faced with difficulties in the after life, the b3b3b3b3 could by magical means transform itself into whatever manifestation it pleased. Each evening it would return to its home, the body

of the deceased. Gods were believed to have more than one b3b3b3b3 as part of their divine personalities. In Fig. 24.4-2 the b3b3b3b3 bird flying over Ani's corpse clutches a coil of rope, , Sign V9, the ššššnnnnìììì, in his talons. offering protection for the deceased.

Dating to the 12th Dynasty (1991-1786), a papyrus entitled "THE DTHE DTHE DTHE DISPUISPUISPUISPUTE BETWEEN A MAN ANDTE BETWEEN A MAN ANDTE BETWEEN A MAN ANDTE BETWEEN A MAN AND HIS B HIS B HIS B HIS BAAAA", tells

the following story: A man who suffers from life longs for A man who suffers from life longs for A man who suffers from life longs for A man who suffers from life longs for death. Angered by his complaints, his death. Angered by his complaints, his death. Angered by his complaints, his death. Angered by his complaints, his babababa threatens to threatens to threatens to threatens to leave him. This threat fills the man with horror, for to be abandoned by his leave him. This threat fills the man with horror, for to be abandoned by his leave him. This threat fills the man with horror, for to be abandoned by his leave him. This threat fills the man with horror, for to be abandoned by his babababa would mean total would mean total would mean total would mean total annihilation, instead of the resurrection and immortal bliss that he envisages. He therefore annihilation, instead of the resurrection and immortal bliss that he envisages. He therefore annihilation, instead of the resurrection and immortal bliss that he envisages. He therefore annihilation, instead of the resurrection and immortal bliss that he envisages. He therefore imploresimploresimploresimplores his his his his babababa to remain with him, and not to oppose him in his longing for death, a death that to remain with him, and not to oppose him in his longing for death, a death that to remain with him, and not to oppose him in his longing for death, a death that to remain with him, and not to oppose him in his longing for death, a death that he does not appear to contemplate as a suicide, but rather as a natural, though greatly he does not appear to contemplate as a suicide, but rather as a natural, though greatly he does not appear to contemplate as a suicide, but rather as a natural, though greatly he does not appear to contemplate as a suicide, but rather as a natural, though greatly welcomed, death, to be followed by a traditional burial. The welcomed, death, to be followed by a traditional burial. The welcomed, death, to be followed by a traditional burial. The welcomed, death, to be followed by a traditional burial. The ba ba ba ba counters his counters his counters his counters his pleas by telling pleas by telling pleas by telling pleas by telling him that death is a sad business, and that those who have fine tombs are no better off than him that death is a sad business, and that those who have fine tombs are no better off than him that death is a sad business, and that those who have fine tombs are no better off than him that death is a sad business, and that those who have fine tombs are no better off than those who have none. It urges him to stop complaining and to enjoy life. And it tells two those who have none. It urges him to stop complaining and to enjoy life. And it tells two those who have none. It urges him to stop complaining and to enjoy life. And it tells two those who have none. It urges him to stop complaining and to enjoy life. And it tells two parables designed to drive home the point that life isparables designed to drive home the point that life isparables designed to drive home the point that life isparables designed to drive home the point that life is worth living. The man's final answer is worth living. The man's final answer is worth living. The man's final answer is worth living. The man's final answer is delivered through four exquisite poems, in which he deplores the miseries of life and exalts delivered through four exquisite poems, in which he deplores the miseries of life and exalts delivered through four exquisite poems, in which he deplores the miseries of life and exalts delivered through four exquisite poems, in which he deplores the miseries of life and exalts death and resurrection. In a brief concluding speech the death and resurrection. In a brief concluding speech the death and resurrection. In a brief concluding speech the death and resurrection. In a brief concluding speech the babababa agrees to remain with him. agrees to remain with him. agrees to remain with him. agrees to remain with him.

4444

4 M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, p.163.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 24.424.424.424.4----2222 BA BIRD OVER THE C BA BIRD OVER THE C BA BIRD OVER THE C BA BIRD OVER THE CORPSE OF ANIORPSE OF ANIORPSE OF ANIORPSE OF ANI,,,, FROM HIS BOOK OF TH FROM HIS BOOK OF TH FROM HIS BOOK OF TH FROM HIS BOOK OF THE DEADE DEADE DEADE DEAD,,,, THE BRITISH MUSEUM THE BRITISH MUSEUM THE BRITISH MUSEUM THE BRITISH MUSEUM....


121

24.5 DESCRIPTION OF24.5 DESCRIPTION OF24.5 DESCRIPTION OF24.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENC SIGNS ENC SIGNS ENC SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDOUNTEREDOUNTEREDOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A7:A7:A7:A7: MAN SINKING TO THE GMAN SINKING TO THE GMAN SINKING TO THE GMAN SINKING TO THE GROUND IN FATIGUEROUND IN FATIGUEROUND IN FATIGUEROUND IN FATIGUE.... Det. in wrdwrdwrdwrd, "tire",

bdbdbdbdšššš, "faint". A15:A15:A15:A15: MAN FALLINGMAN FALLINGMAN FALLINGMAN FALLING.... Logo. or det. in ḫḫḫḫrrrr, "fall". Det. in ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw, "fallen (i.e. conquered) enemy"; also in ssssḫḫḫḫrrrr , "cause to overthrow". G25:G25:G25:G25: 3333ḫḫḫḫ [äkh] CRESTED IBISCRESTED IBISCRESTED IBISCRESTED IBIS.... Logo. for 3333ḫḫḫḫ, "spirit". N18:N18:N18:N18: SANDY TRACTSANDY TRACTSANDY TRACTSANDY TRACT.... Logo. in ììììwwww, "island". M22:M22:M22:M22: ,,,, nnnnḫḫḫḫ [nekh], RUSH WITH SHOOTSRUSH WITH SHOOTSRUSH WITH SHOOTSRUSH WITH SHOOTS.... Phon. in nnnnḫḫḫḫbtbtbtbt, "vulture"; phon. in nnynnynnynny,

nnnnnnnn [nen] "be weary". VVVV12:12:12:12: BAND OF STRING OR LIBAND OF STRING OR LIBAND OF STRING OR LIBAND OF STRING OR LINENNENNENNEN.... Det. in ššššfdwfdwfdwfdw, "papyrus book".


122



123

Chapter 25

QUANTIFIERSQUANTIFIERSQUANTIFIERSQUANTIFIERS AND CARDINAL NUMBER AND CARDINAL NUMBER AND CARDINAL NUMBER AND CARDINAL NUMBERSSSS 25.1 25.1 25.1 25.1 OTHER TYPES OF DOTHER TYPES OF DOTHER TYPES OF DOTHER TYPES OF DETERMINERS ARE ETERMINERS ARE ETERMINERS ARE ETERMINERS ARE QUQUQUQUANTIFIERS AND CARDINANTIFIERS AND CARDINANTIFIERS AND CARDINANTIFIERS AND CARDINAL NUMBERS. AL NUMBERS. AL NUMBERS. AL NUMBERS. While in

English quantifiers precede the noun, in Egyptian, they may precede or follow the noun, depending

on the quantifier. Cardinal numbers in Egyptian are also different from English in that they follow

the noun they clarify. Moreover, cardinal numbers were considered to be nouns and not adjectives

in Egyptian. 25.2 DETERMINERS25.2 DETERMINERS25.2 DETERMINERS25.2 DETERMINERS AND CARDINAL NUMBERSAND CARDINAL NUMBERSAND CARDINAL NUMBERSAND CARDINAL NUMBERS A.A.A.A. " " " "MANYMANYMANYMANY" + THE GENITIVAL AD" + THE GENITIVAL AD" + THE GENITIVAL AD" + THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE JECTIVE JECTIVE JECTIVE nnnn PRECEDE THE NOUN THEPRECEDE THE NOUN THEPRECEDE THE NOUN THEPRECEDE THE NOUN THEY Y Y Y DESCRIBEDESCRIBEDESCRIBEDESCRIBE MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE many times, often a million years ḥḥḥḥḥḥḥḥ n sp n sp n sp n sp ḥḥḥḥḥḥḥḥ n r n r n r n r npnpnpnp wtwtwtwt

B. B. B. B. """"EACHEACHEACHEACH", "", "", "", "EVERYEVERYEVERYEVERY", AND "", AND "", AND "", AND "AAAALLLLLLLL" FOLLOW THE NOUNS T" FOLLOW THE NOUNS T" FOLLOW THE NOUNS T" FOLLOW THE NOUNS THEY DESCRIBEHEY DESCRIBEHEY DESCRIBEHEY DESCRIBE MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

each father, every father all mankind ììììt nbt nbt nbt nb rrrr mmmmṯṯṯṯ nbt nbt nbt nbt every man every good thing s nbs nbs nbs nb ḫḫḫḫt nb(t) nft nb(t) nft nb(t) nft nb(t) nfrtrtrtrt

everyone, everybody, lit. every vegetable ḥḥḥḥr nbr nbr nbr nb "every face" ìììì3333ḳḳḳḳt nbtt nbtt nbtt nbt C. C. C. C. CARDINAL NCARDINAL NCARDINAL NCARDINAL NUMBEUMBEUMBEUMBERRRRS FOLLOW THE NOUN THS FOLLOW THE NOUN THS FOLLOW THE NOUN THS FOLLOW THE NOUN THEY QUANTIFYEY QUANTIFYEY QUANTIFYEY QUANTIFY MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE five children twenty ships ẖẖẖẖrdrdrdrd w w w w 5555 dpwt dpwt dpwt dpwt 20202020 25.3 COMM25.3 COMM25.3 COMM25.3 COMMENTARYENTARYENTARYENTARY A:A:A:A: Determiners of "many" include the genitival adj. nnnn, and precede the noun they describe. "Each", "every", and "all" follow the noun they describe.

BBBB:::: rrrr mmmmṯṯṯṯ was normally written without the mmmm. Occasionally rrrr mmmmṯṯṯṯ was treated as a masculine.

CCCC:::: Note that while ìììì3kt3kt3kt3kt contains plural strokes, it is singular, similar to mmmmšššš'''', "army". If the context indicated a plural was required, ìììì3kt3kt3kt3kt might be translated "(all) vegetables" and transliterated ìììì3k(w)t3k(w)t3k(w)t3k(w)t.


124

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 25.425.425.425.4----1111.... CUBCUBCUBCUBIT ROD IT ROD IT ROD IT ROD BELONGING TO MAYABELONGING TO MAYABELONGING TO MAYABELONGING TO MAYA,,,, TREASURER OF TUNTAN TREASURER OF TUNTAN TREASURER OF TUNTAN TREASURER OF TUNTANKHAMUNKHAMUNKHAMUNKHAMUN,,,, DIVIDED INTO DIVIDED INTO DIVIDED INTO DIVIDED INTO 7777 PALMS PALMS PALMS PALMS OF OF OF OF 4444 DIGITS EACH DIGITS EACH DIGITS EACH DIGITS EACH,,,, LOUVRE LOUVRE LOUVRE LOUVRE,,,, PARIS PARIS PARIS PARIS....

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 25.425.425.425.4----2222.... CCCCLOSELOSELOSELOSE----UP OF MAYAUP OF MAYAUP OF MAYAUP OF MAYA''''S CUBIT RODS CUBIT RODS CUBIT RODS CUBIT ROD....

25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 THE CUBITTHE CUBITTHE CUBITTHE CUBIT

The cubit, the measure of the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, was one of the

standards of measurement in the ancient world.. The length of ancient cubits varied from .44 to .50

meters, depending on time and locality. Herodotus1111 mentions that the royal cubits of Babylon were 3

fingers greater than the common cubit. In Egyptian, the determinative for the cubit was D42,

representing the arm from the elbow to the finger tips. Measurements based on fragments of original

measures of length indicate that the common Egyptian cubits from the New Kingdom (1567-1085) were

approximately .45 m. long. A cubit rod, found in the intact tomb of the architect ḥḥḥḥ'y'y'y'y, Khaye, was possibly a gift from the pharaoh, Akhepure Amenhotep2222 (18-7, 1450-1425) and may be seen in the Archaeological

Museum of Turin,3333 Italy.

Royal cubits were divided into seven palms which were further subdivided into four fingers. Common cubits

contained only six palms of four fingers each.

1 Herodotus of Halicarnassus was a Greek historian who lived c. 484–425. Born in Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, he settled in southern Italy in Thurii in a colony established by the Athenians. Cicero, the famous Roman orator, called him "The Father of History" He traveled extensively throughout Asia Minor, the Fertile Crescent, and Egypt. Although his history contained many stories of which Herodotus himself had great doubts, he included them nevertheless for their entertainment value. 2 Amenophis II. 3 The Turin museum has a collection of Egyptian cubit rods in stone, metal, and wood.


125

25.5 DESCRIPTION OF25.5 DESCRIPTION OF25.5 DESCRIPTION OF25.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION C11:C11:C11:C11: ḥḥḥḥḥḥḥḥ [heh] GOD WITH ARMS SUPPORGOD WITH ARMS SUPPORGOD WITH ARMS SUPPORGOD WITH ARMS SUPPORTING THE SKY TING THE SKY TING THE SKY TING THE SKY ((((CAN BE WITH OR WITHOCAN BE WITH OR WITHOCAN BE WITH OR WITHOCAN BE WITH OR WITHOUT UT UT UT M4M4M4M4 ON HEAD ON HEAD ON HEAD ON HEAD)))).... O50:O50:O50:O50: spspspsp [sep] CIRCULAR THRESHING FCIRCULAR THRESHING FCIRCULAR THRESHING FCIRCULAR THRESHING FLOOR COVERED WITH GRLOOR COVERED WITH GRLOOR COVERED WITH GRLOOR COVERED WITH GRAINAINAINAIN.... Det. in spspspsp, "time".



126

Chapter 26 THE THE THE THE SIMPLE PREPOSITIONSIMPLE PREPOSITIONSIMPLE PREPOSITIONSIMPLE PREPOSITION mmmm

26.1 A PREPOSITION I26.1 A PREPOSITION I26.1 A PREPOSITION I26.1 A PREPOSITION IS A WORD S A WORD S A WORD S A WORD WHICH IS USED TO SHOWHICH IS USED TO SHOWHICH IS USED TO SHOWHICH IS USED TO SHOW THE RELATION (W THE RELATION (W THE RELATION (W THE RELATION (SUCH AS "SUCH AS "SUCH AS "SUCH AS "TIME", "PLACE"TIME", "PLACE"TIME", "PLACE"TIME", "PLACE", , , ,

OR "DIROR "DIROR "DIROR "DIRECTION"ECTION"ECTION"ECTION") OF A NOU) OF A NOU) OF A NOU) OF A NOUN N N N OR PRONOUN OR PRONOUN OR PRONOUN OR PRONOUN TO TO TO TO ALL OR PART OF A ALL OR PART OF A ALL OR PART OF A ALL OR PART OF A SENTENCE.SENTENCE.SENTENCE.SENTENCE. The preposition

precedes the word it modifies (noun or pronoun) and this construction is called "a prepositional

phrase". Examples: "She stood near the horse.", "They will arrive on Saturday.", and "He stayed

with her.", where the subject and verb are in black, the prepositions in red and the modified noun or

pronoun in green.

In English, there are many prepositional words. However, in Egyptian there are far fewer

prepositions and, therefore, each may be translated in more than one way. Egyptian prepositions are

categorized as either "simple" (a single glyph) or "compound" (more than one glyph). The simple

Egyptian preposition mmmm, may mean: "in", "for", "of", "as", "by", "together with", "go out from",

"begin from", "according to", "upon", "again", and "when".

22226666.2 THE SIMPLE PREPOS.2 THE SIMPLE PREPOS.2 THE SIMPLE PREPOS.2 THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION ITION ITION ITION mmmm

in its length in truth mmmm 3w3w3w3w⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss mmmm m3't m3't m3't m3't

in that summer in 6 days, for 6 days mmmm ššššmw pfmw pfmw pfmw pf mmmm hrwhrwhrwhrw 6666

by my plan You will return in safety. mmmm ssssḫḫḫḫrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ìììììììì⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k mmmm ḥḥḥḥtptptptp

of stone, lit. "in stone", i.e. "consisting of stone" mmmm ììììnrnrnrnr

in the tent of His Majesty, l.p.h. mmmm ììììmmmm((((3333)))) wwww n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f 'nf 'nf 'nf 'nḫḫḫḫ w w w wḏḏḏḏ3 snb3 snb3 snb3 snb

I sent my brother from that island. h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì snsnsnsn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì m m m m ìììì w pfw pfw pfw pf

all my things in the country, i.e. my country things ḫḫḫḫtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nbt nbt nbt nbt mmmm šššš3333

His Majesty appointed me as chief treasurer. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n wwwwìììì ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f m m m m ììììmymymymy----r sr sr sr sḏḏḏḏ3wty3wty3wty3wtywwww

The vizier made a boat 120 cubits long, lit. "of 120 cubits in ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ṯṯṯṯ3ty 3ty 3ty 3ty dptdptdptdpt nt mnt mnt mnt mḥḥḥḥ 120 120 120 120 '''' wwww⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss its length".


127



A:A:A:A: Note that often following , ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff "His Majesty" or "the king", is the grouping , standing for

'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ w w w wḏḏḏḏ3 snb3 snb3 snb3 snb, "may he live, be prosperous, and healthymay he live, be prosperous, and healthymay he live, be prosperous, and healthymay he live, be prosperous, and healthy" (abbr. in translation as l.p.h.l.p.h.l.p.h.l.p.h.). BBBB:::: The preposition mmmm is used to describe an individual's station in life. Thus, in the sentence "His Majesty

appointed me chief treasurer", the Egyptian is literally "His Majesty gave me [the office] as chief

treasurer" or, "His Majesty placed me as chief treasurer". When the preposition mmmm is used in this

manner, it is characterized as "the mmmm of predication". Another example of the mmmm of predication is the

phrase ....., m m m m ìììì3t3t3t3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ....., "in my office of .....". This, or similar wording, is often found in an individual's tomb in that section of the text in which the deceased describes his good deeds in his service

for the king.

CCCC:::: In Egyptian "you are a scribe", is written ììììwwww⋅⋅⋅⋅k m sk m sk m sk m sšššš, lit. "you are as a scribe". Egyptian, unlike English, cannot simply say, "you are a scribe".

26.4 ABYDOS26.4 ABYDOS26.4 ABYDOS26.4 ABYDOS, THE BURIAL PLACE, THE BURIAL PLACE, THE BURIAL PLACE, THE BURIAL PLACE OF OSIRIS OF OSIRIS OF OSIRIS OF OSIRIS

3b3b3b3bḏḏḏḏwwww, Abydos, in the t3t3t3t3----wrwrwrwr nome,1111 is located 400 km. south

of Heliopolis, about 2/3 of the distance to the first cataract at Elephantine

(modern Aswan). The exact nature of the t3t3t3t3----wrwrwrwr insignia, R17, is not known.

Some scholars believe it is a stick supporting a wig which is adorned with a head

band and plumage. Others believe that it represents a reliquary for the head of

the dead Osiris.2222

Beginning in the Pre-Dynastic period, Abydos was the most important burial

site in Upper Egypt. The original local god seems to have been

ḫḫḫḫnty nty nty nty ììììmntywmntywmntywmntyw, Khentyamentiu, "FFFFOREMOST OF THE OREMOST OF THE OREMOST OF THE OREMOST OF THE WWWWESTERNERSESTERNERSESTERNERSESTERNERS", i.e. "RRRRULER OF ULER OF ULER OF ULER OF

THOSE WHO ARE IN THETHOSE WHO ARE IN THETHOSE WHO ARE IN THETHOSE WHO ARE IN THE NNNNECROPOLISECROPOLISECROPOLISECROPOLIS". Monuments of the kings from Dynasty 1

(3100-2890) and Dynasty 2 (2890-2686) have been found in the environs of

Abydos, beginning with Narmer (1-1, c. 3100). Whether these monuments are

the actual tombs of these rulers or cenotaphs3333 is not certain. Over the

succeeding dynasties, the cenotaphs and/or tombs became larger and more detailed in design. The original

faces of the rectangular mounds were built in a style similar to the palace facades, Sign O33 , possibly

surrounded by trees or with trees planted upon their upper surfaces. The temple of Khentyamentiu in

Abydos was an important cult center in ancient Egypt. As the temple was built of brick, very little has

survived to the present day.

1 t3-wr, lit. "the great land, or perhaps, "the oldest land". 2 Each of the 42 nomes had its own symbol, which was carried not only in ceremonial activities but also by its troops on campaign. 3 Memorials erected to honor individuals buried elsewhere.


128

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 26.426.426.426.4----1.1.1.1. THE ENTRANCE TO TH THE ENTRANCE TO TH THE ENTRANCE TO TH THE ENTRANCE TO THE BURIAL PLACE OF OSE BURIAL PLACE OF OSE BURIAL PLACE OF OSE BURIAL PLACE OF OSIRIS AT ABYDOSIRIS AT ABYDOSIRIS AT ABYDOSIRIS AT ABYDOS,,,, 1984.1984.1984.1984.

During the 5th and 6th Dynasties (c. 2500-2200) Khentyamentiu's attributes and epithets were assimilated

into those of Osiris. For the remainder of Egyptian history, Abydos was primarily associated with Osiris as

the deity of the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2100-1800), pilgrims from all over Egypt would

attend the rites, perhaps conducted annually, in which Osiris was ritually slain and then resurrected.

Important people erected small brick tombs and cenotaphs along the path from the temple to the

cemeteries in the Western Desert. One such cenotaph, which vividly described this spectacle, was erected

by ìììììììì----ẖẖẖẖrrrr----nfrtnfrtnfrtnfrt, Ikhernofret, the chief treasurer of the pharaoh Khakaure Senusert.4444 Senusert had appointed Ikhernofret to refurbish the statue of Osiris Khentyamentiu and to oversee these rites, an accomplishment

of which he was very proud.

The New Kingdom pharaohs, Menmaatre Seti 5555 (19-2, 1318-1304) and Usermaatre Ramesses 6666 (19-3, 1304-

1237) also built major temples at Abydos. In Seti's temple is a king list of 76 of his predecessors. The list

is not all inclusive as it contains only those rulers which he considered legitimate. Nevertheless, it is one of

the primary sources for king names up to the 19th Dynasty.

4 Sesotris III (12-5, 1878-1843). 5 Seti I. 6 Ramesses II, aka "Ramesses The Great".


129

26.5 DESCRIPTION OF26.5 DESCRIPTION OF26.5 DESCRIPTION OF26.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION F4:F4:F4:F4: FOREPART OF A LIONFOREPART OF A LIONFOREPART OF A LIONFOREPART OF A LION.... Logo. in ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t, "front". G4:G4:G4:G4: tywtywtywtyw [tēōō] THE LONGTHE LONGTHE LONGTHE LONG----LEGGEDLEGGEDLEGGEDLEGGED BUZZARD BUZZARD BUZZARD BUZZARD.... Often difficult to distinguish from G1. R17:R17:R17:R17: WIG WITH BAND AND PLWIG WITH BAND AND PLWIG WITH BAND AND PLWIG WITH BAND AND PLUMES ON A POLEUMES ON A POLEUMES ON A POLEUMES ON A POLE.... Nome standard for t3t3t3t3----wrwrwrwr, called "This" by the Greeks.

R18:R18:R18:R18: VARIANT FORM OVARIANT FORM OVARIANT FORM OVARIANT FORM OF F F F RRRR17171717 OVER OVER OVER OVER ,,,, N24N24N24N24,,,, AND USED AS AND USED AS AND USED AS AND USED AS t3t3t3t3----wrwrwrwr STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD.... S19:S19:S19:S19: CYLINDER SEAL ATTACHCYLINDER SEAL ATTACHCYLINDER SEAL ATTACHCYLINDER SEAL ATTACHED TO A BEAD NECKLACED TO A BEAD NECKLACED TO A BEAD NECKLACED TO A BEAD NECKLACEEEE.... Logo. in ssssḏḏḏḏ3w3w3w3w, "seal

bearer", "chief treasurer"; ssssḏḏḏḏ3wtyw3wtyw3wtyw3wtyw, "treasurers. V1:V1:V1:V1: COIL OF ROPECOIL OF ROPECOIL OF ROPECOIL OF ROPE.... Det. in ṯṯṯṯssss, "tie"; nwnwnwnwḥḥḥḥ, "rope"; ḥḥḥḥ3tt3tt3tt3tt, "prow rope of ship". Also used as the sign for the number "100". W17W17W17W17: ḫḫḫḫntntntnt [khenet] THREE WATER POTS IN THREE WATER POTS IN THREE WATER POTS IN THREE WATER POTS IN A RACA RACA RACA RACKKKK.... Phon. in ḫḫḫḫntntntnt, "in front of". W18W18W18W18:::: ḫḫḫḫntntntnt [khenet] FOUR WATER POTS IN AFOUR WATER POTS IN AFOUR WATER POTS IN AFOUR WATER POTS IN A RACK RACK RACK RACK.... OK form of W17.



130

Chapter 27

COMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITHS WITHS WITHS WITH mmmm

27.1 A 27.1 A 27.1 A 27.1 A COMPOUND COMPOUND COMPOUND COMPOUND PREPOSITION PREPOSITION PREPOSITION PREPOSITION IS IS IS IS THETHETHETHE COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF A SIMPLE A SIMPLE A SIMPLE A SIMPLE PREPOSPREPOSPREPOSPREPOSIIIITIONTIONTIONTION + + + + A NOUN OR A NOUN OR A NOUN OR A NOUN OR

VERBVERBVERBVERB, WHICH , WHICH , WHICH , WHICH FORMFORMFORMFORMSSSS A NEW PREPOSITION. A NEW PREPOSITION. A NEW PREPOSITION. A NEW PREPOSITION. Compound prepositions are generally alphabetized in the

dictionary according to their second element. 27.2 COMPOUND 27.2 COMPOUND 27.2 COMPOUND 27.2 COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITHPREPOSITIONS WITHPREPOSITIONS WITHPREPOSITIONS WITH mmmm A. A. A. A. mmmm + NOUNS + NOUNS + NOUNS + NOUNS

arm, hand together with, in the hand of, because of ' mmmm----''''

in my hand, in my charge, in my possession mmmm----' ' ' ' ⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

phallus in the presence of, lit. "in the foreskin of" b3b3b3b3ḥḥḥḥ mmmm----b3b3b3b3ḥḥḥḥ

time at the time of Pepi h3wh3wh3wh3w mmmm----h3w ph3w ph3w ph3w pììììppppìììì

forefrontforefrontforefrontforefront in front of, before in front of, before in front of, before in front of, before ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t mmmm----ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t

interior in the interior of, inside ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw mmmm----ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw

B. B. B. B. mmmm + VERBS+ VERBS+ VERBS+ VERBS

love as you love life, as you truly love life mrmrmrmr rrrr mmmm----mrmrmrmr rrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯn 'nn 'nn 'nn 'nḫḫḫḫ

drive away, repel, oppose at the approach of ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf mmmm----ḫḫḫḫsfwsfwsfwsfw

retire accompanying, afterwards, when ḫḫḫḫtttt mmmm----ḫḫḫḫtttt


A:A:A:A: The preposition mmmm may be used with nouns or verbs to form a compound preposition. The mmmm precedes the

noun or verb when used in such a fashion.

BBBB:::: , ((((mmmm))))----ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw, is cryptic writing for the compound preposition mmmm----ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw.


131

CCCC:::: Note that the walking legs, D54, might be reversed as in D55 , when used as a determinative1111 to

indicate "backwards". Thus, ìììì wwww, "come", whereas sbh3sbh3sbh3sbh3, "cause to retreat". However, by convention, scholars use the letter kkkk reversed to indicate that the original text was written in Hieratic,

because Hieratic was written from right to left. This PrimerPrimerPrimerPrimer displays all text reading from left to right. Therefore, in lines 2/3 from TTTTHE HE HE HE TTTTALE OF THE ALE OF THE ALE OF THE ALE OF THE SSSSHIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED SSSSAILORAILORAILORAILOR, mk pmk pmk pmk pḥḥḥḥnnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅m m m m ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw, "Behold, we have reached home" is shown as with the kkkk reversed, , in the transcription to

indicate the Hieratic original.

27.4 OSIRIS27.4 OSIRIS27.4 OSIRIS27.4 OSIRIS 2222 AND HIS EPITHETS AND HIS EPITHETS AND HIS EPITHETS AND HIS EPITHETS

Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys were the four children of Geb and Nut. Their family tree is shown below:

These nine deities made up the Heliopolitan Ennead and this genealogy has been found in Old Kingdom

Pyramid Texts from as early as Dynasty 5 (2494-2345). As the theology of Heliopolis gained ascendancy in

Egypt, the Heliopolitan priests inserted Osiris into a generation twice removed from Atum, who was

equivalent to their creator god Re. Thus, they effectively subordinated Osiris and his cult priests to their

control. According to some texts, wswswswsììììrrrr, Osiris, was born at the entrance to the Underworld,

dw3tdw3tdw3tdw3t, in the Western Desert near Memphis. His Old kingdom epithets indicate his universality among the

Egyptian pantheons:

1. FOREMOST OF THE W1. FOREMOST OF THE W1. FOREMOST OF THE W1. FOREMOST OF THE WESTERNERSESTERNERSESTERNERSESTERNERS. The original name of the mortuary deity at Abydos,

ḫḫḫḫnty nty nty nty ììììmntywmntywmntywmntyw, Khentyamentiu, which became syncretized with Osiris at a later date. As the burial grounds were all west of the Nile and the dead were considered "WesternersWesternersWesternersWesterners", i.e. those who have "gone Westgone Westgone Westgone West", Osiris

became the principal funerary god of ancient Egypt. Furthermore, Osiris became associated with the sun,

probably because it sets in the West.

1 See §8.1 for a discussion of Determinatives. 2 See §18.4 for Osiris in the Egyptian records.


132

MMMMAP AP AP AP 27.427.427.427.4----1.1.1.1. SSSSITES ITES ITES ITES MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN §§§§27.4.27.4.27.4.27.4.

2. HE WHO DWELLS IN 2. HE WHO DWELLS IN 2. HE WHO DWELLS IN 2. HE WHO DWELLS IN ANJDET.ANJDET.ANJDET.ANJDET.3333 The god Andjety was worshipped in the

Delta at the cult center of Busiris. He was an early funerary god and in time

his cult was absorbed by Osiris. Osiris was also worshipped in his dual form

of Osiris-Andjety. A scene in the temple of Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) at

Abydos displays the king wearing the Blue Crown, while burning incense to

Osiris-Andjety.

3. HE WHO DWELLS IN3. HE WHO DWELLS IN3. HE WHO DWELLS IN3. HE WHO DWELLS IN HELIOPOLIS. HELIOPOLIS. HELIOPOLIS. HELIOPOLIS.4444 Incorporates Osiris into the

Heliopolitan theology, which was centered around the worship of the sun as a

creator deity.

4. HE WHO DWELLS IN 4. HE WHO DWELLS IN 4. HE WHO DWELLS IN 4. HE WHO DWELLS IN ORION WITH A SEAORION WITH A SEAORION WITH A SEAORION WITH A SEASSSSON IN THE SKY AND A ON IN THE SKY AND A ON IN THE SKY AND A ON IN THE SKY AND A

SEASEASEASEASSSSON ON EARTH.ON ON EARTH.ON ON EARTH.ON ON EARTH.5555 Associates Osiris with the stars in contrast to his

earthly connections.

5. HE WHO DWELLS IN 5. HE WHO DWELLS IN 5. HE WHO DWELLS IN 5. HE WHO DWELLS IN THE HOUSE THE HOUSE THE HOUSE THE HOUSE OF OF OF OF SELKET.SELKET.SELKET.SELKET.6666 srsrsrsrḳḳḳḳtttt 7777 Selket,

the scorpion goddess, was one of the protectors of the king. In addition,

she was associated with the embalming rituals and a safe passage through

the Underworld. Her statue was to be found as guardian at one of the four corners of the chest containing

the canopic jars in which the viscera of the deceased was sealed. As Osiris was the most important god

involved with the funerary cult, it was fitting that he and Selket should be in close proximity.

6. HE WHO IS IN THE 6. HE WHO IS IN THE 6. HE WHO IS IN THE 6. HE WHO IS IN THE GOD'S TENT (OR BOOTGOD'S TENT (OR BOOTGOD'S TENT (OR BOOTGOD'S TENT (OR BOOTH).H).H).H).8888 This refers to the embalmer's workshop where the

corpse was prepared for mummification. His presence guaranteed the protection of the deceased on his

journey into the Underworld. Lesser epithets9999 for Osiris in this function include: HE WHO IS IN THHE WHO IS IN THHE WHO IS IN THHE WHO IS IN THE E E E

FUMIGATIONFUMIGATIONFUMIGATIONFUMIGATION (refers to the incense burning accompanying the mummification process); HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT IN IN IN IN

THE BOXTHE BOXTHE BOXTHE BOX (refers to the deceased's sarcophagus which is to be under Osiris's protection); HE WHO HAS BEEN HE WHO HAS BEEN HE WHO HAS BEEN HE WHO HAS BEEN

PUT IN THE SHRINEPUT IN THE SHRINEPUT IN THE SHRINEPUT IN THE SHRINE (refers to the outer imitation shrine containers in which the sarcophagus was placed); and,

HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT IN THE CLOTHIN THE CLOTHIN THE CLOTHIN THE CLOTH (refers to the linen bandages in which the corpse was encased). In the

OK, these funerary epithets were for the king's protection only. Over time, they were extended to the

royal family and retinue, eventually becoming available for commoners and royalty alike.

3 Pyramid Text, Utterance 219, §182 (here the symbol § is used to indicate the line number in the seminal transcriptions and translations by K. Sethe in 1910 and subsequent interpretation by G. Jéquier in 1921). The Pyramid Texts were religious texts found in the royal tombs, the earliest of which was found in the pyramid of Unas (5-9, 2365-2345) which is located adjacent to the Step Pyramid of Djoser. 4 Utterance 219, §181. 5 Utterance 219, §186. 6 Utterance 219, §183. 7 Pronounced "sel-ket" because the Copts and Greeks occasionally rendered the ancient Egyptian letter r as an "I". 8 Utterance 219, §184. 9 These four epithets are all found in Utterance 219, §184.


133

Another epithet, wnnwnnwnnwnn----nfrwnfrwnfrwnfrw, Wennefer, perhaps HE WHO EXISTS IN PERHE WHO EXISTS IN PERHE WHO EXISTS IN PERHE WHO EXISTS IN PERECT CONDITIONECT CONDITIONECT CONDITIONECT CONDITION, was applied to

the resurrected Osiris. In the Middle and New Kingdoms, Osiris acquired additional titles, associating him

more with life ever-lasting than with death. He is referred to as LORD OF THE LIVINGLORD OF THE LIVINGLORD OF THE LIVINGLORD OF THE LIVING, LORD OF THE UNIVERSELORD OF THE UNIVERSELORD OF THE UNIVERSELORD OF THE UNIVERSE,

and RULER OF ETERNITYRULER OF ETERNITYRULER OF ETERNITYRULER OF ETERNITY, as his protection was expanded to include the most important bureaucrats of the

palace and nome administrations.

In the OK, the earthly death of the king was considered but a transition to his eternal life in dw3tdw3tdw3tdw3t as

OSIRIS KING OF THE UOSIRIS KING OF THE UOSIRIS KING OF THE UOSIRIS KING OF THE UNDERWORLDNDERWORLDNDERWORLDNDERWORLD, where he, i.e. the king, continued to rule from the throne of Osiris. 27.5 DESCRIPTION OF27.5 DESCRIPTION OF27.5 DESCRIPTION OF27.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D55:D55:D55:D55: LEGS WALKING BACKWARLEGS WALKING BACKWARLEGS WALKING BACKWARLEGS WALKING BACKWARDSDSDSDS.... Det. indicating "reverse direction", "backwards". E34:E34:E34:E34: wnwnwnwn [wen] DESERT HAREDESERT HAREDESERT HAREDESERT HARE.... Phon. in wnnwnnwnnwnn, "to be"; wnnwnnwnnwnn----nfrwnfrwnfrwnfrw, "Osiris"; wnwnwnwn, "open"; wnwnwnwnìììì, "pass by", "disregard". L7:L7:L7:L7: SCORPIONSCORPIONSCORPIONSCORPION.... Logo in srsrsrsrḳḳḳḳtttt Serket, the scorpion goddess. N15N15N15N15 STAR IN A CIRCLESTAR IN A CIRCLESTAR IN A CIRCLESTAR IN A CIRCLE.... Logo. for dw3tdw3tdw3tdw3t, "netherworld". O31:O31:O31:O31: DOORDOORDOORDOOR.... Logo. or det. in '3'3'3'3, "door". R12:R12:R12:R12: STANDARD FOR CARRYINSTANDARD FOR CARRYINSTANDARD FOR CARRYINSTANDARD FOR CARRYING RELIGG RELIGG RELIGG RELIGIOUS SYMBOLSIOUS SYMBOLSIOUS SYMBOLSIOUS SYMBOLS.... Also used with a god upon the standard as a logo. R13:R13:R13:R13: FALCONFALCONFALCONFALCON,,,, G5G5G5G5,,,, ON STANDARD ON STANDARD ON STANDARD ON STANDARD R12R12R12R12,,,, WITH FEATHER WITH FEATHER WITH FEATHER WITH FEATHER.... Logo. in ììììmntmntmntmnt, "west" and related words. R14:R14:R14:R14: ABBREVIATED FORM OF ABBREVIATED FORM OF ABBREVIATED FORM OF ABBREVIATED FORM OF R13R13R13R13,,,, OMITTING THE FALCON OMITTING THE FALCON OMITTING THE FALCON OMITTING THE FALCON AND ENLARGING THE AND ENLARGING THE AND ENLARGING THE AND ENLARGING THE

FEFEFEFEATHERATHERATHERATHER.... Logo. in ììììmntmntmntmnt, "west" and related words. U34:U34:U34:U34: ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf [khesef] SPINDLESPINDLESPINDLESPINDLE.... Phon. in ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf, "repel", "oppose", "drive away". U35:U35:U35:U35: ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf [khesef] COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF U34U34U34U34 AND AND AND AND I9I9I9I9.... Phon. in ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf, "repel", "oppose", "drive away". V31*:V31*:V31*:V31*: kkkk [eck] WICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WIWICKERWORK BASKET WITH HANDLE REVERSEDTH HANDLE REVERSEDTH HANDLE REVERSEDTH HANDLE REVERSED.... Normal form of k in Hieratic. Used by scholars to indicate that a hieroglyphic text has been transcribed from a hieratic original.


134



135

Chapter 28 THE PREPOSITIONTHE PREPOSITIONTHE PREPOSITIONTHE PREPOSITION nnnn

28.1 THE SIMPLE PREP28.1 THE SIMPLE PREP28.1 THE SIMPLE PREP28.1 THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION OSITION OSITION OSITION nnnn MAY MEAN " MAY MEAN " MAY MEAN " MAY MEAN "TOTOTOTO", "", "", "", "FORFORFORFOR", "", "", "", "OFOFOFOF", "", "", "", "BELONGING TOBELONGING TOBELONGING TOBELONGING TO", "", "", "", "THROUGHTHROUGHTHROUGHTHROUGH", ", ", ",

""""ATATATAT", "", "", "", "WITHINWITHINWITHINWITHIN".".".". AS A CAS A CAS A CAS A COMPOUND OMPOUND OMPOUND OMPOUND PREPOSITION,PREPOSITION,PREPOSITION,PREPOSITION,1111 USES INCLUDE "USES INCLUDE "USES INCLUDE "USES INCLUDE "FOR THE SAKE OFFOR THE SAKE OFFOR THE SAKE OFFOR THE SAKE OF" AND " AND " AND " AND

""""THROUGH LACK OFTHROUGH LACK OFTHROUGH LACK OFTHROUGH LACK OF".".".".

28.2 28.2 28.2 28.2 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SIMPLE AND COMPOUND USAGE OF THE PREPOSTUSAGE OF THE PREPOSTUSAGE OF THE PREPOSTUSAGE OF THE PREPOSTIONIONIONION nnnn AAAA. THE SIMPLE PREPOSI. THE SIMPLE PREPOSI. THE SIMPLE PREPOSI. THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION TION TION TION nnnn

to the official to Egypt n srn srn srn sr n kmtn kmtn kmtn kmt for the servant n b3kn b3kn b3kn b3k

the rear of his army of victories ppppḥḥḥḥwy n ms'wy n ms'wy n ms'wy n ms'⋅⋅⋅⋅f n nf n nf n nf n nḫḫḫḫtwtwtwtw

belonging to my two brothers n snwyn snwyn snwyn snwy⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

through hunger n n n n ḥḥḥḥkrkrkrkr

at the town n dmIn dmIn dmIn dmI

within 4 months n 3bd n 3bd n 3bd n 3bd 4444

BBBB. . . . THE PREPOSITION THE PREPOSITION THE PREPOSITION THE PREPOSITION nnnn IN COMPOUND PREPOSI IN COMPOUND PREPOSI IN COMPOUND PREPOSI IN COMPOUND PREPOSITIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS

for the sake of, lit. "for the heart of" nnnn----ììììbbbb through lack of nnnn----g3wg3wg3wg3w

1 See §27.1.


136

28.3 COMMENTARY28.3 COMMENTARY28.3 COMMENTARY28.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: nnnn is used with verbs of motion such as "go", "go down", and "come" to a person as in

sprsprsprspr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì n smr w'ty n smr w'ty n smr w'ty n smr w'ty, "I approached the Unique Friend of the King". 2222

BBBB:::: The Egyptians referred to their land as kmtkmtkmtkmt, "the Black Land" in contrast to the desert ddddššššrtrtrtrt, "the Red Land". The Black Land included the Delta, as well as the land covered by the

yearly Nile inundations.

CCCC:::: Most countries were grammatically feminine in Egyptian.

DDDD:::: When a verb, such as ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr, "to be hungry", is nominalized, i.e. used as a noun, as in

ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr, "the hungry", note that Sign A1 , the man determinative, is used to indicate this usage.

28.4 THE PYRAMID TEX28.4 THE PYRAMID TEX28.4 THE PYRAMID TEX28.4 THE PYRAMID TEXTS, THE COFFIN TEXTSTS, THE COFFIN TEXTSTS, THE COFFIN TEXTSTS, THE COFFIN TEXTS, , , , andandandand THE BOOK OF THE DEA THE BOOK OF THE DEA THE BOOK OF THE DEA THE BOOK OF THE DEADDDD

The pyramids of Dynasties 3-5 (2686-2345) contained no written texts except for the last king of Dynasty

5, Unas (5-9, 2375-2345). Here, for the first time in a king's pyramid,3333 the walls and ceilings of the

antechambers and burial chamber were covered with religious spells and prayers, called by scholars TTTTHE HE HE HE

PPPPYRAMID YRAMID YRAMID YRAMID TTTTEXTSEXTSEXTSEXTS. The incorporation of these spoken prayers insured the king's k3k3k3k3 4444 a safe journey into the underworld where he would become one with Osiris. Such writings became standard fare in later royal

tombs and were also eventually inscribed on parts of the several coffins which held the royal mummy. As

m3'm3'm3'm3' tttt 5555 was originally the sole concern of the king, so too originally, these utterances applied only to the

king. After the end of the Old Kingdom, these texts were placed on the coffins of non-royal individuals as

well; such later texts are called TTTTHE HE HE HE CCCCOOOOFFIN FFIN FFIN FFIN TTTTEXTSEXTSEXTSEXTS by Egyptologists. Eventually, this new corpus of spells was

enlarged yet further, being written on papyrus rolls. These were then wrapped within the shrouds that

protected the mummy in its travels through the netherworld and provided the deceased with a reference

book to the after life. The popular phrase, TTTTHE HE HE HE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD, was given to these papyri by early

scholars. It was derived from the Arabic "Kitâb al-Mayyit", THTHTHTHE E E E BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEAD EAD EAD EAD MMMMANANANAN, a term used by the

tomb robbers of the 19th Century to describe where these "books" were found. However, the ancient

Egyptians referred to these scrolls by the more cheerful title T T T THE HE HE HE BBBBOOKOOKOOKOOK (lit. SPELLS) OF OF OF OF GGGGOING OING OING OING FFFFORTH BY ORTH BY ORTH BY ORTH BY DDDDAYAYAYAY.

2 The title, smr w'ty, is variously translated as "Unique Friend", "Sole Friend", or "Sole Companion" of the king. 3 Non-royal mastabas of the period contained titularies, biographies, and legal inscriptions among other texts. 4 See §24.4. 5 See §13.4.


137

As the corpus of utterances grew, not all were used in every mummification or tomb. Each individual chose

those spells which he or she deemed to be most beneficial. Many scholars have analyzed, sorted out, and

published the Pyramid Texts, the most famous studies being: K. Sethe's Übersetzung und Kommentar zu den altägyptischen Pyramidentexten ("Translation and Commentary on the Old Egyptian Pyramid Texts"); G. Jéquier's Le monument funéraire de Pepi II (The funeral Monument of Pepi II), Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit ("The Pyramids of the Queens Neith and Ipwt"), and La pyramide d'Aba ("The Pyramid of Aba").

Scholars reference utterances by abbreviation, using the following system:

Abbr. Individual

AbaAbaAbaAba AbaAbaAbaAba ( ( ( (8888----3333))))

ApApApAp ApouitApouitApouitApouit ( ( ( (Wife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi II, 6, 6, 6, 6----5)5)5)5)

JPIIJPIIJPIIJPII 6666 Pepi II (Pepi II (Pepi II (Pepi II (6666----5555))))

MMMM MerenreMerenreMerenreMerenre ( ( ( (6666----4444))))

NNNN Pepi II (Pepi II (Pepi II (Pepi II (6666----5555))))

NtNtNtNt Neith (Neith (Neith (Neith (Wife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi IIWife of Pepi II, 6, 6, 6, 6----5)5)5)5)

OuOuOuOu OudjebtenOudjebtenOudjebtenOudjebten ( ( ( (Daughter of Pepi Daughter of Pepi Daughter of Pepi Daughter of Pepi IIII (6 (6 (6 (6----3)3)3)3) and wife of Pepi IIand wife of Pepi IIand wife of Pepi IIand wife of Pepi II (6 (6 (6 (6----5))5))5))5))

PPPP Pepi IPepi IPepi IPepi I (6(6(6(6----3333))))

TTTT TetiTetiTetiTeti (6 (6 (6 (6----1111))))

WWWW UnasUnasUnasUnas ( ( ( (5555----9999)))) Standard general reference abbreviations:

BDBDBDBD Book of the DeadBook of the DeadBook of the DeadBook of the Dead CTCTCTCT Coffin TextCoffin TextCoffin TextCoffin Text PTPTPTPT Pyramid TextPyramid TextPyramid TextPyramid Text As spell No. 219 in Unas might be No. 284 in Neith as well as in Aba, a reference to a particular prayer

might read W219AbaNt284. In order to simplify the coding and reference to a particular utterance, in 1969 R.O.

Faulkner assembled the prayers and published this corpus under the title TTTTHE HE HE HE AAAANCIENT NCIENT NCIENT NCIENT EEEEGYPTIAN GYPTIAN GYPTIAN GYPTIAN PPPPYRAMID YRAMID YRAMID YRAMID TTTTEXTSEXTSEXTSEXTS.

All the known incantations were incorporated in this work in an easy to reference format.

Scholars have debated the proper sequencing of the Pyramid Texts, whether they should be read from the

burial chamber outward through the antechamber or read from the entrance toward the burial chamber.

Although Sethe began his sequencing in the burial chambers and proceeded outward, many scholars believe

to the contrary - the texts should be read from the entrance portal towards the burial chamber.

6 The prefix J indicates Jéquier's study.


138

28.5 DESCRIPTION OF28.5 DESCRIPTION OF28.5 DESCRIPTION OF28.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIONNNN DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION F34:F34:F34:F34: HEARTHEARTHEARTHEART.... Logo. in or ììììbbbb, "heart". Det. in , ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty, "heart". F42:F42:F42:F42: sprsprsprspr [sep-âr] RRRRIBIBIBIB.... Logo. or det. in sprsprsprspr, "rib". Phon. in sprsprsprspr, "approach". N21:N21:N21:N21: TONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LAND.... Det. in , dmIdmIdmIdmI, "town". T21:T21:T21:T21: ONEONEONEONE----BARBED HARPOOBARBED HARPOOBARBED HARPOOBARBED HARPOONNNN.... Logo. in w'w'w'w', "one person", "unique", "sole", etc.



139

Chapter 29

THE NOUN INDIRECT OBTHE NOUN INDIRECT OBTHE NOUN INDIRECT OBTHE NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTJECTJECTJECT 29.1 THE INDIRECT OB29.1 THE INDIRECT OB29.1 THE INDIRECT OB29.1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT TELLS TOJECT TELLS TOJECT TELLS TOJECT TELLS TO/FOR/FOR/FOR/FOR WHOM OR WHAT WHOM OR WHAT WHOM OR WHAT WHOM OR WHAT THE ACTION OF THE VETHE ACTION OF THE VETHE ACTION OF THE VETHE ACTION OF THE VERB IS RB IS RB IS RB IS

PERFORMEDPERFORMEDPERFORMEDPERFORMED.... In English, the standard sentence word order is SUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECT----VERBVERBVERBVERB----OBJECOBJECOBJECOBJECTSTSTSTS: "I gave the

book to him." or "I gave him the book.", where the green indicates the direct object and the red the

indirect object. Note that in English, both objects follow the subject and verb. However, in

Egyptian the word order is determined by whether the indirect object is a noun or a suffix pronoun.1111

In addition, the indirect object is preceded by the preposition nnnn, "to", as in "I gave bread to the hungry", , rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì tttt n n n n ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr.

IF THIF THIF THIF THE E E E INDIRECT OBJECT IS AINDIRECT OBJECT IS AINDIRECT OBJECT IS AINDIRECT OBJECT IS A NOUN, THE WORD ORDE NOUN, THE WORD ORDE NOUN, THE WORD ORDE NOUN, THE WORD ORDER R R R FORFORFORFOR:::: A) A) A) A) A A A A NNNNOUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT INOUN DIRECT OBJECT INOUN DIRECT OBJECT INOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS:S:S:S:

VERB + NOUN SUBJECT VERB + NOUN SUBJECT VERB + NOUN SUBJECT VERB + NOUN SUBJECT ++++ NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT (D.O.) (D.O.) (D.O.) (D.O.) ++++ NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECT (I.O.) (I.O.) (I.O.) (I.O.)

B) B) B) B) A A A A NNNNOUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT +OUN SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECT IS: IS: IS: IS:

VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D....OOOO.... + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN SUBJECT ++++ NOUN INOUN INOUN INOUN I....OOOO....

C) C) C) C) A A A A SSSSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +T +T +T + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS:IS:IS:IS:

VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT CT CT CT ++++ NOUN DNOUN DNOUN DNOUN D....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN INOUN INOUN INOUN I....OOOO....

D) D) D) D) A A A A SSSSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +T +T +T + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS:IRECT OBJECT IS:IRECT OBJECT IS:IRECT OBJECT IS:

VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT CT CT CT ++++ DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN D.O.PRONOUN D.O.PRONOUN D.O.PRONOUN D.O. ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN IIII....OOOO....

29.2 EXAMPLES OF THE29.2 EXAMPLES OF THE29.2 EXAMPLES OF THE29.2 EXAMPLES OF THE NOUN INDIRECT OBJEC NOUN INDIRECT OBJEC NOUN INDIRECT OBJEC NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTTTT A) A) A) A) VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT +NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DNOUN DNOUN DNOUN D....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN INOUN INOUN INOUN I....OOOO....

The king gave the house to the scribe. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n nswtnswtnswtnswt pr pr pr pr n sšn sšn sšn sš

His Majesty sent 50 deben 2222 of gold to the

h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f nbw dbnnbw dbnnbw dbnnbw dbn 50 50 50 50 n n n n ììììmymymymy----r pr pr pr pr r r r ḥḏḥḏḥḏḥḏ overseer of the treasury.

The overseer of the temple gave a horse to the overseer rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ììììmymymymy----r r r r ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯr r r r ssmtssmtssmtssmt n n n n ììììmymymymy----r prr prr prr pr of the house.

1 When the Indirect Object is a suffix pronoun, see Chapter 30. 2 The deben was a unit of weight approximating 910 grams (2 lbs). From Dynasty 18 (1567-1085) on, the deben was the unit of measure for metals.


140

B) B) B) B) VERBVERBVERBVERB + + + + DEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN D....OOOO.... + NOUN SUBJECT ++ NOUN SUBJECT ++ NOUN SUBJECT ++ NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN INOUN INOUN INOUN I....OOOO....

The king gave it to the scribe. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n swswswsw nsw nsw nsw nsw n sn sn sn sšššš

The Sole Friend of the King reported it to smsmsmsmìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n swswswsw smr w'ty smr w'ty smr w'ty smr w'ty n n n n ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ3 n w3w3t3 n w3w3t3 n w3w3t3 n w3w3t the ruler of Wawat.

C) C) C) C) VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT CT CT CT ++++ NOUN D NOUN D NOUN D NOUN D.O..O..O..O. ++++ NOUN INOUN INOUN INOUN I....OOOO....

He gave the house to the scribe. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f swswswsw n sn sn sn sšššš

I gave bread to the hungry. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì tttt n n n n ẖḳẖḳẖḳẖḳrrrr

D) D) D) D) VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT +CT +CT +CT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN D....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN IIII....OOOO....

He gave it to the scribe. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f swswswsw n sn sn sn sšššš

You will count them for His Majesty. ììììpppp⋅⋅⋅⋅k k k k snsnsnsn n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff 29.3 COMMENTARY29.3 COMMENTARY29.3 COMMENTARY29.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: nnnn is used to indicate an individual as an indirect object as in ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì n n n n ḥḥḥḥmtmtmtmt⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk, "I spoke to your wife".

BBBB:::: When the Egyptians recorded that "x wrote to y", they did not use a form of the verb "write", but

rather h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅n nsw n n nsw n n nsw n n nsw n ììììmymymymy----r mr mr mr mšššš'w'w'w'w, translated as "The King wrote to the general of the army.", lit. "The King sent [scil. 3333 a papyrus letter] to the overseer of the army".

29.4 THE FAIYUM29.4 THE FAIYUM29.4 THE FAIYUM29.4 THE FAIYUM

The Faiyum4444 is located 25 km. west of the Nile and continues westward for another 65 km. Today, the lake

in its northern sector is called the Birket Qaran. During the Old Kingdom, the Faiyum region was known as

the šššš rsy rsy rsy rsy, "TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSOUTHOUTHOUTHOUTHERN ERN ERN ERN LLLLAKEAKEAKEAKE". In later periods, the lake divided into smaller units, the largest of

which was called the , mr wrmr wrmr wrmr wr, "TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGREAT REAT REAT REAT LLLLAKEAKEAKEAKE". In classical antiquity, it was known as Lake

Moeris.5555 The Faiyum was located in the Arsinoite Nome (Nome 20 of Upper Egypt). Its capital city was

Arsinoe, called "Crocodopolis" by the Greeks, an indication of the presence of these reptiles in the past. It

was only natural that the crocodile god sbksbksbksbk, "Sobek", was the god of the nome. 3 From the Latin scire licet, "to know is permitted", meaning what is left out is understood. Here, it is obviously a "papyrus letter". 4 From the Coptic word for "sea", peiom. 5 Probably from the sound of the Egyptian mr wr as heard by the Greeks.


141

MMMMAP AP AP AP 29.429.429.429.4----1.1.1.1. LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE LOCATION OF THE FAIYUMFAIYUMFAIYUMFAIYUM....

The lake was fed by the Bahr Yusuf,6666 a branch of the Nile. The

Bahr Yusuf leaves the Nile about 250 km. south of the beginning of

the Delta, paralleling the river to its west. Near the Faiyum, the

Hawara Channel from the Bahr Yusuf winds between the hills

before emptying into the depression. In ancient times, the lake

was considerably larger than today.7777 Its surface is now about 45

meters below sea level. See Maps 29.4-1 and -2.

The earliest neolithic settlements yet found in Egypt are in the

Faiyum. The presence of game, fish, fowl, and a plentiful

vegetation made the Faiyum a most habitable place for a

hunter/gatherer society. In later times, vines were cultivated as

well as olives, wheat, and vegetables which were grown in

abundance in this fertile depression in the desert. As a result of

its unusual properties, the Faiyum served as the bread basket of

Egypt during several periods in history.8888

During the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040), Dynasty 11

kings ruled from a city about 12 km. west of the Nile in the Faiyum

nome called nnnnnnnnìììì----nswtnswtnswtnswt, possibly meaning "Child of the King". The sound of the name of the city's ram headed god

ḥḥḥḥryryryry----šššš⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff, "He Who is upon his Lake", led the Greeks to call the city Herakleopolis ("The City

of Herakles"), because the god's name sounded close to the name of their mythical hero Herakles

(Hercules).

Sehetepibre Amenemhat9999 (12-1, 1991-1982), the founder of Dynasty 12, realized the importance of the

Faiyum area. He and his son (and successor) Kheperkare Senusert10101010 (12-2, 1971-1928), established their

new capital city nearby at ììììmnmnmnmn----mmmm----ḥḥḥḥ3t 3t 3t 3t ììììṯṯṯṯ----t3wyt3wyt3wyt3wy, "It is Amenemhat who is the Conqueror of the Two Lands".11111111 Probably during the FIP (2181-2040) the Bahr Yusuf stopped feeding the

Faiyum, and the lake, having no inlet, slowly evaporated, shrinking in size.

6 Arabic for "The River of Joseph". See Map 29.4-1. 7 It was originally assumed that the lake was shrinking in size and that therefore the earlier human habitation sites were up the slopes from the current lake level. However, the natural fluctuation of the lake level led to the misdating of many of these ancient sites (which tended to be located at the lake edge), the earlier sites being lower than the most recent. 8 The annual grain tribute shipped to Rome from Egypt during the 1st to 3rd Centuries of the C.E. is estimated to be some 150,000 tons, a good proportion of which was grown in the Faiyum. 9 Ammenemes I. 10 Sesostris I. 11 Probably near modern el-Lisht, the city was often referred to simply as ìṯ-t3wy.


142

Nimaatre Amenemhat12121212 (12-6, 1843-1797) may have had the Hawara Channel cleared and recut,13131313 thus

reconnecting the Bahr Yusuf once again to the Faiyum. In any case, a huge embankment14141414 was also built to

contain the annual Nile flood waters, serving as a reservoir for the fields throughout the year. The result

was a substantial increase in the agricultural production of the area, as more of the desert was turned into

food production.15151515

From the estimated 150 square km. of arable land in Dynasty 12, the cultivated portion of the Faiyum grew

to over 1,200 sq. km. during the time of the Ptolemies (304-30) by restricting the amount of water that

flowed into the lake, thus increasing the arable land. The area was used by the Ptolemies to settle many

Macedonian mercenaries and their families, as a reward for their military service, as well as to assure their

future loyalty to the crown.

12 Ammenemes III. 13 Perhaps the channel had silted up during the chaos of the First Intermediate Period when the central government had ceased to function. 14 Prior to the building of the embankment, when the Nile reached flood stage, water flowed into the Faiyum, and when the Nile receded, the lake emptied into the Nile, reversing the flow of water in the Hawara Channel. 14 At least two crops per year could now be produced

MMMMAP AP AP AP 29.429.429.429.4----2.2.2.2. THE FAIYUM REGION THE FAIYUM REGION THE FAIYUM REGION THE FAIYUM REGION....


143

29.5 DESCRIPTION OF29.5 DESCRIPTION OF29.5 DESCRIPTION OF29.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION E6:E6:E6:E6: HORSEHORSEHORSEHORSE.... Logo. or det. in ssmt,ssmt,ssmt,ssmt, "horse". F46:F46:F46:F46: ppppẖẖẖẖrrrr [peh-âr] INTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINE.... Logo. in ḳḳḳḳ3b3b3b3b, "intestine". Logo/phon. in ppppẖẖẖẖrrrr, "go

round", "turn", etc.; mmmm----ḳḳḳḳ3b3b3b3b, "in the midst of", "in the presence

of". Logo. in dbndbndbndbn, "weight". F47:F47:F47:F47: INTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINE,,,, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF F46F46F46F46.... F48:F48:F48:F48: INTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINE,,,, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ALTERNATIVE FORM OF F46F46F46F46.... F49:F49:F49:F49: INTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINEINTESTINE,,,, ALTERNATIVE FORM O ALTERNATIVE FORM O ALTERNATIVE FORM O ALTERNATIVE FORM OF F F F F46F46F46F46.... F51:F51:F51:F51: PIECE OF FLESHPIECE OF FLESHPIECE OF FLESHPIECE OF FLESH.... Det. in 't't't't, "limb"; ḥḥḥḥ'''', "flesh". I5*:I5*:I5*:I5*: ARCHAIC STONE ARCHAIC STONE ARCHAIC STONE ARCHAIC STONE (?)(?)(?)(?) IMAGE OF A CROCODIL IMAGE OF A CROCODIL IMAGE OF A CROCODIL IMAGE OF A CROCODILEEEE.... Logo. or det. in sbksbksbksbk, "Sobek, the crocodile god".

M24:M24:M24:M24: rswrswrswrsw [resōō] COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF M2M2M2M23333 AND AND AND AND D21D21D21D21.... Phon. in rswtrswtrswtrswt, "South".



144

Chapter 30

THE SUFFIX PRONOUN ITHE SUFFIX PRONOUN ITHE SUFFIX PRONOUN ITHE SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNDIRECT OBJECTNDIRECT OBJECTNDIRECT OBJECT 30.130.130.130.1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT THE INDIRECT OBJECT THE INDIRECT OBJECT THE INDIRECT OBJECT TELLS TOTELLS TOTELLS TOTELLS TO/FOR/FOR/FOR/FOR WHOM OR WHOM OR WHOM OR WHOM OR TO TO TO TO WHAT THE ACTION OF TWHAT THE ACTION OF TWHAT THE ACTION OF TWHAT THE ACTION OF THE VERB IS DONEHE VERB IS DONEHE VERB IS DONEHE VERB IS DONE....

As discussed in Chapter 29, when both the Direct Object and the Indirect Object are nouns, the

word order in the Egyptian sentence is: rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì t t t t n n n n ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳrrrr, "I gave bread to the hungry." where "bread" is the direct object and "to the hungry" is the indirect object.

IN SUCH USAGE, THE DIN SUCH USAGE, THE DIN SUCH USAGE, THE DIN SUCH USAGE, THE DIRECT OBJECT NOUN PRIRECT OBJECT NOUN PRIRECT OBJECT NOUN PRIRECT OBJECT NOUN PRECEDES THE INDIRECT ECEDES THE INDIRECT ECEDES THE INDIRECT ECEDES THE INDIRECT OBJECT. OBJECT. OBJECT. OBJECT. IN ADDITION, JUST IN ADDITION, JUST IN ADDITION, JUST IN ADDITION, JUST

AS WITH NOUN INDIRECAS WITH NOUN INDIRECAS WITH NOUN INDIRECAS WITH NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTS, TT OBJECTS, TT OBJECTS, TT OBJECTS, THEHEHEHE SUFFIX PRO SUFFIX PRO SUFFIX PRO SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECT IS PRECEDED BY THE IS PRECEDED BY THE IS PRECEDED BY THE IS PRECEDED BY THE

PREPOSITION PREPOSITION PREPOSITION PREPOSITION nnnn. HHHHOWEVER, THE WORD ORDOWEVER, THE WORD ORDOWEVER, THE WORD ORDOWEVER, THE WORD ORDER FOR SUFFIX PRONOUER FOR SUFFIX PRONOUER FOR SUFFIX PRONOUER FOR SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTS AN INDIRECT OBJECTS AN INDIRECT OBJECTS AN INDIRECT OBJECTS AND ND ND ND

NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTNOUN INDIRECT OBJECTS DIFFERS DIFFERS DIFFERS DIFFERSSSS. . . .

IF THE INDIRECT OBJEIF THE INDIRECT OBJEIF THE INDIRECT OBJEIF THE INDIRECT OBJECT IS A SUFFIX CT IS A SUFFIX CT IS A SUFFIX CT IS A SUFFIX PRONOUNPRONOUNPRONOUNPRONOUN, , , , THE WORD ORDER THE WORD ORDER THE WORD ORDER THE WORD ORDER FORFORFORFOR::::

A) A) A) A) A A A A NOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECT AND AND AND AND NOUN DIRECT NOUN DIRECT NOUN DIRECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECTOBJECTOBJECTOBJECT IS IS IS IS::::

VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECT (I.O.) (I.O.) (I.O.) (I.O.) ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN SUSUSUSUBJECTBJECTBJECTBJECT ++++ NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT NOUN DIRECT OBJECT (D.O.) (D.O.) (D.O.) (D.O.) B) B) B) B) A A A A NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT NOUN SUBJECT ANDANDANDAND DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECTIRECTIRECTIRECT IS IS IS IS::::

VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN I SUFFIX PRONOUN I SUFFIX PRONOUN I SUFFIX PRONOUN I....OOOO.... ++++ DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D DEPENDENT PRONOUN D....OOOO.... + + + + NOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECT C) C) C) C) A A A A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT JECT JECT JECT AND AND AND AND NOUNOUNOUNOUN DIRECT OBJECTN DIRECT OBJECTN DIRECT OBJECTN DIRECT OBJECT IS IS IS IS::::

VERB + VERB + VERB + VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTCTCTCT + + + + SUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN I....OOOO.... + + + + NOUN D NOUN D NOUN D NOUN D....OOOO.... D) D) D) D) A A A A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT CT CT CT AND AND AND AND DEDEDEDEPENDENT PRONOUN DIREPENDENT PRONOUN DIREPENDENT PRONOUN DIREPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTCT OBJECTCT OBJECTCT OBJECT IS IS IS IS::::

VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + SUSUSUSUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + + + + SUFFIXSUFFIXSUFFIXSUFFIX PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN IIII....OOOO.... + + + + DEPENDENT PRO DEPENDENT PRO DEPENDENT PRO DEPENDENT PRONOUN DNOUN DNOUN DNOUN D....OOOO.... The eight possibilities (the four enumerated here plus the four enumerated for noun indirect objects

in §§§§29.1) may be summarized in two simple rules:

RULE 1: A NOUN CANNRULE 1: A NOUN CANNRULE 1: A NOUN CANNRULE 1: A NOUN CANNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUN.... RULE 2: RULE 2: RULE 2: RULE 2: A DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN A DEPENDENT PRONOUN CANNOT PRECEDE A SUFCANNOT PRECEDE A SUFCANNOT PRECEDE A SUFCANNOT PRECEDE A SUFFIX PRONOUN FIX PRONOUN FIX PRONOUN FIX PRONOUN USED AS EITHER USED AS EITHER USED AS EITHER USED AS EITHER A SUBJECT OR AN A SUBJECT OR AN A SUBJECT OR AN A SUBJECT OR AN INDIRECT OBJECTINDIRECT OBJECTINDIRECT OBJECTINDIRECT OBJECT.... 30.2 30.2 30.2 30.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRSUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECTECT OBJECT WORD ORDER IN THE E WORD ORDER IN THE E WORD ORDER IN THE E WORD ORDER IN THE EGYPTIAN SENTENCEGYPTIAN SENTENCEGYPTIAN SENTENCEGYPTIAN SENTENCE A) A) A) A) VERB +VERB +VERB +VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN I....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN SUSUSUSUBJECTBJECTBJECTBJECT ++++ NOUN DNOUN DNOUN DNOUN D....OOOO....

The king gave the house to him. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff nswnswnswnsw prprprpr

I performed the office of overseer of Upper Egypt for him, lit. "did". ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššm'm'm'm'wwww B) B) B) B) VERB + VERB + VERB + VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN I....OOOO.... ++++ DEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN DDEPENDENT PRONOUN D....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECT

The king gave it to him. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f swswswsw nswtnswtnswtnswt


145

C) C) C) C) VERBVERBVERBVERB ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTCTCTCT ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUNSUFFIX PRONOUN I I I I....OOOO.... ++++ NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN DDDD....OOOO.... He gave the house to him.

rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff prprprpr

He sent me this altar in 17 days. h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ḫḫḫḫ3wt tn n hrw 3wt tn n hrw 3wt tn n hrw 3wt tn n hrw 17171717 D) D) D) D) VERBVERBVERBVERB ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJESUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTCTCTCT ++++ SUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN ISUFFIX PRONOUN I....OOOO.... ++++ DEPENDENTDEPENDENTDEPENDENTDEPENDENT PRONOUN DPRONOUN DPRONOUN DPRONOUN D....OOOO....

He gave it to him. rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff swswswsw

I will count them for you. ììììpppp⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk sn sn sn sn

30.3 COMMENTARY30.3 COMMENTARY30.3 COMMENTARY30.3 COMMENTARY In Example C above, while the literal translation of h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f nf nf nf n⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ḫḫḫḫ3wt tn ...3wt tn ...3wt tn ...3wt tn ... is "He sent to me this altar ...", the more acceptable English translation omits the "to", as in "He sent me this altar ...". 30.4 THE FIRST INTER30.4 THE FIRST INTER30.4 THE FIRST INTER30.4 THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 2181MEDIATE PERIOD 2181MEDIATE PERIOD 2181MEDIATE PERIOD 2181----2040204020402040 The Old Kingdom ended with Dynasty 6 (2345-2181) and the period between the OK and the Middle Kingdom is defined as the First Intermediate Period (FIP). Its actual opening date is debated by scholars, but all agree that it represents the period commencing with the decline of the central authority in Egypt, and it

came to a close with the re-emergence of a unified country once again. The FIP probably began sometime between the death of Pepi II (6-5, who may have ruled for as much as 94 years, ending c. 2200) and a queen

Nitikerre1111 (6-8), in 2181 BCE.

As Dynasty 6 drew to a close, the authority of the central government in Memphis weakened and the local

nomarchs began to fill this vacuum by exercising greater and greater power. Dynasty 7 (2181-2173), which

contained 9 rulers in only 8 years, was symptomatic of these troubled times. Dynasty 8 (2173-2160)

continued to rule in Memphis. Dynasty 9 (2160-2130) and Dynasty 10 (2130-2040) ruled from Herakleopolis.

Dynasty 11 ruled in Thebes from 2133 to 1991 BCE. Some of these dynasties may have been ruling at the

same time. Egypt disintegrated during the FIP into numerous city/states, each ruled by a petty prince from the most important city in the nome. Shifting alliances bound the southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt in

alliance with Lower Egypt against the Theban controlled center of the country.

Hard facts regarding the history of this period still await discovery and chronological problems abound. 2222

Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II (11-4, 2066-2010) defeated the Herakleopolitan monarchs c. 2050 and reunited

the two lands under a central authority once again.3333

1 Called Nitocris by the Greeks, neither her Egyptian name nor the length of her rule is known with certainty. She may have been the last ruler of Dynasty 6. 2 The warrior prince/kings known from this period are generally found in Manetho's chronology compiled during the early part of the Ptolemaic period in the 3rd Century BCE. See §4.4. 3 After conquering the north, he took the Horus name sm3-t3wy, "He who unites the Two Lands".


146

MMMMAP AP AP AP 30.430.430.430.4----1.1.1.1. CAPITALS CAPITALS CAPITALS CAPITALS MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN §§§§30.4.30.4.30.4.30.4.

Some literary sources, which many scholars attribute to the period of the

FIP, reflect the unsafe travel conditions, the general lack of law and order,

the oppression of the poor by the rich and powerful, invasions from the east,

and even criticism of the king for his lack of concern for the welfare of his

subjects. One text set in this time, TTTTHE HE HE HE TTTTALEALEALEALE OF THE OF THE OF THE OF THE EEEELOQUENT LOQUENT LOQUENT LOQUENT PPPPEASANTEASANTEASANTEASANT,

describes the misfortune which befalls a common man and his attempts to

seek redress for his plight. The pharaoh, although eventually restoring the

man to his own property, seems to enjoy the peasant's wordy petitions when

describing his treatment at the hands of the pharaoh's appointed official.

Biographies from tomb texts and stelae, on the other hand, glorify the works

of the local nomarchs in their attempts to provide for their people as the

pharaoh once had done. In TTTTHE HE HE HE IIIINNNNSTRUCTIONS STRUCTIONS STRUCTIONS STRUCTIONS AAAADDRESSED TO DDRESSED TO DDRESSED TO DDRESSED TO KKKKING ING ING ING MMMMERYKAREERYKAREERYKAREERYKARE,

the king's father instructs him on kingship: "How to put down rebellions",

"How to deal with your nobles and commoners", "How to raise an army",

"How to perform religious duties", etc. Its conclusion indicates how the

king is the chosen one of God, that supreme being who created the earth and man. As he is so chosen, the

king must follow the divine teachings of doing that which is right. The IIIINSTRUCTIONSNSTRUCTIONSNSTRUCTIONSNSTRUCTIONS express a yearning for a

return to the glorious past and its perceived tranquility and good works.

It was also a time for religious change. Spells from TTTTHE HE HE HE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD once were the province of the

king only, then extended to the king's family during the course of the OK, and during the FIP, were finally

obtained by those wealthy enough to own a coffin.

It was also a time when men began to take responsibility for their own acts as the result of the decline of

the formal state structure. The concept of maatmaatmaatmaat, 4444 formerly the concept by which the pharaoh governed,

was now conceived as the manner in which the non-royal segments of society governed their own actions and

lives.

The era drew to a close with the reestablishment of the central authority under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep

II. One of the results of the discomfort of the FIP was the 10 year co-regency5555 established by

Sehetepibre Amenemhat 6666 (12-1, 1991-1962) with his son Kheperkare Senusert

7777 (12-2, 1971-1928) in order

to ensure an orderly transfer of power. These Dynasty 12 rulers remembered the former years of anarchy

and sought by this method to avoid a return to those chaotic times.

4 See §13.4. 5 This was the first instance in Egyptian history of a co-regency. 6 Ammenemes I. 7 Sesostris I.


147

30.5 DESCRIPTION OF30.5 DESCRIPTION OF30.5 DESCRIPTION OF30.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION R1:R1:R1:R1: TABLE WITH LOAVESTABLE WITH LOAVESTABLE WITH LOAVESTABLE WITH LOAVES ((((X3,X6X3,X6X3,X6X3,X6)))) AND JUG AND JUG AND JUG AND JUG ((((W22W22W22W22)))).... Logo. or det. in ḫḫḫḫ3wt3wt3wt3wt, "altar", "table of offerings". W22:W22:W22:W22: BEER JUGBEER JUGBEER JUGBEER JUG.... Logo. or det. in ḥḥḥḥnnnnḳḳḳḳtttt, "beer". X3:X3:X3:X3: LOAFLOAFLOAFLOAF.... Alternative form of X2. X6:X6:X6:X6: A ROUND LOAF BEARINGA ROUND LOAF BEARINGA ROUND LOAF BEARINGA ROUND LOAF BEARING THE MARK OF THE BAK THE MARK OF THE BAK THE MARK OF THE BAK THE MARK OF THE BAKERERERER''''S FINGERSS FINGERSS FINGERSS FINGERS.... Found in the OK offering-lists as well as on the offering tables, sometimes without the finger marks. 30.6 EXERCISES30.6 EXERCISES30.6 EXERCISES30.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:


148

Chapter 31

THE SIMPLE PREPOSITITHE SIMPLE PREPOSITITHE SIMPLE PREPOSITITHE SIMPLE PREPOSITIONONONON rrrr 31.1 31.1 31.1 31.1 rrrr MAY MEAN: "MAY MEAN: "MAY MEAN: "MAY MEAN: "TTTTOOOO", "", "", "", "FORFORFORFOR", "", "", "", "BYBYBYBY" (" (" (" (AS IN MEASUREMENTAS IN MEASUREMENTAS IN MEASUREMENTAS IN MEASUREMENT), ), ), ), """"ACCORDING TOACCORDING TOACCORDING TOACCORDING TO", ", ", ", """"FROMFROMFROMFROM", ", ", ",

""""CONCERNINGCONCERNINGCONCERNINGCONCERNING". ". ". ". IT CAN ALSO MEAN IT CAN ALSO MEAN IT CAN ALSO MEAN IT CAN ALSO MEAN """"MORE THANMORE THANMORE THANMORE THAN".".".".

33331.2 EXAMPLES OF T1.2 EXAMPLES OF T1.2 EXAMPLES OF T1.2 EXAMPLES OF THE SIMPLE PREPOSITIOHE SIMPLE PREPOSITIOHE SIMPLE PREPOSITIOHE SIMPLE PREPOSITION N N N rrrr

to the ship to this island r dptr dptr dptr dpt r r r r ììììw pnw pnw pnw pn

for 3 days 10 by 10 (cubits) r hrw r hrw r hrw r hrw 3333 10 10 10 10 rrrr 10 10 10 10

according to the law more than any thing r hpr hpr hpr hp r r r r ḫḫḫḫt nbtt nbtt nbtt nbt

more than any (other) servant of his r b3kr b3kr b3kr b3k⋅⋅⋅⋅f nbf nbf nbf nb

We reached home. sprsprsprspr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅n r n r n r n r ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw

He took me to his dwelling place. ìììì ṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f wf wf wf wìììì r st r st r st r st⋅⋅⋅⋅f nt snf nt snf nt snf nt snḏḏḏḏmmmm

at the town of Aruna r dmr dmr dmr dmìììì n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3

It emerges at Taanach.1111 prprprprìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅f r t3'n3kf r t3'n3kf r t3'n3kf r t3'n3k

His Majesty reached the south of Megiddo. sprsprsprspr⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f r rsy mktf r rsy mktf r rsy mktf r rsy mktìììì 31.3 COMMENTARY31.3 COMMENTARY31.3 COMMENTARY31.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: rrrr is used to indicate motion "to" or "toward" a thing, whereas nnnn is generally used to indicate direction towards a person.

1 From Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums, Abteilung IV: Urkunden der 18. Dynastie, eds. K. Sethe and W. Helck, Leipzig and Berlin, 1906-1958; 650-9/10, lines 33 and 34. "It" refers to mṯn, "road", in line 33-"One road, behold, it is excellent for our lord." Line 34-"It emerges at Taanach." In this section of the Annals of Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450), the generals are trying to persuade the king to go north and south around the mountain range, rather than over it, to attack the city of Megiddo. Instead, he led his army on a narrow path over the mountains, surprised the enemy which was deployed at both ends of the Megiddo valley to defend the city, and defeated the army of the prince of Kadesh, who had come to the aid of the king of Megiddo. After a seven month siege, Megiddo surrendered.


149

BBBB:::: In translating the expression r b3kr b3kr b3kr b3k⋅⋅⋅⋅f nbf nbf nbf nb, "more than any [other] servant of his", note that the Egyptians did not use the word "other" as in English, rather it was implied.

CCCC:::: Note the use of the preposition rrrr to indicate motion towards a place , e.g. in

sprsprsprspr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅n r n r n r n r ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw, "we reached home", lit. "we reached to home".

DDDD:::: In the expression st nt snst nt snst nt snst nt snḏḏḏḏmmmm, "dwelling place", lit. "place of dwelling", note the unusual use of A17,

the seated child as a determinative.

EEEE:::: Note also the reversal of t3t3t3t3, (not ), in , t3`n3kt3`n3kt3`n3kt3`n3k. This might occur if the original

text were columnar and the tttt normally would precede the 3333. It might also occur if the text were horizontal but the artist felt that the space would be more aesthetically filled by placing the tttt over the shoulder of the vulture.

FFFF:::: O29 , the biliteral sign for '3'3'3'3 in 'rwn3'rwn3'rwn3'rwn3, stands only for the alphabetic sign ''''. Such a situation, where a biliteral is transliterated as a single alphabetic, i.e. a uniliteral, is called GROUP WRITINGGROUP WRITINGGROUP WRITINGGROUP WRITING....

Group Writing is found very often in foreign words and place names. Sometimes the same word was spelled

differently in the same text, e.g. the town of Taanach is written in TTTTHE HE HE HE AAAANNALS OF NNALS OF NNALS OF NNALS OF TTTTHUHUHUHUTMOSTMOSTMOSTMOSEEEESSSS IIIIIIIIIIII in line 34 as

and in line 63 as . 2222 The difference in spelling may be explained by the fact

that the Egyptians were not able to accurately portray how they heard the pronunciation of Taanach by the

local citizenry. In transcription, while the three root letters tttt, nnnn, kkkk, might be written correctly, we cannot determine accurately what the vocalization was due to the variance in the vowels and their placement. Thus,

t3'n3kt3'n3kt3'n3kt3'n3k, t'n3kt'n3kt'n3kt'n3k, t3'n3k t3'n3k t3'n3k t3'n3k3333, etc. might be correct. References to Taanach are found in the Old Testament and so provide another basis for the possible pronunciation of the word. The name has survived to the present

day as Taanach in Hebrew and as Tell Ti'innik in Arabic.3333 GGGG:::: A foreign country was considered feminine, even if its name was written with no final tttt, e.g.

hhhhrw pf n nhrnrw pf n nhrnrw pf n nhrnrw pf n nhrn hhhh____stststst, "that enemy of vile Naharin". Naharin, also known as Mitanni, was located east of the Euphrates River in what is today eastern Syria, Northern

Iraq, and southern Turkey. This cited text is also from TTTTHE HE HE HE AAAANNALS OF NNALS OF NNALS OF NNALS OF TTTTHHHHUTHUTHUTHUTHOSEOSEOSEOSES S S S IIIIIIIIIIII,4444 "The Campaign to

the Euphrates", Urk, IV, 697,9. Note also the use of Group Writing in the spelling of nhrnnhrnnhrnnhrn.

2 Urk. IV. Line 34 is 650, 10 and line 63 is 653, 11. 3 The word "tell" or "tel" in Arabic indicates a mound or small hill, which in Egypt and the Near East often represents the accumulated remains of one or more ancient settlements. 4 By the end of the 20th Century C.E., most scholars preferred Thutmose or Thutmoses to Tuthmosis or Thutmosis.


150

31.4 31.4 31.4 31.4 TTTTHE HE HE HE LEGAL SYSTEMLEGAL SYSTEMLEGAL SYSTEMLEGAL SYSTEM

Royal decrees, contracts, wills, bills of sale, and the transactions of special courts of inquiry from ancient

Egypt have survived to the present day. The tomb of the vizier Rekhmire displays on its walls the duties of

the position of vizier which included that of chief judge of the judicial system. Yet, to date, no written

Egyptian Code of Laws has been found. The codes of laws of Mesopotamian societies have been preserved in

individual cuneiform tablets as well as carved into multiple stone stelae. Such stelae were customarily

erected throughout the countries so that all who could read might know the law. Nevertheless, no such

stelae have been found in Egypt, although some royal decrees have been preserved.

Laws of the ancients were concerned not only with the relationship of man-to-man but also of man-to-god.

So too in Egypt, crimes against a god or a god's property were treated most severely. In the Old Kingdom,

the god and pharaoh were theoretically one. He ruled by divine decree, and his word was the law of the

land, both religiously and temporally. One of the earliest surviving decrees from the OK is from the reign of

Neferirkare (5-3, 2473-2463) regarding the exemption of certain priests in Abydos from the corvée:

"("("("(IIII) The Horus: User) The Horus: User) The Horus: User) The Horus: User----khau.khau.khau.khau. Royal Decree (to) the Chief Prophet HemRoyal Decree (to) the Chief Prophet HemRoyal Decree (to) the Chief Prophet HemRoyal Decree (to) the Chief Prophet Hem----ur.ur.ur.ur. I do not permit that any man have the right toI do not permit that any man have the right toI do not permit that any man have the right toI do not permit that any man have the right to CCCC take away any prophets (5) who are in the nome take away any prophets (5) who are in the nome take away any prophets (5) who are in the nome take away any prophets (5) who are in the nome in which you are, for the corvée, as well as any construction win which you are, for the corvée, as well as any construction win which you are, for the corvée, as well as any construction win which you are, for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the nome, except to do ork of the nome, except to do ork of the nome, except to do ork of the nome, except to do service for his god who is in the temple in which he is, and to conserve the temples in which they service for his god who is in the temple in which he is, and to conserve the temples in which they service for his god who is in the temple in which he is, and to conserve the temples in which they service for his god who is in the temple in which he is, and to conserve the temples in which they are;are;are;are; levy the corvée for any construction work against any god's fields (15) on which there is levy the corvée for any construction work against any god's fields (15) on which there is levy the corvée for any construction work against any god's fields (15) on which there is levy the corvée for any construction work against any god's fields (15) on which there is priestly service by any prophetspriestly service by any prophetspriestly service by any prophetspriestly service by any prophets;;;; (17) take away any serfs who are thereon for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the (17) take away any serfs who are thereon for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the (17) take away any serfs who are thereon for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the (17) take away any serfs who are thereon for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the nome.nome.nome.nome. (II(II(II(II) They are exempt in the length of eternity by command of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: ) They are exempt in the length of eternity by command of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: ) They are exempt in the length of eternity by command of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: ) They are exempt in the length of eternity by command of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: NeferNeferNeferNefer----iriiriiriiri----kakakaka----Re. Re. Re. Re. YouYouYouYou have no title to them in any (k have no title to them in any (k have no title to them in any (k have no title to them in any (kind of) service.ind of) service.ind of) service.ind of) service. As for any man of the nome who shall take away (20) any prophets who are As for any man of the nome who shall take away (20) any prophets who are As for any man of the nome who shall take away (20) any prophets who are As for any man of the nome who shall take away (20) any prophets who are onononon god's fields on god's fields on god's fields on god's fields on which they do priestly service in this nome, (26) or the serfs who are on god's fieldswhich they do priestly service in this nome, (26) or the serfs who are on god's fieldswhich they do priestly service in this nome, (26) or the serfs who are on god's fieldswhich they do priestly service in this nome, (26) or the serfs who are on god's fields CCCCCCCC (22) for (22) for (22) for (22) for the corvée, as well as any construction work ofthe corvée, as well as any construction work ofthe corvée, as well as any construction work ofthe corvée, as well as any construction work of the nome the nome the nome the nome CCCCCCCC you shall send him to the you shall send him to the you shall send him to the you shall send him to the law courtlaw courtlaw courtlaw court, , , , he being placed ...he being placed ...he being placed ...he being placed ...laborlaborlaborlabor...plowing....plowing....plowing....plowing. (28) Any official, royal intimate, or agricultural officer who shall act contrary to this which my (28) Any official, royal intimate, or agricultural officer who shall act contrary to this which my (28) Any official, royal intimate, or agricultural officer who shall act contrary to this which my (28) Any official, royal intimate, or agricultural officer who shall act contrary to this which my majesty has decreed, which has been delivered to the law court, the homajesty has decreed, which has been delivered to the law court, the homajesty has decreed, which has been delivered to the law court, the homajesty has decreed, which has been delivered to the law court, the house, fields, people, and use, fields, people, and use, fields, people, and use, fields, people, and everything that is in his possession shall be removed, he being put on any (kind of) corvée.everything that is in his possession shall be removed, he being put on any (kind of) corvée.everything that is in his possession shall be removed, he being put on any (kind of) corvée.everything that is in his possession shall be removed, he being put on any (kind of) corvée.

The royal person was present at the sealing. Second month of the third season, day 24+."The royal person was present at the sealing. Second month of the third season, day 24+."The royal person was present at the sealing. Second month of the third season, day 24+."The royal person was present at the sealing. Second month of the third season, day 24+." 5555

5 K. Baer in J.B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 672. Prophet = ḥm-nṯr priest. The numbers in brackets, e.g. (17), indicate the line number in the original text. The + sign indicates that the date was at the very least, day 24, and possibly later.


151

At Thebes in the tomb of the vizier Rekhmire,6666 we have a description of the judicial duties of the vizier

much later in Dynasty 18:

(1) The regulations for the sitting of the Mayor and Vizier of the Southern (1) The regulations for the sitting of the Mayor and Vizier of the Southern (1) The regulations for the sitting of the Mayor and Vizier of the Southern (1) The regulations for the sitting of the Mayor and Vizier of the Southern CCCCity and of the ity and of the ity and of the ity and of the Residence in the Hall of the Vizier.Residence in the Hall of the Vizier.Residence in the Hall of the Vizier.Residence in the Hall of the Vizier. As for everything which this officiaAs for everything which this officiaAs for everything which this officiaAs for everything which this official, the Vizier, shall do while holding hearings in the Hall of the l, the Vizier, shall do while holding hearings in the Hall of the l, the Vizier, shall do while holding hearings in the Hall of the l, the Vizier, shall do while holding hearings in the Hall of the VizierVizierVizierVizierCCCCCCCChe shall sit upon a he shall sit upon a he shall sit upon a he shall sit upon a judgmentjudgmentjudgmentjudgment----chair, with a matting on the floor, a chair, with a matting on the floor, a chair, with a matting on the floor, a chair, with a matting on the floor, a matting overmatting overmatting overmatting over him, a him, a him, a him, a cushion under his back and a cushion under his feet, a [cushion under his back and a cushion under his feet, a [cushion under his back and a cushion under his feet, a [cushion under his back and a cushion under his feet, a [capecapecapecape] upon him, a sceptre at ] upon him, a sceptre at ] upon him, a sceptre at ] upon him, a sceptre at his hand, his hand, his hand, his hand, and the forty leather and the forty leather and the forty leather and the forty leather strapsstrapsstrapsstraps spread out in front of him, the Chiefs of the Southern Tens on two spread out in front of him, the Chiefs of the Southern Tens on two spread out in front of him, the Chiefs of the Southern Tens on two spread out in front of him, the Chiefs of the Southern Tens on two sides in front of him, the Overseer of the Cabinet on his right hand, the Supervisor of Clients on sides in front of him, the Overseer of the Cabinet on his right hand, the Supervisor of Clients on sides in front of him, the Overseer of the Cabinet on his right hand, the Supervisor of Clients on sides in front of him, the Overseer of the Cabinet on his right hand, the Supervisor of Clients on his left hand, and the scribe of the Vizier beside him, one his left hand, and the scribe of the Vizier beside him, one his left hand, and the scribe of the Vizier beside him, one his left hand, and the scribe of the Vizier beside him, one cccconfrontingonfrontingonfrontingonfronting, another, with every man , another, with every man , another, with every man , another, with every man opposite him.opposite him.opposite him.opposite him.

7777

The tomb scene shows forty tubular objects lying before Rekhmire on a mat. Originally, some scholars

believed them to be cases holding papyrus rolls containing the laws of the land, but more recent research

has suggested that they were probably whips by which the law would be carried out.

For classes of comparable offenses, sentences in the Old Kingdom were less harsh than during the latter

years of the New Kingdom. By that time, the pharaoh had lost much of his religious control, surrendering

more and more of his political power to the priesthood. He was now more of a religious functionary, carrying

out a great number of daily religious ceremonies as prescribed by the priests. In order to enforce his

remaining authority, the decrees of the kings now authorized not only the lands, servants, and personal

property of the miscreants to be seized, but also more cruel punishments, e.g. whipping until a prescribed

number of wounds were opened, the cutting off of a nose or ear, or impalement on a stake. Banishment to

border posts in the eastern Delta or to forced labor in the south in the Nubian mines was frequently

ordered.

Examples of these punishments survive in the papyri describing a palace coup during the reign of Ramesses

III (20-2, 1198-1166). Whether the plotters were successful or not in assassinating the king is not known,

but his successor, Ramesses IV (20-3, 1166-1160) had the conspirators tried. In his instructions to the

special court convened to try the accused, Ramesses IV charged the judges to try them and those

individuals of noble rank who were found guilty were to die by their own hands. Servants and lower ranking

functionaries were to be executed. The pharaoh wanted no knowledge of who the guilty were or what

happened to them. The text recorded what happened, "They examined his crimes. They found him guilty.

They caused his sentence to overtake him".

6 Rekhmire was the vizier of Upper Egypt during the reign of Thutmosis III (18-6, 1504-1450). 7 Pritchard, ANET, p. 213. The "Chiefs of the Southern Tens" was a body of magistrates.


152

Another reference to a judge:

m rm rm rm rn n nsw n ìptn n nsw n ìptn n nsw n ìptn n nsw n ìpt----nsw n nsw n nsw n nsw n hhhhwtwtwtwt----wrtwrtwrtwrt 6666

8888 "[I acted] in the name of the king in the royal apartments and in The Six Great Houses". The chief

judge of the Six Great Houses was the vizier while the nomarchs were the most important judges locally in

their nomes. In addition, each of the "Thirty Great Men of the South" was also a judge in his home

district. Individual judges were called a s3bs3bs3bs3b, "dignitary" or "worthy", or when prefixed to titles indicated "senior", as in s3b ìry ns3b ìry ns3b ìry ns3b ìry nḫḫḫḫnnnn, "senior warden for Nekhen". All judges were priests who served the goddess m3`tm3`tm3`tm3`t (Maat, the embodiment of truth, justice, and rightful order, see §13.4). The

chief justice suspended a figurine of the deity from his neck as a badge of his office.

As there are references in some inscriptions to prior cases in lawsuits, there can be little doubt that

extensive legal records were maintained and that a written code of law existed and was referred to by the

judges. The Persian king and conqueror of Egypt, Cambyses (27-1, 525-522) and his successor, Darius I (27-

2, 522-485) ordered a codification of the Egyptian laws. As was mentioned, to date, no written record has

been found of that or any other codex. 31.5 DESCRIPTION OF31.5 DESCRIPTION OF31.5 DESCRIPTION OF31.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D38:D38:D38:D38: mmmmìììì [mē], FOREARMFOREARMFOREARMFOREARM WITH HAND HOLDING A WITH HAND HOLDING A WITH HAND HOLDING A WITH HAND HOLDING A ROUNDED LOAF ROUNDED LOAF ROUNDED LOAF ROUNDED LOAF.... mmmm [em] E17:E17:E17:E17: JACKALJACKALJACKALJACKAL.... Logo. or det. in s3bs3bs3bs3b, "dignitary", "worthy". Also used as a

prefix in titles, s3b s3b s3b s3b ššššssss, "senior scribe". E23:E23:E23:E23: rrrr wwww [rōō] RECUMBENT LIONRECUMBENT LIONRECUMBENT LIONRECUMBENT LION.... In Group Writing E23 is used for rrrr, as in , 'rwn3'rwn3'rwn3'rwn3. M29:M29:M29:M29: nnnnḏḏḏḏm m m m [nedjem] POD FROM SOME POD FROM SOME POD FROM SOME POD FROM SOME SWEET SMELLING TREESWEET SMELLING TREESWEET SMELLING TREESWEET SMELLING TREE.... O46:O46:O46:O46: DOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDING,,,, AN OLDER FORM OF AN OLDER FORM OF AN OLDER FORM OF AN OLDER FORM OF O45O45O45O45,,,, .... O47:O47:O47:O47: A PREHISTORIC BUILDIA PREHISTORIC BUILDIA PREHISTORIC BUILDIA PREHISTORIC BUILDING AT HING AT HING AT HING AT HIERACONPOLISERACONPOLISERACONPOLISERACONPOLIS.... Logo. in or nnnnḫḫḫḫnnnn, "Nekhen", "Hieraconpolis". O48:O48:O48:O48: DOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDINGDOMED BUILDING,,,, ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF ,,,, OOOO44447777.... S39:S39:S39:S39: PEASANTPEASANTPEASANTPEASANT''''S CROOKS CROOKS CROOKS CROOK ((((NNNN....BBBB.... NOT CURVED BACKWARD NOT CURVED BACKWARD NOT CURVED BACKWARD NOT CURVED BACKWARD LIKE LIKE LIKE LIKE S38S38S38S38)))).... U33:U33:U33:U33: ttttìììì [tē] PESTLEPESTLEPESTLEPESTLE....

8 Note that the final glyph is G36 inside O6 to indicate "great house". These hieroglyphs are from a limestone stone slab and its inscription recounting the life of Weni, an OK vizier c. 2200. Cited in Urk. I, 99,6.


153



154

Chapter 32

COMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONCOMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITH S WITH S WITH S WITH rrrr 32.1 A COMPOUND PREP32.1 A COMPOUND PREP32.1 A COMPOUND PREP32.1 A COMPOUND PREPOSITIONOSITIONOSITIONOSITION

1111 MAY BE MAY BE MAY BE MAY BE FORMED BY FORMED BY FORMED BY FORMED BY rrrr FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

32.2 EXAMPLES OF COM32.2 EXAMPLES OF COM32.2 EXAMPLES OF COM32.2 EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WPOUND PREPOSITIONS WPOUND PREPOSITIONS WPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITH ITH ITH ITH rrrr FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

besides, near near Memphis rrrr----'''' rrrr----' mn' mn' mn' mn----nfrnfrnfrnfr

in the sight of in the sight of His Majesty rrrr----m3w nm3w nm3w nm3w n rrrr----m3w nm3w nm3w nm3w n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

in front of in front of the town of Sharuhen rrrr----ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t rrrr----ḥḥḥḥ3t 3t 3t 3t šššš3r3r3r3rḫḫḫḫ3n3n3n3n

t t t to the knowledge of to the knowledge of her father rrrr----rrrr ḫḫḫḫt nt nt nt n rrrr----rrrr ḫḫḫḫt nt nt nt n ((((ìììì)t)t)t)t⋅⋅⋅⋅s mwts mwts mwts mwt⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss and and and and her mother

under the authority of under the authority of the rrrr----ḫḫḫḫt nt nt nt n rrrr----ḫḫḫḫt n t n t n t n ììììmymymymy----r mr mr mr mḥḥḥḥwwww overseer of Lower Egypt

towards the back of towards the back of his house rrrr----s3s3s3s3 rrrr----s3 prs3 prs3 prs3 pr⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

at the side of, in the presence in the presence of all the officials rrrr----gsgsgsgs of, in the company of rrrr----gs srw nbwgs srw nbwgs srw nbwgs srw nbw 32.3 COMMENTARY32.3 COMMENTARY32.3 COMMENTARY32.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: mnmnmnmn----nfrnfrnfrnfr, lit. "established and beautiful", was the shortened version of the name of the pyramid city , mnmnmnmn----nfnfnfnf rrrr----ppppììììppppìììì, built by Pepi I (6-3, c. 2300 BCE) at Sakkara.

BBBB:::: The Egyptians had no word for the coordinating conjunction "and"; rather it was expressed by context

and two adjoining words, as in rrrr----rrrr ḫḫḫḫt nt nt nt n ((((ìììì)t)t)t)t⋅⋅⋅⋅s mws mws mws mwtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss "to the knowledge of her father and mother".

1 Defined in §27.1. r may also form compound prepositions with verbs and adverbs.


155

MMMMAP AP AP AP 32.432.432.432.4----1.1.1.1. SITE SITE SITE SITES MENTIONED IN S MENTIONED IN S MENTIONED IN S MENTIONED IN §§§§32.432.432.432.4

32.4 THE AMARNA PERI32.4 THE AMARNA PERI32.4 THE AMARNA PERI32.4 THE AMARNA PERIODODODOD Dating to Pre-Dynastic times, each town had one or more patron deities. A partial list includes:

TOWNTOWNTOWNTOWN DEITYDEITYDEITYDEITY FORMFORMFORMFORM 2222

AbydosAbydosAbydosAbydos Osiris, godOsiris, godOsiris, godOsiris, god of of of of the deadthe deadthe deadthe dead mummymummymummymummy BubastisBubastisBubastisBubastis Bastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun godBastet, daughter of sun god catcatcatcat DenderaDenderaDenderaDendera Hathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaohHathor, symbolic mother of the pharaoh cowcowcowcow EdfuEdfuEdfuEdfu Horus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the skyHorus, lord of the sky falconfalconfalconfalcon ElephantineElephantineElephantineElephantine Khnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clayKhnum, creator of life from clay ramramramram The FaiyumThe FaiyumThe FaiyumThe Faiyum Sobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic powerSobek, symbol of pharaonic power crocodilecrocodilecrocodilecrocodile HeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolis Atum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmosAtum, sun god and creator of the cosmos manmanmanman HeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolisHeliopolis Re, Re, Re, Re, sun godsun godsun godsun god and creator and creator and creator and creator sunsunsunsun HermopolisHermopolisHermopolisHermopolis Thoth, moon godThoth, moon godThoth, moon godThoth, moon god ibis, baboonibis, baboonibis, baboonibis, baboon MemphisMemphisMemphisMemphis Ptah, creator godPtah, creator godPtah, creator godPtah, creator god manmanmanman SaisSaisSaisSais Neith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddessNeith, creator goddess womanwomanwomanwoman ThebesThebesThebesThebes Montu, war godMontu, war godMontu, war godMontu, war god falcofalcofalcofalconnnn ThebesThebesThebesThebes Amun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme godAmun, primeval deity and supreme god ramramramram

Over the millenia, these gods tended to coalesce, e.g. Re

amalgamated Amun of Thebes, Horus of Edfu, Khnum of

Elephantine, and Atum of Heliopolis. It can be assumed that

at times, members of the priesthoods of these lesser deities

were opposed to such an amalgamation with a more powerful

cult. The subsumed's political, religious, and financial

controls might well have been substantially weakened or

totally eliminated, while the priesthood of the surviving

compound deity was enriched at the expense of the losers.

In any case, the result was that by the Middle Kingdom the

Amun temple at Karnak had emerged as the most powerful in

the land. Thus, Amun-(Re) of Karnak, by dint of large scale

royal support for this cult, eventually became a "state god".

By then, the Amun temple held large amounts of property,

situated not only in the Theban region but throughout Egypt,

and by the end of the New Kingdom, it had become a "state

within a state" wielding great political power.

2 Often shown in anthropomorphic form, i.e. with the head of an animal (almost always wearing a wig) and body of a man or woman.


156

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 32.432.432.432.4----1.1.1.1. KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND KING AKHENATEN AND HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN HIS WIFE QUEEN NEFERTNEFERTNEFERTNEFERT IIII TTTT I OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATI OFFERING TO THE ATENENENEN....

During the New Kingdom reign of Nebmaatre

Amenhotep (18-9, 1417-1379), Egyptian religious belief

had become increasingly "solarized" and sun-theology

was the predominant religious belief as it now included

the sun disk, the Aten, along with the lesser deities.

It was Neferkheprure Amenhotep3333 (18-10, 1379-1362)

who would take the concept one step further, and

promulgated a new religion with only one god ììììtntntntn, the Aten, "The Sun Disk", from which flowed the

cosmos, the earth, and all life. All other gods were

now excluded from Amenhotep's concept of religion.

He erected a new capital dedicated to the Aten at

3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtntntntn. Akhetaten, "The Horizon of the

Aten". Known today as Tell el-Amarna, it was located

on the east bank of the Nile equidistant between

Memphis and Thebes.

Neferkheprure Amenhotep adopted a new name in

concert with his change in theology:

,4444 changing his prenomen

to nnnn----swswswsw----bbbbììììtttt nfr nfr nfr nfr ḫḫḫḫprwprwprwprw----rrrr ''''----w'w'w'w'----nnnn----rrrr '''', "the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Beautiful are the Forms of

Re, the Unique One of Re"; and changing his nomen

to s3 rs3 rs3 rs3 r ' 3' 3' 3' 3ḫḫḫḫ----nnnn----itnitnitnitn, Akhenaten, "the Son of Re: the Spirit of the Aten" or "the Son of Re: the One who

is beneficial to the Aten".

The pharaoh had become the worldly counterpart to

the sun disk, and as such, became the heavenly pharaoh

as well. The glyph for Re, , was replaced by the

sun disk with rays of light issuing forth from it, as shown in Fig. 32.4-1. Each ray ended in a hand which touched

all living things as the source for their lives.

3 Also referred to as Amenophis IV or Amenhotep IV. His wife, the queen Nefertiti, is known not only from several wall representations and statues but also from a sculptured head, currently in the Dahlem Museum in Berlin. It is one of the most famous pieces from all of antiquity because of her beauty. See Fig. 32.4-2. 4 Note that the Aten received honorific transposition, just as Re in his cartouche, but not in the writing of the town name 3ẖt-ìtn.


157

FIG.FIG.FIG.FIG. 32.432.432.432.4----2.2.2.2. QUEENQUEENQUEENQUEEN NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.NEFERTITI.

In the Amarna tombs of several courtiers of the period, there are

variations of a new hymn to the Aten. This hymn differs significantly

from earlier Dynasty 18 sun hymns and is the source for much of our

understanding of how the worship of the Aten contrasted to earlier

concepts. In the traditional Egyptian worship, the sun god circled

around the earth. BBBBY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FY DAY HE HAD THREE FORMSORMSORMSORMS:::: in in in in the the the the morning, morning, morning, morning,

Khepri;Khepri;Khepri;Khepri;5555 throughout the day throughout the day throughout the day throughout the day, , , , ReReReRe----Harakhti;Harakhti;Harakhti;Harakhti;6666 and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum and in the evening, Atum.

In his diurnal journey, Re was accompanied by many deities, and in

his nocturnal travels through the underworld, he was accompanied

by Osiris and all the dead.

Now, in Akhenaten's concept, the Aten sailed through the sky

alone, unaccompanied; there were no other gods. Therefore, no

other gods could celebrate his coming and going, only human beings

could worship his rising and setting. Akhenaten's reign attempted

to end a theology and worship developed over several millenia.

Roughly at the same time, to secure the Aten's supremacy in the

land, Amun's name was expunged from monuments and temples

throughout the land in a paroxysm of fanaticism. All public and private displays of his name were removed

as well as those of his consort, the goddess Mut. Even sealed tombs were opened to erase Amun's name and

change the spelling of the word "mother".7777 The word m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't was now spelled out alphabetically in order to avoid using the sign for the "Goddess of Truth", , C10. The plural for "gods", nnnnṯṯṯṯrwrwrwrw or was now

forbidden, and only the singular form , nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr, was permitted, referring to the one god, the Aten. The process of establishing the Aten as the one and only supreme being was undoubtedly resisted by the

entrenched priesthoods, bringing them into direct conflict with the king. The sanctuaries of Amun in

Thebes and Osiris in Abydos were particular targets of Akhenaten's reordering of Egyptian religious life.

He closed many other temples, seized their lands, revenues, and treasures, enhancing his royal treasury in

order to finance his ambitious building program at 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtntntntn.

5 Khepri, in the form of a dung beetle, represented the sun in the morning as it came into being for the new day. Khepri pushed the sun disk up into the sky, in a manner similar to the Egyptian beetle rolling animal dung into a small ball and pushing it into a hole it had dug in the earth. Khepri was represented by glyph L1, . 6 Harakhti, "Horus of the Horizon" is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. This form of Horus coalesced with the Heliopolitan sun god to become Re-Harakhti, representing a combination of several complex theological concepts about the divine nature of the sun. He is literally "Re Horus of the Two Horizons". 7 The official spelling of "mother", mwt, was changed from to in order to remove any reminder of

the goddess Mut, .


158

With the full resources of all religious establishments under his command, Akhenaten became very active at

Karnak, building no less than five temples there. He then switched his attentions to the construction of his

new capital city, probably begun in the fifth year of his reign. At about this time, he moved to Akhetaten

from Thebes and, according to the boundary stelae erected by Akhenaten, never strayed from Akhetaten

for the remainder of his reign. Boundary stelae of the ancient city have been found cut into the cliffs on

both the east and west banks of the Nile, the furthest of which is some 20 km. to the northwest on the

west bank of the Nile at Tuna el-Gebel. Thus, Akhenaten envisioned it to be a very large city. Excavations,

however, indicate that only a small portion of the city was ever completed, stretching about 6 km. along the

Nile and 1 km. to its east. Akhenaten's dream of completing this new city died with him in 1362 BCE, as did

the worship of the Aten as the sole god. The temples dedicated to the Aten were eventually abandoned.

His successors, Smenkhkare (18-11, 1364-1361)8888 and Tutankhamun (18-12, 1362-1352) ordered the old

temples rehabilitated and their priesthoods reinstated in a return to the old, established order of religion.

The actual dismantling of Akhenaten's works began under the last king of Dynasty 18, Horemheb (18-14,

1348-1320). Finally, Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) would level the city of 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt----ììììtn tn tn tn completely, using the stones from this site along with the temple to the Aten at Karnak, for his massive building programs.

Ironically, many of these blocks of stone which had been used in Akhenaten's works, survived the

destruction intended for them as they were used as core fillers in new constructions during Dynasty 19, and

were found by modern excavators at these later sites.

A portion of Akhenaten's royal correspondence survived the destruction by Ramesses. As many as 377

cuneiform tablets (mostly written in Akkadian9999 from the reigns of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten) have

been found and translated. Generally, they were letters to and from other contemporary kings and officials.

They give us a particularly illuminating view into a narrow period in history, especially the calls for military

assistance from Egyptian officials stationed abroad, and from Egyptian vassal princes of foreign lands, an

indication that Egyptian hegemony was on the wane at the time.

Some of the legacies of Akhenaten's reign were: a temporary eclipse of Egyptian power abroad 10101010 in Upper

and Lower rrrrṯṯṯṯnwnwnwnw, Retjenew (present day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel) and in k3k3k3k3šššš Cush (northern Sudan); the increased use of mercenaries in the armed forces (Nubians, Libyans, Canaanites, and

Sudanese were extensively employed); and the centralization of the economic power in the kinship, albeit

over a steadily weakening centralized secular authority. In literature, it has been noted that Psalm 104 of

THE THE THE THE OOOOLD LD LD LD TTTTESTAMENTESTAMENTESTAMENTESTAMENT bears some resemblance to portions of TTTTHE HE HE HE GGGGREAT REAT REAT REAT HHHHYMN TO THE YMN TO THE YMN TO THE YMN TO THE AAAATENTENTENTEN found in the tomb

of Ay in the cliffs at Amarna. Ay was a powerful court figure during Akhenaten's reign, and later king

himself (18-13, 1352-1348). Whether or not the Hebrew psalmist knew of the Egyptian hymn is not known,

8 Possibly a co-regent with Akhenaten. 9 Akkadian was the lingua franca of the near-Eastern ancient world. 10 Some scholars believe that this was caused by Akhenaten's concentration on his domestic programs.


159

nor is it known whether Akhenaten was familiar with the incipient Hebrew concept of one god. In any case,

succeeding generations would consider Akhenaten a heretic as the old order reestablished itself in Egypt

with a vengeance. His name and the name of the Aten were erased throughout the land and that of Re and

Amun were restored to their rightful places. It would remain for the Ramessides of Dynasty 19 (1320-

1200) to restore Egypt's military power, its fortunes overseas, and to bring domestic tranquility once again

to the land of the Nile.

The last kings The last kings The last kings The last kings of the 18of the 18of the 18of the 18thththth Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised: Dynasty comprised: [Modern [Modern [Modern [Modern Name] Name] Name] Name] 18181818----9999 Nebmaatre AmenhotepNebmaatre AmenhotepNebmaatre AmenhotepNebmaatre Amenhotep [Amenophis III] [Amenophis III] [Amenophis III] [Amenophis III] 1417141714171417----1379137913791379 18181818----10101010〱〱〱〱NeNeNeNeferkheprure Amenhotepferkheprure Amenhotepferkheprure Amenhotepferkheprure Amenhotep [Akhenaten][Akhenaten][Akhenaten][Akhenaten] 1379137913791379----1361361361362222 〱〱〱〱Neferkheperurewe AkhenatenNeferkheperurewe AkhenatenNeferkheperurewe AkhenatenNeferkheperurewe Akhenaten 18181818----11111111 (Ankhheprure) Smenkare(Ankhheprure) Smenkare(Ankhheprure) Smenkare(Ankhheprure) Smenkare 1364136413641364----1111361361361361 18181818----12121212 Nebkheprure TutankhamunNebkheprure TutankhamunNebkheprure TutankhamunNebkheprure Tutankhamun 1361136113611361----1352135213521352 18181818----13131313 Kheperkheprure AyKheperkheprure AyKheperkheprure AyKheperkheprure Ay 1352135213521352----1348134813481348 18181818----14141414 Djeserkheprure HoremhebDjeserkheprure HoremhebDjeserkheprure HoremhebDjeserkheprure Horemheb 1348134813481348----1320132013201320 32.5 DESCRIPTION OF32.5 DESCRIPTION OF32.5 DESCRIPTION OF32.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION C10:C10:C10:C10: GODDESS WITH FEATHERGODDESS WITH FEATHERGODDESS WITH FEATHERGODDESS WITH FEATHER ON ON ON ON HEADHEADHEADHEAD.... Logo. or det. m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't, "the goddess of Truth". G15:G15:G15:G15: VULTURE WITH FLAGELLVULTURE WITH FLAGELLVULTURE WITH FLAGELLVULTURE WITH FLAGELLUMUMUMUM.... Logo. in , "(the goddess) Mut".

M15:M15:M15:M15: CLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REECLUMP OF PAPYRUS REEDS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DODS WITH BUDS BENT DOWNWNWNWN.... Det. in papyrus and

water regions, ììììddddḥḥḥḥwwww, "swamps (of the Delta)",

ḏḏḏḏytytytyt, "papyrus marsh". Det. in t3t3t3t3----mmmmḥḥḥḥwwww, "Lower Egypt". M16:M16:M16:M16: ḥḥḥḥ3333 [hâ] CLUMP OF PAPYRUSCLUMP OF PAPYRUSCLUMP OF PAPYRUSCLUMP OF PAPYRUS.... Phon. in ḥḥḥḥ3333ḳḳḳḳ, "seize", "capture". OK det.

t3t3t3t3----mmmmḥḥḥḥwwww, "Lower Egypt". N27:N27:N27:N27: SUN RISING OVER SUN RISING OVER SUN RISING OVER SUN RISING OVER A A A A MOUNTAINMOUNTAINMOUNTAINMOUNTAIN.... Logo. in 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt, "horizon". U3:U3:U3:U3: ccccOMBINATION OF OMBINATION OF OMBINATION OF OMBINATION OF U1U1U1U1 AND AND AND AND D4 D4 D4 D4 AS IN AS IN AS IN AS IN m33m33m33m33, "see". Aa13:Aa13:Aa13:Aa13: ììììmmmm, m m m m, gs gs gs gs UNKNOWN FIGUREUNKNOWN FIGUREUNKNOWN FIGUREUNKNOWN FIGURE.... [ēm, em, ges] Aa17:Aa17:Aa17:Aa17: s3s3s3s3 [sä] UNCERTAINUNCERTAINUNCERTAINUNCERTAIN,,,, POSSIBLY BACK OF SO POSSIBLY BACK OF SO POSSIBLY BACK OF SO POSSIBLY BACK OF SOMETHING METHING METHING METHING (?)(?)(?)(?) IN THE OK AND MK FO IN THE OK AND MK FO IN THE OK AND MK FO IN THE OK AND MK FORMRMRMRM....

Logo. in s3s3s3s3,,,, "back". Phon. in s3wts3wts3wts3wt, "walls".


160



161

Chapter 33

NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FROM NOUNSOM NOUNSOM NOUNSOM NOUNS

33.1 A 33.1 A 33.1 A 33.1 A NISBENISBENISBENISBE (A TERM (A TERM (A TERM (A TERM FROM ARABIC GRAMMAR)FROM ARABIC GRAMMAR)FROM ARABIC GRAMMAR)FROM ARABIC GRAMMAR) IS AN ADJ IS AN ADJ IS AN ADJ IS AN ADJECTIVE FORMED FROM AECTIVE FORMED FROM AECTIVE FORMED FROM AECTIVE FORMED FROM A NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN OR OR OR OR

PREPOSITIONPREPOSITIONPREPOSITIONPREPOSITION BY THE ADDITION OF BY THE ADDITION OF BY THE ADDITION OF BY THE ADDITION OF ----yyyy AT THE END OF A WORDAT THE END OF A WORDAT THE END OF A WORDAT THE END OF A WORD. Nisbes are defined as "adjectives

of relationship". In English, Nisbes do not exist as such, but the idea is similar to the addition of a

"y" at the end of the word "luck" (a noun), which becomes "lucky" (an adjective).

The "yyyy " sound occasionally appears in the fuller writing in the earlier stages of the Egyptian language,

particularly in the PPPPYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMIDYRAMID and CCCCOFFINOFFINOFFINOFFIN texts. However, by the Middle Kingdom, the "yyyy " was rarely

written. For this reason, scholars prefer to transliterate all but the masculine singular nisbes without

the "yyyy " for any Middle Egyptian text or later.

33.2 33.2 33.2 33.2 NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES A. THE PARADIGMSA. THE PARADIGMSA. THE PARADIGMSA. THE PARADIGMS 1. A MASCULINE NOUN1. A MASCULINE NOUN1. A MASCULINE NOUN1. A MASCULINE NOUN rrrr swswswsw, , , , "SOUTH WIND","SOUTH WIND","SOUTH WIND","SOUTH WIND", FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE "SOUTHERN" IS DERIVE"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVE"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVE"SOUTHERN" IS DERIVED.D.D.D. AS A AS A AS A AS A MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE

1111 SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL rrrr sysysysy rrrr s(y)ws(y)ws(y)ws(y)w transliterated rswrswrswrsw rrrr s(y)s(y)s(y)s(y) transliterated rsyrsyrsyrsy rrrr s(y)ws(y)ws(y)ws(y)w transliterated rswrswrswrsw

AAAASSSS A A A A FEMININE FEMININE FEMININE FEMININE NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL

rrrr s(y)t s(y)t s(y)t s(y)t >>>> r r r r stststst rrrr ssss(y)wt (y)wt (y)wt (y)wt >>>> r r r r swtswtswtswt (or rrrr stststst)

rrrr s(y)ts(y)ts(y)ts(y)t >>>> rst rst rst rst rrrr s(yw)ts(yw)ts(yw)ts(yw)t >>>> rst rst rst rst 2. FROM A FEMININE N2. FROM A FEMININE N2. FROM A FEMININE N2. FROM A FEMININE NOUNOUNOUNOUN mmmmḥḥḥḥytytytyt, , , , "NORTH WIND","NORTH WIND","NORTH WIND","NORTH WIND", FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE FROM WHICH THE NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE "NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVE"NORTHERN" IS DERIVED.D.D.D. A A A AS A S A S A S A MASCULINE MASCULINE MASCULINE MASCULINE NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL mmmmḥḥḥḥyyyytytytyty transliterated mmmmḥḥḥḥtytytyty mmmmḥḥḥḥytyw ytyw ytyw ytyw >>>> m m m mḥḥḥḥtywtywtywtyw mmmmḥḥḥḥyty yty yty yty >>>> m m m mḥḥḥḥtytytyty mmmmḥḥḥḥytyw ytyw ytyw ytyw >>>> m m m mḥḥḥḥtywtywtywtyw mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(y)yt(y)yt(y)yt(y) >>>> mmmmḥḥḥḥtytytyty

1 The more complicated versions are presented first, followed by the simpler ones which are preferred.


162

AS AS AS AS A FEMININE A FEMININE A FEMININE A FEMININE NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(y)t > myt(y)t > myt(y)t > myt(y)t > mḥḥḥḥtttttttt mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(y)wt > myt(y)wt > myt(y)wt > myt(y)wt > mḥḥḥḥtwt twt twt twt (or mmmmḥḥḥḥtttttttt) mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(y)t > myt(y)t > myt(y)t > myt(y)t > mḥḥḥḥtttttttt mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(yw)t > myt(yw)t > myt(yw)t > myt(yw)t > mḥḥḥḥtwttwttwttwt (or mmmmḥḥḥḥtttttttt) B. EXAMPLES OF B. EXAMPLES OF B. EXAMPLES OF B. EXAMPLES OF NISBESNISBESNISBESNISBES

1. S1. S1. S1. SINGINGINGINGULARULARULARULAR MASC. NOUN, MASC. NOUN, MASC. NOUN, MASC. NOUN, šššš , + , + , + , + NISBENISBENISBENISBE DERI DERI DERI DERIVED FROM A MASC.VED FROM A MASC.VED FROM A MASC.VED FROM A MASC. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN , , , , rrrr swswswsw We went to the Southern Lake, i.e. the Faiyum.

ššššmnmnmnmn⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅n r n r n r n r šššš rsy rsy rsy rsy 2. SINGSINGSINGSINGULARULARULARULAR MASC. MASC. MASC. MASC. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN , , , , ììììdbdbdbdb,,,, + + + + NISBENISBENISBENISBE DERIVED FROM A FEMDERIVED FROM A FEMDERIVED FROM A FEMDERIVED FROM A FEM. NOUN, . NOUN, . NOUN, . NOUN, ììììmntmntmntmnt

I will cross over to the western bank of ḏḏḏḏ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì r r r r ììììdb db db db ììììmnty n mnty n mnty n mnty n ììììtrw trw trw trw ḥḥḥḥr r r r ììììptptptpt----swtswtswtswt the river at the temple of Karnak. 3. S3. S3. S3. SINGINGINGINGULARULARULARULAR FEMFEMFEMFEM.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , nnnnìììì wtwtwtwt,,,, + + + + NISBENISBENISBENISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC. . . . NOUNNOUNNOUNNOUN, , , , rrrr swswswsw

The ship sailed to Thebes, lit. "the southern city". n'n'n'n'⋅⋅⋅⋅n dpt r nn dpt r nn dpt r nn dpt r nìììì wt rwt rwt rwt r stststst 4. S4. S4. S4. SINGINGINGINGULARULARULARULAR FEM FEM FEM FEM.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt,,,, + + + + NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ìììì3bt3bt3bt3bt

The ship sailed to the eastern horizon. n'n'n'n'⋅⋅⋅⋅n dpt r 3n dpt r 3n dpt r 3n dpt r 3ḫḫḫḫtttt ìììì3btt3btt3btt3btt 5. P5. P5. P5. PLLLLURALURALURALURAL MASC MASC MASC MASC.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , prprprpr wwww,,,, + + + + NISBENISBENISBENISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , tptptptp

I built my first houses in Abydos. ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì prw prw prw prw⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì tpw m 3b tpw m 3b tpw m 3b tpw m 3bḏḏḏḏwwww 6. P6. P6. P6. PLLLLURALURALURALURAL MASC MASC MASC MASC.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ììììwwwwwwww,,,, + + + + NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. DERIVED FROM A FEM. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ìììì3bt3bt3bt3bt

I dispatched them to the eastern islands. m3'm3'm3'm3'⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì sn r sn r sn r sn r ììììww ww ww ww ìììì3btyw3btyw3btyw3btyw 7. PLURAL7. PLURAL7. PLURAL7. PLURAL FEM. FEM. FEM. FEM. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ḫḫḫḫ3sw3sw3sw3swtttt,,,, + + + + NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC DERIVED FROM A MASC.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , rrrrswswswsw

His Majesty overthrew the southern foreign lands. ssssḫḫḫḫrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ḫḫḫḫswt rstswt rstswt rstswt rst 8. P8. P8. P8. PLLLLURALURALURALURAL FEM FEM FEM FEM.... NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ḫḫḫḫ3swt3swt3swt3swt,,,, + + + + NNNNISBEISBEISBEISBE DERIVED FROM A FEDERIVED FROM A FEDERIVED FROM A FEDERIVED FROM A FEM.M.M.M. NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN, , , , ìììì3bt3bt3bt3bt

His Majesty overthrew the eastern foreign lands. ssssḫḫḫḫrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ḫḫḫḫswt swt swt swt ìììì3btt3btt3btt3btt 9. 9. 9. 9. NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVESADJECTIVESADJECTIVESADJECTIVES FROM PREPOSITIONS FROM PREPOSITIONS FROM PREPOSITIONS FROM PREPOSITIONS

2222

ḫḫḫḫntntntnt, in front of, foremost ￫￫￫￫ ḫḫḫḫntyntyntynty, which/who is foremost

ḫḫḫḫrrrr, under ￫￫￫￫ ḫḫḫḫryryryry, which/who is under

tptptptp, upon ￫￫￫￫ tpytpytpytpy, which/who is upon

2 See Chapter 34 for a discussion of nisbes derived from prepositions.


163

33.3 COMMENTARY 33.3 COMMENTARY 33.3 COMMENTARY 33.3 COMMENTARY A:A:A:A: In nisbes derived from masculine nouns which describe masculine singular nouns, the nisbe indicator , ----yyyy, may or may not be written, e.g. or , rsyrsyrsyrsy.

BBBB:::: In nisbes derived from feminine nouns which describe masculine singular words, the may or may not be

written, e.g. , , or mmmmḥḥḥḥtytytyty.

CCCC:::: For all other forms of the nisbe, i.e. masculine plurals and all feminine (either singular or plural), the ––––yyyy is never written. Thus, when describing a masculine plural noun, rs(y)wrs(y)wrs(y)wrs(y)w by convention, would be

transliterated rswrswrswrsw and mmmmḥḥḥḥytywytywytywytyw written as mmmmḥḥḥḥtywtywtywtyw.

DDDD:::: When describing a feminine singular word, the nisbe rs(y)trs(y)trs(y)trs(y)t is transliterated as rstrstrstrst, while the nisbe mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(yw)tyt(yw)tyt(yw)tyt(yw)t is written as mmmmḥḥḥḥtttttttt.

EEEE:::: The feminine plural rs(y)wt rs(y)wt rs(y)wt rs(y)wt is transliterated rswtrswtrswtrswt ; rs(yw)trs(yw)trs(yw)trs(yw)t as rstrstrstrst ; mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(y)wtyt(y)wtyt(y)wtyt(y)wt as mmmmḥḥḥḥtwttwttwttwt ; and mmmmḥḥḥḥyt(yw)tyt(yw)tyt(yw)tyt(yw)t as mmmmḥḥḥḥtttttttt.

FFFF:::: As a reminder, note that the feminine singular and plural for nisbes derived from either gender can be

identical. The feminine, of course, include its characteristic .

GGGG:::: Since a nisbe adjective may omit its characteristic ending , it may be difficult to determine if a word

is a nisbe ; context alone, many times, will indicate whether it is indeed a nisbe or not.

HHHH:::: Usually the Nile River was simply called , , or ììììtrwtrwtrwtrw, "the River". In its flood stage during 3333ḫḫḫḫtttt, "The Season of Inundation", it was called ḥḥḥḥ'py'py'py'py, "the High Nile", indicating its higher level. The Egyptian measure of length equal to 20,000 cubits (10.5 km) was called the

ììììtrwtrwtrwtrw, "the River Measure".

IIII:::: The nisbe tpytpytpytpy (in the singular) and tpwtpwtpwtpw (in the plural), "first", is derived from the noun tptptptp, "head", "chief", "principal".

JJJJ:::: Thebes was also known as "the Southern City", nnnnììììwt rstwt rstwt rstwt rst, or even simply , nnnnììììwtwtwtwt, "the City".

33.4 THE SECOND IN33.4 THE SECOND IN33.4 THE SECOND IN33.4 THE SECOND INTTTTERMEDIATE PERIODERMEDIATE PERIODERMEDIATE PERIODERMEDIATE PERIOD

The Second Intermediate Period (SIP) is the name given by scholars to the period from 1786-1567 BCE,

when Egypt, once again, was no longer ruled by a strong central authority. It was a period of turmoil, as

petty dynasts arose in many of the nomes. Changing alliances among them and the stronger princes were

characteristic of the period. That the country functioned at all during the SIP was a result of the

continuing oversight of the bureaucracy headed by the viziers (some holding office through hereditary

titles), the priests, the scribes, and the administrators.


164

MMMMAP AP AP AP 33.433.433.433.4----1.1.1.1. CAPITALS CAPITALS CAPITALS CAPITALS MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN MENTIONED IN §§§§33.4.33.4.33.4.33.4.

During the disintegration of the central authority as Dynasty 12 ended c.

1800 BCE, new power centers arose alongside the old. By the middle of

Dynasty 13, c. 1700 BCE, many Asiatics lived in Egypt — some as slaves,

some as mercenaries, some as traders, and some as officials in the

Egyptian bureaucracy.3333 Near the Faiyum in Middle Egypt, Dynasty 13

(1786-1633) kings continued to rule from the old capital of ììììṯṯṯṯ----t3wyt3wyt3wyt3wy, Itjtawy, and may have controlled parts of the eastern Delta. In the

western Delta, Dynasty 14 (1786-c. 1603), comprised some 76 kings in

184 years, ruling from Xois. Dynasty 15 (1674-1567), the "Hyksos",

ruled from ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----wrtwrtwrtwrt, "Avaris". Recent excavations have suggested that this capital city may have been located at Tel el-Dab'a in

the eastern Delta. The Hyksos was a name given by Manetho to the

rulers of the eastern Delta of Dynasties 15 and 16 (c. 1684-1567). It

was derived from ḥḳḥḳḥḳḥḳ3w 3w 3w 3w ḫḫḫḫ3swt3swt3swt3swt, "the rulers of foreign lands", the Greek pronunciation of which approximates "hyksos".

Dynasty 15 Dynasty 15 Dynasty 15 Dynasty 15 comprised:comprised:comprised:comprised:

Modern Name Modern Name Modern Name Modern Name Length of Rule Length of Rule Length of Rule Length of Rule 15151515----1111 Mayebre SheshiMayebre SheshiMayebre SheshiMayebre Sheshi Salitas Salitas Salitas Salitas [1?]3 years [1?]3 years [1?]3 years [1?]3 years 15151515----2222

4444 Meruserre YakubherMeruserre YakubherMeruserre YakubherMeruserre Yakubher 8 years 8 years 8 years 8 years 15151515----3333

4444 Seuserernre KhyanSeuserernre KhyanSeuserernre KhyanSeuserernre Khyan Iannas Iannas Iannas Iannas 15151515----4444 Auserre IpepiAuserre IpepiAuserre IpepiAuserre Ipepi ApApApApophis Iophis Iophis Iophis I 40+ years40+ years40+ years40+ years 15151515----5555 Aqenenre IpepiAqenenre IpepiAqenenre IpepiAqenenre Ipepi Apophis II Apophis II Apophis II Apophis II 15151515----6666 Asehre KhamudyAsehre KhamudyAsehre KhamudyAsehre Khamudy It is not certain where the eight rulers of Dynasty 16 resided. The Hyksos reigned concurrently with the

Dynasty 17 kings in Thebes and the latter kings of Dynasty 17 ruled portions of Upper Egypt. The final

ruler of Dynasty 17, Kamose, along with his brother Ahmose (18-1, 1570-1546), managed to overthrow the

last of the Hyksos rulers, bringing the SIP to a close. During the SIP, Nubia slipped out of Egyptian control. The SIP saw the introduction into Egypt of the horse, the chariot, scale armor, the composite bow (one

made from different woods laminated together), as well as the widespread use of bronze5555 for improved

weaponry, utensils, and hardware.

Few monuments or tombs have been discovered from this period. Literature, too, is scarce. Among the few

extant pieces of literature, one has survived in which the Hyksos king Apophis complains to the Theban king,

Seqenre, that the snorting of the animals in Seqenre's hippopotamus pool in Thebes was keeping him awake

3 The Old Testament story of Joseph recounts the life of one such individual. 4 Exact order of Yakubher and Iannas is uncertain. 5 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The lack of tin in Egypt, as well as in the lands controlled by the Egyptians, probably accounted for its late entry into the Bronze Age.


165

at night. Seqenre summoned his top officials and senior army officers to acquaint them with the request of

Apophis. How they resolved the problem is not known, for the papyrus is incomplete.6666

The SIP came to an end with the reuniting of the land under Dynasty 18, the first dynasty of the period

called the New Kingdom (1567-1085), during which Egyptian power and hegemony would reach its zenith. 33.5 DESCRIPTION OF33.5 DESCRIPTION OF33.5 DESCRIPTION OF33.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERANSLITERANSLITERANSLITERATIONRATIONRATIONRATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION P5:P5:P5:P5: SAIL.SAIL.SAIL.SAIL. Det. "wind" in mmmmḥḥḥḥytytytyt, "north wind" and in ṯṯṯṯ3w3w3w3w,

"breath", "wind"; in ḥḥḥḥt3t3t3t3 "sail". Logo. in nfwnfwnfwnfw, "captain", "admiral". R15:R15:R15:R15: SPEAR DECKED OUT AS SPEAR DECKED OUT AS SPEAR DECKED OUT AS SPEAR DECKED OUT AS A STANDARD.A STANDARD.A STANDARD.A STANDARD. As emblem of the "East", logo.

in ìììì3bt3bt3bt3bt, "east". T31:T31:T31:T31: KNIFE SHARPENER (?).KNIFE SHARPENER (?).KNIFE SHARPENER (?).KNIFE SHARPENER (?). Phon. ssssššššmmmm in or in , "guide", "lead", and derivatives. T32:T32:T32:T32: COMBINATION OF T31 COMBINATION OF T31 COMBINATION OF T31 COMBINATION OF T31 AND D54 AND D54 AND D54 AND D54 .... Phon. ssssššššmmmm in , "guide", "lead 33.6 EXERCISES33.6 EXERCISES33.6 EXERCISES33.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:

6 As Thebes was some 550 km. due south of Avaris, the problem posed by Apophis to his vassal Seqenre was obviously one to test Seqenre's ability to resolve a most difficult question. Many folk tales have such a riddle or vexing problem to be solved by one of the protagonists.


166

Chapter 34

NISBE NISBE NISBE NISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FRADJECTIVES FORMED FROM PREPOSITIONSOM PREPOSITIONSOM PREPOSITIONSOM PREPOSITIONS 34.1 34.1 34.1 34.1 NISNISNISNISBEBEBEBE ADJECTIVES MAY ADJECTIVES MAY ADJECTIVES MAY ADJECTIVES MAY ALSO ALSO ALSO ALSO BE FORMED FROM PREPOBE FORMED FROM PREPOBE FORMED FROM PREPOBE FORMED FROM PREPOSITIONS SITIONS SITIONS SITIONS ANDANDANDAND ARE OFTEN FOUND IN ARE OFTEN FOUND IN ARE OFTEN FOUND IN ARE OFTEN FOUND IN THE THE THE THE

TITLESTITLESTITLESTITLES OF INDIVIDUALS. OF INDIVIDUALS. OF INDIVIDUALS. OF INDIVIDUALS. They may be written in many different ways.

34.234.234.234.2 EXAMPLES OF EXAMPLES OF EXAMPLES OF EXAMPLES OF NISBENISBENISBENISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED F ADJECTIVES FORMED F ADJECTIVES FORMED F ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM PREPOSITIONSROM PREPOSITIONSROM PREPOSITIONSROM PREPOSITIONS

AAAA. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITION ON ON ON ììììrrrr ((((THE ORIGINAL FORTHE ORIGINAL FORTHE ORIGINAL FORTHE ORIGINAL FORM OF THE PREPOSITIONM OF THE PREPOSITIONM OF THE PREPOSITIONM OF THE PREPOSITION rrrr ),),),), ANDANDANDAND TRANSLITERATEDTRANSLITERATEDTRANSLITERATEDTRANSLITERATED AS "RELATING TO" OR AS "RELATING TO" OR AS "RELATING TO" OR AS "RELATING TO" OR "CONNECTED WITH"."CONNECTED WITH"."CONNECTED WITH"."CONNECTED WITH".

MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL , , relating to, ììììryryryry ììììr(y) r(y) r(y) r(y) ììììr(y)r(y)r(y)r(y) connected with Ir(y)wIr(y)wIr(y)wIr(y)w

FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE SINGULA SINGULA SINGULA SINGULARRRR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL relating to, ììììr(y)tr(y)tr(y)tr(y)t connected with ììììrrrr(yw)t(yw)t(yw)t(yw)t

SSSSOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBINING ììììryryryry AREAREAREARE:::::::: door-keeper, lit. "one connected with the door"

ììììryryryry----'3'3'3'3

one in attendance, lit. "one relating to/at the two feet" (of a superior) ììììryryryry----rdrdrdrd wywywywy

custodian of laws, lit. "one connected with the laws" ììììryryryry----hphphphp

pilot, lit. "one relating to the prow/front" ììììryryryry----ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t

overseer, administrator, lit. "one connected with things" ììììryryryry----ḫḫḫḫtttt

functionary, lit. "one connected with procedure" or "one connected with conduct" ììììryryryry----ssssššššmmmm

keeper of the cloth of the prprprpr----'3'3'3'3 ììììryryryry----ssssššššr prr prr prr pr----'3'3'3'3


167

BBBB. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITION ON ON ON ììììmmmm ( ( ( (A FORM OF THE PREPOSA FORM OF THE PREPOSA FORM OF THE PREPOSA FORM OF THE PREPOSITIONITIONITIONITION WHEN USED WITH A WHEN USED WITH A WHEN USED WITH A WHEN USED WITH A SUFFIXSUFFIXSUFFIXSUFFIX) ) ) ) AND AND AND AND TRANSLATED AS "BEINGTRANSLATED AS "BEINGTRANSLATED AS "BEINGTRANSLATED AS "BEING IN". IN". IN". IN".

MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL

being in ììììmymymymy ììììm(y)wm(y)wm(y)wm(y)w

FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR SINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL

being in ììììm(y)tm(y)tm(y)tm(y)t ììììm(y)wtm(y)wtm(y)wtm(y)wt

EEEEXAMPLEXAMPLEXAMPLEXAMPLE:::: , list of persons, lit. "being in his name" ììììmymymymy---- rrrr nnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

SSSSOME TITLES COMBIOME TITLES COMBIOME TITLES COMBIOME TITLES COMBININGNINGNINGNING ììììmymymymy AREAREAREARE::::

captain of a ship, lit. "one who is at both eyes" ììììmymymymy----ììììrtyrtyrtyrty

counselor, lit. "one who is in the council chamber" ììììmymymymy----ììììssss

embalmed, lit. "one who is in the place of embalming" or "one who is in the bandages" ììììmymymymy----wtwtwtwt

CCCC. . . . WHEN WHEN WHEN WHEN THE THE THE THE NISBENISBENISBENISBE ììììmymymymy IS IS IS IS USED USED USED USED IN CONNECTION WITH TIN CONNECTION WITH TIN CONNECTION WITH TIN CONNECTION WITH TITLES FORITLES FORITLES FORITLES FOR AN "OVERSEER" AN "OVERSEER" AN "OVERSEER" AN "OVERSEER", IT, IT, IT, IT IS IS IS IS

USUUSUUSUUSUALLY SHORTENED TO ALLY SHORTENED TO ALLY SHORTENED TO ALLY SHORTENED TO AND COMBINED WITH AND COMBINED WITH AND COMBINED WITH AND COMBINED WITH TO INDICATE "ONE WH TO INDICATE "ONE WH TO INDICATE "ONE WH TO INDICATE "ONE WHO IS IN THE MOUTH", O IS IN THE MOUTH", O IS IN THE MOUTH", O IS IN THE MOUTH", i.e.i.e.i.e.i.e. "THE INDIVIDUAL WHO"THE INDIVIDUAL WHO"THE INDIVIDUAL WHO"THE INDIVIDUAL WHO GIVES GIVES GIVES GIVES THE ORDERS".THE ORDERS".THE ORDERS".THE ORDERS". ììììmymymymy----rrrr MAY BE WRITTEN IN A MAY BE WRITTEN IN A MAY BE WRITTEN IN A MAY BE WRITTEN IN A VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY OF WAYSOF WAYSOF WAYSOF WAYS::::

, , , or

SSSSOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBINING ììììmymymymy----rrrr AREAREAREARE ::::

caravan leader, captain of mercenaries steward, lit. "overseer of the house" ììììmymymymy----r 'wr 'wr 'wr 'w ììììmymymymy----r prr prr prr pr

chief steward of the entire land, lit. "in the land to its end" ììììmymymymy----r pr wrr pr wrr pr wrr pr wr m t3 r m t3 r m t3 r m t3 r----ḏḏḏḏrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

keeper of the seal overseer of the warehouses ììììmymymymy----r sr sr sr sḏḏḏḏ3wty3wty3wty3wty ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššn'wn'wn'wn'w


168

DDDD. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITION ON ON ON ẖẖẖẖrrrr, "UNDER", "CARRYING, "UNDER", "CARRYING, "UNDER", "CARRYING, "UNDER", "CARRYING", "AT THE HEAD OF",", "AT THE HEAD OF",", "AT THE HEAD OF",", "AT THE HEAD OF", "AT THE FOOT OF", T "AT THE FOOT OF", T "AT THE FOOT OF", T "AT THE FOOT OF", THEHEHEHE NISBENISBENISBENISBE FORM FORM FORM FORM ẖẖẖẖryryryry IS OFTEN EXPRESSED BIS OFTEN EXPRESSED BIS OFTEN EXPRESSED BIS OFTEN EXPRESSED BY T28 Y T28 Y T28 Y T28 ALONE. ALONE. ALONE. ALONE.

SSSSOME OME OME OME TITLESTITLESTITLESTITLES COMBINING COMBINING COMBINING COMBINING ẖẖẖẖryryryry AREAREAREARE::::

, abbreviated form , lector priest, lit. "he who is under the ritual book", i.e. the ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbt bt bt bt individual who carries the ritual book in a religious procession while intoning its prayers

, lector priest who is in the year (of , chamberlain, lit. "he who is at the head of ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbt bt bt bt ììììmy rnptmy rnptmy rnptmy rnpt duty) ẖẖẖẖryryryry----tptptptp----nswnswnswnsw the king"

EEEE. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITI. FROM THE PREPOSITION ON ON ON ḥḥḥḥrrrr, "UPON", THE , "UPON", THE , "UPON", THE , "UPON", THE NISBENISBENISBENISBE FORM FORM FORM FORM ḥḥḥḥryryryry, , , , "ABOVE" IS DERIVED."ABOVE" IS DERIVED."ABOVE" IS DERIVED."ABOVE" IS DERIVED.

SSSSOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBININGOME TITLES COMBINING ḥḥḥḥryryryry AREAREAREARE::::

, master of the ceremonies of the temple, lit. "master of the secrets of the temple" ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 m t3 m t3 m t3 m ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr

, privy to the secret of the Lord of the Two Lands, i.e. the king ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 n nb t3wyt3 n nb t3wyt3 n nb t3wyt3 n nb t3wy

, nomarch, lit. "he who is above the great (ones)" , nomarch of the Thinite nome ḥḥḥḥryryryry----tp '3tp '3tp '3tp '3 ḥḥḥḥryryryry----tp '3 n t3tp '3 n t3tp '3 n t3tp '3 n t3----wrwrwrwr

, chief lector priest in his city ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ttttpppp ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbt m nbt m nbt m nbt m nììììwtwtwtwt⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff 34.3 COMMENTARY34.3 COMMENTARY34.3 COMMENTARY34.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: Any of the above titles may appear with or without an appropriate determinative.

BBBB:::: Note that in the titles, which are essentially nisbes derived from nouns, the "yyyy " is only written in the

masculine singular form. It is the usual practice not to place the omitted "yyyy " within parentheses ( ) in the

transliteration of titles.

CCCC:::: It was common for ancient ships to have an eye painted on each side of the bow, possibly in the belief

that they might help the ship avoid danger.

DDDD:::: The expression rrrr----ḏḏḏḏrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff, "entire", literally "to its end", is a compound preposition with rrrr.

EEEE:::: Note that the tongue, F20, has the same connotation as ììììmymymymy----rrrr because the tongue, after all, "is in the mouth", and as such, is a graphic pun for ììììmymymymy----rrrr . Such writings are known as "sportive writings" (§20.3).


169

FFFF:::: In the title ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 m t3 m t3 m t3 m ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr, note the use of Y2 rather than Y1 . Such

usage of indicates an OK title. The version of the title using Y1 does not occur until Dynasty 12

(1991-1786) and thus may be used as terminus ante quem (§11.3). Note also that N17 t3t3t3t3 was not always included in the title. When was omitted, Y1 or Y2 was used vertically, e.g. . The ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 m t3 m t3 m t3 m ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr was responsible for all the ritual equipment and costumes used in the temple for the different rites being celebrated.

34.4 THE 34.4 THE 34.4 THE 34.4 THE ḥḥḥḥbbbb----sd sd sd sd FFFFESTIVALESTIVALESTIVALESTIVAL

The ḥḥḥḥbbbb----sdsdsdsd, Heb Sed or Sed festival, is also called the Jubilee Festival. It marked not only the anniversary of the coronation of the king but also the continuing union of Upper and Lower Egypt under his rule. The

tradition may date back to Narmer (1-1, c. 3100), the king under whom Egypt was initially unified. The

ceremony was normally held during the 30th year 1111 of a king's reign and thereafter at 2 to 4 year intervals

until his death.

As the king was usually crowned in Memphis, the celebration was supposedly always held there, originally

under a special canopy, and later in a special stone pavilion of the sdsdsdsd O23.2222 Participating in the

ceremonies were the nome gods throughout the land; the statues representing these deities were

transported to the ceremony in special traveling shrines in order to pay homage to the king.

For the ceremonies, the king wore a short cloak colored in a diamond pattern, peculiar to the festival.

During this reenactment of his coronation of 30 years earlier, the ruler once again was crowned king of both

Upper and Lower Egypt. The king not only performed a ritual dance but also ran a prescribed course "to the

four corners", symbolic of his hegemony over the four cardinal points — north, east, south, and west. He

was also carried in a litter to visit the chapels of Horus and Seth, where he was given four arrows to be shot

towards the enemies of Egypt, from stations located at the four cardinal points.

Some rulers built special obelisks to commemorate their jubilees, such as Kheperkare Senusert3333 (12-2, 1971-

1928), who erected more than one in a new temple he constructed at Heliopolis.

1 Some examples of the occasions when it was held in other years: the 18th year of Pepi II (6-5, c. 2237); the 2nd year of Mentuhotep II (11-4, c. 2058); the 15th year of the queen Hatshepsut (18-5, c. 1845); sometime around his 6th year, Amenhotep IV (18-10, c. 1373) held a jubilee for himself in conjunction with the Aten, a departure from past practices; Osorkon II (22-4, c. 852) in his 22nd year. When a year less than 30 was selected for the ceremony, it is possible it commemorated another anniversary such as the 30th year since the ruler was named crown prince. Mentuhotep II also celebrated one in his 39th year of rule. Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) celebrated eleven jubilees: his first in his 30th year of rule, a second in his 34th year, a third in his 37th year, and his eleventh and last in his 61st year of rule. 2 The sign shows two stylized thrones under a canopy. 3 Sesostris I.


170

34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIORANSLITERATIONNNN DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A48:A48:A48:A48: BEARDLESS MAN BEARDLESS MAN BEARDLESS MAN BEARDLESS MAN ((((OR WOMANOR WOMANOR WOMANOR WOMAN?)?)?)?) HOLDING A KNIFE HOLDING A KNIFE HOLDING A KNIFE HOLDING A KNIFE (?).(?).(?).(?). Logo/det. ììììryryryry in

, "relating to", "belonging to". D35:D35:D35:D35: nnnn ARMS IN GESTURE OF NARMS IN GESTURE OF NARMS IN GESTURE OF NARMS IN GESTURE OF NEGATIONEGATIONEGATIONEGATION.... Logo in nnnn and in nnnnnnnn, "not".

Phon. in nnnnnnnnššššmmmm, "spleen". F31:F31:F31:F31: msmsmsms [mes] THREE FOX SKINS TIEDTHREE FOX SKINS TIEDTHREE FOX SKINS TIEDTHREE FOX SKINS TIED TOGETHER IN TOGETHER IN TOGETHER IN TOGETHER IN mstmstmstmst ,,,, AN AN AN AN """"APRON OF FOX SKINSAPRON OF FOX SKINSAPRON OF FOX SKINSAPRON OF FOX SKINS".".".". F52:F52:F52:F52: EXCREMENTEXCREMENTEXCREMENTEXCREMENT.... Det. in ḥḥḥḥssss, "excrement". May be replaced by Aa2 . M36:M36:M36:M36: ḏḏḏḏrrrr [djâr] BUNDLE OF FLAX STEMSBUNDLE OF FLAX STEMSBUNDLE OF FLAX STEMSBUNDLE OF FLAX STEMS SHOWING THE SEED PO SHOWING THE SEED PO SHOWING THE SEED PO SHOWING THE SEED PODSDSDSDS.... Phon, det. ḏḏḏḏrrrr, "since". M40:M40:M40:M40: ììììssss [ēs] BUNDLE OF REEDSBUNDLE OF REEDSBUNDLE OF REEDSBUNDLE OF REEDS. Phon. in ììììssss, "tomb"; ììììswtswtswtswt, "crew". M41:M41:M41:M41: LOG OF WOOD STRIPPEDLOG OF WOOD STRIPPEDLOG OF WOOD STRIPPEDLOG OF WOOD STRIPPED OF ITS B OF ITS B OF ITS B OF ITS BRANCHESRANCHESRANCHESRANCHES.... Det. wood as in ''''šššš, "cedar" (more properly "pine" or "fir"). Later replaced by Aa2 . N20:N20:N20:N20: wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb [wedjeb] TONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LANDTONGUE OF LAND.... Det. in wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb, "sand bank", "shore". Phon. in

wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb, "turn back". From OK onward a sign of like appearance

is used in ḥḥḥḥbbbb----sdsdsdsd, "jubilee", "Sed-festival". N22:N22:N22:N22: wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb SANDY TONGUE OF LANDSANDY TONGUE OF LANDSANDY TONGUE OF LANDSANDY TONGUE OF LAND ((((OK PROTOTYPE OF BOTHOK PROTOTYPE OF BOTHOK PROTOTYPE OF BOTHOK PROTOTYPE OF BOTH N20N20N20N20 AND AND AND AND N21N21N21N21 ). ). ). ).

Det. in wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb, "shore", "sand bank"; wwwwḏḏḏḏbbbb, "turn back". O22:O22:O22:O22: ssssḥḥḥḥ [sh] OPEN BOOTH SUPPORTEDOPEN BOOTH SUPPORTEDOPEN BOOTH SUPPORTEDOPEN BOOTH SUPPORTED BY A POLE BY A POLE BY A POLE BY A POLE.... Logo/det. in ssssḥḥḥḥ, "booth";

phon. in ssssḥḥḥḥ, "counsel". O23:O23:O23:O23: HALL USED IN THE SEDHALL USED IN THE SEDHALL USED IN THE SEDHALL USED IN THE SED----FESTIVALFESTIVALFESTIVALFESTIVAL.... Logo/det. in ḥḥḥḥbbbb----sdsdsdsd, "jubilee", "Sed-festival". U13:U13:U13:U13: ššššn'n'n'n' [shenä] PLOUGHPLOUGHPLOUGHPLOUGH.... Det in ššššn'n'n'n', "storehouse", "magazine". V24:V24:V24:V24: wwwwḏḏḏḏ [wedj] CORD WOUND CORD WOUND CORD WOUND CORD WOUND ON STICK ON STICK ON STICK ON STICK ((((OK AND MK FORMOK AND MK FORMOK AND MK FORMOK AND MK FORM).).).). Phon. in wwwwḏḏḏḏ, "command". V32:V32:V32:V32: msnmsnmsnmsn (?)(?)(?)(?) [mesen] WICKERWORK BASKET WICKERWORK BASKET WICKERWORK BASKET WICKERWORK BASKET ((((POSSIBLY ALSO USED APOSSIBLY ALSO USED APOSSIBLY ALSO USED APOSSIBLY ALSO USED AS A FLOAT BY HIPPOPOS A FLOAT BY HIPPOPOS A FLOAT BY HIPPOPOS A FLOAT BY HIPPOPOTAMUS TAMUS TAMUS TAMUS

HUNTERSHUNTERSHUNTERSHUNTERS).).).). Det. in msnwmsnwmsnwmsnw, "harpooners". Later replaced by Aa2 . V38:V38:V38:V38: BANDAGEBANDAGEBANDAGEBANDAGE.... Det. in wtwtwtwt, "bandage". Later replaced by Aa2 . W4:W4:W4:W4: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF O22O22O22O22 AND AND AND AND W3W3W3W3.... Logo/det. in ḥḥḥḥbbbb, "feast",

"festival". Det. in tptptptp----rnptrnptrnptrnpt, "feast of the first of the year". W6:W6:W6:W6: OK SIGN FOR A PARTICOK SIGN FOR A PARTICOK SIGN FOR A PARTICOK SIGN FOR A PARTICULAR VESSELULAR VESSELULAR VESSELULAR VESSEL.... In wwwwḥḥḥḥtttt, "cauldron". Later replaced by Aa2 . W7:W7:W7:W7: GRANITE BOWLGRANITE BOWLGRANITE BOWLGRANITE BOWL.... m3tm3tm3tm3t, "red granite". Later replaced by Aa2 .


171

34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF34.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITSIGN TRANSLITSIGN TRANSLITSIGN TRANSLITERATIONERATIONERATIONERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION Y2:Y2:Y2:Y2: PAPYRUS ROLLPAPYRUS ROLLPAPYRUS ROLLPAPYRUS ROLL,,,, TIED AND SEALED TIED AND SEALED TIED AND SEALED TIED AND SEALED.... OK form of Y1 . Z10:Z10:Z10:Z10: CROSSED STICKSCROSSED STICKSCROSSED STICKSCROSSED STICKS.... OK form of Z9 . Sometimes replaced by Aa2 . Z11:Z11:Z11:Z11: ììììmmmmìììì [ēmē], wnwnwnwn [wen] TWO PLANKS CROSSED ATWO PLANKS CROSSED ATWO PLANKS CROSSED ATWO PLANKS CROSSED AND JOINEDND JOINEDND JOINEDND JOINED.... Logo. in , , and ììììmymymymy ,

"who is in". Phon. in , ììììmmmmìììì , "not be". Phon. in wnmwnmwnmwnm, "eat". Aa2:Aa2:Aa2:Aa2: PISTULE OR GLAND PISTULE OR GLAND PISTULE OR GLAND PISTULE OR GLAND (?).(?).(?).(?). Det. in wtwtwtwt, "embalmer". Det. in the verb

, wtwtwtwt, "to bandage". Sometimes replaces: F52; M41;

V32; W6, as in wwwwḥḥḥḥtttt, "cauldron"; W7; or Z10.



172

Chapter 35

THE ADVERB PHRASETHE ADVERB PHRASETHE ADVERB PHRASETHE ADVERB PHRASE

35.1 35.1 35.1 35.1 ADVERBADVERBADVERBADVERBIALIALIALIAL PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE PHRASES ARES ARES ARES ARE PREPOSITIONAL PHRAPREPOSITIONAL PHRAPREPOSITIONAL PHRAPREPOSITIONAL PHRASESESESESSSS (PREPOSITION + NOUN(PREPOSITION + NOUN(PREPOSITION + NOUN(PREPOSITION + NOUN PHRASE) PHRASE) PHRASE) PHRASE) THATHATHATHAT T T T

DESCRIBEDESCRIBEDESCRIBEDESCRIBE VERBVERBVERBVERBSSSS. . . . The adverbial phrase can tell "how?", "when?", "where?", etc. about the verb it

describes. In the following examples, the subject is in black, the verb is in red, the adjectival phrase

is in green, and the adverbial phrase is in blue.

A A A A VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN ADVERBADVERBADVERBADVERBIALIALIALIAL PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE

How: I sailed in a boat.

When: After December, the show will travel.

Where: He stumbled on the curb.

A A A A VERB MODIFIED BY TWOVERB MODIFIED BY TWOVERB MODIFIED BY TWOVERB MODIFIED BY TWO ADVERB ADVERB ADVERB ADVERBIALIALIALIAL PHRASES PHRASES PHRASES PHRASES The show will travel after 15 days in December.

A A A A VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN VERB MODIFIED BY AN ADVERBADVERBADVERBADVERBIALIALIALIAL PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE,,,, IN TURN IN TURN IN TURN IN TURN MODIFIED MODIFIED MODIFIED MODIFIED BYBYBYBY AN AN AN AN ADJECTIVADJECTIVADJECTIVADJECTIVALALALAL PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE PHRASE I sailed in a boat of 30 cubits.

35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERBERBERBERBIALIALIALIAL PHRASES PHRASES PHRASES PHRASES

ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn s s s sḏḏḏḏ3wty 3wty 3wty 3wty bbbbììììtytytyty The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream.1111

ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅n sn sn sn sḏḏḏḏ3wty 3wty 3wty 3wty bbbbììììtytytyty m dptm dptm dptm dpt The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat.

ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn s s s sḏḏḏḏ3wty3wty3wty3wty b b b bììììtytytyty m dpt m dpt m dpt m dpt n mn mn mn mḥḥḥḥ 20 20 20 20 The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits.

ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn s s s sḏḏḏḏ3wty 3wty 3wty 3wty bbbbììììtytytyty m dptm dptm dptm dpt n mn mn mn mḥḥḥḥ 20 20 20 20 r hrwr hrwr hrwr hrw 8888 The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits for 8 days.

ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn s s s sḏḏḏḏ3wty 3wty 3wty 3wty bbbbììììtytytyty m dptm dptm dptm dpt n mn mn mn mḥḥḥḥ 20 20 20 20 r hrwr hrwr hrwr hrw 8 8 8 8 r nr nr nr nḫḫḫḫnnnn The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits for 8 days to Nekhen.

1 In Egyptian, the verb ḫntì has the adverb "upstream" implicit in its meaning, and therefore no adverb is present in the Egyptian.


173

35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERBIAL PHRASES (CONTERBIAL PHRASES (CONTERBIAL PHRASES (CONTERBIAL PHRASES (CONTINUED)INUED)INUED)INUED)

ḏḏḏḏb3b3b3b3⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr m m m m ḫḫḫḫ'w'w'w'w⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff m m m m ìììì3t3t3t3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nt nt nt nt ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 t3 t3 t3 ììììrtrtrtrt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nt sm3 nt sm3 nt sm3 nt sm3 I clothed the god

2222 with his regalia in my rank of master of secrets, in my function as stolist.

prprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì m t3m t3m t3m t3----wr wr wr wr ḥḥḥḥr w3t wr w3t wr w3t wr w3t wḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t I went forth from the Thinite nome upon the oasis road.

rdIrdIrdIrdI⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn wwwwìììì ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f m m m m ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty----' m ' m ' m ' m ššššmw pfmw pfmw pfmw pf His MajestyHis MajestyHis MajestyHis Majesty appointed appointed appointed appointed memememe

2222 (lit. "placed me asplaced me asplaced me asplaced me as") a local a local a local a local prince in that summer. 35.3 COMMENTARY35.3 COMMENTARY35.3 COMMENTARY35.3 COMMENTARY

A:A:A:A: In additon to ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì, "sail upstream" or "travel southward", some other Egyptian verbs which require an adverb in an English translation are: ḫḫḫḫdddd, "go downstream" or "travel northward";

prprprpr, "go forth" or "come out"; h3h3h3h3, "come down" or "go down"; and ḥḥḥḥrtyrtyrtyrty, "to travel overland". BBBB:::: As mentioned in §2.3, most Egyptian words were triliteral, but ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì belongs to that small group of Egyptian

verbs which were quadriliteral. As the fourth root letter, ìììì, is seldom written, scholars call this type of verb "4th

weak" or "4th infirmae", and ends in either ìììì or wwww.

CCCC:::: Note also that P2, , is a ship with its sail catching the wind, whereas P1, , has neither a mast

erected or a sail. As traveling downstream, ḫḫḫḫdddd, was with the river current, no sail was required, while when traveling upstream against the current, a sail was used to power the boat.

DDDD:::: Some observations regarding line 16 from Ihernofret's stela: 3333

ḏḏḏḏb3b3b3b3⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì n n n nṯṯṯṯr m r m r m r m ḫḫḫḫ'w'w'w'w⋅⋅⋅⋅f m f m f m f m ìììì3t3t3t3t⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nt nt nt nt ḥḥḥḥryryryry----ssssššššt3 t3 t3 t3 ììììrtrtrtrt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì nt sm3 nt sm3 nt sm3 nt sm3 I clothed the god with his regalia in my rank of master of secrets, in my function as stolist.

, , , , ḏḏḏḏb3b3b3b3, a verb meaning "clothe", "adorn", "dress".

ḫḫḫḫ'w'w'w'w, translated as "regalia" is lit. "appears in glory". Here "appears in glory" is a euphemism for the clothing and crown which the priest placed upon the cult statue of the god.

ììììrtrtrtrt, "duty", "use", or "purpose" of something.

the sm3sm3sm3sm3 priest, or stolist, was an individual who dressed the statue of the god for ceremonial functions.

2 Direct object. 3 From a stela found in the cenotaph of ì-ẖr-nfrt, Ikhernofret, at Abydos, near the sacred precinct of

ḫnty-ìmntyw, "Foremost of the Westerners", an epithet for Osiris. Ikhernofret was a high official under Khakaure Senusert (12-5, 1878-1843), known to the Greeks as Sesostris III. Ikhernofret was responsible for organizing the annual festival dedicated to Osiris which commemorated the god's life, death, and resurrection.


174

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 35.435.435.435.4----1111 MODELS OF TWO REED MODELS OF TWO REED MODELS OF TWO REED MODELS OF TWO REED VESSELS DRAWING A F VESSELS DRAWING A F VESSELS DRAWING A F VESSELS DRAWING A FISHING NET BETWEEN TISHING NET BETWEEN TISHING NET BETWEEN TISHING NET BETWEEN THEM FROM THE TOMB OHEM FROM THE TOMB OHEM FROM THE TOMB OHEM FROM THE TOMB OF MF MF MF MEKETRE EKETRE EKETRE EKETRE ((((DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY 11,11,11,11, CCCC.... 2000),2000),2000),2000), EGYPTIAN MUSEUM EGYPTIAN MUSEUM EGYPTIAN MUSEUM EGYPTIAN MUSEUM #46715#46715#46715#46715 IN THE METROPOLITAN IN THE METROPOLITAN IN THE METROPOLITAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART MUSEUM OF ART....

35.4 EGYPTIAN VESSEL35.4 EGYPTIAN VESSEL35.4 EGYPTIAN VESSEL35.4 EGYPTIAN VESSELSSSS c Egyptian ships evolved over the millenia from bundles of papyrus reeds lashed together to form a small skiff

to ocean going vessels. This earliest type of boat was poled through the shallow waters of the marshes of

the Delta or along the Nile River banks. It was used for hunting, fowling, fishing, and local transportation,

as attested to in many tomb wall paintings and models. Old Kingdom tomb walls show nobles on papyrus

rafts, punting through the marshes for a day of hunting, fishing, or relaxation.4444 Often, the scenes show

their wives accompanying them on the outing.

The earliest depiction of an Egyptian vessel found to date is on a Pre-dynastic pot dating to the Naqada II

culture (3500-3150). It shows what is possibly a wooden raft with two small shelters erected upon it.5555 Old

Kingdom tomb paintings and ship models enable the scholar to see the many kinds of craft from small reed

rafts to large wooden ships constructed in ancient Egypt. Later temple carvings display oceangoing vessels, 6666

as well as recording sea battles between Egyptian warships and foreign invaders.

4 See Fig. 19.4-3 for just such a vessel. 5 See Fig. 6.4-1, second pot from left. Other depictions are found on the first and last pots. 6 The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut (18-5, 1503-1482) at Deir el-Baheri displays such vessels on a trading voyage to Punt.


175

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 35.435.435.435.4----2.2.2.2. THE ROYAL SHIP OF THE ROYAL SHIP OF THE ROYAL SHIP OF THE ROYAL SHIP OF KHUFUKHUFUKHUFUKHUFU,,,, 1984.1984.1984.1984.

Some papyrus reed vessels were large and sturdy enough to transport large blocks of stone, sarcophagi,

goods and produce, as well as farm animals as large as oxen. The art of reed ship construction reached its

zenith during the Old Kingdom.7777 For the

remainder of Egyptian history wooden ship

construction was favored.

The largest OK vessel yet recovered has

been excavated from a pit adjacent to the

southern face of the pyramid built by Khufu

(4-2, 2589-2566) at Giza. The 1,224 pieces

making up the craft had been carefully

stored by Khufu's workmen but without the

plans for its re-assembly. From its

discovery in 1954, the ship was reassembled

five times before the team of restorers felt

that it properly represented its original

form. The vessel was then positioned in a

specially prepared air conditioned building

erected over the pit in which the royal

barge had been buried initially.8888

During Dynasty 6 (2345-2181) wooden ships

as large as 60 cubits (30 m.) in length and 30

cubits wide were built. Many models of

boats may be found in Egyptian tombs,

especially from the Middle Kingdom (2133-

1786) and in one relief from that period, a

boat is shown with a crew of 32 rowers, a

helmsmen, and a captain. In the mortuary

temple of Queen Hatshepsut (18-5, 1503-

1482) at Deir al-Bahri painted reliefs of

sailing ships are found from a voyage to Punt.

7 In replicas of such vessels, the Norwegian, Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002), attempted two Atlantic Ocean crossings from Africa. His first attempt in 1969 on the Ra I proved that a transoceanic voyage was possible, as he and his crew sailed almost 2/3 of the way across the Atlantic Ocean before their craft foundered. His second attempt in 1970 on the Ra II was successful, reaching the West Indian island of Barbados after a voyage of 57 days from the African coast. His trips are recounted in The Ra Expeditions, published in 1971. Peruvian Indians constructed the Ra II based on the techniques learned from their fathers on Lake Titicaca in the Andes Mountains of South America. 8 Numerous other boat graves have been discovered throughout Egypt. Most have not been excavated due to a paucity of funds not only for their excavation but also for the safe storage of the reassembled vessels.


176

High quality wood was a scarce commodity in Egypt and had to be imported, generally from Lebanon. Since

tall timbers for masts were particularly hard to come by, the earliest masts were constructed from small

trees mounted in pairs about 1 meter apart at their base and joined at the top. These double masts were

held in place by a rope running from their top to the bow and several to the stern (similar to a modern sail

boat's fore and aft stays). A rectangular sail was suspended from a yardarm attached to the top of the

dual mast. The mast was designed to be lowered when not in use.

Long flat sailing boats for quick river travel sported small deck cabins for the use of the master or

passengers. Travel was not conducted at night, but rather the ship was beached and a camp made on the

riverbank when the landing was between inhabited localities.

As Egyptians traveled by Nile boat, so too did their gods. When a statue of a god departed from its "Holy

of Holies", it was transported in a portable shrine, or naos, which sat on a small boat or bark. Carried on the

shoulders of 20-30 priests, the icon was carried in a ceremonial procession to another temple, or around its

own city, or even to another city. In the ceremony described by Ikhernofret, the sacred "neshmet bark" of

Osiris was defended by priests from ritualistic attackers as part of the annual ritual of Osiris at Abydos.

There were many different types of vessels. The generic words for a boat or ship were:

boat, ship boat, ship collective for "ships" ììììmwmwmwmw dptdptdptdpt ḥḥḥḥ'''' wwwwwwww

SSSSMALL BOATSMALL BOATSMALL BOATSMALL BOATS,,,, USUALLY TRANSLATED USUALLY TRANSLATED USUALLY TRANSLATED USUALLY TRANSLATED AS AS AS AS """"BARKSBARKSBARKSBARKS",",",", USED FOR A GOD USED FOR A GOD USED FOR A GOD USED FOR A GOD''''S TRAVEL WERES TRAVEL WERES TRAVEL WERES TRAVEL WERE:::: a sacred bark

wwwwìììì3333

, , the day bark of the sun (god), i.e. the ship in which the sun disk m'nm'nm'nm'nḏḏḏḏtttt sailed through the sky by day; the mandjet bark

the night bark of the sun (god), i.e. the ship in which the sun disk sailed through the mskttmskttmskttmsktt netherworld at night; the mesket bark

the sacred bark of the god Osiris, the neshmet, bark nnnnššššmtmtmtmt

the sacred bark of the hawk god Sokar, the henew bark ḥḥḥḥnwnwnwnw


177

SSSSOME SPECIFIC TYPES OOME SPECIFIC TYPES OOME SPECIFIC TYPES OOME SPECIFIC TYPES OF VESSEF VESSEF VESSEF VESSELLLLS INCLUDEDS INCLUDEDS INCLUDEDS INCLUDED:::: , , MKMKMKMK sea boats and NKNKNKNK Nile boats , a large barge, lit. "a (wide) boat"

'''' ḥḥḥḥ'''' wwww wswswswsḫḫḫḫtttt

, galley or pleasure craft , scow b3b3b3b3 wwww brbrbrbr 9999

, NKNKNKNK freighter or warship , oxen ferry boats, wine transports mnmnmnmnšššš ẖẖẖẖnnnn----ììììnwnwnwnw

, tow boat , an unknown type of boat

s3s3s3s3 ṯṯṯṯ ḳḳḳḳ3333ḳḳḳḳ3333 wwww

SSSSOME BOAT NAMES HAVE OME BOAT NAMES HAVE OME BOAT NAMES HAVE OME BOAT NAMES HAVE SURVIVEDSURVIVEDSURVIVEDSURVIVED,,,, FOR EXAMPLE FOR EXAMPLE FOR EXAMPLE FOR EXAMPLE::::

, "the large boat called 'The Power of Isesi' ", or possibly s3s3s3s3ṯṯṯṯ '3 p '3 p '3 p '3 pḥḥḥḥtttt((((yyyy)))) ììììssssssssìììì r r r r nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f 10101010 "the boat called 'The Power of Isesi is Great' ", or possibly even "the large boat called 'The Power of Isesi is Great' ".11111111

, "Appearing in Glory in Memphis" ḫḫḫḫ''''ìììì m mn m mn m mn m mn----nfrnfrnfrnfr

, "The Star of the Two Lands". This traditional name for the king's bark has been found in sb3 t3wysb3 t3wysb3 t3wysb3 t3wy a Dynasty 4 (2612-2498) reference as well as in Dynasty 18 (1567-1085), indicating at least a 1,000 year usage.

In the New Kingdom, the main center for Egyptian maritime operations was located near Memphis,

strategically located on the Nile just south of the apex of the Delta. This naval base, called prprprpr w nfrw nfrw nfrw nfr, lit. "The The The The Good JGood JGood JGood Journeyourneyourneyourney" or "The GThe GThe GThe Good ood ood ood DDDDepartureepartureepartureeparture", was developed by Menkheperre Thutmose (Thutmosis III, 18-

6, 1504-1450) and his son and successor, Akheprure Amenhotep (Amenophis II, 18-7, 1450-1425). Its

central location provided easy access up the Nile as well as through various Delta branches northward to the

Mediterranean Sea. An extensive sea trade was conducted from this port along the Mediterranean's

eastern littoral as well as with the island of Cyprus.

9 In this instance, indicates a foreign sound and is an example of Group Writing (§31.3), here associated with use of the signs b, b3, and 3 for b. 10 Often a boat's name was followed by , rn ⋅f, "its name". 11 Depends on how '3 is interpreted. In the first translation, it is an adjective "large" describing s3ṯ, "boat". In the second '3, is an adjective "great" describing the noun phrase pḥty ìssì, "the Power of Isesi". Finally, in the third translation '3 does double duty, serving both as an adjective describing s3ṯ as well as pḥty ìssì.


178

35.5 DESCRIPTION OF35.5 DESCRIPTION OF35.5 DESCRIPTION OF35.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN SIGN SIGN SIGN TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION D33D33D33D33:::: ẖẖẖẖnnnn ARMS ENGAGED IN ROWIARMS ENGAGED IN ROWIARMS ENGAGED IN ROWIARMS ENGAGED IN ROWINGNGNGNG.... Logo. in ẖẖẖẖnnnnìììì, "row". Phon. in

ẖẖẖẖnnwnnwnnwnnw, "turmoil". F9F9F9F9:::: HEAD OF A LEOPARDHEAD OF A LEOPARDHEAD OF A LEOPARDHEAD OF A LEOPARD.... Det. in ppppḥḥḥḥtytytyty, "strength", "power of the king". G10:G10:G10:G10: FALCON ON A SPECIAL FALCON ON A SPECIAL FALCON ON A SPECIAL FALCON ON A SPECIAL SACRED BARKSACRED BARKSACRED BARKSACRED BARK.... Det. in skrskrskrskr, "the hawk god

Sokar". Det. in ḥḥḥḥnwnwnwnw, "the henew bark (of Sokar)". P2:P2:P2:P2: ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì SHIP UNDER SAILSHIP UNDER SAILSHIP UNDER SAILSHIP UNDER SAIL. Det in ḫḫḫḫntntntntìììì, "sail upstream". P3:P3:P3:P3: SACRED BARK SACRED BARK SACRED BARK SACRED BARK ((((DETAILS VARY GREATLYDETAILS VARY GREATLYDETAILS VARY GREATLYDETAILS VARY GREATLY IN DIFFERENT CASES IN DIFFERENT CASES IN DIFFERENT CASES IN DIFFERENT CASES).).).). Logo/det. in

wwwwìììì3333, "sacred bark". Det. in divine boats: nnnnššššmtmtmtmt, "the neshmet bark", i.e. "the sacred boat of Abydos"; m'nm'nm'nm'nḏḏḏḏtttt, "the bark of the dawn". P4:P4:P4:P4: FISHERMANFISHERMANFISHERMANFISHERMAN''''S BOAT WITH NETS BOAT WITH NETS BOAT WITH NETS BOAT WITH NET.... Semi-logo. in wwwwḥḥḥḥ'''', "loosen" as in

wwwwḥḥḥḥ' ' ' ' ḥḥḥḥ'py'py'py'py, "the loosening of the Nile" = "the start of the inundation". P6:P6:P6:P6: ''''ḥḥḥḥ' ' ' ' MASTMASTMASTMAST.... Phon. in ''''ḥḥḥḥ'''', "stand". P7:P7:P7:P7: ''''ḥḥḥḥ' ' ' ' COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF P6P6P6P6 AND AND AND AND D36D36D36D36 .... Used in ''''ḥḥḥḥ'w'w'w'w, "ships". T25:T25:T25:T25: ḏḏḏḏb3b3b3b3 REED FLOATS USED IN REED FLOATS USED IN REED FLOATS USED IN REED FLOATS USED IN FISHING AND HUNTING FISHING AND HUNTING FISHING AND HUNTING FISHING AND HUNTING OFOFOFOF THE THE THE THE HIPPOPOTAMUSHIPPOPOTAMUSHIPPOPOTAMUSHIPPOPOTAMUS....

Phon. in ḏḏḏḏb3b3b3b3, "clothe", "adorn". U8:U8:U8:U8: ḥḥḥḥnnnn HOEHOEHOEHOE,,,, WITHOUT THE ROP WITHOUT THE ROP WITHOUT THE ROP WITHOUT THE ROPE CONNECTING THE TWOE CONNECTING THE TWOE CONNECTING THE TWOE CONNECTING THE TWO PIECES PIECES PIECES PIECES.... Det. in

ḥḥḥḥnnnnnnnn, "hoe". Phon. ḥḥḥḥnnnn in ḥḥḥḥnwnwnwnw, "the henew bark (of Sokar)". V26:V26:V26:V26: ''''ḏḏḏḏ , nnnnḏḏḏḏ NETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLED WITH TWINED WITH TWINED WITH TWINED WITH TWINE. Logo. in ''''ḏḏḏḏ "spool". Phon.

in m'nm'nm'nm'nḏḏḏḏtttt, "the morning bark of the sun (god)". V27:V27:V27:V27: ''''ḏḏḏḏ , nnnnḏḏḏḏ NETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLENETTING NEEDLE FILLED WITH TWINED WITH TWINED WITH TWINED WITH TWINE,,,, OK FORM OF OK FORM OF OK FORM OF OK FORM OF V26V26V26V26.... Phon. in

m'nm'nm'nm'nḏḏḏḏtttt, "the morning bark of the sun (god)". V29:V29:V29:V29: sksksksk,,,, w3 w3 w3 w3ḥḥḥḥ SWAB MADE FROM A HANSWAB MADE FROM A HANSWAB MADE FROM A HANSWAB MADE FROM A HANK OF FIVERK OF FIVERK OF FIVERK OF FIVER.... Det. in sksksksk, "wipe", hence

phon. in skskskskìììì, "perish". Phon. in w3w3w3w3ḥḥḥḥ, "place". Aa25:Aa25:Aa25:Aa25: UNKNOWN OBJECTUNKNOWN OBJECTUNKNOWN OBJECTUNKNOWN OBJECT.... Logo. in sm3sm3sm3sm3, title of a priest whose function consisted in clothing the statue of a god. It is not clear what connection this title may have had with the smsmsmsm priest whose duties may have been similar.


179



180

Chapter 36

THE ADVERB CLAUSETHE ADVERB CLAUSETHE ADVERB CLAUSETHE ADVERB CLAUSE 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 ADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSES ACT AS A ACT AS A ACT AS A ACT AS A SINGLE PART OF SPEECSINGLE PART OF SPEECSINGLE PART OF SPEECSINGLE PART OF SPEECHHHH, , , , WHICH WHICH WHICH WHICH MUST BEMUST BEMUST BEMUST BE ATTACHED TO A MAIN ATTACHED TO A MAIN ATTACHED TO A MAIN ATTACHED TO A MAIN

CLAUSE THAT COMPLETECLAUSE THAT COMPLETECLAUSE THAT COMPLETECLAUSE THAT COMPLETES THE MEANINGS THE MEANINGS THE MEANINGS THE MEANING OF THE SENTEN OF THE SENTEN OF THE SENTEN OF THE SENTENCECECECE. . . . IN ENGLISH, IN ENGLISH, IN ENGLISH, IN ENGLISH, ADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSESADVERB CLAUSES BEGIN BEGIN BEGIN BEGIN

WITH WITH WITH WITH A SUBORDINATE CONJUNA SUBORDINATE CONJUNA SUBORDINATE CONJUNA SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION,CTION,CTION,CTION,1111 ((((SUCH ASSUCH ASSUCH ASSUCH AS """"afterafterafterafter", "", "", "", "althoughalthoughalthoughalthough", "", "", "", "ifififif", "", "", "", "thoughthoughthoughthough", "", "", "", "whilewhilewhilewhile")")")"),,,, andandandand MAY MAY MAY MAY

INCLUDE A SUBJECT ANINCLUDE A SUBJECT ANINCLUDE A SUBJECT ANINCLUDE A SUBJECT AND/OR A VERB.D/OR A VERB.D/OR A VERB.D/OR A VERB. MOREOVER, MOREOVER, MOREOVER, MOREOVER, in English, the adverb clause can either precede or

follow the main clause. IN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIANIN EGYPTIAN, ON THE OTHER HAND,, ON THE OTHER HAND,, ON THE OTHER HAND,, ON THE OTHER HAND, THERE MAY THERE MAY THERE MAY THERE MAY OR MAY OR MAY OR MAY OR MAY NOT BE A NOT BE A NOT BE A NOT BE A

SUBORDINATSUBORDINATSUBORDINATSUBORDINATEEEE CONJUNCTION TO INTR CONJUNCTION TO INTR CONJUNCTION TO INTR CONJUNCTION TO INTRODUCE THE ADVERB CLAODUCE THE ADVERB CLAODUCE THE ADVERB CLAODUCE THE ADVERB CLAUSEUSEUSEUSE,,,,2222 which tends to follow the main

clause in a sentence. In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated in black and the

adverbial phrases in blue.

36.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV36.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV36.2 EXAMPLES OF ADV36.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERB CLAUSESERB CLAUSESERB CLAUSESERB CLAUSES

h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅k sk sk sk sšššš ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅f sf sf sf sḫḫḫḫrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk You will send the scribe (so that) he may say your plan. Note that the adverbial clause explains the reason why the scribe is sent. Such a clause is referred to as a "clause of purpose".

ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì prt wp prt wp prt wp prt wp----w3wtw3wtw3wtw3wt swswswswḏḏḏḏ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅f r nf r nf r nf r nḏḏḏḏ ( ( ( (ìììì)t)t)t)t⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff I conducted, lit. "did", the Procession of Wepwawet, (when) he goes forth to protect his father.3333

m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅sn nfrw nsn nfrw nsn nfrw nsn nfrw nššššmtmtmtmt sm3sm3sm3sm3⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅s t3 r 3bs t3 r 3bs t3 r 3bs t3 r 3bḏḏḏḏwwww They saw the beauty of the neshmet-bark, (after) it landed at Abydos.4444

ššššmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f db mdb mdb mdb mḥḥḥḥty n ty n ty n ty n ḫḫḫḫrw pf rw pf rw pf rw pf ẖẖẖẖs m s m s m s m ḳḳḳḳ''''ḥḥḥḥ rsy n t3 rsy n t3 rsy n t3 rsy n t3 ììììnt nt nt nt ḳḳḳḳnynynyny His Majesty set out (while) the northern wing of that vile enemy (was) in the southern bend of the stream in the Qina Valley.

ììììnnnnìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅sn nswtsn nswtsn nswtsn nswt ììììnw pnw pnw pnw pḫḫḫḫ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅sn sn sn sn ẖẖẖẖnwnwnwnw They brought the king gifts (when) they reached the residence.

1 Some examples of English subordinating conjunctions are: "after", "although", "if", "though", "while", etc. 2 For a detailed discussion of Adverb Clauses, see §211 in EG 3. 3 Adapted from the stela of Ikhernofret, line 17. 4 Adapted from the stela of Ikhernofret, line 23.


181

However, when the adverb clause follows ììììstststst , it may precede the verb:

ììììstststst ppppḥḥḥḥwy n mwy n mwy n mwy n mšššš' n' n' n' nḫḫḫḫtw n tw n tw n tw n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f r dmf r dmf r dmf r dmìììì n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3 n 'rwn3 prprprpr⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥ3ty r t3 3ty r t3 3ty r t3 3ty r t3 ììììnt nt nt nt ḳḳḳḳnynynyny While the rearguard of the valiant army, lit. "army of victories", of His Majesty (was) in the town of Aruna, the vanguard emerged, lit. "went forth", into the Qina valley.

ììììssssṯṯṯṯ wwwwìììì m s3b m s3b m s3b m s3b ììììry nry nry nry nḫḫḫḫn n n n rdrdrdrdìììì w w w wìììì ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f m smr w'ty f m smr w'ty f m smr w'ty f m smr w'ty ḫḫḫḫntywntywntywntyw----šššš pr pr pr pr----'3'3'3'3 While I was senior warden of Nekhen, His Majesty appointed me (as) sole companion and overseer of the royal tenants, lit. "tenants of the palace". 36.3 COMMENTARY36.3 COMMENTARY36.3 COMMENTARY36.3 COMMENTARY

AAAA:::: As has been mentioned, in Egyptian, in contrast to English, no subordinating conjunction was required to

introduce an adverb clause. Therefore, when one clause followed another, the second clause could be

adverbial in nature. Sometimes the adverbial clause was introduced by a word such as ììììstststst, or ììììssssṯṯṯṯ. When serving as an adverbial indicator, ììììstststst or ììììssssṯṯṯṯ should be translated as "while".

BBBB:::: In Egyptian, the adverbial clause was often a "clause of purpose".

CCCC:::: The ẖẖẖẖntywntywntywntyw----šššš , Khentyw-she, were probably individuals who worked the crown lands and paid a tax to the king or temple for the privilege of doing so. Most likely they did not own the land they farmed.

Such a form of land usage is termed "land in usufruct", and the right of using the land might be paid for in

either produce, goods, or services.

DDDD:::: prtprtprtprt, "a ritual procession" is derived from prprprpr, "go up", "ascend"; pr rpr rpr rpr r, "go up to", "advance against" a position in war.

EEEE:::: The Procession of Wepwawet inaugurated the annual MYSTERIES OF OMYSTERIES OF OMYSTERIES OF OMYSTERIES OF OSIRISSIRISSIRISSIRIS at Abydos. This first procession

was led by a priest portraying the god, wpwpwpwp----w3wtw3wtw3wtw3wt, who acted as the herald for Osiris. Other parts of this ritual drama consisted of the defense of Osiris from "attackers", his death, and his resurrection.

Wepwawet, a jackal-headed deity,5555 was a god of Upper Egypt. His name meant OPENER OF THE WAYSOPENER OF THE WAYSOPENER OF THE WAYSOPENER OF THE WAYS and

referred to his leading the dead into the underworld. At the conclusion of a royal funeral, a special adze,

which wp-w3wt carried, was used to open the deceased monarch's mouth to enable his continued life after

death.

5 The Greeks interpretation of wp-w3t was as a "wolf".


182

FFFF::::

m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff db mdb mdb mdb mḥḥḥḥty n ty n ty n ty n ḫḫḫḫrw pf rw pf rw pf rw pf ẖẖẖẖs m s m s m s m ḳḳḳḳ''''ḥḥḥḥ rsy n t3 rsy n t3 rsy n t3 rsy n t3 ììììnt nt nt nt ḳḳḳḳnynynyny His Majesty saw (that) the northern wing of that vile enemy (was) in the southern bend of the stream in the Qina valley.

We could also translate the clause not as an adverb clause but rather as a noun direct object clause of

the verb m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn "saw".

GGGG:::: Note that the word dbdbdbdb, "wing", lit. "horn", refers to how an army arrayed itself for battle. The front of the army generally curved away from the center towards either flank, so that if viewed

from above the entire assemblage would be shaped like a pair of "horns". The Latin word cornus, "horn",

was used by the Romans as well to indicate their army's wings. Similarly, we use such terms as "wing",

"flank", and "corps" (originally from the Latin corpus, "body", via the French word of similar meaning).

HHHH:::: The Qina valley and Qina brook, where Menkheperre Thutmose (18-6, 1504-1450) fought a coalition

headed by the king of Kadesh, are obviously foreign words in Egyptian. In the Urk. IV (645-667)

transcription of the text (in the "Hall of Annals" in the temple at Karnak where the battle of Megiddo 6666

was recorded), Qina probably appeared four times:

Line 64 Line 73 Line 83 Line 85

and in the transcription of Gebel Barkal stela,7777 line 19 in Urk. IV (1234,13):

where it is written completely and not restored. In the places where the text is missing and "Qina" might

logically belong, Sethe has restored the missing hieroglyphs (as indicated by the shaded areas), based on

his judgment of the space available in which the signs could be written. Pparticular attention should be

paid to any text where a restoration has been made because there may be more than one possible

alternative suggestion for the missing text. In any case, it is possible that to the Egyptian on campaign,

the name of the stream may have sounded either like ḳḳḳḳynynynyn, ḳḳḳḳn3n3n3n3, or ḳḳḳḳnynynyny [kēn, kēn-â, or kēn-ē]. 6 Megiddo was the site of two other famous battles: in 609 BCE between the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (26-2, 610-595) and the Jewish king of Judea, Josiah, who was killed, and again in 1918 CE between the British army and the Ottoman Empire. It is predicted in the Book of Revelations in the New Testament, that the final battle called Armageddon, between good and evil (God and Satan), will take place here. 7 Gebel Barkal is located on the Nile some 100 km. north of the fourth cataract and about 600 km. south of the first cataract at Aswan. Here, Thutmoses III erected a granite stela c. 1457, which mentioned some of the more important historical events of his reign.


183

IIII:::: nnnnḫḫḫḫtwtwtwtw, the adjective describing mmmmšššš'''' , "army", means "victory". Thus, "army of victories", "victorious army", and "valiant army", are all suitable translations.

JJJJ:::: The infrequent use of the article (or when written vertically), t3t3t3t3, does not appear until late Middle Egyptian, beginning with Dynasty 13 (1786). At that time, the demonstrative adjectives8888 p3p3p3p3,

t3t3t3t3, and n3n3n3n3, began to be used for the article "the". 36.4 SOME EGY36.4 SOME EGY36.4 SOME EGY36.4 SOME EGYPTPTPTPTIAN TITLEIAN TITLEIAN TITLEIAN TITLESSSS FROM THE OL FROM THE OL FROM THE OL FROM THE OLD KINGDOMD KINGDOMD KINGDOMD KINGDOM Numerous Old Kingdom titles have been found in the mastabas and tombs of officials. While such titularies

varied in content, many contained the same titles. Besides the opening titularies, titles were scattered

throughout the tomb texts whenever the individual described his rise through the Egyptian bureaucracy.

The shaded restorations, transliterated in brackets [ ], can be made confidently on the basis of parallel

texts in the same or contemporary tombs. OOOOPENING TITULARY FROMPENING TITULARY FROMPENING TITULARY FROMPENING TITULARY FROM THE TOMB CHAPE THE TOMB CHAPE THE TOMB CHAPE THE TOMB CHAPEL OF L OF L OF L OF WWWWENIENIENIENI::::9999

[[[[ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty----' ' ' ' ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššm' wm' wm' wm' w]]]] ììììmymymymy----ììììs s3s s3s s3s s3 w nw nw nw nḫḫḫḫn n n n ḥḥḥḥryryryry----tp ntp ntp ntp nḫḫḫḫb smr w'tyb smr w'tyb smr w'tyb smr w'ty [The Prince, Overseer of Upper Egypt], Chamberlain, Warden of Nekhen, Mayor of Nekheb, Sole Companion FFFFROM THE FACADE OF ROM THE FACADE OF ROM THE FACADE OF ROM THE FACADE OF HHHHARKHUFARKHUFARKHUFARKHUF''''S TOMBS TOMBS TOMBS TOMB::::10101010

[[[[ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty]]]]----' ' ' ' ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššm'w sm'w sm'w sm'w sḏḏḏḏ3wty b3wty b3wty b3wty bììììty smr ty smr ty smr ty smr [[[[w' w' w' w' ]]]]tytytyty ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbt bt bt bt ììììmymymymy----rrrr ' w(w) ' w(w) ' w(w) ' w(w) [The Count], Governor of Upper Egypt, Royal Seal-bearer, Sole Companion, Lector Priest, Chief of Scouts (or Translators)

FFFFROM THE TOMB OF ROM THE TOMB OF ROM THE TOMB OF ROM THE TOMB OF PPPPEPYEPYEPYEPYNAKHTNAKHTNAKHTNAKHT::::11111111

ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty----' s' s' s' sḏḏḏḏ3wt3wt3wt3wtyyyy b b b bììììtytytyty

12121212smr w'smr w'smr w'smr w' ty ty ty ty ẖẖẖẖryryryry----ḥḥḥḥbt ppbt ppbt ppbt ppìììì----nnnnẖẖẖẖt smr w't smr w't smr w't smr w' ty ty ty ty ììììmymymymy----ììììs s3w ns s3w ns s3w ns s3w nḫḫḫḫn n n n ḥḥḥḥryryryry----tp ntp ntp ntp nḫḫḫḫb b b b ììììmymymymy----r 'wwr 'wwr 'wwr 'ww The Count, Seal-bearer of the king of UE, Sole Friend, Lector Priest, Pepynakht, Unique Companion, Counselor, Mayor of Nekhen, Mayor of Nekheb, Leader of Scouts (or Translators)

AAAA.... TITLE O TITLE O TITLE O TITLE OFTEN FOUND INFTEN FOUND INFTEN FOUND INFTEN FOUND IN THE TITULARY OF THE THE TITULARY OF THE THE TITULARY OF THE THE TITULARY OF THE VIZIER: VIZIER: VIZIER: VIZIER:

ììììmymymymy----r k3t nbt nt nswr k3t nbt nt nswr k3t nbt nt nswr k3t nbt nt nsw Superintendent of all the works of the King

8 See §24. 9 Urk. I, 98.8. Weni was probably born during the reign of Teti (6-1, 2345-2333). He served in the bureaucracy of Meryre Pepi (Pepi I, 6-3) and Merenre Antyemsaf I (Merenre, 6-4). 10 Urk. I, 120.14. Harkhuf served Merenre and Neferkare Pepi (Pepi II, 6-5). 11 Urk. I, 132,5. The tomb of Pepynakht was constructed during the reign of Pepi II. 12 Note the honorific transposition in sḏ3wty bìty. The sign, , S19, can also be read ḫtmw.


184

B. CB. CB. CB. COMMONLY USED IN OK TOMMONLY USED IN OK TOMMONLY USED IN OK TOMMONLY USED IN OK TITULARIES WERE:ITULARIES WERE:ITULARIES WERE:ITULARIES WERE:

, , ììììmymymymy----ììììssss,13131313 Counselor, lit. "he who is in the chamber"

, ììììmymymymy----rrrr, Overseer, lit. "he who is in the mouth", i.e. "the one who gives orders" , ììììmymymymy----r 'w(w)r 'w(w)r 'w(w)r 'w(w), Chief of Scouts, Chief of Translators, Caravan Leader, Chief Dragoman14141414

, ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššm'wm'wm'wm'w, Overseer of Upper Egypt

, ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty----'''', Local Prince, Nomarch, Mayor , , ḥḥḥḥryryryry----tp ntp ntp ntp nḫḫḫḫbbbb, Mayor of Nekheb

, , ẖẖẖẖry ry ry ry ḥḥḥḥbtbtbtbt, Lector Priest

s3w ns3w ns3w ns3w nḫḫḫḫnnnn, Guardian of Nekhen, Protector of Nekhen, Warden of Nekhen

, smsmsmsmr w'tyr w'tyr w'tyr w'ty, Sole Companion (of the king), Sole Friend (of the king), Unique Friend (of the king)

, , ssssḏḏḏḏ3wt b3wt b3wt b3wt bììììtytytyty (or ḫḫḫḫtmw btmw btmw btmw bììììttttyyyy), Seal-bearer of the king of Lower Egypt

Egyptians loved titles, and as the years went by, the tendency was for the tomb owners to list more and

more of them, whether or not they actually held the position. In a FIP tomb in Dendera of an official

named mrrmrrmrrmrrìììì, he states "I overthrew all his enemies in truth; this is not said as offices of the (necropolis)."

15151515


A47:A47:A47:A47: SHEPHERD SEATED AND SHEPHERD SEATED AND SHEPHERD SEATED AND SHEPHERD SEATED AND WRAPPED IN A MANTLEWRAPPED IN A MANTLEWRAPPED IN A MANTLEWRAPPED IN A MANTLE,,,, HOLDING A STICK WIT HOLDING A STICK WIT HOLDING A STICK WIT HOLDING A STICK WITH APPENDAGEH APPENDAGEH APPENDAGEH APPENDAGE....

Logo. in mnmnmnmnììììwwww, "herdsman". Logo. or det. in s3ws3ws3ws3w, "guard", "protect". E18:E18:E18:E18: WOLF WOLF WOLF WOLF (?)(?)(?)(?) ON THE STANDARD ON THE STANDARD ON THE STANDARD ON THE STANDARD R12R12R12R12,,,, .... Logo/det. in and , wpwpwpwp----w3wtw3wtw3wtw3wt, "(the wolf-god) Wepwawet", lit. "the opener of the ways".

13 The more common is . Note that the order is graphically reversed. When writing words with birds such

as , , , etc., it was often the practice to place the more vertical sign of the two signs first. 14 , ' w, "scout". While , ' w, is one of the plurals of ' w, , is also probably a plural, as the ìmy-r would not likely be the overseer of only a single scout. Note also the use of , A2, rather than , A1 in 'w, an indication that he probably not only gave orders but also spoke more than one language. In a similar vein, the

, ḫm-nṯr, "head priest", lit. "chief of priest(s)", would hardly be the overseer of only a single priest. 15 This practice is called by scholars "Title Inflation". For other examples of the expression "offices of the necropolis" used in the sense of an act or an office attributed to a person posthumously, see Fischer, Dendera in the Third Millenium B.C., pp. 142, 145 note i. Dendera is located on the west bank of the Nile 50 km. north of Luxor.


185

36.5 DESCRIPTION OF36.5 DESCRIPTION OF36.5 DESCRIPTION OF36.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DEDEDEDESCRIPTIONSCRIPTIONSCRIPTIONSCRIPTION F13:F13:F13:F13: wpwpwpwp HORNS OF OXHORNS OF OXHORNS OF OXHORNS OF OX.... Logo. in wptwptwptwpt, "horns", "brow". Phon. in , wpwpwpwp,

"open", "inaugurate"; wpwtywpwtywpwtywpwty, "messenger". (Later there were some variant writings in which the sign seems to be read ììììpppp.) F16:F16:F16:F16: 'b'b'b'b HORNHORNHORNHORN. Logo/det. in dbdbdbdb, "horn". Phon. in 'b'b'b'b, "horn". F36:F36:F36:F36: sm3sm3sm3sm3 LUNG AND WINDPIPELUNG AND WINDPIPELUNG AND WINDPIPELUNG AND WINDPIPE.... Phon. or phon. det. in sm3sm3sm3sm3, "lung"; sm3sm3sm3sm3, "unite". W25:W25:W25:W25: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF W24W24W24W24 AND AND AND AND D54D54D54D54 .... Phon. or phon. det. in ììììnnnnìììì, "fetch", "bring". Aa27:Aa27:Aa27:Aa27: nnnnḏḏḏḏ DOUBTFULDOUBTFULDOUBTFULDOUBTFUL.... For an unknown reason, phon. in , , nnnnḏḏḏḏ,,,,

16161616 "ask", "inquire". 36363636.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRTRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:ANSLATE:

16 From the MK on, inexplicably , W24, accompanies , Aa27.


186

Chapter 37

THE DIRECT GENITIVETHE DIRECT GENITIVETHE DIRECT GENITIVETHE DIRECT GENITIVE

37373737.1 THE DIRECT GENITI.1 THE DIRECT GENITI.1 THE DIRECT GENITI.1 THE DIRECT GENITIVE IS DEFINED AS A NVE IS DEFINED AS A NVE IS DEFINED AS A NVE IS DEFINED AS A NOUN WHICH IMMEDIATELOUN WHICH IMMEDIATELOUN WHICH IMMEDIATELOUN WHICH IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS ANOTHER NOY FOLLOWS ANOTHER NOY FOLLOWS ANOTHER NOY FOLLOWS ANOTHER NOUUUUN N N N AND AND AND AND DESCRIBES DESCRIBES DESCRIBES DESCRIBES THAT NOUNTHAT NOUNTHAT NOUNTHAT NOUN AND AND AND AND INDICATESINDICATESINDICATESINDICATES """"POSSESSIONPOSSESSIONPOSSESSIONPOSSESSION", "", "", "", "ORIGINORIGINORIGINORIGIN", "", "", "", "CHARACTERISTICCHARACTERISTICCHARACTERISTICCHARACTERISTIC", ETC.", ETC.", ETC.", ETC. TTTTHE HE HE HE

USE OF THEUSE OF THEUSE OF THEUSE OF THE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE """"ssss"""",,,, e.g.e.g.e.g.e.g. """"the king's housethe king's housethe king's housethe king's house"""" OR " OR " OR " OR "the house of the kingthe house of the kingthe house of the kingthe house of the king" IS THE ENGLISH " IS THE ENGLISH " IS THE ENGLISH " IS THE ENGLISH EQUIVALENT OF SUCH AEQUIVALENT OF SUCH AEQUIVALENT OF SUCH AEQUIVALENT OF SUCH A CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION. IN GENERAL, THE G. IN GENERAL, THE G. IN GENERAL, THE G. IN GENERAL, THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEENITIVAL ADJECTIVEENITIVAL ADJECTIVEENITIVAL ADJECTIVESSSS1111 " " " "OFOFOFOF", ", ", ", """"BELONGING TOBELONGING TOBELONGING TOBELONGING TO", AND "", AND "", AND "", AND "FORFORFORFOR" ARE REQUIRED IN EN" ARE REQUIRED IN EN" ARE REQUIRED IN EN" ARE REQUIRED IN ENGLISH. HOWEVER, EGYGLISH. HOWEVER, EGYGLISH. HOWEVER, EGYGLISH. HOWEVER, EGYPTIAN CAN PTIAN CAN PTIAN CAN PTIAN CAN HAVE HAVE HAVE HAVE TWO OR TWO OR TWO OR TWO OR THREE THREE THREE THREE SEQUENTIALSEQUENTIALSEQUENTIALSEQUENTIAL NOUNS WITHOUT NOUNS WITHOUT NOUNS WITHOUT NOUNS WITHOUT ANYANYANYANY CONNECTING LINK CONNECTING LINK CONNECTING LINK CONNECTING LINK TO SHOW POSSESSION TO SHOW POSSESSION TO SHOW POSSESSION TO SHOW POSSESSION....

37373737.2 EXAMPLES OF THE D.2 EXAMPLES OF THE D.2 EXAMPLES OF THE D.2 EXAMPLES OF THE DIRECT GENITIVEIRECT GENITIVEIRECT GENITIVEIRECT GENITIVE

AAAA. USE IN ROYAL NAMES. USE IN ROYAL NAMES. USE IN ROYAL NAMES. USE IN ROYAL NAMES

ḥḥḥḥry 'nry 'nry 'nry 'nḫḫḫḫ mswt mswt mswt mswt;;;; nbty 'nnbty 'nnbty 'nnbty 'nḫḫḫḫ mswt mswt mswt mswt;;;; ḥḥḥḥr nbw 'nr nbw 'nr nbw 'nr nbw 'nḫḫḫḫ m m m mswtswtswtswt;;;; nnnn----swswswsw----bbbbìììì t t t t ḫḫḫḫprprprpr----kkkk3333----rrrr '''';;;; s3 rs3 rs3 rs3 r ' s' s' s' s----nnnn----wsrt, dwsrt, dwsrt, dwsrt, dìììì 'n 'n 'n 'nḫḫḫḫ ḏḏḏḏdt w3s dt w3s dt w3s dt w3s mmmmìììì r r r r ' ' ' ' ḏḏḏḏtttt Horus Name: Life of Births; Two Ladies name: Life of Births; Golden Horus Name: Life of Births;

Prenomen: King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Kheperkare; Nomen: Son of Re, Se-n-wosret, May (he)

be Granted Life, Stability, and Wealth like Re Eternally2222

ḥḥḥḥr k3 nr k3 nr k3 nr k3 nḫḫḫḫt t t t ḫḫḫḫ' m w3st' m w3st' m w3st' m w3st;;;; nbty w3nbty w3nbty w3nbty w3ḥḥḥḥ nsyt nsyt nsyt nsyt 3333 mmmmìììì r r r r ' m pt' m pt' m pt' m pt;;;; ḥḥḥḥr nbw sr nbw sr nbw sr nbw sḫḫḫḫm pm pm pm pḥḥḥḥty ty ty ty ḏḏḏḏsr sr sr sr ḫḫḫḫ'w'w'w'w;;;; nnnn----swswswsw----bbbbìììì tttt mn mn mn mn----ḫḫḫḫprprprpr----rrrr '''' ;;;; s3 rs3 rs3 rs3 r ' ' ' ' ḏḥḏḥḏḥḏḥwtywtywtywty----msmsmsms----nfrnfrnfrnfr----ḫḫḫḫpr(w), mry pr(w), mry pr(w), mry pr(w), mry ḥḥḥḥtttt----ḥḥḥḥr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3t Horus Name: Strong-Bull-Arising-in-Thebes; Two Ladies Name: Enduring-of-Kingship-like-Re-in-Heaven; Golden Horus Name: Powerful-of-Strength, Holy-of-Diadems; Prenomen: King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Menkheperre; Nomen: Son of Re, Thutmoses, Beautiful-of-Forms, Beloved-of-Hathor, Lady-of-the-Turquoise4444

B. USE IN TITLES ANB. USE IN TITLES ANB. USE IN TITLES ANB. USE IN TITLES AND LAUDATORY EPITHETSD LAUDATORY EPITHETSD LAUDATORY EPITHETSD LAUDATORY EPITHETS (NOUN + NOUN) (NOUN + NOUN) (NOUN + NOUN) (NOUN + NOUN) steward, lit. "overseer of the house" temple library scribe, lit. "scribe of the House of

ììììmymymymy----r prr prr prr pr ssssšššš pr 'n pr 'n pr 'n pr 'nḫḫḫḫ Life" priest, lit. "servant of god" venerable, lit. "possessor of veneration"

ḥḥḥḥmmmm----nnnnṯṯṯṯ rrrr nb nb nb nb ììììm3hm3hm3hm3h

1 For other examples that are similar to the Direct Genitive, see §23.1, the Genitival Adjective. 2 Titulary of Kheperkare Senusert or Sesostris I (12-2, 1971-1928). 3 The translation of nsyt, "kingship", is uncertain. 4 Titulary of Menkheperre Thutmose or Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450).


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C. USE IN COMPC. USE IN COMPC. USE IN COMPC. USE IN COMPOOOOUND NOUNS (NOUN + NOUND NOUNS (NOUN + NOUND NOUNS (NOUN + NOUND NOUNS (NOUN + NOUN)UN)UN)UN) palace, lit. "house of the king" temple, lit. "house of god"

prprprpr----nsnsnsns wwww ḥḥḥḥ wtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr

prince, lit. "son of the king" frontier, lit. "the boundary of Egypt" s3s3s3s3----nsnsnsns wwww t3t3t3t3šššš kmt kmt kmt kmt D. USE IN D. USE IN D. USE IN D. USE IN EPITHETS (ADJECTEPITHETS (ADJECTEPITHETS (ADJECTEPITHETS (ADJECTIVE + NOUN) IVE + NOUN) IVE + NOUN) IVE + NOUN)

deceased (m.), lit. "true of voice", abbr. or m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrrrr wwww

deceased (f.), lit. "true of voice", abbr. m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't----ḫḫḫḫrrrr wwww


A:A:A:A: Honorific transposition is found not only in the cartouches of royal titularies, but in the titles or

epithets as well, which incorporate a function of the king, his palace staff, or a god. Note in the titulary

of Thutmoses III that the mImImImI , "like", follows the rrrr '''' and that the mrymrymrymry follows after ḥḥḥḥtttt----ḥḥḥḥr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3tr nbt mfk3t, "beloved of Hathor, Lady of the Turquoise".

BBBB:::: It is the custom to translate the prenomens and the nomens in the king's titulary in their

transliterated form. Thus, in the titulary of Thutmoses III, the prenomen mnmnmnmn----ḫḫḫḫprprprpr----rrrr '''', lit. "the form of Re endures" is translated as "Menkheperre". Similarly, in his nomen ḏḥḏḥḏḥḏḥwtywtywtywty----msmsmsms----nfrnfrnfrnfr----ḫḫḫḫpr(w)pr(w)pr(w)pr(w), his birth name ḏḥḏḥḏḥḏḥwtywtywtywty----msmsmsms (which in a more complete spelling is ) is not translated

in its literal meaning, "Thoth is born", but either as "djhwtymsdjhwtymsdjhwtymsdjhwtyms" or "Thutmoses". This is followed by the epithet consisting of an adjective plus noun, nfrnfrnfrnfr----ḫḫḫḫpr(w)pr(w)pr(w)pr(w), "beautiful of forms". It is quite common to insert such epithets into a titulary.

CCCC:::: , var. nbnbnbnb, "lord" or "master" can also mean a "possessor" or "owner".

DDDD:::: m3'm3'm3'm3'----ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw, and m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't----ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw were very common epithets in texts to indicate a deceased individual. 37.4 THE NINE BOWS 37.4 THE NINE BOWS 37.4 THE NINE BOWS 37.4 THE NINE BOWS AND OTHER EGYPTIAN EAND OTHER EGYPTIAN EAND OTHER EGYPTIAN EAND OTHER EGYPTIAN ENEMIESNEMIESNEMIESNEMIES

The NNNNINE INE INE INE BBBBOWSOWSOWSOWS,5555 a term first used during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181), referred to the enemies

encircling the Nile Valley. While the groups encompassing the Nine Bows varied throughout Egyptian

history, what was to become the standard listing of these enemies appeared during the reign of

Nebmaatre Amenhotep6666 (18-9, 1417-1379). The list found in tombs as well on the dais of his sed-festival

pavilion, included:

5 For a more detailed discussion, see E. Uphill, "The Nine Bows", JEOL 19 (1966), pp. 393-420. 6 Amenophis III.


188

MMMMAP AP AP AP 37.437.437.437.4----1.1.1.1. OLD KINGD OLD KINGD OLD KINGD OLD KINGDOM OM OM OM LOCATION OF THE NINELOCATION OF THE NINELOCATION OF THE NINELOCATION OF THE NINE BOWS BOWS BOWS BOWS....

1. , ḥḥḥḥ3(w) nbwt3(w) nbwt3(w) nbwt3(w) nbwt , located in the north, possibly a seafaringlocated in the north, possibly a seafaringlocated in the north, possibly a seafaringlocated in the north, possibly a seafaring peoplepeoplepeoplepeople fromfromfromfrom the watersthe watersthe watersthe waters of the of the of the of the Mediterranean Sea, ranging from the coast Mediterranean Sea, ranging from the coast Mediterranean Sea, ranging from the coast Mediterranean Sea, ranging from the coast of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete.of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete.of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete.of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete. 2.2.2.2. , , , , , , , , , , , , šššš3t(yw)3t(yw)3t(yw)3t(yw), who were located in, who were located in, who were located in, who were located in northernnorthernnorthernnorthern Nubia and south ofNubia and south ofNubia and south ofNubia and south of the the the the ììììwntyw stywntyw stywntyw stywntyw sty.... 3.3.3.3. ,,,, t3 t3 t3 t3 ššššm'wm'wm'wm'w, the land of Upper Egypt., the land of Upper Egypt., the land of Upper Egypt., the land of Upper Egypt. 4.4.4.4. ,,,, ssssḫḫḫḫt(yw) t(yw) t(yw) t(yw) ììììmmmm, , , , located in the southwestern desert.located in the southwestern desert.located in the southwestern desert.located in the southwestern desert. 5.5.5.5. , , , , ṯḥṯḥṯḥṯḥnwnwnwnw, located to the west in the Libyan desert., located to the west in the Libyan desert., located to the west in the Libyan desert., located to the west in the Libyan desert. 6666.... , , , , , , , , , , , , t3 mt3 mt3 mt3 mḥḥḥḥwwww, the land of Lower Egypt, the, the land of Lower Egypt, the, the land of Lower Egypt, the, the land of Lower Egypt, the Delta.Delta.Delta.Delta. 7777.... ,,,, ppppḏḏḏḏtyw tyw tyw tyw ššššwwww, , , , located in the east.located in the east.located in the east.located in the east. 8.8.8.8. ,,,, ììììwntyw stywntyw stywntyw stywntyw sty, , , , located in northern Nubia and north of thelocated in northern Nubia and north of thelocated in northern Nubia and north of thelocated in northern Nubia and north of the šššš3tyw3tyw3tyw3tyw.... 9. 9. 9. 9. ,,,, mntyw nw sttmntyw nw sttmntyw nw sttmntyw nw stt, located to the northeast indicating , located to the northeast indicating , located to the northeast indicating , located to the northeast indicating

bedouins of Asia.bedouins of Asia.bedouins of Asia.bedouins of Asia. and i and i and i and ithe Newthe Newthe Newthe New Kingdom (1567Kingdom (1567Kingdom (1567Kingdom (1567----1085)1085)1085)1085),,,, may have may have may have may have referredreferredreferredreferred to to to to

NahaNahaNahaNaharin.rin.rin.rin.

The nine groups were represented by T10, a bow, ,7777 and were often portrayed as individual captives, their

arms tied behind their back, and with an identifying name associated with each figure. Interestingly

enough, the list included some of the groups living within both Upper and Lower Egypt.

The earliest mention of the Nine Bows may be on a mace head of the Scorpion king (pre-dynastic), where

nine bows were depicted hanging from the nome standards and thus were symbolically subjugated. The

mace head is only partially preserved and no names are present.

In the Old Kingdom the list of enemies was limited to small areas or kingdoms, while in later years it not

only encompassed individual enemies but also entire countries and geographic areas as they came under

Egyptian domination. During the OK, the desert peoples were scornfully referred to as

ḥḥḥḥrywrywrywryw----šššš'y'y'y'y, "sand dwellers". In the tomb of Weni, fl. 2300 BCE, reference is made to the "Asiatic sand

dwellers", '3m'3m'3m'3mwwww ḥḥḥḥrywrywrywryw----šššš'''' , as well as "the land of the sand dwellers", t3 t3 t3 t3 ḥḥḥḥrywrywrywryw----šššš, .

Beginning in Dynasty 12 (1991-1786) during the Middle Kingdom (2133-1786), the Egyptians referred to

their enemies with the perjorative ẖẖẖẖssss. The epithet indicated "vile", "defeated", or "wretched", depending on context. In the annals of the Asiatic Campaigns of Thutmoses III, there are several

7 See Fig. 37.4-1.


189

references to "that vile enemy", e.g. ḫḫḫḫrw pf rw pf rw pf rw pf ẖẖẖẖs n s n s n s n ḳḳḳḳddddššššwwww, "that vile enemy of Kadesh".8888

From the earliest day, nomadic peoples were found in the Eastern and Western Deserts. To the south,

were numerous petty kingdoms which eventually came under Egyptian hegemony or were absorbed into the

Nubian kingdom. For example, in a picture of the seated king Akheprure Amenhotep9999 (18-7, 1438-1412),

11 names are found on the dais under his throne. The obvious significance is that they are under the

king's feet, i.e. subject to him. These names included seven10101010 from the standard listing of the Nine Bows

and with the addition of:

, , , nhnhnhnhrrrr nnnn, Naharin, approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, Naharin, approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, Naharin, approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, Naharin, approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, and theand theand theand the portion of Turkey bordering those two countries. portion of Turkey bordering those two countries. portion of Turkey bordering those two countries. portion of Turkey bordering those two countries. ,,,, kfkfkfkf tywtywtywtyw, Cre, Cre, Cre, Crete.te.te.te.

, , , , ,,,, rrrr ṯṯṯṯnnnn wwww, Retjenew, encompassing modern day , Retjenew, encompassing modern day , Retjenew, encompassing modern day , Retjenew, encompassing modern day centralcentralcentralcentral and western and western and western and western SyriaSyriaSyriaSyria,,,, Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections.Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections.Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections.Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections. ,,,, mmmm nnnnṯṯṯṯ wwww, bedouins., bedouins., bedouins., bedouins.

On the so-called Israel stela of Merneptah (19-7, 1209-1200) are the lines: """"The princes are prostrate, saying 'Mercy!'The princes are prostrate, saying 'Mercy!'The princes are prostrate, saying 'Mercy!'The princes are prostrate, saying 'Mercy!' Not one raises his head among the Nine Bows, Not one raises his head among the Nine Bows, Not one raises his head among the Nine Bows, Not one raises his head among the Nine Bows, Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; Plundered is the Canaan with every evil; Plundered is the Canaan with every evil; Plundered is the Canaan with every evil; Plundered is the Canaan with every evil; Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upo Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upo Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upo Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upon is Gezer;n is Gezer;n is Gezer;n is Gezer; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Israel is laid waste, his seed is notIsrael is laid waste, his seed is notIsrael is laid waste, his seed is notIsrael is laid waste, his seed is not;;;; Hurru is become a widow for Egypt! Hurru is become a widow for Egypt! Hurru is become a widow for Egypt! Hurru is become a widow for Egypt! All l All l All l All lands together, they are pacified;ands together, they are pacified;ands together, they are pacified;ands together, they are pacified; Everyone who was restless, he has been bound." Everyone who was restless, he has been bound." Everyone who was restless, he has been bound." Everyone who was restless, he has been bound." 11111111

This the only mention of Israel in an Egyptian text. On the other hand, there are many references to the Nine Bows throughout Egyptian history.

8 Adapted from Urk. IV, 649,5 and discussed in §24.3, B. 9 Amenoophis II. 10 Omitted were the ḥ3(w) nbwt and the š3tyw. 11 Pritchard, p.378. Frank Yurco in "3,200-Year-Old Picture of Israelite Found in Egypt", BAR, Vol. 16, No. 5., pp. 19-38, suggests that some battle scenes on the walls of the Amun-Re Karnak temple previously attributed to Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) portray Merneptah's Israel campaign. Anson Rainey in "Shasu or Habiru, Who Were the Early Israelites?", BAR, Vol. 34, No. 6., pp. 51-55, argues that references to the shasu in Egyptian texts actually refer to early Israelites. Furthermore, he believes that Israelites are actually shown on another panel in the Amun-Re temple among captured shasu from Merneptah's campaign.


190

A pair of sandals found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (18-12, 1361-1352) have the upper surface of their

soles decorated with two bound captives from Nubia and Asia and eight "Bow" hieroglyphs. With each

step that the king took, he literally and figuratively crushed his enemies with the bottoms of his feet.

Note that there are a total of Ten Bows if the two captives are counted. The number "nine" could also

indicate "many" and while the number of the traditional enemies did vary from time to time, the Nine

Bows indicated that group regardless of the actual size. Similarly, the gods of the Ennead, meaning nine

gods, sometimes only numbered as few as six, but such groupings of less than nine were still referred to

as "The Ennead".

In the series of scenes depicting the conflict between the Egyptians and the Sea People in the mortuary

temple of Usermaatre-meryamun Ramesses (20-2, 1198-1166) at Medinet Habu near the Valley of the

Kings, is this inscription: "His horses are like falcons in the midst of small birds [before] the Nine

FFFFIG IG IG IG 37.437.437.437.4----1.1.1.1. SANDALS OF TUTANKH SANDALS OF TUTANKH SANDALS OF TUTANKH SANDALS OF TUTANKHAMUN WITH IMAGES OF AMUN WITH IMAGES OF AMUN WITH IMAGES OF AMUN WITH IMAGES OF THE THE THE THE TRADITIONAL E TRADITIONAL E TRADITIONAL E TRADITIONAL ENEMIES OF EGYPT UNDENEMIES OF EGYPT UNDENEMIES OF EGYPT UNDENEMIES OF EGYPT UNDER HIS FEETR HIS FEETR HIS FEETR HIS FEET....


191

Bows, bearing victory". Moreover, the king is addressed at the victory celebration with "Your strength

crushes the Nine Bows, and every land trembles at your name.", evidence that over time, the Nine

Bows had become equated with the enemy of the hour and, as the Nine Bows had been defeated since

time immemorial, so too was the latest enemy of Egypt.


A35:A35:A35:A35: MAN BUILDING A WALLMAN BUILDING A WALLMAN BUILDING A WALLMAN BUILDING A WALL.... Logo/det. in , ḳḳḳḳdddd, "build". B3:B3:B3:B3: WOMAN GIVING BIRTHWOMAN GIVING BIRTHWOMAN GIVING BIRTHWOMAN GIVING BIRTH.... Logo/det. in msmsmsmsìììì, "bear", "give birth", and related words. D45:D45:D45:D45: ARM WITH HAND HOLDINARM WITH HAND HOLDINARM WITH HAND HOLDINARM WITH HAND HOLDING THE G THE G THE G THE nnnnḥḥḥḥbtbtbtbt----WANDWANDWANDWAND.... Logo/det. in ḏḏḏḏsrsrsrsr, "holy", "sacred". F12:F12:F12:F12: wsrwsrwsrwsr HEAD AND NECK OF A CHEAD AND NECK OF A CHEAD AND NECK OF A CHEAD AND NECK OF A CANINE ANIMALANINE ANIMALANINE ANIMALANINE ANIMAL.... Logo. in , wsrwsrwsrwsr tttt, "neck". Phon. in

wsrwsrwsrwsr, "powerful". F39:F39:F39:F39: BACKBONE WITH SPINALBACKBONE WITH SPINALBACKBONE WITH SPINALBACKBONE WITH SPINAL CO CO CO CORD ISSUING FROM ITRD ISSUING FROM ITRD ISSUING FROM ITRD ISSUING FROM IT.... Logo. in ììììm3m3m3m3ḫḫḫḫ, "spinal

cord"; also in , var. , "venerated state", "honored". G8:G8:G8:G8: FALCON OF HORUS ON SFALCON OF HORUS ON SFALCON OF HORUS ON SFALCON OF HORUS ON SIGIGIGIGNNNN FOR GOLD FOR GOLD FOR GOLD FOR GOLD,,,, ,,,, S12S12S12S12.... In title of the king, ḥḥḥḥr nr nr nr n nbwnbwnbwnbw, "Horus of Gold". G26:G26:G26:G26: SACRED IBIS ON THE SSACRED IBIS ON THE SSACRED IBIS ON THE SSACRED IBIS ON THE STANDARD TANDARD TANDARD TANDARD R12R12R12R12,,,, .... Det. in hbhbhbhb, "ibis". Logo. in ḏḥḏḥḏḥḏḥwtywtywtywty, "(the) ibis god) Thoth". H7:H7:H7:H7: šššš3333 CLAWCLAWCLAWCLAW.... Phon. šššš3333 in šššš3t3t3t3t, "(the land of) Shat". M20:M20:M20:M20: REEDS GROWING SIDE BREEDS GROWING SIDE BREEDS GROWING SIDE BREEDS GROWING SIDE BY SIDEY SIDEY SIDEY SIDE.... Logo/det. in ssssḫḫḫḫtttt, "marshland". O10:O10:O10:O10: COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF O6O6O6O6 AND AND AND AND G5G5G5G5 .... ḥḥḥḥtttt----ḥḥḥḥrrrr, "(the goddess) Hathor". O28:O28:O28:O28: ììììwnwnwnwn COLUMN WITH TENON ATCOLUMN WITH TENON ATCOLUMN WITH TENON ATCOLUMN WITH TENON AT TOP TOP TOP TOP.... Logo. in ììììwnwnwnwn, "column". Phon. in ììììwnwwnwwnwwnw, "Heliopolis". R19:R19:R19:R19: WWWW3333SSSS, ìììì3tt3tt3tt3tt THE THE THE THE w3sw3sw3sw3s----SCEPTER WITH BINDINGSCEPTER WITH BINDINGSCEPTER WITH BINDINGSCEPTER WITH BINDING STRIP AND FEATHER STRIP AND FEATHER STRIP AND FEATHER STRIP AND FEATHER.... Emblem of Nome 4 of UE,

ììììwnywnywnywny ;12121212 emblem of its town w3stw3stw3stw3st, "Thebes". For unknown reasons,

also in ìììì3tt3tt3tt3tt, "milk", "cream". See also S40 below. S22:S22:S22:S22: ssssṯṯṯṯ , st st st st SHOULDERSHOULDERSHOULDERSHOULDER----KNOTKNOTKNOTKNOT.... Phon. in ssssṯṯṯṯtttt and sttsttsttstt, "Asia".

12 The Greeks called Nome 4 of UE "Hermonthis", which was derived from ìwny-mnṯw, "(the war god) Montu of Iwny".


192

37.5 DESCRIPTION OF37.5 DESCRIPTION OF37.5 DESCRIPTION OF37.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ( SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED)CONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATRANSLITERATRANSLITERATRANSLITERATIONIONIONION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION S40:S40:S40:S40: WWWW3333SSSS , ìììì3tt3tt3tt3tt SCEPTER WITH STRAIGHSCEPTER WITH STRAIGHSCEPTER WITH STRAIGHSCEPTER WITH STRAIGHT SHAFT AND HEAD OF T SHAFT AND HEAD OF T SHAFT AND HEAD OF T SHAFT AND HEAD OF SETH SETH SETH SETH (?)(?)(?)(?) ANIMAL ANIMAL ANIMAL ANIMAL.... Logo/det. in ,

w3sw3sw3sw3s, "was-scepter". Phon. in ìììì3tt3tt3tt3tt, "milk", "cream". See also R19. T9:T9:T9:T9: ppppḏḏḏḏ BOW CONSISTING OF ORBOW CONSISTING OF ORBOW CONSISTING OF ORBOW CONSISTING OF ORYX HORMS JOINED BY AYX HORMS JOINED BY AYX HORMS JOINED BY AYX HORMS JOINED BY A WOODEN CENTE WOODEN CENTE WOODEN CENTE WOODEN CENTERPIECERPIECERPIECERPIECE.... Logo/det. in

ppppḏḏḏḏtttt. "bow". T9*:T9*:T9*:T9*: ppppḏḏḏḏ OKOKOKOK FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF T9T9T9T9 .... T10:T10:T10:T10: COMPOSITE BOW WITH MCOMPOSITE BOW WITH MCOMPOSITE BOW WITH MCOMPOSITE BOW WITH MIDDLE TIED TO BOWSTRIDDLE TIED TO BOWSTRIDDLE TIED TO BOWSTRIDDLE TIED TO BOWSTRING WHEN OUT OF USEING WHEN OUT OF USEING WHEN OUT OF USEING WHEN OUT OF USE.... Det. in ììììwntwntwntwnt, "bow". T15:T15:T15:T15: (1)(1)(1)(1) THROW THROW THROW THROW----STICKSTICKSTICKSTICK,,,, (2)(2)(2)(2) CLUB AS A FOREIGN W CLUB AS A FOREIGN W CLUB AS A FOREIGN W CLUB AS A FOREIGN WEAPON OF WARFAREEAPON OF WARFAREEAPON OF WARFAREEAPON OF WARFARE.... OK form of T14 . Aa28:Aa28:Aa28:Aa28: BRICKLAYERS BRICKLAYERS BRICKLAYERS BRICKLAYERS INSTRUMENTINSTRUMENTINSTRUMENTINSTRUMENT (?)(?)(?)(?).... Logo. in , ḳḳḳḳdddd, "form", "character" or

"reputation" (of a person); ḳḳḳḳdddd, "build", "fashion (pots)". Aa32:Aa32:Aa32:Aa32: ARCHAIC TYPE OF BOWARCHAIC TYPE OF BOWARCHAIC TYPE OF BOWARCHAIC TYPE OF BOW.... Logo/det. in t3t3t3t3----st(st(st(st(ìììì)))), "(the land of) Sti", "Nubia".

37.6 EXERCISES37.6 EXERCISES37.6 EXERCISES37.6 EXERCISES TRATRATRATRANSLITERATE AND TRANSNSLITERATE AND TRANSNSLITERATE AND TRANSNSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE:LATE:LATE:LATE:


193

Chapter 38

THE INFINITIVETHE INFINITIVETHE INFINITIVETHE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND AND THE GERUND AND THE GERUND AND THE GERUND

38.1 IN ENGLISH38.1 IN ENGLISH38.1 IN ENGLISH38.1 IN ENGLISH,,,, THE INFINITIVE IS THE INFINITIVE IS THE INFINITIVE IS THE INFINITIVE IS """"TOTOTOTO" + " + " + " + THE STEM FORM OF A THE STEM FORM OF A THE STEM FORM OF A THE STEM FORM OF A VERBVERBVERBVERB ("("("("TO GOTO GOTO GOTO GO", "", "", "", "TO SITTO SITTO SITTO SIT", "", "", "", "TO THINKTO THINKTO THINKTO THINK"). "). "). ").

THE GERUND IS A NOUNTHE GERUND IS A NOUNTHE GERUND IS A NOUNTHE GERUND IS A NOUN FORMED FORMED FORMED FORMED FROM THE FROM THE FROM THE FROM THE VERB STEM VERB STEM VERB STEM VERB STEM + "+ "+ "+ "INGINGINGING" ("" ("" ("" ("GOINGGOINGGOINGGOING", "", "", "", "SITTINGSITTINGSITTINGSITTING", "", "", "", "THINTHINTHINTHINKINGKINGKINGKING"). "). "). "). In

English, certain verbs must be followd by the infinitive form ("agreed to ask", "decided to go"),

while others must be followed by the gerund form ("deny knowing", "dislike eating"). Some verbs

can take both with no change in meaning: "love to read" or "love reading", "start to work" or "start

working". Others, however, have a change in meaning: "I stopped to smoke" or "I stopped

smoking".

THE ENGLISH INFINITITHE ENGLISH INFINITITHE ENGLISH INFINITITHE ENGLISH INFINITIVEVEVEVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND SERVES IN VARIOUS W SERVES IN VARIOUS W SERVES IN VARIOUS W SERVES IN VARIOUS WAYSAYSAYSAYS:::: AAAAs s s s SUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECT :::: To sail/sailing is fun. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the subject of the verb "is". AAAAs s s s OBJECTOBJECTOBJECTOBJECT :::: I like to sail/sailing. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the direct object of the verb "like". AAAAs s s s ADVERBADVERBADVERBADVERB :::: A strong wind is good to sail/for sailing. Here, "to sail/for sailing" modifies "good". AAAAs s s s ADADADADJECTIVEJECTIVEJECTIVEJECTIVE :::: I bought a ship to sail or I bought a sailing ship. Here, "to sail/sailing" modifies "ship". The Egyptian usage is similar, especially in an adjectival phrase after the preposition nnnn.

Notice that in the prior four examples, the infinitive "to sail" could be replaced by the noun "sailing" and

the sense of the sentence would be unchanged.

AN INFINITIVE AN INFINITIVE AN INFINITIVE AN INFINITIVE OR GERUND OR GERUND OR GERUND OR GERUND PHRASE CONSISTS OF APHRASE CONSISTS OF APHRASE CONSISTS OF APHRASE CONSISTS OF AN INFINITVEN INFINITVEN INFINITVEN INFINITVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND AND ITS MODIFIERS AND ITS MODIFIERS AND ITS MODIFIERS AND ITS MODIFIERS:::: 1.1.1.1. INFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUND with NOUN OBJECNOUN OBJECNOUN OBJECNOUN OBJECTTTT:::: I like to sail/sailing a boat. The direct object of "to

sail/sailing" is "a boat". The entire phrase "to sail/sailing a boat" is the direct object of the verb "like".

2222.... INFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUND with ADVERB MODIFIERADVERB MODIFIERADVERB MODIFIERADVERB MODIFIER:::: The captain liked to sail/sailing swiftly. The adverb describing "to sail/sailing" is "swiftly". The entire phrase "to sail/sailing swiftly" is the direct object of

the verb "liked".

3333.... INFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUNDINFINITIVE OR GERUND ++++ A PREPOSITIONAL PHRAA PREPOSITIONAL PHRAA PREPOSITIONAL PHRAA PREPOSITIONAL PHRASESESESE:::: I like to sail/sailing in a small boat. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the object of the prepositional phrase "in a small boat" and "to sail/sailing in a small

boat" is the direct object of the verb "like".

NOTE: IN EGYPTIAN, TNOTE: IN EGYPTIAN, TNOTE: IN EGYPTIAN, TNOTE: IN EGYPTIAN, THE INFINITIVE AND THHE INFINITIVE AND THHE INFINITIVE AND THHE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND HAVE THE SAE GERUND HAVE THE SAE GERUND HAVE THE SAE GERUND HAVE THE SAME FORM. IT IS ONLYME FORM. IT IS ONLYME FORM. IT IS ONLYME FORM. IT IS ONLY IN THE IN THE IN THE IN THE

ENGLISH TRANSLATION ENGLISH TRANSLATION ENGLISH TRANSLATION ENGLISH TRANSLATION WHERE IT MUSWHERE IT MUSWHERE IT MUSWHERE IT MUST BE DECIDED WHETHERT BE DECIDED WHETHERT BE DECIDED WHETHERT BE DECIDED WHETHER TO TRANSLATE THE HI TO TRANSLATE THE HI TO TRANSLATE THE HI TO TRANSLATE THE HIEROGLYPHS EROGLYPHS EROGLYPHS EROGLYPHS

AS AN INFINITIVE OR AS AN INFINITIVE OR AS AN INFINITIVE OR AS AN INFINITIVE OR GERUND.GERUND.GERUND.GERUND.


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38.2 FORMS OF THE EG38.2 FORMS OF THE EG38.2 FORMS OF THE EG38.2 FORMS OF THE EGYPTIAN INFINITIVEYPTIAN INFINITIVEYPTIAN INFINITIVEYPTIAN INFINITIVE OR G OR G OR G OR GERUNDERUNDERUNDERUND In Egyptian, the two consonant verbs sometimes add the feminine , –––– tttt, to the verb to indicate the infinitive. Triliteral verbs ending in –––– ìììì 1111 (or more rarely –––– wwww ) add the feminine –––– tttt, while the balance of the triliterals with different root letters do not. They are called feminine and masculine infinitives

respectively. A. INFINITIVEA. INFINITIVEA. INFINITIVEA. INFINITIVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND WITH WITH WITH WITH VARIATION IN VARIATION IN VARIATION IN VARIATION IN ROOT LETTERROOT LETTERROOT LETTERROOT LETTERSSSS 1. INFINITIVE OR 1. INFINITIVE OR 1. INFINITIVE OR 1. INFINITIVE OR GERUND OF BILITERAL GERUND OF BILITERAL GERUND OF BILITERAL GERUND OF BILITERAL VERB WITH DIFFERENT VERB WITH DIFFERENT VERB WITH DIFFERENT VERB WITH DIFFERENT ROOT LETTERSROOT LETTERSROOT LETTERSROOT LETTERS

, open , to open, opening wnwnwnwn wnwnwnwn (masc.)

, go , to go, going ššššmmmm ššššmtmtmtmt (fem.) 2. 2. 2. 2. INFINITIVEINFINITIVEINFINITIVEINFINITIVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB ENDING IN ENDING IN ENDING IN ENDING IN ----ìììì OROROROR ––––wwww 2222

, go forth , to go forth, going forth pr, pr(pr, pr(pr, pr(pr, pr(ìììì)))) prtprtprtprt

, rejoice , to rejoice, rejoicing rrrršššš, r, r, r, ršššš(w)(w)(w)(w) rrrrššššwtwtwtwt

, find , to find, finding gm, gm(gm, gm(gm, gm(gm, gm(ìììì)))) gmt gmt gmt gmt

, praise (someone) , to praise, praising (someone) ḥḥḥḥs, s, s, s, ḥḥḥḥs(s(s(s(ìììì)))) ḥḥḥḥstststst

, give , to give, giving rdrdrdrdìììì rdrdrdrdìììì tttt

, report , to report, reporting smsmsmsmìììì smsmsmsmìììì tttt

, touch , to touch, touching dmdmdmdmìììì dmdmdmdmììììtttt

, guard , to guard, guarding s3ws3ws3ws3w s3wts3wts3wts3wt

1 As mentioned in §19.3, up to this point some Egyptian verbs have been consistently treated as though they were biliterals, except for those which were genuinely triliteral. Many Egyptian verbs, while written with only two letters, were actually triliteral, and their final –ì, while vocalized, was only rarely written. , which has been treated as pr, may also be transliterated as prì. From now on, the full writing with a final -ì will be shown for some roots which formerly have been presented as if they were biliterals. 2 Many of the most commonly used verbs belong to this 3rd weak class. The final ì appears very rarely but is occasionally found in the sḏm⋅f form during the FIP and MK. Scholars include this ì in the writing of the infinitive.


195

3333. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB OF TRILITERAL VERB WITH DIFFERENT ROOT WITH DIFFERENT ROOT WITH DIFFERENT ROOT WITH DIFFERENT ROOT LETTERS LETTERS LETTERS LETTERS , prosper , to prosper, prospering

wwwwḏḏḏḏ3333 wwwwḏḏḏḏ3333

, hear , to hear, hearing ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm

BBBB. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE OR OR OR OR GERUNDGERUNDGERUNDGERUND PARTS OF SPEECHPARTS OF SPEECHPARTS OF SPEECHPARTS OF SPEECH 1. AS SUBJECT1. AS SUBJECT1. AS SUBJECT1. AS SUBJECT

, To do m3'tm3'tm3'tm3't is good. nfr nfr nfr nfr ììììrt m3'trt m3'trt m3'trt m3't

2. AS DIRECT OBJECT 2. AS DIRECT OBJECT 2. AS DIRECT OBJECT 2. AS DIRECT OBJECT , His Majesty commanded to sail downstream to Thebes.

wwwwḏḏḏḏ⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ḫḫḫḫddddììììt r w3t r w3t r w3t r w3stststst

, The captain commanded to row with strength. wwwwḏḏḏḏ⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ììììmymymymy----r r r r ììììrty rty rty rty ẖẖẖẖnt m wsrnt m wsrnt m wsrnt m wsr wwww

3. AFTER GENITIVAL A3. AFTER GENITIVAL A3. AFTER GENITIVAL A3. AFTER GENITIVAL ADJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVEDJECTIVE , an excellent man to be confided in, lit. "of opening to him the heart"

3333 s s s s ììììḳḳḳḳr n wb3 nr n wb3 nr n wb3 nr n wb3 n⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ììììbbbb

4. AFTER PREPOSITION4. AFTER PREPOSITION4. AFTER PREPOSITION4. AFTER PREPOSITION , in order to bring me this sarcophagus from

r r r r ììììnt nnt nnt nnt n⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ḳḳḳḳrsw pn m rrsw pn m rrsw pn m rrsw pn m r----3ww3ww3ww3ww Tura 4444

, His Majesty proceeds north to overthrow wwwwḏḏḏḏ3 3 3 3 ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f m f m f m f m ḫḫḫḫddddììììt r st r st r st r sḫḫḫḫrt mnrt mnrt mnrt mnṯṯṯṯw sw sw sw sṯṯṯṯtttt the Bedouins of Asia.5555

Note that this example contains two infinitives after prepositions: , m m m m ḫḫḫḫddddììììtttt, "to travel north, (lit. "to travel downstream", or "in traveling downstream"), and r sr sr sr sḫḫḫḫrtrtrtrt, "to overthrow". 5. A5. A5. A5. AS VERB WITH ITSS VERB WITH ITSS VERB WITH ITSS VERB WITH ITS SUBJCET SUBJCET SUBJCET SUBJCET

, His Majesty caused every brave (man) of his army to rdrdrdrdììììt t t t ììììn n n n ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅f pr f pr f pr f pr ḳḳḳḳn nb n mn nb n mn nb n mn nb n mšššš''''⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff go forth. 6666

3 EG 3, p. 229, note 6 citing Volume II, p.21, line 4 of El Bersheh in Archaeological Survey of Egypt by P.E. Newberry. 4 Based on Urk. I, 99/14. 5 Based on EG 3, p. 228, n. 8 citing "The Stela of Sebek-khu" in The Manchester Museum Handbooks, T.E. Peet. 6 Ibid., p. 230, n. 3, citing Urk. IV, 894.


196

6. AS VERB WITH D6. AS VERB WITH D6. AS VERB WITH D6. AS VERB WITH DIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECTIRECT OBJECT aaaa. WITH NOUN DIRECT O. WITH NOUN DIRECT O. WITH NOUN DIRECT O. WITH NOUN DIRECT OBJECTBJECTBJECTBJECT

, My brother loves our sister. mrmrmrmrììììt sntt sntt sntt snt⋅⋅⋅⋅n n n n ììììn snn snn snn sn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì Compare this construction to the normal VERBVERBVERBVERB----NOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECTNOUN SUBJECT----NOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECTNOUN DIRECT OBJECT construction:

, My brother loves our sister. mrmrmrmrìììì sn sn sn sn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì snt snt snt snt⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn b. WITH P WITH P WITH P WITH PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTRONOUN DIRECT OBJECTRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT Note in the following examples that a pronoun direct object of the infinitive will normally be a suffix pronoun and not a dependent pronoun. The only common exception to this rule is the singular dependent pronoun st.

, I returned accompanying him.7777 ìììììììì....nnnn....ìììì ḥḥḥḥr r r r ššššmsmsmsms ....ffff

, He put me down without hurting me.8888 w3w3w3w3ḥḥḥḥ ....n n n n ....f f f f wwwwìììì nn dm nn dm nn dm nn dmììììtttt....ìììì

, Her brother found him. gmtgmtgmtgmt....f f f f ììììn snn snn snn sn....ssss

, I went to report it.9999 ššššmmmm....nnnn....ìììì r sm r sm r sm r smììììt stt stt stt st

7. IN NARRATIVE HEAD7. IN NARRATIVE HEAD7. IN NARRATIVE HEAD7. IN NARRATIVE HEADINGSINGSINGSINGS , Giving provisions to the officers (and) rations to the

ììììrt mrt mrt mrt mẖẖẖẖrrrr wwww sr sr sr sr w ww ww ww wḥḥḥḥ'w n 'w n 'w n 'w n ššššmswmswmswmsw followers, i.e. the army.10101010

, Posting the sentries of the army; saying to ssssšššš rsw n ms' rsw n ms' rsw n ms' rsw n ms' ḏḏḏḏd nd nd nd n ....sn mnsn mnsn mnsn mn----ììììb sp sn rsb sp sn rsb sp sn rsb sp sn rs----tp sp sntp sp sntp sp sntp sp sn them, them, them, them, "B"B"B"Be steadfast, be steadfast! Be vigilant, be vigilant!"11111111

, Coming in peace by the chieftains of Crete.12121212 ììììììììt m t m t m t m ḥḥḥḥtpw tpw tpw tpw ììììn wrw nw kftywn wrw nw kftywn wrw nw kftywn wrw nw kftyw

7 Ibid., p. 225, n. 3, citing volume I, p. 8., line 10, of "Beni Hasan" in Archaeological Survey of Egypt, P.E. Newberry and F.L. Griffith. 8 Based on A. De Buck's transcription of The Shipwrecked Sailor, p. 102, 78-79. 9 Ibid., p. 104, 157. 10 Urk. IV, 656, 7-8 from the Hall of Annals at Karnak describing the Asiatic campaign of Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450). This and the next example may represent actual excerpts from a military log or "day book" of a campaign. 11 Ibid. 9-12. 12 Ibid., p.233, n. 1 citing Urk. IV, 1098, from the tomb of Rekhmire, vizier during the reign of Thutmoses III.


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A:A:A:A: To sum up, the infinitive/gerund is a verb form which can serve as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In

translation, the gerund form often supplies the better meaning.

BBBB:::: Many biliteral verbs affix –––– tttt, when forming the infinitive/gerund. This class of verbs is called "3rd weak" or "3ae inf.", i.e. triliteral verbs ending in –––– ìììì, also add the –––– tttt when forming the infinitive. Triliteral verbs not ending in –––– íííí do not affix any letter when forming the infinitive.

CCCC:::: Only a few of the third weak class retain the final –––– íííí in the infinitive/gerund as in:

give > to give report > to report touch > to touch rdrdrdrdìììì rdrdrdrdììììtttt smsmsmsmìììì smsmsmsmììììtttt dmdmdmdmìììì dmdmdmdmììììtttt DDDD:::: Sometimes the agent13131313 can be an inanimate object, as demonstrated in the story of TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSHIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED SSSSAILORAILORAILORAILOR:

, I was brought to this island by a wave of the ììììnnnn ....nnnn ....ìììì r r r r ìììì w pn w pn w pn w pn ììììn w3n w3n w3n w3 w n w3w n w3w n w3w n w3ḏḏḏḏ----wrwrwrwr sea.14141414

EEEE:::: The infinitive or gerund mnmnmnmn, "to endure/enduring" may be used in compound usage as in mnmnmnmn----ííííbbbb, lit. "enduring of the heart", i.e. "be steadfast". Similarly, the infinitive/gerund rsrsrsrs, "to be alert" in compound usage rsrsrsrs----tptptptp, lit. "to alert the head" or "alerting the head", i.e. "be vigilant".

FFFF:::: or sp snsp snsp snsp sn, lit. "two times", indicates that the word or words immediately preceding it are to be repeated twice.

GGGG:::: , Coming in peace by the chieftains of Crete íííí íííí t m t m t m t m ḥḥḥḥtpw tpw tpw tpw íííín wrn wrn wrn wr w nw kfw nw kfw nw kfw nw kf tywtywtywtyw If the infinitive or gerund of a verb has a suffix pronoun attached, that suffix pronoun is the subject of

the infinitive or gerund.

38.4 SYMBOLS OF ROYA38.4 SYMBOLS OF ROYA38.4 SYMBOLS OF ROYA38.4 SYMBOLS OF ROYALTYLTYLTYLTY

In addition to the four crowns worn by the king, plus the war crown and the uraeus,15151515 other royal symbols

included:

THE AWETTHE AWETTHE AWETTHE AWET----SCEPTERSCEPTERSCEPTERSCEPTER:::: , '''' wtwtwtwt ; THE FLAIL THE FLAIL THE FLAIL THE FLAIL ((((FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF FORM OF A A A A WHIPWHIPWHIPWHIP):):):): , nnnnḫḫḫḫ3333ḫḫḫḫ3333 or , nnnnḫḫḫḫḫḫḫḫwwww ; and THE SICKLE SHAPED SWTHE SICKLE SHAPED SWTHE SICKLE SHAPED SWTHE SICKLE SHAPED SWORDORDORDORD or SCIMITARSCIMITARSCIMITARSCIMITAR:::: , ḫḫḫḫppppšššš .

13 The grammatical term for an inanimate agent is an "instrument". 14 Ibid. p.102, 109-110. 15 See §20.4.


198

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 38.438.438.438.4----1.1.1.1. A SEATED BEARDLESS A SEATED BEARDLESS A SEATED BEARDLESS A SEATED BEARDLESS STATUE OF STATUE OF STATUE OF STATUE OF QUEEN HATSHE QUEEN HATSHE QUEEN HATSHE QUEEN HATSHEPSUTPSUTPSUTPSUT,,,, WEARING A WEARING A WEARING A WEARING A nemesnemesnemesnemes,,,, FROM DEIR AL FROM DEIR AL FROM DEIR AL FROM DEIR AL----BAHRIBAHRIBAHRIBAHRI....

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 38.438.438.438.4----2.2.2.2. TUTANKHAMUN TUTANKHAMUN TUTANKHAMUN TUTANKHAMUN''''S GOLD MASK WITH A S GOLD MASK WITH A S GOLD MASK WITH A S GOLD MASK WITH A UUUUraeusraeusraeusraeus ON HIS FORE ON HIS FORE ON HIS FORE ON HIS FOREHEAD AND UNDER HIS HEAD AND UNDER HIS HEAD AND UNDER HIS HEAD AND UNDER HIS CHIN AN CHIN AN CHIN AN CHIN AN ATTACHMENT ATTACHMENT ATTACHMENT ATTACHMENT FOR A BEARDFOR A BEARDFOR A BEARDFOR A BEARD....

While the king was almost always clean shaven, he was usually represented wearing a wig and beard, as in

Signs A41, A42, A45, and A46: , , , and . See also Fig. 20.4-2. This artificial beard was also worn

by ruling queens as well, e.g. the representations of Maatkare Hatshepsut (18-6, 1503-1482) sporting a

beard.

The nemes,16161616 a blue and gold striped cloth headdress was another royal symbol. At the front it had two

lappet-like appendages extending to the shoulders (Fig. 38.4-2) while in the rear it was gathered

together. See Fig. 38.4-1. The ruler was often depicted wearing a robe and kilt from which a bull's tail

hung down at the back.

Many Old Kingdom (2682-2182) titles attest to the king's way of life – his dress, his accoutrements, hsi

food, his department supervisors. The king's palace, the prprprpr----'3'3'3'3, lit. "the great house", could be represented as or even as . Sometimes the palace was referred to as the prprprpr----nswtnswtnswtnswt ("house of the king").

16 The Sphinx at Giza is also portrayed wearing the nemes, see Fig. 11.4-1.


199

Some examples of those attending the king in this period included:

, Unique Friend of the King , Royal Noble of the Palace smr w'ty prsmr w'ty prsmr w'ty prsmr w'ty pr----'3'3'3'3 ššššpsw nswt prpsw nswt prpsw nswt prpsw nswt pr----'3'3'3'3

, a royal acquaintance of the king, see §21.4. rrrrḫḫḫḫ nswt pr nswt pr nswt pr nswt pr----'3'3'3'3

, Keeper of, lit. "the one pertaining to", the Property of the Palace ììììryryryry----ḫḫḫḫt prt prt prt pr----'3'3'3'3

, Superintendent of all the Works of the King ììììmymymymy----r k3tr k3tr k3tr k3t nbt nt nsw nbt nt nsw nbt nt nsw nbt nt nsw

, Judge and Boundary Official of the Palace ''''ḏḏḏḏ----mr prmr prmr prmr pr----'3'3'3'3

, Overseer of the Apartments of the Palace ììììmymymymy----r r r r ììììpt prpt prpt prpt pr----'3'3'3'3

, Overseer of Field Workers of the Palace ììììmymymymy----r sr sr sr sḫḫḫḫtyw n prtyw n prtyw n prtyw n pr----nswnswnswnsw

, Overseer of Ten (men) of the Palace , Keeper of the Diadem ììììmymymymy----r r r r 10101010 pr pr pr pr----'3'3'3'3 ììììry nfrry nfrry nfrry nfr----ḥḥḥḥ3t3t3t3t

, Director of the Hairdressers of the , Keeper of the Cloth of the Palace ḫḫḫḫrp rp rp rp ììììrywrywrywryw----ššššnw prnw prnw prnw pr----'3'3'3'3 Palace ììììryryryry----ššššsr prsr prsr prsr pr----'3'3'3'3

, Keeper of the Oil of the Palace , Overseer of the Writing of ììììryryryry----mrmrmrmrḥḥḥḥt prt prt prt pr----''''3333 ììììmymymymy----r sr sr sr sšššš n nsw n nsw n nsw n nsw the King

, Scribe of the Butchers of the Palace , Herdsman of the Palace ssssšššš b b b bḥḥḥḥw(w)w(w)w(w)w(w) pr pr pr pr----'3'3'3'3 mmmmììììnw prnw prnw prnw pr----'3'3'3'3

When the king appeared in public, he was carried in a portable chair, , Q2, another symbol of royalty.

The chair was surrounded by fan bearers who were members of the court, carrying sunshades made from

ostrich feathers, , S35. When the king went forth from his palace in his chariot, , wrr(y)twrr(y)twrr(y)twrr(y)t, he was accompanied by an armed guard, some whom ran before him to clear his path while others trotted at

his side for his protection. The public rarely came in direct contact with the king. 33338888.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A27:A27:A27:A27: íííínnnn MAN HASTENING WITH OMAN HASTENING WITH OMAN HASTENING WITH OMAN HASTENING WITH ONE ARM RAINE ARM RAINE ARM RAINE ARM RAISEDSEDSEDSED.... Phon. , ììììnnnn, "by". A42:A42:A42:A42: KINGKINGKINGKING,,,, SAME AS SAME AS SAME AS SAME AS ,,,, A41A41A41A41,,,, BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM,,,, ,,,, S45S45S45S45.... A45:A45:A45:A45: KING WEARING CROWN OKING WEARING CROWN OKING WEARING CROWN OKING WEARING CROWN OF LOWER EGYPTF LOWER EGYPTF LOWER EGYPTF LOWER EGYPT,,,, ,,,, S3S3S3S3.... Logo. or det in bbbbììììtytytyty, king

of Lower Egypt.


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38383838.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN SIGN SIGN SIGN TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A46:A46:A46:A46: KINGKINGKINGKING,,,, SAME AS SAME AS SAME AS SAME AS ,,,, A45A45A45A45,,,, BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM BUT WITH FLAGELLUM,,,, ,,,, S45S45S45S45.... D3:D3:D3:D3: HAIRHAIRHAIRHAIR.... Det in , ššššnynynyny, "hair". D19D19D19D19:::: NOSENOSENOSENOSE,,,, EYE AND CHEEK EYE AND CHEEK EYE AND CHEEK EYE AND CHEEK.... Logo/det. in , , fnfnfnfnḏḏḏḏ, in OK, later , fndfndfndfnd ,

"nose". Det. in , ššššrtrtrtrt, "nose", "nostril"; , snsnsnsn, "smell", "kiss"; ,

ẖẖẖẖntntntnt, "face", "joy"; , ḫḫḫḫntntntntšššš, "take pleasure"; , rrrršššš(w)(w)(w)(w), "rejoice". D41:D41:D41:D41: nnnnìììì FOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OFFOREARM WITH PALM OF HAND DOWNWARDS HAND DOWNWARDS HAND DOWNWARDS HAND DOWNWARDS.... Det. in , gb3gb3gb3gb3, "arm",

, rrrr mnmnmnmn, "shoulder", "arm". K3:K3:K3:K3: 'd 'd 'd 'd ((((''''ḏḏḏḏ?)?)?)?) FISHFISHFISHFISH.... Det. in 'dw'dw'dw'dw, the bûrì fish. Phon. in the title , 'd'd'd'd----mrmrmrmr, "Administrator of a Province", probably lit. "Excavator of Canal(s)" Q2:Q2:Q2:Q2: PORTABLE SEAT PORTABLE SEAT PORTABLE SEAT PORTABLE SEAT ((((SOMETIMES REVERSEDSOMETIMES REVERSEDSOMETIMES REVERSEDSOMETIMES REVERSED).).).). S35:S35:S35:S35: SUNSHADE OF OSSUNSHADE OF OSSUNSHADE OF OSSUNSHADE OF OSTRICH FEATHERSTRICH FEATHERSTRICH FEATHERSTRICH FEATHERS.... Logo. in , ššššwtwtwtwt, "shadow", "shade".

Logo/det. in , srytsrytsrytsryt, "military standard". S36:S36:S36:S36: SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH FEATHERSFEATHERSFEATHERSFEATHERS.... OK form of , S35. S44:S44:S44:S44: WALKING STICK WITH FWALKING STICK WITH FWALKING STICK WITH FWALKING STICK WITH FLAILLAILLAILLAIL,,,, ,,,, S45S45S45S45.... Logo/det. in , 3ms3ms3ms3ms, "club", "mace". S45:S45:S45:S45: FLFLFLFLAILAILAILAIL;;;; PERHAPS ORIGINALLY PERHAPS ORIGINALLY PERHAPS ORIGINALLY PERHAPS ORIGINALLY AN INSTRUMENT USED BAN INSTRUMENT USED BAN INSTRUMENT USED BAN INSTRUMENT USED BY GOATY GOATY GOATY GOAT----HERDS FOR COLLECTINGHERDS FOR COLLECTINGHERDS FOR COLLECTINGHERDS FOR COLLECTING

MEDICINAL SUBSTANCESMEDICINAL SUBSTANCESMEDICINAL SUBSTANCESMEDICINAL SUBSTANCES FROM PLANTS FROM PLANTS FROM PLANTS FROM PLANTS.... Logo. or det. in , nnnnḫḫḫḫḫḫḫḫwwww, var.

nnnnḫḫḫḫ3333ḫḫḫḫ3333, "flail", "flagellum", "whip". T13:T13:T13:T13: PIECES OF WOOD JOINEPIECES OF WOOD JOINEPIECES OF WOOD JOINEPIECES OF WOOD JOINED TOGETHER AND LASHED TOGETHER AND LASHED TOGETHER AND LASHED TOGETHER AND LASHED TO MAKE A JOINTD TO MAKE A JOINTD TO MAKE A JOINTD TO MAKE A JOINT.... Logo. (?) in

, rsrsrsrs, "be wakeful", "vigilant". T16:T16:T16:T16: SCIMITARSCIMITARSCIMITARSCIMITAR.... Det. in , ḫḫḫḫppppšššš, "scimitar". T17:T17:T17:T17: CHARIOTCHARIOTCHARIOTCHARIOT.... Logo. or det. in , wrrtwrrtwrrtwrrt, wrr(y)twrr(y)twrr(y)twrr(y)t, "chariot". T18:T18:T18:T18: CROOKCROOKCROOKCROOK,,,, ,,,, S39S39S39S39,,,, WITH A PACKAGE CONT WITH A PACKAGE CONT WITH A PACKAGE CONT WITH A PACKAGE CONTAINING A KNIFEAINING A KNIFEAINING A KNIFEAINING A KNIFE,,,, ETC ETC ETC ETC.... LASHED TO IT LASHED TO IT LASHED TO IT LASHED TO IT.... Logo. in

, ššššmsmsmsms, "follow", "accompany". U26:U26:U26:U26: DRILL USED TO BORE ADRILL USED TO BORE ADRILL USED TO BORE ADRILL USED TO BORE A HOLE IN A BEAD HOLE IN A BEAD HOLE IN A BEAD HOLE IN A BEAD.... Logo. in , wb3wb3wb3wb3, "open". V7:V7:V7:V7: ššššnnnn LOOP OF CORD WITLOOP OF CORD WITLOOP OF CORD WITLOOP OF CORD WITH ENDS DOWNWARDH ENDS DOWNWARDH ENDS DOWNWARDH ENDS DOWNWARD.... Phon. in , ššššnnnnìììì, "encircle"; ,

ššššnnnn, "tree"; , ššššn'n'n'n', "repel". Z8:Z8:Z8:Z8: OVALOVALOVALOVAL.... Det. in , ššššnwnwnwnw, "circuit". A different sign from , N18.


201



202

Chapter 39

NEGATIONNEGATIONNEGATIONNEGATION

33339999.1 .1 .1 .1 EGYPTIANS EXPREGYPTIANS EXPREGYPTIANS EXPREGYPTIANS EXPRESSED NEGATION IN A ESSED NEGATION IN A ESSED NEGATION IN A ESSED NEGATION IN A WIDE VARIETY OF WAYSWIDE VARIETY OF WAYSWIDE VARIETY OF WAYSWIDE VARIETY OF WAYS, DEPENDING ON WHETH, DEPENDING ON WHETH, DEPENDING ON WHETH, DEPENDING ON WHETHER THE ER THE ER THE ER THE

NEGATION TOOK PLACE NEGATION TOOK PLACE NEGATION TOOK PLACE NEGATION TOOK PLACE IN THE PAST, PRESENTIN THE PAST, PRESENTIN THE PAST, PRESENTIN THE PAST, PRESENT, OR FUTURE, OR FUTURE, OR FUTURE, OR FUTURE ::::

A. A. A. A. NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION FOR PAST FOR PAST FOR PAST FOR PAST EVENTSEVENTSEVENTSEVENTS: : : : a a a a ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff verb was preceded by anverb was preceded by anverb was preceded by anverb was preceded by an nnnn, , , , :::: , "He did not hear ..... "; n sn sn sn sḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff B. B. B. B. NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION FFFFOROROROR PRESE PRESE PRESE PRESENT EVENTS: NT EVENTS: NT EVENTS: NT EVENTS: a a a a ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff verb was preceded by an verb was preceded by an verb was preceded by an verb was preceded by an nnnn,,,, :::: , "He does not hear ....."; n sn sn sn sḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff C. C. C. C. NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION NEGATION FFFFOROROROR FUTURE EVENTS FUTURE EVENTS FUTURE EVENTS FUTURE EVENTS:::: aaaa ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff verb was preceded by anverb was preceded by anverb was preceded by anverb was preceded by an nnnnnnnn, , , , : : : : , "He will not hear .....". nnnnnnnn s s s sḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

D.TO EXPRESS "D.TO EXPRESS "D.TO EXPRESS "D.TO EXPRESS "NEVERNEVERNEVERNEVER", ", ", ", n spn spn spn sp, , WAS USWAS USWAS USWAS USED AS AN EMPHATIC FOED AS AN EMPHATIC FOED AS AN EMPHATIC FOED AS AN EMPHATIC FORM, INDICATING THAT RM, INDICATING THAT RM, INDICATING THAT RM, INDICATING THAT AAAA PARTICULAR EVENTPARTICULAR EVENTPARTICULAR EVENTPARTICULAR EVENT NEVERNEVERNEVERNEVER HAPPENED: HAPPENED: HAPPENED: HAPPENED:

, "He never heard .....". n sp sn sp sn sp sn sp sḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff 33339999....2222 EXAMPLES OF NEGATIONEXAMPLES OF NEGATIONEXAMPLES OF NEGATIONEXAMPLES OF NEGATION

A. NEGATION OF PAST A. NEGATION OF PAST A. NEGATION OF PAST A. NEGATION OF PAST EVENTSEVENTSEVENTSEVENTS

, I did not see the t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, the senior official n m33n m33n m33n m33⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b ṯṯṯṯ3ty s3ty s3ty s3ty sr nb r nb r nb r nb ììììmmmm vizier, (or) any magistrate there.

, He did not give me any myrrh. n rn rn rn r ddddìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f wI 'ntyw nbwwI 'ntyw nbwwI 'ntyw nbwwI 'ntyw nbw

, They did not answer him. n wn wn wn wššššbbbb⋅⋅⋅⋅sn swsn swsn swsn sw

BBBB. NEGATION O. NEGATION O. NEGATION O. NEGATION OF PRESENF PRESENF PRESENF PRESENT EVENTST EVENTST EVENTST EVENTS

, I do not see the t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, the senior official n m33n m33n m33n m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b ṯṯṯṯ3ty sr nb3ty sr nb3ty sr nb3ty sr nb ììììmmmm vizier, (or) any magistrate there.

, While the rear guard stands here in Aruna ìììì w n3 n pw n3 n pw n3 n pw n3 n pḥḥḥḥwy 'wy 'wy 'wy ' ḥḥḥḥ' '3 m 'rwn3 n '' '3 m 'rwn3 n '' '3 m 'rwn3 n '' '3 m 'rwn3 n ' ḥḥḥḥ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn and does not fight.

, He does not find a single enemy. n gmn gmn gmn gm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f ḫḫḫḫrrrr w w'w w'w w'w w'


203

CCCC. NEGATION O. NEGATION O. NEGATION O. NEGATION OF FUTUREF FUTUREF FUTUREF FUTURE EVENTS EVENTS EVENTS EVENTS

, I will not see the t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, the senior official nn m33nn m33nn m33nn m33⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b ṯṯṯṯ3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb ììììmmmm vizier, (or) any magistrate there.

, I will not mention to you a little daughter.1111 nn snn snn snn sḫḫḫḫ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì n n n n⋅⋅⋅⋅k s3t kttk s3t kttk s3t kttk s3t ktt

, I will not cause that my army of victory nn (r)dnn (r)dnn (r)dnn (r)d⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì pr pr pr prìììì m m m mšššš''''⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì n n n n n n n nḫḫḫḫtyw tyw tyw tyw ẖẖẖẖrrrr----ḥḥḥḥ3t 3t 3t 3t ḥḥḥḥmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì m st sn m st sn m st sn m st sn go forth before me in this place.

D. NEVERD. NEVERD. NEVERD. NEVER

, I never saw the t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, the senior official n sp m33n sp m33n sp m33n sp m33⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b t3yty s3b ṯṯṯṯ3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb 3ty sr nb ììììmmmm vizier, (or) any magistrate there.

, I never answered him. n sp wn sp wn sp wn sp wššššbbbb⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì sw sw sw sw

, I never said anything evil to a superior, lit. "a powerful n sp n sp n sp n sp ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ḫḫḫḫt nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) ḏḏḏḏw(t) n sw(t) n sw(t) n sw(t) n sḫḫḫḫmmmm one". 33339999....3333 COMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARYCOMMENTARY A:A:A:A: The n sn sn sn sḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅f f f f form often carried an additional nuance, namely that of "cannot". Thus, in the example in B. above:

BBBB:::: ìììì w n3 n pw n3 n pw n3 n pw n3 n pḥḥḥḥwy 'wy 'wy 'wy ' ḥḥḥḥ' '3 m 'rwn3 ' '3 m 'rwn3 ' '3 m 'rwn3 ' '3 m 'rwn3 n 'n 'n 'n ' ḥḥḥḥ3333⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn "While the rear guard stands here in Aruna and does not fight." could be better translated as "While the rear guard stands here in Aruna and cannot fight."

CCCC:::: "Never" was indicated by the use of n spn spn spn sp preceding the present tense verb.

DDDD:::: The three titles, t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, s3b s3b s3b s3b ṯṯṯṯ3ty3ty3ty3ty, and sr nbsr nbsr nbsr nb were often grouped together in the vizier's titulary. The , , or , the t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, was probably a very high OK official, possibly the "Chief Judge". A

s3bs3bs3bs3b was a dignitary of unknown rank, sometimes prefixed to titles as in s3b ss3b ss3b ss3b sšššš, "Senior Scribe". The srsrsrsr wwww, were probably lower court judges as well as advisors to local government officials. In TTTTHE HE HE HE TTTTALE OF THE ALE OF THE ALE OF THE ALE OF THE EEEELOQUENT LOQUENT LOQUENT LOQUENT PPPPEASANTEASANTEASANTEASANT the duties of the srsrsrsrwwww, may be inferred from the peasant's accusations that they have failed to protect him from an evil official. 2222

1 From De Buck's translation of The Shipwrecked Sailor, 103/9. The sailor is listening to the talking snake relating his tale of survival after the death of his brethren and daughter. Note reversed V31, to indicate original text in Hieratic. 2 For a detailed look into the Egyptian legal system, see Shupak, N., "A New Source for the Study of Judiciary and Law in Ancient Egypt: 'The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant ' ", JNES 51 (1966), 1-18.


204

FIG. 39.4FIG. 39.4FIG. 39.4FIG. 39.4----1. THE MORTUARY TEM1. THE MORTUARY TEM1. THE MORTUARY TEM1. THE MORTUARY TEMPLEOF QUEEN HATSHEPSPLEOF QUEEN HATSHEPSPLEOF QUEEN HATSHEPSPLEOF QUEEN HATSHEPSUT (18UT (18UT (18UT (18----5, 15035, 15035, 15035, 1503----1482) 1482) 1482) 1482) AT AT AT AT DEIR AL DEIR AL DEIR AL DEIR AL----BAHRI, NEAR THE VALLBAHRI, NEAR THE VALLBAHRI, NEAR THE VALLBAHRI, NEAR THE VALLEY OF THE EY OF THE EY OF THE EY OF THE KINGS, 1958.KINGS, 1958.KINGS, 1958.KINGS, 1958.

EEEE:::: In the discussion of "Never" above, , n sp n sp n sp n sp ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì ḫḫḫḫt nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) ḏḏḏḏw(t) n sw(t) n sw(t) n sw(t) n sḫḫḫḫmmmm, note that .... .... .... .... ḫḫḫḫt nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) t nb(t) ḏḏḏḏw(t)w(t)w(t)w(t) ............, "... anything evil ....", that both nbtnbtnbtnbt and ḏḏḏḏwtwtwtwt, must be feminine because they must agree with ḫḫḫḫtttt.

39.4 THE DESIGN AND 39.4 THE DESIGN AND 39.4 THE DESIGN AND 39.4 THE DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF THE EGYPFUNCTION OF THE EGYPFUNCTION OF THE EGYPFUNCTION OF THE EGYPTIAN TEMPLETIAN TEMPLETIAN TEMPLETIAN TEMPLE Egyptian temples can be divided into two types: 1] The houses of worship dedicated to the local deity which

were called a ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr, lit. "mansion of the god"; and, 2] The mortuary temples which contained not only a chapel for worship dedicated to the deceased ruler, but also quarters to house the priests.

In the Old (2686-2182) and Middle (2133-1786) Kingdoms, the mortuary temples were usually built

adjacent to the king's pyramid. In the New Kingdom (1567-1085), they were built as separate monuments

because the rulers were now buried in the Valley of the Kings in tombs cut into the cliff and valley floor.3333

During the NK, the mortuary temple also served as a state temple.

The building of a temple often followed a set procedure: the king was ordered by the god to build a temple;

a site was selected, prepared, and sanctified; the king himself laid a line on the earth to indicate the outline

3 The robbing of the mastaba and pyramid tombs forced the pharaohs to seek a more secure location in which to be buried. Even so, many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were plundered in antiquity.


205

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 39.439.439.439.4----3.3.3.3. HOLY HOLY HOLY HOLY----OFOFOFOF----HOLIES IN THE RELOCHOLIES IN THE RELOCHOLIES IN THE RELOCHOLIES IN THE RELOCATED ATED ATED ATED TEMPLE OF TEMPLE OF TEMPLE OF TEMPLE OF RRRRAMESSES AMESSES AMESSES AMESSES IIIIIIII AT ABU AT ABU AT ABU AT ABU SIMBEL SIMBEL SIMBEL SIMBEL,,,, 1984198419841984

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 39.439.439.439.4----2.2.2.2. HYPOSTYLE HALL AT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAKKARNAKKARNAKKARNAK.... NNNNOTE OTE OTE OTE FLORAL COLU FLORAL COLU FLORAL COLU FLORAL COLUMNS AND CLERESTORY MNS AND CLERESTORY MNS AND CLERESTORY MNS AND CLERESTORY WINDOW WINDOW WINDOW WINDOW,,,, 1958.1958.1958.1958.

of the building;4444 and then the erection of the temple commenced. A description of the procedure may be

found in the BBBBUILDING UILDING UILDING UILDING IIIINSCRIPTIONNSCRIPTIONNSCRIPTIONNSCRIPTION OF OF OF OF KKKKHEPERKARE HEPERKARE HEPERKARE HEPERKARE SSSSENUSERTENUSERTENUSERTENUSERT (12-2, 1971-1928).5555

Foundation deposits, similar to our modern practice of inserting memorabilia into cornerstones, were placed

by the Egyptians in the corners and/or under doorways of a new structure. These deposits varied from site

to site, but usually included ceremonial bricks of clay, faience or metal; food; tools; and sometimes even bird

and animal offerings to the god.

4 A ritual called "the stretching of the cord" in which the goddess Seshat is often shown helping the king to drive in the guide stakes. She was the goddess of writing and the library. In representations of campaigns of war, she is portrayed counting and recording the enemies slain and captured. 5 A translation of this leather roll in the Berlin Museum may be found in M. Lichtheim, "The Building Inscription of Sesostris I", Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, pp. 115-8. The leather roll is itself a copy of the original text which was probably carved on a wall of the temple of Atum in Heliopolis.


206

The area in which the cult statues resided was towards the rear of the edifice 6666 and was called by the

Egyptians the or , ḏḏḏḏsr sr sr sr ḏḏḏḏsrwsrwsrwsrw, translated by modern scholars as "the Holy-of-Holies". This area was a separate house within the temple proper and sometimes was on a higher level than the

entrance floor. Some temples had chapels on their roof tops.

Temple design changed over the millennia. The final design of the Ptolemaic period usually consisted of a

pylon through which one entered a courtyard. To the rear of the courtyard was a hypostyle hall and to its

rear an inner sanctum of the "Holy-of-Holies". Around the hypostyle hall and the inner sanctuary were

smaller rooms which served as libraries, chapels, offices, meeting rooms, store rooms, etc.

The hypostyle halls often had a row of clerestory windows around their upper part which admitted some

sunlight during the day. The hypostyle hall at Karnak is probably the most impressive of all the temples

remaining today.

Egyptian columns imitated bundled papyrus reeds growing along the banks of the Nile. The cylindrically

shaped columns similarly replicated the palm, the lotus, or papyrus forms with the capital representing

the appropriate plant head. This decorative motif probably came about because the prehistoric and

archaic Egyptian temples had supporting columns fabricated from reeds gathered together in bundles.

When stone became the building material of choice, the architects copied the earlier form, much the

same way the latter potters copied the earlier stone vessels. Occasionally, some temples were flooded so

deeply during the annual inundation, their hypostyle halls looked like papyrus thickets.

Surrounding each temple complex was a temenos wall which enclosed a miniature city led by a head priest.

He supervised a corps of priests who in turn supervised the laborers and artisans who toiled in the service

of the god. A sacred lake was also situated in the enclosure and was used in monthly or annual services to

the deity.

39393939.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION O16:O16:O16:O16: GATEWAY GATEWAY GATEWAY GATEWAY (?)(?)(?)(?) SURMOUNTED BY PROTE SURMOUNTED BY PROTE SURMOUNTED BY PROTE SURMOUNTED BY PROTECTING SERPENTSCTING SERPENTSCTING SERPENTSCTING SERPENTS.... Logo/det. in

t3ytt3ytt3ytt3yt, "curtain". Semi-logo. in t3ytyt3ytyt3ytyt3yty, "he of the curtain. Also a sign for the vizier. W23:W23:W23:W23: JAR WITH HANDLES FORJAR WITH HANDLES FORJAR WITH HANDLES FORJAR WITH HANDLES FOR LIQUIDS LIQUIDS LIQUIDS LIQUIDS.... Used as W22, but not specially in connection

with beer, as in ḳḳḳḳrrrrḥḥḥḥtttt, "vessel"; wrwrwrwrḫḫḫḫ, "anoint".

6 Note the statues in the rear of the Holy-of-Holies in Fig. 39.4-3.


207



208

Chapter 40

THE PASSIVE VOICETHE PASSIVE VOICETHE PASSIVE VOICETHE PASSIVE VOICE 40404040.1 .1 .1 .1 THE PASSIVE VOICE ITHE PASSIVE VOICE ITHE PASSIVE VOICE ITHE PASSIVE VOICE IS EXPRESSED WHEN AN S EXPRESSED WHEN AN S EXPRESSED WHEN AN S EXPRESSED WHEN AN ACTION IS PACTION IS PACTION IS PACTION IS PEEEERRRRFORMED UPON FORMED UPON FORMED UPON FORMED UPON AAAA SUBJECT OR SUBJECT OR SUBJECT OR SUBJECT OR

WHEN THE SUBJECT IS WHEN THE SUBJECT IS WHEN THE SUBJECT IS WHEN THE SUBJECT IS THE THE THE THE RESULT OF AN ACTION:RESULT OF AN ACTION:RESULT OF AN ACTION:RESULT OF AN ACTION:

The ball was thrown by the boy. <subject> <verb> <agent>

In the illustration above, "the boy" is referred to as "the agent". If instead, something inanimate

performs the action of the verb, e.g. "The ball was hit by the bat.", then the bat is referred to as "the

instrument". Note that agents and instruments are usually preceded by the preposition "by".

Passives may omit the agent or instrument altogether, e.g. "The window was broken." Egyptian also had agentless/instrumentless passives.

Passives in English are constructed with a form of the verb "to be" followed by the past participle:

The ship was sailed by an excellent captain. <subject> <"be" + pp.> <agent>

The verb "sail" is expressed as a past participle, "was sailed", and the subject "ship", is acted upon by the

verb.

In Egyptian, the passive is not expressed in this manner. One way in which the passive is expressed is by

the insertion of the indefinite pronoun, twtwtwtw, "one", between the verb and the subject:

FFFFOR PRONOUN SUBJECTSOR PRONOUN SUBJECTSOR PRONOUN SUBJECTSOR PRONOUN SUBJECTS:::: ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff or ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff , and

FFFFOR NOUN SUBJECTSOR NOUN SUBJECTSOR NOUN SUBJECTSOR NOUN SUBJECTS:::: ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw ššššssss or ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅tw tw tw tw ššššssss.

Often the passive suffix was not written but simply tttt((((wwww)))).

Agents in Egyptian were preceded by the preposition (sometimes by ) ììììnnnn, "by (someone)".

Instruments were preceded by the preposition mmmm, "by" or "with (something)", or ḫḫḫḫrrrr, "with (something)". ḫḫḫḫrrrr was also used to introduce an agent.

A. AN ADVERBIAL CLAUA. AN ADVERBIAL CLAUA. AN ADVERBIAL CLAUA. AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE MAY FOLLOW A PASSSE MAY FOLLOW A PASSSE MAY FOLLOW A PASSSE MAY FOLLOW A PASSIVE IVE IVE IVE VERB:VERB:VERB:VERB: Mistakes were made when the program was written. <subject> <"be" + pp.> <-----adverbial clause----->

B. A NOUN CLAUSE MAYB. A NOUN CLAUSE MAYB. A NOUN CLAUSE MAYB. A NOUN CLAUSE MAY PRECED PRECED PRECED PRECEDEEEE A PASSIVE VERB: A PASSIVE VERB: A PASSIVE VERB: A PASSIVE VERB:

That the general died was concealed by the officer. <noun clause = subj.> <"be" + pp.> <---agent--->


209

40.240.240.240.2 EXAMPLES OF THE PASSEXAMPLES OF THE PASSEXAMPLES OF THE PASSEXAMPLES OF THE PASSIVEIVEIVEIVE

A. PARADIGM FOR THE A. PARADIGM FOR THE A. PARADIGM FOR THE A. PARADIGM FOR THE ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff PASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECT SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE 1st1st1st1st ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì I am heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk You are heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ

3rd3rd3rd3rd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff He/She/It is heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL PLURAL MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE 1st1st1st1st ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn We are heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn 2nd2nd2nd2nd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn You are heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn 3rd3rd3rd3rd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn They are heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn

B. PARADIGM FORB. PARADIGM FORB. PARADIGM FORB. PARADIGM FOR THE THE THE THE ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff PASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOPASSIVE WITH A PRONOUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECTUN SUBJECT SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE 1st1st1st1st ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì I was heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì 2nd2nd2nd2nd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk You were heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ 3rd3rd3rd3rd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff He/She/It was heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn ⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL MASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINEMASCULINE FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE 1st1st1st1st ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn We were heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn 2nd2nd2nd2nd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn You were heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn 3rd3rd3rd3rd ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn They were heard ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw⋅⋅⋅⋅snsnsnsn


210

CCCC.... PARADIGM FOR THE PARADIGM FOR THE PARADIGM FOR THE PARADIGM FOR THE ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN SUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECT ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅twtwtwtw ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw m33m33m33m33 ⋅⋅⋅⋅tw stw stw stw s The voice is heard. The man is seen.

wwww nnnnmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅tw wtw wtw wtw w nmtnmtnmtnmt ììììṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅tw stw stw stw sḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ r n r n r n r nẖẖẖẖnnnn The food is eaten. The prisoner is taken to Nekhen.

h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅tw tw tw tw ḥḥḥḥmmmm wwww----nnnnṯṯṯṯr r r r r r r r ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr ššššnnnnìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅tw dmtw dmtw dmtw dmìììì The ḥḥḥḥmwmwmwmw----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr priests are sent to the temple. The town is surrounded.

D. PARADIGM FOR THE D. PARADIGM FOR THE D. PARADIGM FOR THE D. PARADIGM FOR THE ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN PASSIVE WITH A NOUN SUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECTSUBJECT ssssḏḏḏḏmmmm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw tw tw tw ḫḫḫḫrwrwrwrw m33m33m33m33⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw stw stw stw s The voice was heard. The man was seen.

wnmwnmwnmwnm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅ttttw w w w wnmtwnmtwnmtwnmt ììììṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw stw stw stw sḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ r n r n r n r nẖẖẖẖnnnn The food was eaten. The prisoner was taken to Nekhen.

h3bh3bh3bh3b⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) t(w) t(w) t(w) ḥḥḥḥmmmm wwww----nnnnṯṯṯṯr r r r r r r r ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr ššššnnnnìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw dmtw dmtw dmtw dmìììì The ḥḥḥḥmmmm wwww----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr priests were sent to the temple. The town was surrounded.

E. PARADIGM FOR THE E. PARADIGM FOR THE E. PARADIGM FOR THE E. PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVE WITH AN AGENPASSIVE WITH AN AGENPASSIVE WITH AN AGENPASSIVE WITH AN AGENTTTT

ììììṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) st(w) st(w) st(w) sḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ ììììnnnn ììììmymymymy----r r r r ššššm'w r nm'w r nm'w r nm'w r nḫḫḫḫnnnn The prisoner was taken by the Overseer of Upper Egypt to Nekhen.

wnmwnmwnmwnm⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw btw btw btw bḥḥḥḥs s s s ììììn snn snn snn sn⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì The calf was eaten by my brother.

F. PARAF. PARAF. PARAF. PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVEDIGM FOR THE PASSIVEDIGM FOR THE PASSIVEDIGM FOR THE PASSIVE WITH AN INSTRUMENT WITH AN INSTRUMENT WITH AN INSTRUMENT WITH AN INSTRUMENT

ììììṯṯṯṯ⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅tw stw stw stw sḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ m dpt r n m dpt r n m dpt r n m dpt r nḫḫḫḫnnnn The prisoner was taken by boat to Nekhen.

ẖẖẖẖdbdbdbdb⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) bt(w) bt(w) bt(w) bḥḥḥḥs m s m s m s m ššššsrsrsrsr The calf was killed by the arrow.


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GGGG. PARADIGM FOR THE P. PARADIGM FOR THE P. PARADIGM FOR THE P. PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVE WITH AASSIVE WITH AASSIVE WITH AASSIVE WITH A NOUN CLAUSE NOUN CLAUSE NOUN CLAUSE NOUN CLAUSE rdIrdIrdIrdI⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) 't(w) 't(w) 't(w) 'ḳḳḳḳ⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì r r r r ḥḥḥḥwtwtwtwt----nnnnṯṯṯṯrrrr [That] I entered the temple was allowed.

rdrdrdrdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) t(w) t(w) t(w) ìììì wt wt wt wt [[[[ḥḥḥḥ3ty3ty3ty3ty----'''' ]]]] smr w'ty smr w'ty smr w'ty smr w'ty ììììmymymymy----r prwy r prwy r prwy r prwy ḳḳḳḳbb(wy) bb(wy) bb(wy) bb(wy) ḫḫḫḫnwnwnwnwìììì m m m m ḫḫḫḫsfsfsfsf⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì One, [i.e. the king], caused the coming of the prince, unique friend, overseer of the two slaughter houses, Khuni, to meet me.1111

ššššnnnnìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) t(w) t(w) t(w) ḫḫḫḫtttt m m m m ììììptptptpt----nsw r nsw r nsw r nsw r ḥḥḥḥmtmtmtmt----nsw m snsw m snsw m snsw m sššššt3t3t3t3 Proceeding were instituted in the royal apartments against the queen in secret.2222

40.3 COMMENTARY40.3 COMMENTARY40.3 COMMENTARY40.3 COMMENTARY AAAA:::: In Egyptian, a noun clause after the passive form of the verb rrrr ddddìììì, usually is translated "cause". In such cases it was a common way to express an action of the king, the translation beginning, "One, [i.e. the king],

caused .....". The words "the king" are enclosed in [ ] to indicate that they do not appear in the

Egyptian sentence.

BBBB:::: Note in the passive the masculine and feminine plural suffix pronouns are identical.

CCCC:::: In the sentence "The house is built, lit. 'made', by my father.", note the omission of the a

common Egyptian practice when writing the passive form in the second example below:

(1) ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅tw pr tw pr tw pr tw pr ììììn n n n ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì (2) ììììrrrr⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w) pr t(w) pr t(w) pr t(w) pr ììììn n n n ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì If the second sentence had been in a descriptive heading over a tomb wall drawing rather than in a

written document, the "it" could also be transliterated as ììììrt pr rt pr rt pr rt pr ììììn n n n ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì and translated as "Making the

house by my father.", with ììììrtrtrtrt being the infinitive of the third weak verb ììììrrrrìììì. As mentioned earlier, context is always important when translating an ancient text. DDDD:::: An example of the omission of the wwww in the passive is taken from TTTTHE HE HE HE SSSSHIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED HIPWRECKED SSSSAILORAILORAILORAILOR, lines 14-15:

, You shall answer when you are questioned. wwwwššššbbbb⋅⋅⋅⋅k wk wk wk wššššdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅t(w)t(w)t(w)t(w)⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk

EEEE:::: "Prisoner", ssssḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ, is lit. "to be smitten alive".

FFFF:::: Note that ḳḳḳḳbbbbbbbb, "cool", appears in the place name, ḳḳḳḳbbwy prwybbwy prwybbwy prwybbwy prwy, "the two slaughter houses", lit. "the two cool houses". Alternatively, they might have been meat storage houses.

1 Adapted from Urk. I, 127/13. 2 Ibid. 100/13.


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MAP 40.4MAP 40.4MAP 40.4MAP 40.4----1. SITES MENTIONED 1. SITES MENTIONED 1. SITES MENTIONED 1. SITES MENTIONED ININININ §40.4§40.4§40.4§40.4....

40404040....4444 THE GREEKS IN EGYPTTHE GREEKS IN EGYPTTHE GREEKS IN EGYPTTHE GREEKS IN EGYPT

Probably the earliest Greek reference to Egypt is in the IIIILIADLIADLIADLIAD of Homer, where in Book IX, 381 is found,

"... all that is brought in to Thebes of Egypt, where the greatest possessions lie up in the houses,

Thebes of the hundred gates, where through each of the gates two hundred fighting men come

forth to war with horses and chariots ...".3333

During Dynasty 26 (664-525),4444 Greek mercenary soldiers served the pharaohs in fighting against the

Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In the eastern Delta at the fortress of Defenneh, called Daphnae

by the Greeks, Wahibre Psammetichus I5555 (26-1, 664-610)

settled those Greeks who had helped him to unify Egypt after

his expulsion of the Assyrian king, Ashurbannipal (668-626).

Greek soldiers were known to have fought for Psammetichus

II (26-3, 595-589) in an Ethiopian campaign. Under

Khnemibre Amosis6666 (26-5, 570-526), the Greeks were

permitted to establish a trading colony at Naucratis on the

western edge of the Delta. The colony consisted primarily

of Greeks from the Asiatic coast of the Aegean Sea and they

conducted an extensive trade between Egypt and their

mother cities. Greek mercenary soldiers also served the

kings of Dynasty 29 (399-380) and of Dynasty 30 (380-342),

prior to the 2nd Persian conquest of Artaxerxes III in 342

BCE.

The often quoted expression, "Egypt is the gift of the

Nile",7777 was first written by Herodotus. Until the arrival of

Alexander the Great in 332, the description of Egypt by

Herodotus remained the standard for the Greek world.

Within a century after the death of Herodotus, a king of

Macedon, Philip II (c. 359-336) had conquered all of Greece.

It remained for his son and successor, Alexander (336-323) to

conquer the Persian Empire. In his final campaign southward on

3 Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer, p. 208. 4 Based in Sais in the western Delta, the period is called "The Saite Era". 5 Also known as Psamtik I, first king of the Saite Dynasty, he reunified Egypt by pushing the Libyans westward, the Nubians southward, establishing his control over Lower Egypt, and expanding his frontier in the northeast as well. 6 He was called Amasis by the Greeks. 7 The actual quote from Book II,5 is that it is "the gift of the river".


213

FIGFIGFIGFIG.... 40.440.440.440.4----1.1.1.1. BUST OF PTOLEMY I BUST OF PTOLEMY I BUST OF PTOLEMY I BUST OF PTOLEMY I ((((PTPTPTPT----1,1,1,1, 305305305305----282)282)282)282) AS PHARAOH AS PHARAOH AS PHARAOH AS PHARAOH....

the eastern Mediterranean littoral, Alexander wrested Egypt from its Persian domination. He founded

the city of Alexandria in c. 332 BCE on the Mediterranean coast at the western edge of the Nile delta,

before journeying to the Oasis of Siwa , some 500 km. west of the Nile in the western desert. There he

received an oracle from the god in the temple of Amun that he was indeed the god's son and therefore

the legitimate pharaoh of Egypt. In Memphis, he sacrificed to the sacred Apis bull in order to

consolidate his spiritual hold over Egypt.

Alexander then turned his attention eastward in order to attack Persia and in 331 decisively routed

Darius III (336-332) at the battle of Arbela in Assyria. From then until his death in 323, he never

returned to Egypt, although he was worshipped there as pharaoh and god. He was buried in Memphis and

later reburied in Alexandria.


214

While nominally governed from Macedon, Alexander's empire quickly fell into a chaotic period after his

death as various individuals and groups attempted to seize control. During this anarchy, one of

Alexander's trusted generals, Ptolemy, ruled Egypt, first as a satrap (continuing the Persian system of

provincial rule), and in 305 declared himself as an independent ruler and king under the name Ptolemy I

Soter. The twenty-one Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt were: Ptolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic Dynasty

8888 304304304304----30303030 PTPTPTPT----1 1 1 1 Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior")Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior")Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior")Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") 305305305305----282282282282 PTPTPTPT----2 2 2 2 Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving")Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving")Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving")Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving") 285285285285----246246246246 PTPTPTPT----3 3 3 3 Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy III Euergetes I ("Benefactor")I ("Benefactor")I ("Benefactor")I ("Benefactor")

9999 246246246246----222222222222 PTPTPTPT----4 4 4 4 Ptolemy IV Philopator ("FatherPtolemy IV Philopator ("FatherPtolemy IV Philopator ("FatherPtolemy IV Philopator ("Father----Loving")Loving")Loving")Loving") 222222222222----205205205205 PTPTPTPT----5 5 5 5 Ptolemy V Epiphanes ("GodPtolemy V Epiphanes ("GodPtolemy V Epiphanes ("GodPtolemy V Epiphanes ("God----manifest")manifest")manifest")manifest") 204204204204----180180180180 PTPTPTPT----6 6 6 6 Ptolemy VI Philometor ("MotherPtolemy VI Philometor ("MotherPtolemy VI Philometor ("MotherPtolemy VI Philometor ("Mother----loving")loving")loving")loving") 180180180180----164, 145164, 145164, 145164, 145----145145145145 PTPTPTPT----7 7 7 7 Cleopatra IICleopatra IICleopatra IICleopatra II 176176176176----164 Queen164 Queen164 Queen164 Queen PTPTPTPT----8 8 8 8 Ptolemy VII Neos PhilopatorPtolemy VII Neos PhilopatorPtolemy VII Neos PhilopatorPtolemy VII Neos Philopator 145145145145----145145145145 PTPTPTPT----9 9 9 9 Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly")Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly")Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly")Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly") 145145145145----116116116116 PT10 PT10 PT10 PT10 Ptolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("ChickPtolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("ChickPtolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("ChickPtolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("Chick----pea")pea")pea")pea") 115115115115----110, 108110, 108110, 108110, 108----107, 88107, 88107, 88107, 88----80808080 PTPTPTPT----11111111 Cleopatra IIICleopatra IIICleopatra IIICleopatra III 115115115115----101 Queen101 Queen101 Queen101 Queen PTPTPTPT----12121212 PtolPtolPtolPtolemy X Alexander Iemy X Alexander Iemy X Alexander Iemy X Alexander I 110110110110----108, 107108, 107108, 107108, 107----88888888 PTPTPTPT----13131313 Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious")Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious")Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious")Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious") 107107107107----80 Queen80 Queen80 Queen80 Queen PTPTPTPT----14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80808080----80808080 PTPTPTPT----15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper")15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper")15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper")15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper") 80808080----58, 5558, 5558, 5558, 55----51515151 PTPTPTPT----16 Berenike IV16 Berenike IV16 Berenike IV16 Berenike IV 57575757----55 Queen55 Queen55 Queen55 Queen PTPTPTPT----17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ("Luxurious"17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ("Luxurious"17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ("Luxurious"17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ("Luxurious" 57575757----57 Queen57 Queen57 Queen57 Queen PTPTPTPT----18 Cleopatra VII Philopator18 Cleopatra VII Philopator18 Cleopatra VII Philopator18 Cleopatra VII Philopator 51515151----30 Queen30 Queen30 Queen30 Queen PTPTPTPT----19 Ptolemy XIII19 Ptolemy XIII19 Ptolemy XIII19 Ptolemy XIII 51515151----47474747 PTPTPTPT----20 Ptolemy XIV20 Ptolemy XIV20 Ptolemy XIV20 Ptolemy XIV 47474747----42424242 PTPTPTPT----21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion 42424242----41, 3641, 3641, 3641, 36----30303030 The familial harmony of the Ptolemies towards their immediate family and the people they governed was The familial harmony of the Ptolemies towards their immediate family and the people they governed was The familial harmony of the Ptolemies towards their immediate family and the people they governed was The familial harmony of the Ptolemies towards their immediate family and the people they governed was expressed in the cultexpressed in the cultexpressed in the cultexpressed in the cult----names under which they were worshipped:names under which they were worshipped:names under which they were worshipped:names under which they were worshipped: Berenike ("Victorious"), Epiphanes ("GodBerenike ("Victorious"), Epiphanes ("GodBerenike ("Victorious"), Epiphanes ("GodBerenike ("Victorious"), Epiphanes ("God----manifest"), Euergetes ("Benefactor"), Philadelmanifest"), Euergetes ("Benefactor"), Philadelmanifest"), Euergetes ("Benefactor"), Philadelmanifest"), Euergetes ("Benefactor"), Philadelphus ("Brother/ Sisterphus ("Brother/ Sisterphus ("Brother/ Sisterphus ("Brother/ Sister----loving"), Philometor ("Motherloving"), Philometor ("Motherloving"), Philometor ("Motherloving"), Philometor ("Mother----loving"), Philopator ("Fatherloving"), Philopator ("Fatherloving"), Philopator ("Fatherloving"), Philopator ("Father----loving"), and Soter ("Savior");loving"), and Soter ("Savior");loving"), and Soter ("Savior");loving"), and Soter ("Savior"); and in their nicknames:and in their nicknames:and in their nicknames:and in their nicknames: Auletes ("Flute Player" or "Piper"), Lathyros ("ChickAuletes ("Flute Player" or "Piper"), Lathyros ("ChickAuletes ("Flute Player" or "Piper"), Lathyros ("ChickAuletes ("Flute Player" or "Piper"), Lathyros ("Chick----pea"), Neos Dionysos ("The New Dionysos", pea"), Neos Dionysos ("The New Dionysos", pea"), Neos Dionysos ("The New Dionysos", pea"), Neos Dionysos ("The New Dionysos", i.e.i.e.i.e.i.e. the god of the god of the god of the god of winewinewinewine and debauchery), Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Fatty", as he was overly corpulent), and Tryphaena and debauchery), Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Fatty", as he was overly corpulent), and Tryphaena and debauchery), Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Fatty", as he was overly corpulent), and Tryphaena and debauchery), Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Fatty", as he was overly corpulent), and Tryphaena ("Luxurious").("Luxurious").("Luxurious").("Luxurious").

With the accession of Ptolemy I Soter (PT-1, 305-282), Alexandria was firmly established as the capital

of Egypt. Under his rule, Egypt developed a large commercial presence in the eastern Mediterranean as

he extended his rule to Cyrene (eastern modern Libya), Crete, and Cyprus. During his reign, the world

famous library10101010 and museum at Alexandria was created, and the city's fame as a center of learning

8 Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs, pp. 236-7. The Roman numerals after the names are modern scholar's designations used to identify the various rulers of this dynasty. 9 His wife, Berenike, was reputed to have promised the Greek goddess Aphrodite that if her husband won an impending battle, she would cut off her beautiful long tresses. When Ptolemy III returned home victorious, according to the legend, she cut off her hair and laid it on the altar in the temple to Aphrodite. She is the only historical figure to have a constellation named for her. Coma Berenices, "Berenices's Hair", is a constellation estimated to be 370 million light-years from earth and represents the hair she had trimmed off. 10 In 2003, a modern library was inaugurated near the spot where the ancient library existed. It is the goal of this institution to digitize the ancient texts in its collection for easy access by scholars and general public.


215

began, continuing well past the Arab conquest in 642 CE. Ptolemy I Soter encouraged Greek, as well as

other foreign soldiers, to settle in Egypt. They formed a solid corps of supporters upon which his power

base rested. At the same time, construction of the lighthouse at Alexandria on the island of Pharaos, one

of the Seven Wonders11111111 of the ancient world, was begun. After his death, in keeping with the ancient

Egyptian tradition, he was deified, as was his wife, Berenike.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus (PT-2, 285-246), a son of Ptolemy I Soter, married his sister, Arsinoe II

Philadelphus.12121212 They were both deified in 271 BCE, even though they were both still alive. The

Alexandrian lighthouse, over 130 meters high, was completed during his kingship and was still in use 1,500

years later. Part of its base still remains today as the Qeit bey Fort in Alexandria harbor. Ptolemy II

Philadelphus reestablished Egyptian rule over Nubia and attempted to expand his hegemony over Syria.

Many Greek and Macedonian soldiers and their families were settled in the Faiyum during his reign. One

of his public works was the restoration of Nile-Red Sea canal, which ran some 85 km. northwards from

what is today the city of Suez to a branch of the Nile. Ptolemy III Euergetes (PT-3, 246-222) sent his

army on campaign in western Asia in order to retrieve the tribute sent to Persia by Darius III (31-3, 336-

332) during the Second Persian Period of 343-332.

Ptolemy III restored to Egypt the statues of the gods sent to Persia and in the course of his reign built

many temples. It is believed that he undertook this building program to assuage the increasing

restlessness among the native Egyptians. The maximum extent of Ptolemaic power occurred during his

reign and that of his successor, Ptolemy IV (PT-4, 222-205), when they exercised control of almost the

entire southern Mediterranean from Cyrenaica (modern eastern Libya) as far west as Tripoli, and in the

eastern Mediterranean to Byblos in The Lebanon including the island of Cyprus, and the adjoining southern

coast of what is now Turkey.

The reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator marked a turning point in the Ptolemaic rule over Egypt, when the

Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (223-187) attacked Egypt in 217 BCE. Antiochus was also descended from

one of Alexander's generals and ruled an empire stretching from Macedonia to India. In the battle of

Raphia,13131313 Ptolemy was just barely victorious because of the support of his Egyptian units after the Greek

portion of his army was in retreat. From that moment on, the native population became increasingly

influential in the Ptolemaic state.

11 See §11.4, fn. 4, for the complete list. 12 Called "Philadelphus" because of their relationship as brother-sister and husband-wife. 13 The two armies, totaling over 110,000 men, met a little south of Gaza on June 22, 217 BCE at the town of Raphia. This was the first time a Ptolemaic army had incorporated and utilized native Egyptian soldiers. After Ptolemy's Greek soldiers and mercenaries had been routed, these Egyptian troops overwhelmed the Greco-Macedonian center of the army of Antiochus III, snatching victory from defeat for the Ptolemaic army.


216

FIG. 40.4FIG. 40.4FIG. 40.4FIG. 40.4----2222. ANCIENT MEDICAL I. ANCIENT MEDICAL I. ANCIENT MEDICAL I. ANCIENT MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS PORTRAYEDNSTRUMENTS PORTRAYEDNSTRUMENTS PORTRAYEDNSTRUMENTS PORTRAYED ON THE NORTHEAST OU ON THE NORTHEAST OU ON THE NORTHEAST OU ON THE NORTHEAST OUTER TER TER TER CORRIDOR WALLCORRIDOR WALLCORRIDOR WALLCORRIDOR WALL OF THE PTOLEMAIC OF THE PTOLEMAIC OF THE PTOLEMAIC OF THE PTOLEMAIC----ROMAN TEMPLE AT KOM ROMAN TEMPLE AT KOM ROMAN TEMPLE AT KOM ROMAN TEMPLE AT KOM OMBO, 1984.OMBO, 1984.OMBO, 1984.OMBO, 1984. THIS THIS THIS THIS TEMPLE OF SOBEK AND TEMPLE OF SOBEK AND TEMPLE OF SOBEK AND TEMPLE OF SOBEK AND HORUS WAS VISITED HORUS WAS VISITED HORUS WAS VISITED HORUS WAS VISITED BY MANY PILGRIMS BY MANY PILGRIMS BY MANY PILGRIMS BY MANY PILGRIMS SEEKING MEDICAL TREASEEKING MEDICAL TREASEEKING MEDICAL TREASEEKING MEDICAL TREATMENT FROM TTMENT FROM TTMENT FROM TTMENT FROM THHHHE E E E TEMPLE TEMPLE TEMPLE TEMPLE PRIESTPRIESTPRIESTPRIESTS.S.S.S.

Ptolemy V (PT-5, 204-180) came to the throne as an infant and was dominated by the regents who

governed Egypt in his name. The Rosetta Stone contains one of his decrees, issued in 196 BCE, granting

concessions to the priests. The temple of Sobek and Horus at Kom Ombo, one of the best surviving

Egyptian temples, was completed by troops stationed there during his reign.

The concluding years of the Ptolemaic Period were ones of turmoil both within Egypt and in the Roman

Empire. Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes (PT-15, 80-58, 55-51) was supported on his throne by the

Romans as they extended their influence in Africa. He died in exile in Rome, and by the terms of his will,

his daughter, Cleopatra VII Philopator14141414 (PT-18, 51-30), was named to the throne as co-regent with her

younger brother, Ptolemy XIII (PT-19, 51-47), then about ten years old. She was to prove a most

resourceful ruler, who could boast that she, unlike any other ruler of her dynasty, could actually speak

Egyptian. Around 49 BCE, the guardians of Ptolemy XIII drove Cleopatra from the throne. When Julius

Caesar (c. 100-44) arrived in Egypt in 48 BCE in pursuit of Pompey15151515 (106-48) and his army, she fell in love

with Caesar. Caesar's legions made short work of Ptolemy XIII's supporters and Ptolemy himself

drowned while trying to escape the legions. Cleopatra's younger brother, Ptolemy XIV (PT-20, 47-42)

was then installed as her co-ruler. She traveled with Caesar to Rome in 46 and stayed there until his

14 Known to the public at large as the one and only Cleopatra. 15 Pompey and Caesar were contenders in a civil war, the victor to rule the Roman Empire. Pompey was assassinated by two Roman soldiers in the employ of Ptolemy XIII.


217

assassination in 44. Returning to Egypt, she had her younger brother killed and installed her son by

Caesar, Caesarion, as Ptolemy XV (PT-21, 42-41, 36-30). She supported Antony in his war against

Octavian (the future emperor Augustus). After the defeat of the combined forces of Antony and

Cleopatra at the naval battle at Actium on the west coast of Greece in 31 BCE, she and Antony fled to

Egypt. Octavian pursued them and upon his arrival in Egypt, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra then

tried to ingratiate herself with Octavian, but to no avail. She, too, committed suicide on August 12, 30

BCE and shortly afterwards Octavian had Ptolemy XV executed in order to prevent his claim to the Roman

Empire as Caesar's son and heir.

Under the Ptolemies, Egypt knew relative peace and security. During this period, Alexandria became the

cultural capital of the ancient world. The arts and sciences flourished and the city became known as a

great religious center. Trade and agriculture prospered to such an extent that the country became the

primary grain producer in the Roman Empire, feeding the city of Rome for centuries. Major public works

of the Ptolemies, in addition to those previously mentioned, included: the temples of Isis and Hathor on

Philae Island at Aswan; the addition of the propylons of the great religious complex at the Karnak temple

in Luxor, and the major temples at Edfu, Kom Ombo, and Alexandria.

So ended 3,000 years of Egyptian dynastic rule.

40404040.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A13:A13:A13:A13: MAN WITH ARMS TIED BMAN WITH ARMS TIED BMAN WITH ARMS TIED BMAN WITH ARMS TIED BEHIND HIS BACKEHIND HIS BACKEHIND HIS BACKEHIND HIS BACK.... Det. in ḫḫḫḫftyftyftyfty, "enemy";

sbsbsbsbìììì, "rebel"; ssssḳḳḳḳrrrr----'n'n'n'nḫḫḫḫ, "prisoner". E3:E3:E3:E3: CALF.CALF.CALF.CALF. Logo. in bbbbḥḥḥḥssss, "calf"; wnwnwnwnḏḏḏḏwwww, "short horned cattle", "calf", "goat", etc. F18:F18:F18:F18: bbbbḥḥḥḥ ELEPHANELEPHANELEPHANELEPHANT TUSKT TUSKT TUSKT TUSK.... Det. in , ììììbbbbḥḥḥḥ, "tooth"; sbtsbtsbtsbt, "laugh".

Phon. det. in sbsbsbsbḥḥḥḥ, "cry". F27:F27:F27:F27: COWCOWCOWCOW''''S SKINS SKINS SKINS SKIN.... Det in ddddḥḥḥḥrrrr, "leather", "hide"; msk3msk3msk3msk3, "skin";

wnwnwnwnšššš, "wolf"; pnwpnwpnwpnw, "mouse". F30:F30:F30:F30: ššššdddd WATERWATERWATERWATER----SKINSKINSKINSKIN.... Det. in ššššdwdwdwdw, "water-skin". Phon. in wwwwššššdddd, "address" (someone), "question". G35:G35:G35:G35: ''''ḳḳḳḳ CORMORANTCORMORANTCORMORANTCORMORANT.... Phon. in ''''ḳḳḳḳ , "enter"; 'ḳḳḳḳwwww, "income", "revenues", "provisions".


218

40404040.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF S.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTEREDIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN T SIGN T SIGN T SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION M42:M42:M42:M42: wn wn wn wn FLOWER FLOWER FLOWER FLOWER (?).(?).(?).(?). Phon. in wnwnwnwnḏḏḏḏwwww, "short-horned cattle"; ḥḥḥḥwnwnwnwn, "be

young"; wnmwnmwnmwnm, "eat". N42:N42:N42:N42: ḥḥḥḥmmmm WELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATERWELL FULL OF WATER.... Use as N41. T11:T11:T11:T11: ARROWARROWARROWARROW.... Det. in ššššsrsrsrsr, "arrow". V6:V6:V6:V6: ššššssss LOOPED CORDLOOPED CORDLOOPED CORDLOOPED CORD.... Logo. in ššššssss, "cord", "rope". Phon. det. in ššššssss, "alabaster". AAAAaaaa7:7:7:7: OBJECT IN DOUBT OBJECT IN DOUBT OBJECT IN DOUBT OBJECT IN DOUBT ((((IN DYNASTY IN DYNASTY IN DYNASTY IN DYNASTY 18181818 ((((1567156715671567----1085)1085)1085)1085) OFTEN REVERSED OFTEN REVERSED OFTEN REVERSED OFTEN REVERSED ).).).). Det. in

ssssḳḳḳḳrrrr, "smite".



Appendices


A-1

APPENDIX A

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONLIST OF ABBREVIATIONLIST OF ABBREVIATIONLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSSSS AÄG Altägyptische Grammatik abbr. abbreviated, abbreviation adj. adjective adv. adverb AJA American Journal of Archaeology aka also known as ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts by J.B. Pritchard AnOr Analecta Orientalia AR, ARE Ancient Records of Egypt, by J.H. Breasted aux. vb. auxiliary verb BACE Bulletin of the Australian Center of Egyptology BAR Biblical Archaeological Review BCE Before the Common Era BES Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar BM British Museum BP Before the Present c. common gender c., ca. about (from the Latin circa) CAH3 Cambridge Ancient History, 3rd Edition caus. causative CDME A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian by R.O, Faulkner CE Common Era cf. compare (from the Latin confer) CM Cairo Museum coll. collective comp. compound conj. conjunction CT Coffin Texts d. deity, divinity dep. pn. dependent pronoun det. determinative d.o. direct object Dyn. Dynasty EG 3 Egyptian Grammar, 3rd Edition by A. Gardiner e.g. for example (from the Latin exempli gratia) EM Egyptian Museum encl. part. enclitic particle esp. especially ex(s). example(s) f., fem. feminine ff. folios, (and the) following (pages, verses, etc.) fig. figure FIP First Intermediate Period fl. flourished (from the Latin floruit) fn. footnote foll. followed or following Fs Festschrift


A-2

Geol. Geology GM Göttinger Miszellen gram. grammar or grammatical Ibid. in the same book, chapter, page (from the Latin ibidem) ideo. ideogram i.e. that is (from the Latin id est) imper. imperative imperf. imperfective indep. independent indef. indefinite inf. weak (from the Latin infirma) infin. infinitive interj. interjection interrog. interrogative intrans. intransitive i.o. indirect object JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JEOL Jaarbericht von het Vooraziatish-Egyptisch Genootschap, `Ex Oriente Lux' JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities km. kilometer KMT KMT magazine LDÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie LE Lower Egypt LHAEE La littérature historique sous l'Ancien Empire égyptien lit. literally logo. logogram m. masculine, meter, mile masc. masculine MDAIK Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo MK Middle Kingdom MMA Metropolitan Museum of Art n. noun n.b. note well, take notice (from the Latin nota bene) neg. negative NK New Kingdom n. loc. place name (from the Latin nomen loci) no., nos. number, numbers non-encl. part. non-enclitic particle NSSEA Newsletter of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities obj. object OK Old Kingdom OP Old Perfective op. cit. in the work cited (from the Latin opere citato) Or. Orientalia


A-3

& paragraph p. page P. Papyrus part. participle perf. perfect or perfective pers. person phon. phonetic phon. det. phonetic determinative pl. plural pn. pronoun PN Personal Name poss. possessive pp. pages, past participle pred. predicate prep. preposition PT Pyramid Texts rel. relative RdÉ Revue d'Égyptologie RdSO Revista degli Studi Orientali RN Royal Name ' section, spell, utterance, line SAK Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations scil. namely (from the Latin scire licet) sg. singular sic. so, thus (Latin sic) SIP Second Intermediate Period sq. square SSEA Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities suff. suffix subj. subject TIP Third Intermediate Period trans. transitive UE Upper Egypt UGAÄ Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens Urk. Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums by K. Sethe var. variety, variation vb. verb v.i. verb, intransitive v.t. verb, transitive w/ with Wb. Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde


B-1

APPENDIX B

GLOSSARYGLOSSARYGLOSSARYGLOSSARY addorsedaddorsedaddorsedaddorsed, adj. (of) emblems or figures back to back. adzeadzeadzeadze, n. a tool with a blade (initially of stone, later of metal) that is at right angles to the haft (handle) that was probably used to shape wood. In ancient Egypt the jackal headed deity Wepwawet was represented opening the mouth of the dead monarch with a special ceremonial adze, enabling the deceased to continue his life in the afterworld. AkhAkhAkhAkh, n. an aspect of the individual's personality which emerged upon death to take up residence in the sky, see '24.4. androgynousandrogynousandrogynousandrogynous, adj. being both male and female, hermaphroditic. anthropomorphicanthropomorphicanthropomorphicanthropomorphic, adj. 1. ascribing human form or attributes to a being or a thing not human, esp. to a deity, normally in animal form. 2. resembling or made to resemble a human form. apologueapologueapologueapologue, n. an allegorical narrative usually intended to convey a moral. apotropaicapotropaicapotropaicapotropaic, adj. intended to ward off evil. a prioria prioria prioria priori, Latin. from cause to effect; from a general law to a particular instance; valid independently of observation. Lit., "from the one before". Archimedes' ScrewArchimedes' ScrewArchimedes' ScrewArchimedes' Screw, n. a device consisting of a spiral passage within in an inclined cylinder for raising water from a canal or river to the level of a cultivated field. autochthonousautochthonousautochthonousautochthonous, n. native, aboriginal, indigenous, lit., "sprung from the earth". BaBaBaBa, n. one of several spiritual elements of an individual, somewhat akin to our notion of "soul", appearing in the form of a human-headed bird. Logogram for the ba in hieroglyphic form was expressed by Sign G29, , see '24.4. basaltbasaltbasaltbasalt, n. a dark, dense igneous rock, usually black, from a lava flow which was especially favored by the Egyptians for use in stelae. Book of the DeadBook of the DeadBook of the DeadBook of the Dead, a popular phrase given to the papyrus scroll found buried with an Egyptian mummy, derived from the Arabic "Kit ~b al-Mayyit", "The Book of the Dead Man", which was used by the tomb robbers of the 19th Century to describe where these "books" were found. The Egyptians themselves referred to these scrolls by the title "The Book (lit. Spells) of Going Forth by Day". These papyri contained the spells to be uttered by the deceased in the afterlife. boustrophedonboustrophedonboustrophedonboustrophedon, n. a text where the lines run alternately right to left and then left to right. From the Greek "bou" (ox) + "strophe" (a twist, a turning about) + "don" (an adverbial suffix), lit. "like the ox-turning (when plowing a field)". Although Egyptian stelae may have texts in both directions, none are in boustrophedon. burinburinburinburin, n. a prehistoric pointed or chisel like tool made from stone, usually flint. cadastralcadastralcadastralcadastral, adj. of a map or survey showing boundaries or property lines. Canopic jarsCanopic jarsCanopic jarsCanopic jars, the storage containers in which the preserved internal organs of the deceased where stored after removal from the body. The set of four contained the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver.


B-2

cartouchecartouchecartouchecartouche, n. an oval or oblong figure enclosing the name of the sovereign. casus bellicasus bellicasus bellicasus belli, Latin. an event or political occurrence that brings about a declaration of war. catamitecatamitecatamitecatamite, n. a boy kept for the sexual pleasures of an older man. cavetto cornicecavetto cornicecavetto cornicecavetto cornice, a typical Egyptian architectural element consisting of an incurving cornice with stylized palm fronds. cenotaphcenotaphcenotaphcenotaph, n. a sepulchral monument erected in memory of a deceased person whose body is buried elsewhere. ChalChalChalChalcolithiccolithiccolithiccolithic, n. a period during which tools were made of copper concurrently with stone, approximately 3,000-4,000 BCE in the ancient Near East. chertchertchertchert, n. a particularly hard stone that chips easily. Shaped by Stone Age men for use in tools and weapons. chchchchiasticiasticiasticiastic, adj. characterized as a reversal in the order of words in two otherwise parallel phrases as in "He went to the country, to the town went she". chthonicchthonicchthonicchthonic, adj. pertaining to the deities, spirits, and other beings dwelling under the earth. circacircacircacirca, prep., adv. Latin, about, used esp. in approximate dates, abbr. c. or ca. clerestoryclerestoryclerestoryclerestory, n. a portion of an interior rising above adjacent rooftops and having windows admitting daylight to the interior. coevalcoevalcoevalcoeval, adj. of the same age, date, or duration. A synonym for contemporaneous. Coffin textsCoffin textsCoffin textsCoffin texts, the name applied by Egyptologists to the religious spells originally written on the coffin of the deceased pharaoh only (after the Old Kingdom on non-royal coffins as well) which were to insure the safe journey of the ka through the underworld to become one with Osiris. colophoncolophoncolophoncolophon, n. in the Ancient Near East an inscription at the end of a text which might include the title, subject, author, admonition, or curse. In Egypt the custom was that the scribe's name and titles only were given. colossuscolossuscolossuscolossus, n. in Egypt an over life-sized figure of a king or god (or in other cultures occasionally a private individual) which usually stood in front of or inside a temple. corvéecorvéecorvéecorvée, n. French, a conscripted work force. cosmogonycosmogonycosmogonycosmogony, n. a theory or story of the genesis and development of the world and/or the universe. criosphinxcriosphinxcriosphinxcriosphinx, n. a figure with the head of a ram and the body of a lion. cubitcubitcubitcubit, n. a varying measure of length used in the ancient Near East as determined by the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. See '25.4. debendebendebendeben, n. an ancient Egyptian unit of weight approximating 910 grams (2 lbs). de factode factode factode facto, Latin, 1. in fact; in reality; 2. actually existing, esp. when without lawful authority (distinguished from de jure), lit. "from the fact". de jurede jurede jurede jure, Latin, by right, according to law (distinguished from de facto), lit. "from the law".


B-3

deltadeltadeltadelta, n. the nearly flat plain of alluvial deposit between diverging branches of the mouth of a river, often, though not necessarily triangular. Because of its similarity to the shape of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, Δ, delta, the word has been applied to the land created by the river at its discharge into a larger body of water. When capitalized, it refers the delta of the Nile specifically. demiurgedemiurgedemiurgedemiurge, n. in Egyptian religion, a creator or fashioner deity of the cosmos, other deities, mankind, plants, and animals. distichdistichdistichdistich, n. a group of two lines of verse, usually making complete sense; couplet. djed pillardjed pillardjed pillardjed pillar, a hieroglyphic sign, R11, , perhaps representing the spine of Osiris, a symbol of stability and duration. dromosdromosdromosdromos, n. an approach road or causeway to a tomb, monument, or temple. ellipsisellipsisellipsisellipsis, n. the omission from a sentence of a word or words that would complete or clarify the construction. encomiumencomiumencomiumencomium, n. a formal expression of high praise; eulogy. enneadenneadenneadennead, n. a group of nine persons or gods. The Heliopolitan ennead, for example, consisted of Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. entasisentasisentasisentasis, n. a slight convexity given to a column to make its sides appear vertical rather than concave. epagomenal daysepagomenal daysepagomenal daysepagomenal days, days added to the end of a calendar year to bring the total number of days up to 365. Similar to a short intercalary month. eponymeponymeponymeponym, n. 1111. a person, real or imaginary, from whom something, as a tribe, nation, or place, takes or is said to takes its name: Romulus, the supposed founder of Rome, is the eponym of the Romans. 2222. any ancient official whose name was used to designate his year of office, [back formation from eponymous]. eponymic, adj. eponymouseponymouseponymouseponymous, adj. giving one's name to a tribe, nation, place. etc., e.g. Romulus, the eponymous founder of Rome. eschatologyeschatologyeschatologyeschatology, n. any system of doctrines concerning last, or final matters, as death, judgment, the future state, etc. etiologicaletiologicaletiologicaletiological, adj. the causation of a disease, philosophical thought, development of a myth, etc. ex cathedraex cathedraex cathedraex cathedra, Latin, from the seat of authority, with authority, lit. "from the chair". ex officioex officioex officioex officio, Latin, by virtue of office or official position. ex votoex votoex votoex voto, Latin, from a vow, e.g. "O God, if you grant me a son I promise to ...". exempli gratiaexempli gratiaexempli gratiaexempli gratia, Latin, for the sake of example, abbr. e.g. exergueexergueexergueexergue, n. the space below the main sequence of glyphs, sometimes separated by a line. faiencefaiencefaiencefaience, n. quartz paste with vitrified surface. false doorfalse doorfalse doorfalse door, an architectural element (usually found in a tomb) imitating a door through which the deceased could communicate with the world of the living. FestschriftFestschriftFestschriftFestschrift, n. German, a volume of articles, essays, etc. contributed by many authors in honor of a colleague, usually published on the occasion of a retirement, an important anniversary, or the like. floruitfloruitfloruitfloruit, Latin, the period during which a person flourished, esp. when the exact birth and/or death dates are not known, abbr. fl.


B-4

glossglossglossgloss, n. an explanation, by means of a marginal or interlinear note, of a technical or unusual expression in a manuscript text. group writinggroup writinggroup writinggroup writing, biphonic sign used to express uniphonic signs. See §9.5, Sign M8; §31.3. grammargrammargrammargrammar, n. the sounds, morphemes (the minimal grammatical unit of a language, each constituting a word or meaningful part of a word, that cannot be divided into smaller independent grammatical parts, as "the", "write", or the "-ed" of "waited"), words, or sentences and the manner in which they are constructed. hapax legomenonhapax legomenonhapax legomenonhapax legomenon, Greek, a word or phrase which appears only once in all known documents, lit., "something said only once". HebHebHebHeb----SedSedSedSed, the so-called jubilee festival which the king celebrated after thirty years of rule. henotheismhenotheismhenotheismhenotheism, n. 1. the worship of one god as a superior deity in a group of gods, in contrast to monotheism which teaches that only one God exists. 2. ascription of supreme divine attributes to whichever one of several gods is addressed at the time. hermaphroditehermaphroditehermaphroditehermaphrodite, n. 1. being both male and female. 2. combining two opposite qualities. hermetichermetichermetichermetic, adj. made airtight by fusion or sealing. histeron proteronhisteron proteronhisteron proteronhisteron proteron, Greek, a sentence in which the latest action is expressed first and the earlier action expressed last, ex. "This army returned in safety, after it flattened the land of the Sand Dwellers". homonymhomonymhomonymhomonym, n. a word like another in sound and spelling but different in meaning. See §8.3. hypocoristiconhypocoristiconhypocoristiconhypocoristicon, n. a pet name, sometimes in a diminutive form. hypostylehypostylehypostylehypostyle, adj. having many columns supporting the roof or ceiling. Most Egyptian temples, starting with the New Kingdom (1567-1085), contained a hypostyle court. ibidibidibidibidemememem, Latin, in the same book, chapter, page, etc., lit., "there the same", abbr. ibid. iconographyiconographyiconographyiconography, n. a symbolic representation attached to an image, or the usual attributes which accompany the representation of a god, a person, or a thing itself, ex. the goddess Hathor is usually portrayed with a crown composed of a solar disk between her horns and an uraeus. id estid estid estid est, Latin, that is, abbr. i.e. ideogram, n. a hieroglyphic sign which pictorially represents its meaning. in media resin media resin media resin media res, Latin, in the middle of things. ineffableineffableineffableineffable, adj., incapable of being expressed or described. infirmainfirmainfirmainfirma, Latin, weak, abbr. inf. infrainfrainfrainfra, adv. below, esp. when used in referring to parts of text. intercalary monthintercalary monthintercalary monthintercalary month, a month inserted into a year in order to bring the total number of days to 365. ithyphallicithyphallicithyphallicithyphallic, adj. of or pertaining to an erect phallic representation carried in ancient Greek festivals or portrayed in an image, as in the portrayal of the Egyptian god Min.


B-5

KaKaKaKa, one of the several elements constituting both human and divine personality representing the vital force of an individual, often erroneously thought to be the equivalent of a "soul". The hieroglyphic sign, D28, , is a pair of arms uplifted toward the heavens or as if to embrace, see '24.4. kohlkohlkohlkohl, n. a cosmetic usually applied around the eyes. lacunalacunalacunalacuna, n, a gap or missing part, as in a manuscript. lacustrinelacustrinelacustrinelacustrine, adj. of or pertaining to a lake. linlinlinlingua francagua francagua francagua franca, any language that is widely used as a means of communication among speakers of other languages. littorallittorallittorallittoral, adj. pertaining to the shore of a lake, sea, or ocean. logogram,logogram,logogram,logogram, n. a hieroglyphic sign which pictorially represents its meaning. mammammammammasmasmasmas, n. a small chapel attached to a temple as the birthplace of the god. mastabamastabamastabamastaba, n. Arabic, bench. In ancient Egypt, a rectangular tomb with sloping sides and a flat roof, often with subterranean chambers. Common burial monument for the pharaoh's family members and important personages. The name is derived from the similarity to the bench found outside the home of the Egyptian peasant. MesolithicMesolithicMesolithicMesolithic, adj. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of a transitional period of the Stone Age between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic periods. metathesismetathesismetathesismetathesis, n. the transposition of letters, syllables, or sounds in a word, e.g. written "Wednesday" but pronounced "Wednesday", etc. metrological reliefmetrological reliefmetrological reliefmetrological relief, a projection inscribed in stone used as a standard measure. modesmodesmodesmodes, n. a circular base placed upon the head to support a headdress, such as the one usually displayed on the head of the god Amun upon which two feathered plumes were attached. morphememorphememorphememorpheme, n. a minimal grammatical unit of a language. See §7.4, fn. 2. mmmmutatisutatisutatisutatis mutandis mutandis mutandis mutandis, Latin, the necessary changes having been made. nonporousnonporousnonporousnonporous statue statue statue statue, a statue placed in temples beginning in the New Kingdom consisting of a donor holding a small naos with a deity represented within it, thereby placing the donor under that god's protection. naosnaosnaosnaos, n. a small inner sanctum, sanctuary, or chapel, a holy of holies, usually used for a divine statue in Egypt. nenenene plus ultra plus ultra plus ultra plus ultra, Latin, to the ultimate, lit. "not more beyond". nilometernilometernilometernilometer, n. a structure with inscribed walls in the Nile river bank which measured the rise in the level of the river during the yearly inundation. The high water mark was an indication of the size of the harvest to be expected. nolo me tangerenolo me tangerenolo me tangerenolo me tangere, Latin, one who or that which must not be touched, lit. "do not touch me". nomarchnomarchnomarchnomarch, n. governor of a nome. nomenomenomenome, n. adapted from the Greek for "pasture", an administrative district, analogous to a province or state. nominalizenominalizenominalizenominalize, v. to convert (another part of speech) into a noun. See §8.3.


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obeliskobeliskobeliskobelisk, n. a tapering, four-sided shaft of stone, usually monolithic, and having a pyramidal apex. Expressed in hieroglyphics as Sign O25, . obverseobverseobverseobverse, n. the side of a stele that bears the principal design (opposed to reverse). ogdoadogdoadogdoadogdoad, n. a group of eight gods. The Hermopolitan ogdoad consists of Nun and Nunet, Heh and Hehet, Kek and Keket, and Amun and Amunet. onomasticononomasticononomasticononomasticon, n. a study of the origin and history of proper nouns, in Egyptology a list of nouns or names. opere citatoopere citatoopere citatoopere citato, Latin, in the work cited, abbr. op. cit. optaoptaoptaoptativetivetivetive, adj. of or pertaining to a verb mood that expresses a wish. orthographyorthographyorthographyorthography, n. writing words with the proper letters, according to accepted usage; usually in the sense of correct spelling. ostraconostraconostraconostracon, n. in ancient Greece, a potsherd, esp. one used as a ballot on which the name of the person voted to be ostracized (excluded or banished from the community) was inscribed. ouroborosouroborosouroborosouroboros, Greek, a figure of a serpent devouring its own tail, occasionally seen as a decorative motif. palanquinpalanquinpalanquinpalanquin, n. a seat on two or more poles, which rest upon the shoulders of several men, upon which an individual might be carried, sometimes the seat being enclosed in small box. palimpsestpalimpsestpalimpsestpalimpsest, n. a reused document. In Egypt, usually a papyrus which has had the original writing removed so that it might be employed again. Faint traces of the original writing may often be seen underlaying the new inscription. Greek, lit., "scraped again". pantheonpantheonpantheonpantheon, n. the gods of a particular mythology considered collectively. paradigmparadigmparadigmparadigm, n. a set of forms all of which contain a particular element, esp. the set of all inflected forms based on a single stem or theme. passimpassimpassimpassim, Latin, here and there, used to indicate the repetition of an idea, phrase, etc. in many places throughout a work. pectoralpectoralpectoralpectoral, n. a pendant, often trapezoidal in shape, hung from the neck and adorning the chest at

the height of the pectoral muscles. Expressed in Sign S15, . periphrasisperiphrasisperiphrasisperiphrasis, n. a roundabout way of speaking; circumlocution. peristyle hallperistyle hallperistyle hallperistyle hall, an open court with a roofed arcade around the inner walls. phylephylephylephyle, n. from the Greek for "tribe", a group of priests or members of a work gang. portcullisportcullisportcullisportcullis, n. in ancient Egypt, a blocking device in which a very large stone was inserted into vertical grooves on either side of an entrance passageway into a tomb, effectively blocking entrance. pronaospronaospronaospronaos, n. an open vestibule before the central closed chamber in a classical temple. propylonpropylonpropylonpropylon, n. a vestibule or entrance way to a temple area, lit. the gateway before the entrance pylon. prosoprosoprosoprosopographicalpographicalpographicalpographical, adj. pertaining to personal names and the people who held those names. pylonpylonpylonpylon, n. a tall structure at the side of a gate or avenue marking an entrance or approach. In ancient Egypt, often formed by a pair of monumental towers in front of a temple.


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Pyramid TextsPyramid TextsPyramid TextsPyramid Texts, religious spells written on the walls and ceilings of the antechambers and burial chamber in a pyramid. pyramidonpyramidonpyramidonpyramidon, n. capstone of a pyramid or obelisk. raison d'êtreraison d'êtreraison d'êtreraison d'être, French, reason or justification for being or existence. rectorectorectorecto, n. the right-hand page of an open book or manuscript, hence the front of a page (opposed to verso). reliquaryreliquaryreliquaryreliquary, n. a repository or receptacle for a relic or relics. res judicatares judicatares judicatares judicata, Latin, a thing adjudicated; a case that has been decided. rhizomerhizomerhizomerhizome, n. a root like subterranean stem, commonly horizontal in position, which usually produces roots below and sends up shoots progressively from the upper service. See §6.5, Sign M12. rubricrubricrubricrubric, n., a title, heading, direction, negative amounts, or the like, in a text or account written in red in order to distinguish it from the rest of the text. The practice of indicating negative amounts in red originated in Egypt. satrapsatrapsatrapsatrap, n. a governor of a province in the ancient Persian empire. scarabscarabscarabscarab, n. a dung beetle usually portrayed in amuletic form for use as a seal or as a protective device. It was also the aspect of the sun in the morning as well as the god Kheperi. Expressed in Sign L1, . scilscilscilscil .... abbr. for scire licet. scire licetscire licetscire licetscire licet, to wit, namely, from the Latin "to know is permitted". sebakhsebakhsebakhsebakh, n. Arabic, fertilizer. In Egyptology refers to a fertilizer composed of the moldy bricks found in a tell. sebakheensebakheensebakheensebakheen, pl. n. individuals who remove the moldy bricks from a tell for use as fertilizer in their fields. serdabserdabserdabserdab, n. Arabic, cellar, the small chamber in a mortuary temple containing the statue or statues of the deceased to which offerings were proffered. serekhserekhserekhserekh, n., a rectangular enclosure wall and paneled facade of the royal palace. Expressed in Sign O33, . shadoofshadoofshadoofshadoof, n. from the Arabic, a device consisting of a long suspended rod with a bucket attached to one end and a weight, usually a stone, attached to the other end, to raise water from an irrigation canal or river to the level of a cultivated field. shawabti, n. a figurine or statuette placed in a tomb to perform menial tasks for the deceased in the next world. sicsicsicsic, adv. Latin, so, thus. Usually written parenthetically to denote that a word, phrase, passage, etc. which may appear strange or incorrect has been written intentionally or has been quoted verbatim. sine qua nonsine qua nonsine qua nonsine qua non, Latin, something essential, an indispensable condition or part of, lit. "without which not". sistrumsistrumsistrumsistrum, n. a musical rattle and cult object used in certain rituals, particularly those associated with the goddess Hathor. In religious ceremonies it was the duty of the high priestess or the queen to bear this instrument. sondagesondagesondagesondage, n. French, an archaeological term for a vertical probe or test trench through a site, without regard to the stratigraphy.


B-8

sphinxsphinxsphinxsphinx, n. a figure with the head of a man and the body of a lion, usually male. stelastelastelastela, n. (pl. stelae) an upright stone slab or pillar bearing an inscription or design and serving as a monument or marker. Also spelled stele. stelephorstelephorstelephorstelephorous statueous statueous statueous statue, a statue usually consisting of a donor holding a small stela often with a deity represented on it, thereby placing the donor under that god's protection. stratigraphystratigraphystratigraphystratigraphy, n. an archaeological term for the interpretation and study of the horizontal layers or sequential deposits of a site. The method requires the careful recording of the spatial location of each object found in order to determine its correlation to the other artifacts found. In this manner the relative ages not only of the items found but also of the walls, floors, hearths, etc. of the site can be determined. sui generissui generissui generissui generis, Latin, of his/her/its/their kind; unique. suprasuprasuprasupra, adv. above, esp. when used in referring to parts of a text. syncretismsyncretismsyncretismsyncretism, n. the attempted reconciliation or union of different or opposing principles, practices, or parties, esp. in religion. syntaxsyntaxsyntaxsyntax, n. rules and patterns for the formation of sentences or clauses in a language. tabula rasatabula rasatabula rasatabula rasa, Latin, a mind not yet affected by experiences or impressions, lit. "a scraped tablet" or "clean slate". talatattalatattalatattalatat, n. Arabic, from an Arabic word of unknown meaning indicating "three (handspans?)". Used to describe the small building blocks originally utilized by Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362), which were subsequently reused by his successors in their own building programs.

telltelltelltell, var. teltelteltel, n. from the Arabic, indicates a mound or small hill, which in Egypt and the Near East often consisted of the accumulated remains of one or more ancient settlements. temenostemenostemenostemenos, n. a sacred enclosure or precinct, esp. one containing a temple or dedicated to a god, from the Greek, lit. something cut off or set apart. Used esp. in connection with the wall surrounding the precinct, e.g. the temenos wall. terminus ante quemterminus ante quemterminus ante quemterminus ante quem, Latin, a date before which a building, burial, object, text, wall, etc. did not exist, lit. "the end before which". terminus post quemterminus post quemterminus post quemterminus post quem, Latin, a date after which a building, burial, object, text wall, etc. could not have been made, lit. "the end after which". theogamytheogamytheogamytheogamy, n. divine marriage. theophorous nametheophorous nametheophorous nametheophorous name, n. a name containing a god's name, ex. Ptahhotep, which means "Ptah is satisfied". theriomorphictheriomorphictheriomorphictheriomorphic, adj. thought of or represented as having the form of beasts, usually applied to gods. troy weighttroy weighttroy weighttroy weight, a system of weights originating in Troyes, France, c. 1300 CE for precious metals and gems (except diamonds and pearls): 24 grains = 1 pennyweight; 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce; 12 ounces = 1 pound. Diamonds and pearls weighed in carats: 1 carat = 3.086 grains = .2 grams.


B-9

uraeusuraeusuraeusuraeus, n. a cobra represented upon the headdress of divinities and royalty, usually directly over the forehead, as an emblem of supreme power. Expressed in Sign I12, . usufructusufructusufructusufruct, n. Roman and Civil Law the right of enjoying all the advantages deriving from the use of something which belongs to another. When the priests in Egypt might have farmed a tract of land owned by a temple, they were able to keep the fruits of their labors for their own personal use in exchange for performing a continuing service to the crown or a funeral cult. Similar to the practice of sharecropping. verbatimverbatimverbatimverbatim, adv. in exactly the same words, word for word, ex. "to repeat something verbatim". -adj. corresponding word for word to the original source or text, ex. "a verbatim record of the proceedings". versoversoversoverso, n. the left-hand page of a book or manuscript, hence the back of a page (opposed to recto). viziervizierviziervizier, n. title applied by Egyptologists to the highest office in ancient Egypt not held by the pharaoh. wadiwadiwadiwadi, n. Arabic, a channel of a watercourse that is dry except during periods of rainfall, the equivalent of an arroyo in the US Southwest.

waswaswaswas----scepterscepterscepterscepter, n. scepter with a canine head, common attribute of a divinity. Expressed in Sign S40, . WeltanschauungWeltanschauungWeltanschauungWeltanschauung, German, philosophy of life, outlook, view, creed, ideology. zoomorphiczoomorphiczoomorphiczoomorphic, adj. ascribing animal form or attributes to objects not animal.


C-1

APPENDIX C

EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGYEGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY 1111

Paleolithic c .700,000-14,000 BP 2222 Pre-History c .12,000 BCE-3,500 Pre-Dynastic 3500-3100 Dynasty 0 Early Dynastic 3100-2686 Dynasty 1-2 Old Kingdom 2686-2181 Dynasty 3-6 First Intermediate Period 2181-2040 Dynasty 7-10 Middle Kingdom 2133-1786 Dynasty 11-12 Second Intermediate Period 1786-1567 Dynasty 13-17 New Kingdom 1567-1085 Dynasty 18-20 Third Intermediate Period 1085-664 Dynasty 21-25 Saite Renaissance 672-525 Dynasty 26 Late Dynastic/Persian 525-332 Dynasty 27-30 Macedonian Domination 332-304 Ptolemaic Dynasty 304-30 Roman Emperors 30 BCE-395 CE

1 Appendix C chronology tables are from the Cambridge Ancient History, 3rd Edition, 1964-1971, Vols. I/2, II/2, III/1, III/3, and VII. Other scholars have devised differing chronologies. 2 BP indicates "Before the Present". Note that 14,000 BP and 12,000 BCE ("Before the Common Era") are equivalent. Dates in the Old Kingdom are probably accurate to "50 years, New Kingdom to "4 years, and Late Dynastic/Persian date to within 1 year.


C-2

PrePrePrePre----dynasticdynasticdynasticdynastic cccc....3500350035003500----3100310031003100 Dynasty 0 (Late PreDynasty 0 (Late PreDynasty 0 (Late PreDynasty 0 (Late Pre----dynastic)dynastic)dynastic)dynastic) cccc....3200320032003200----3100310031003100 Scorpion Early DynasticEarly DynasticEarly DynasticEarly Dynastic cccc....3100310031003100----2686268626862686 Dynasty 1Dynasty 1Dynasty 1Dynasty 13333 [Personal Name][Personal Name][Personal Name][Personal Name] [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 4444 3100310031003100----2890289028902890 ReReReReignignignign 1-1 Narmer [Men] [Menes] 1-2 Aha [Iti] 1-3 Djer [Iti] [Athothis] 1-4 Djet [Iterty] 1-5 Den [Khasty] [Usaphis] 50 years? 1-6 Anedjib [Merpebia] [Miebis] 1-7 Semerkhet [Irynetjer] 1-8 Qaa [Qaa] Dynasty 2Dynasty 2Dynasty 2Dynasty 2 [Personal Name][Personal Name][Personal Name][Personal Name] [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 2890289028902890----2686268626862686 2-1 Hetepsekhemwy [Hetep] 2-2 Reneb [Nubnefer] 2-3 Nynetjer [Nynetjer] 2-4 [Weneg] [Wadjnes] 2-5 [Sened] [Sethnes] 2-6 Peribsen 5555 [Peribsen] 2-7 [Aka?] 2-8 [Neferkasokar?] 2-9 Khasekhem 2-10 Khasekhemwy 6666 Old KingdomOld KingdomOld KingdomOld Kingdom 2686268626862686----2181218121812181 Dynasty 3Dynasty 3Dynasty 3Dynasty 3 [[[[Personal Name]Personal Name]Personal Name]Personal Name] 2686268626862686----2613261326132613 ReReReReignignignign 3-1 Sanakhte [Nebka] 2686-2667 19 years 3-2 Netjerykhet [Djoser] 2667-2648 19 3-3 Sekhemkhet [Djoser Teti] 2648-2642 6 3-4 Khaba 2642-2636 6 3-5 [Huni (Nysuteh?)] 2636-2613 24

3 Name given first is the Horus Name of the ruler. 4 The modern name used by most scholars is an English rendering of the Greek name (where available), followed where necessary by a Roman numeral to indicate sequence. 5 Seth name. 6 Horus and Seth name.


C-3

Old Kingdom (Continued)Old Kingdom (Continued)Old Kingdom (Continued)Old Kingdom (Continued) 2686268626862686----2181218121812181 Dynasty 4Dynasty 4Dynasty 4Dynasty 4 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 2613261326132613----2498249824982498 ReReReReignignignign 4-1 Snoferu 2613-2589 24 years 4-2 Khufu [Cheops] 2589-2566 23 4-3 Redjedef [Djedefre] 2566-2558 8 4-4 Khaefre [Chephren] 2558-2533 25? 4-5 Baufre (?) 4-6 Menkaure [Mycerinus] -2504 28? 4-7 Shepseskaf 2504-2500 4 4-8 Dedefptah (?) [Thampthis?] 2500-2498 2 Dynasty 5Dynasty 5Dynasty 5Dynasty 5 2494249424942494----2345234523452345 ReReReReignignignign 5-1 Userkaf 2494-2487 7 years 5-2 Sahure 2487-2473 14 5-3 Neferirkare Kakai 2473-2463 10 5-4 Shepseskare Isi 2463-2456 7 5-5 Neferefre 7? 5-6 Nyuserre 2453-2422 31 5-7 Menkauhor Akauhor 2422-2414 8 5-8 Djedkare Isesi 2414-2375 39 5-9 Unas 2375-2345 30 Dynasty 6Dynasty 6Dynasty 6Dynasty 6 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 2345234523452345----2181 2181 2181 2181 ReReReReignignignign 6-1 Teti 2345-2333 12 years 6-2 Userkaure 1? 6-3 Meryre Pepi [Pepi I] 49 6-4 Merenre Antyemsaf [Merenre I] 14 6-5 Neferkare Pepi [Pepi II] 94? 6-6 Merenre Antyemsaf [Merenre II] 1 6-7 Netjerkare 6-8 Menkare? [Nitocris] -2181 2? Queen First Intermediate PeriodFirst Intermediate PeriodFirst Intermediate PeriodFirst Intermediate Period 2181218121812181----2040204020402040 Dynasty 7Dynasty 7Dynasty 7Dynasty 7 2181218121812181----2173217321732173 7-1 Neferkare 'the Younger' 7-2 Neferkare Neby 7-3 Djedkare Shemay 7-4 Neferkare Khendu 7-5 Meryenhor 7-6 Neferkamin 7-7 Nykare 7-8 Neferkare Tereru 7-9 Neferkahor Dynasty 8Dynasty 8Dynasty 8Dynasty 8 [Horus Name][Horus Name][Horus Name][Horus Name] 2173217321732173----2160216021602160 ReReReReignignignign 8-1 Wadjkare Pepysonbe [Khabau?] 4 + x years 8-2 Neferkamin Anu 2 yrs 1 mon 8-3 Kakare Ibi 4 yrs 2 mos 8-4 Neferkare 2 yrs 1 mon 8-5 Neferkauhor [Netjerybau] 1 yr 2 mon 8-6 Nerirkare [Demedjibtowy]


C-4

Dynasty 9Dynasty 9Dynasty 9Dynasty 9 7777 (Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 2160216021602160----2130213021302130 9-1 Meryibre Khety [Achthoes I] 9-2 .... 9-3 Neferkare 9-4 Nebkaure [Achthoes II] 9-5 Setut 9-6 .... 9-7 Mery-.... 9-8 Shed-.... 9-9 H-.... 9-10 .... 9-11 .... 9-12 .... 9-13 User? Dynasty 10Dynasty 10Dynasty 10Dynasty 10 8888 (Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan)(Herakleopolitan) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 2130213021302130----2040204020402040 10-1 Meryhathor? 10-2 Neferkare 10-3 Wahkare [Achthoes III] 10-4 Merykare 10-5 .... Middle KingdomMiddle KingdomMiddle KingdomMiddle Kingdom 2133213321332133----1786178617861786 Dynasty 11Dynasty 11Dynasty 11Dynasty 11 (Theban)(Theban)(Theban)(Theban) [Throne & Personal Names][Throne & Personal Names][Throne & Personal Names][Throne & Personal Names] 2133213321332133----1991199119911991 11-1 Tep(y)a [Mentuhotep I] 2133-2118 11-1 Sehertawy Intef [Inyotef I] 11-2 Wahankh Intef [Inyotef II] 2117-2069 11-3 Nakhtnebtepnefer Intef [Inyotef III] 2068-2061 11-4 Sankhibtawy [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] 11-4 Netjeryhedjet [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] 2060-20109999 11-4 Smatawy [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] 11-5 Sankhtawyef [Sankhkare Mentuhotep III] 2009-1998 11-6 Nebtawyre [Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV] 1997-1991 11-6 [The God's Father Sesostris] Dynasty 12 Dynasty 12 Dynasty 12 Dynasty 12 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 1991199119911991----1786 1786 1786 1786 CoCoCoCo----regencyregencyregencyregency 12-1 Sehetepibre Amenemhat [Ammenemes I] 1991-1962 12-2 Kheperkare Senusert [Sesostris I] 1971-1928 10 years 12-3 Nubkaure Amenemhat [Ammenemes II] 1929-1895 2 12-4 Khakheperre Senusert [Sesostris II] 1897-1878 3 12-5 Khakaure Senusert [Sesostris III] 1878-1843 12-6 Nimaatre Amenemhat [Ammenemes III] 1843-1797 12-7 Maakherure Amenemhat [Ammenemes IV] 1798-1790 12-8 Sobekkare Sobekneferu 1789-1786 (Queen)

7 Lacunae due to the poor state of preservation of the Turin Royal Canon papyrus. 8 Order, number, and length of reigns uncertain. 9 Reunified Egypt.


C-5

Second Intermediate PeriodSecond Intermediate PeriodSecond Intermediate PeriodSecond Intermediate Period 1786178617861786----1567156715671567 Dynasty 13 Selected KingsDynasty 13 Selected KingsDynasty 13 Selected KingsDynasty 13 Selected Kings 10101010 [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] 1786178617861786----1633163316331633 ReignReignReignReign 13-1 Sekhemre Khutowy Amenemhat Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep I] 5 + x years 13-2 Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senbuef 3 + x years 13-4 Sehetepibre Amenemhat c.1770-1769 13-6 Sankhibre Ameny Intef Amenemhat Hetepibre Amu Sihornedjheryotef 13-11 Sobekhotep, son of Mentuhotep [Sobekhotep II] 13-12 Renseneb 4 months 13-13 Awibre Hor 13-14 Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat 13-15 Khutawyre Ugaf (or Re Khutawy) 2 yrs 4 mos 13-16 Seneferibre Senusert [Sesostris IV] Userkare Khendjer 4 + x years Semenkhkare ("The General") 3 + x years Sekhemre Wadjkhau Sobekemsaf [Sobekemsaf I] 7 years Sekhemre Sewadjtawy Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep III] 3 yrs 2 mos Khasekhemre Neferhotep [Neferhotep I] c.1740-1730 Khaneferre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep IV] 8 + x years Khaankhre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep V] Mersekhemre Neferhotep [Neferhotep II] Khahetepre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep VI] 4 yrs 9 mos Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep [Neferhotep III] Wahibre Yayebi 10 yrs 9 mos Merneferre Ay 23 yrs 9 mos Merhetepre Ini 2 yrs 2 mos Djedneferre Dudimose I [Tutimaios] c.1674 Djedhetepre Dudimose II ｝ Sewahenre Senebmiu ｝ Meryankhre Mentuhotep ｝Upper Egyptian Rulers and Vassals of Hyksos Djedankhre Mentuemsaf ｝ Menkhaure Senaayeb ｝ Nehsy ｝ Dynasty 14Dynasty 14Dynasty 14Dynasty 14 1786178617861786----cccc....1603160316031603 "Seventy-six kings of Xois", who reigned together 184 years, according to the Africanus version of Manetho. Many of their names are preserved in columns VIII-X of the Turin Canon. Few monuments. Dynasty 15 "The Hyksos"Dynasty 15 "The Hyksos"Dynasty 15 "The Hyksos"Dynasty 15 "The Hyksos" [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 1111674674674674----1567 1567 1567 1567 ReignReignReignReign 15-1 Mayebre Sheshi [Salitas] 1,2,3? yrs 15-a Meruserre Yakubher11111111 > 8 yrs 15-b Seuserenre Khyan10101010 [Iannas] 15-4 Auserre Ipepi [Apophis I] 40 + x yrs 15-5 Aqenenre Ipepi [Apophis II] 15-6 Asehre Khamudy

10 Ruler numbers based on the Turin Canon described in '4.4. 11 Exact order of Yakubher and Iannas is uncertain.


C-6

Dynasty 16Dynasty 16Dynasty 16Dynasty 16 c.c.c.c.1684168416841684----1567156715671567 16-1 Anather 16-2 Semqen 16-3 Khauserre 16-4 Seket 16-5 Ahetepre 16-6 Sekhaenre 16-7 Amu 16-8 Nebkhepeshre Ipepi [Apophis (III?)] Dynasty 1Dynasty 1Dynasty 1Dynasty 17777 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 1111666650505050----1567 1567 1567 1567 ReignReignReignReign

First GroupFirst GroupFirst GroupFirst Group Sekhemre Wahkhau Rehotep Sekhemre Wepmaat Intef ("The Elder") [Inyotef V] 3 years Sekhemre Heruhirmaat Intef [Inyotef VI] x months Sekhemre Shedtowy Sobekemsaf [Sobekemsaf II] 16 yrs Sekhemre Sementawy Thuty 1 yr Sankhenre Mentuhotep [Mentuhotep VI] 1 yr Sewadjenre Nebiryerawet [Nebiryerawet I] 6 yrs Neferkare? Nebiryerawet [Nebiryerawet II] x mos Semenmedjat(?)re Seuserenre (Userenre?) 12 yrs Sekhemre Shedwast -1605

Second GroupSecond GroupSecond GroupSecond Group Nubkheperre Intef [Inyotef VII] 3 + x yrs Senakhtenre Seqenre Tao ("The Elder") [Tao I] Seqenre Tao ("The Brave") [Tao II] Wadjkheperre Kamose12121212 c.1578-1570 3 + x yrs New KingdomNew KingdomNew KingdomNew Kingdom13131313 1567156715671567----1085108510851085 Dynasty 18Dynasty 18Dynasty 18Dynasty 18 [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] 1567156715671567----1320132013201320 18-1 Nebpehtyre Amose [Amosis] 1570-1546 18-2 Djeserkare Amenhotep [Amenophis I] 1546-1526 18-3 Akheperkare Thutmose [Thutmosis I] 1525-c.1512 18-4 Akheperenre Thutmose [Thutmosis II] c.1512-1504 18-5 Maatkare Hatshepsut14141414 1503-1482 Queen 18-6 Menkheperre Thutmose [Thutmosis III] 1504-1450 18-7 Akheprure Amenhotep [Amenophis II] 1450-1425 18-8 Menkheprure Thutmose [Thutmosis IV] 1425-1417 18-9 Nebmaatre Amenhotep [Amenophis III] 1417-1379 18-10 Neferkheprure Amenhotep [Amenophis IV] 1379-1362 18-10 Neferkheperurewe Akhenaten [Akhenaten] 18-11 Ankhkheprure Smenkhkare15151515 1364-1361 18-11 Ankhkheprure Neferneferaten 18-12 Nebkheprure Tutankhamun 1361-1352 18-13 Kheperkheprure Ay 1352-1348 18-14 Djeserkheprure-setepenre Horemheb 1348-1320

12 Older brother of Nebpehtyre Amose (18-1). 13 Traditional date for New Kingdom begins with the expulsion of the Hyksos in 1567. 14 Crowned king in year 2 of the reign of Menkheperre Thutmose (18-6). Co-regent with Thutmose for 21 years. 15 3 year co-regency with Akhenaten.


C-7

Dynasty 19Dynasty 19Dynasty 19Dynasty 19 [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] 1320132013201320----1200?1200?1200?1200? 19-1 Menpehtyre Ramesses [Ramesses I] 1320-1318 19-2 Menmaatre Seti [Seti I] 1318-1304 19-3 Usermaatre Ramesses16161616 [Ramesses II] 1304-1237 19-4 Baenre Merneptah [Merneptah] 1236-1223 19-5 Menmaatre Amenmesses17171717 1222-1217? 19-6 Userkheprure Seti17171717 [Seti II] 1216-1210? 19-7 ;Akhenre-setepenre18181818 Merneptah Siptah17171717 1209-1200? <Sekhaenre Ramesses Siptah 19-8 Sitre-meryetamun Tewosret (Queen and co-regent?) -1200? Dynasty 20Dynasty 20Dynasty 20Dynasty 20 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] c.c.c.c.1200120012001200----1085?1085?1085?1085? 20-1 Userkhaure Sethnakhte c.1200-1198 20-2 Usermaatre-meryamun Ramesses [Ramesses III] 1198-1166 20-3 ;Usermaatre-setepenamun Ramesses [Ramesses IV] 1166-1160 <Hikmaatre-setepenamun Ramesses 20-4 Usermaatre-sekheperenre Ramesses [Ramesses V] 1160-1156 20-5 Nebmaatre-meryamun Ramesses [Ramesses VI] 1156-1148 20-6 Usermaatre-meryamun-setepenre Ramesses19191919 [Ramesses VII] 1148-1147 20-7 Usermaatre-akhenamun Ramesses [Ramesses VIII] 1147-1140 20-8 Neferkare-setepenre Ramesses [Ramesses IX] 1140-1121 20-9 Khepermaatre-setepenre Ramesses [Ramesses X] 1121-1113 20-10 Menmaatre-setepenptah Ramesses [Ramesses XI] 1113-1085 3rd Intermediate Period3rd Intermediate Period3rd Intermediate Period3rd Intermediate Period (Dynasty 21(Dynasty 21(Dynasty 21(Dynasty 21----25)25)25)25) 1085108510851085----664664664664 Rulers and highRulers and highRulers and highRulers and high priests priests priests priests of Amun (Thebes) of Amun (Thebes) of Amun (Thebes) of Amun (Thebes) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] HPA-1 Hemenetjertepyenamun Herihor [Herihor] HPA-2 Piankh HPA-3 Pinudjem I HPA-4 Masahert HPA-5 Menkheperre HPA-6 Nesbenebded = Smendes, founder of Dynasty 11117777 HPA-7 Pinudjem II HPA-8 Psusennes

16 Ramesses II was called Osymandias by Diodorus Siculus, who wrote a history of Egypt in the first century BCE. It was the opening chapter of his history of the world, entitled "Historical Library" which took him some 30 years to complete. The name was used by Shelley in his famous poem "Ozymandias", written in 1817. Osymandias was probably a Greek corruption of Usermaatre. 17 Position in Dynasty uncertain. 18 Epithet stp n r`, "Chosen of Re", appended to many NK king names. 19 Position in dynasty uncertain, may have followed Ramesses VIII. Dates not certain for remainder of Dynasty 20.


C-8

Dynasty 21 (Tanis)Dynasty 21 (Tanis)Dynasty 21 (Tanis)Dynasty 21 (Tanis) 20202020 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 1111070070070070----945945945945

21-1 Hedjkheperre-setepenre Nesbanebdjed-meryamun21212121 [Smendes] 1070-1044 21-2 Neferkare-ikwast Amenemnisu

20202020 [Amenemnisu] 1044-1040 21-3 Akheperre-setepenamun Pasebakhaenniut

20202020 [Psusennes I] 1040-992 21-4 Usermaatre-setepenamun Amenemope

20202020 [Amenophthis] 993-984 21-5 Akheperre-setepenre [Osorkon I] 984-978 21-6 Netjerkheperre-setepenamun Siamun

20202020 [Siamun] 978-959 21-7 Titkheprure-setepenamun Pasebakhaenniut

20202020 [Psusennes II] 959-945 Dynasty 22 (Libyan or Bubastite)Dynasty 22 (Libyan or Bubastite)Dynasty 22 (Libyan or Bubastite)Dynasty 22 (Libyan or Bubastite) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] c.c.c.c.945945945945----712?712?712?712? 22-1 Hedjkheperre-setepenre Sheshonq

22222222 [Sheshonq I] 945-924 22-2 Sekhemkheperre-setepenre Osorkon [Osorkon II] 924-90923232323 22-3 Usermaatre-setepanamun Takelot [Takelot I] 909- 22-4 Heqakheperre-setepenre Sheshonq [Sheshonq II] -883 22-4 Usermaatre-setepenamun Osorkon

20202020 [Osorkon III] 883-85524242424 22-5 Hedjkheperre-setepenre Takelot

20202020 [Takelot II] 860-835 22-6 Usermaatre-setepenre Sheshonq

20202020 [Sheshonq III] 835-783 22-7 Usermaatre-setepenre/Usermaatre-setepenamun [Pimay] 783-773 22-8 Akheperre [Sheshonq V] 773-735 22-9 Akheperre-setepenamun [Osorkon V] 735-712 Dynasty 23 Dynasty 23 Dynasty 23 Dynasty 23 [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] [Modern Name] cccc....828828828828----712?712?712?712? 23-1 Usermaatre-setepenamun Padibastet

20202020 [Pedubastis I] c.828-80325252525 23-2 Usermaatre-meryamun [Shoshenq IV] c.803-777 23-3 Usermaatre-setepenamun [Osorkon IV] c.777-749 23-4 Usermaatre-setepenamun [Takeloth III] c.764-757?26262626 23-5 Usermaatre-setepenamun [Rudamun] c.757-754 23-6 Usermaatre-setepenamun Iuput

20202020 [Iuput II] c.754-720?27272727 23-7 Uasneterre28 [Shoshenq VI(?)] c.720-715? Dynasty 24Dynasty 24Dynasty 24Dynasty 24 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] cccc....727727727727----715715715715 24-1 Shepsesre Tefnakhte c.727-720 24-2 Wahkare Bakenrenef [Bocchoris] c.720-715

20 Number of kings and their sequence is not known with certainty. 21 Epithet of many TIP kings was mrì ìmn, "Beloved of Amun". 22 Descended from Libyans living in the Delta of Egypt. 23 Possibly co-regent with Shoshenq I 927-924. Possible co-regent towards end of reign was Heqakheperre-setepenre [Shoshenq II] but he probably never ruled independently. 24 Nominal co-regent at Thebes: Hedjkheperre-setepenre Harsiese c. 870-860. 25 Co-regent: Iuput I c. 804-803, prenomen unknown. 26 Co-regent with Osorkon III for 5 years. 27 Reign may have ended 715. 28 Existence uncertain.


C-9

Dynasty 25 (Nubian or Kushite)Dynasty 25 (Nubian or Kushite)Dynasty 25 (Nubian or Kushite)Dynasty 25 (Nubian or Kushite) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] cccc....747747747747----656656656656 25-1 Menkheperre Pi(ankh)i [Piye] c.747-716 25-2 Neferkare Shabaka [Shabaka] c.716-702 25-3 Djedkaure Shebitku [Shebitku] c.702-690 25-4 Nefertemkhura Taharqa [Taharqa] 690-664 25-5 Bakare Tanutamun [Tantamani] 664-656 Dynasty 26 (Saite)Dynasty 26 (Saite)Dynasty 26 (Saite)Dynasty 26 (Saite) [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 664664664664----525525525525 26-1 Wahibre Psamtek [Psammetichus I] 664-610 26-2 Wehemibre Nekau [Necho II] 610-595 26-3 Neferibre Psamtek [Psammetichus II] 595-589 26-4 Haibre Wahibre [Apries] 589-570 26-5 Khnemibre Ahmose [Amasis] 570-526 26-6 Ankhare Psamtek [Psammetichus III] 526-525 Late Dynastic/Persian (Dynasty 27Late Dynastic/Persian (Dynasty 27Late Dynastic/Persian (Dynasty 27Late Dynastic/Persian (Dynasty 27----30) 30) 30) 30) 525525525525----332332332332 Dynasty 27 (First Persian Period)Dynasty 27 (First Persian Period)Dynasty 27 (First Persian Period)Dynasty 27 (First Persian Period) 525525525525----404404404404 27-1 Cambyses II 525-522 27-2 Darius I 521-486 27-3 Xerxes 485-465 27-4 Artaxerxes 465-424 27-5 Darius II 423-405 27-6 Artaxerxes II 405-359 Dynasty 28Dynasty 28Dynasty 28Dynasty 28 404404404404----399399399399 28-1 Amyrtaeus 404-399 Dynasty 29Dynasty 29Dynasty 29Dynasty 29 [Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name][Modern Name] 399399399399----380380380380 29-1 Baenre Merynetjeru Nefaarud [Nepherites I] 399-393 29-2 Maatibre Hakor [Achoris] 393-380 Dynasty 30Dynasty 30Dynasty 30Dynasty 30 380380380380----343343343343 30-1 Kheperkare Nakhtnebef [Nectanebo I] 380-362 30-2 Irmaatenre Djedhor [Teos] 362-360 30-3 Senedjemibre-setepeninhur Nakhthoreb [Nectanebo II] 360-343 Dynasty 31 (Second Persian Period)Dynasty 31 (Second Persian Period)Dynasty 31 (Second Persian Period)Dynasty 31 (Second Persian Period) 343343343343----332332332332 31-1 Artaxerxes III 343-338 31-2 Arses 338-336 31-3 Darius III 336-332 Macedonian DominationMacedonian DominationMacedonian DominationMacedonian Domination [Egyptian Name] [Egyptian Name] [Egyptian Name] [Egyptian Name] 332332332332----304304304304 Alexander ("The Great") [Meryamun-setepenre] 332-323 Philip Arrhideus [Meryamun-setepenre] 323-317 Alexander IV [Haaibre-setepenamun] 317-305


C-10

Ptolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic DynastyPtolemaic Dynasty 304304304304----30303030 PT-1 Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") 305-282 PT-2 Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving") 285-246 PT-3 Ptolemy III Euergetes I ("Benefactor")29292929 246-222 PT-4 Ptolemy IV Philopator ("Father-Loving") 222-205 PT-5 Ptolemy V Epiphanes ("God-manifest") 204-180 PT-6 Ptolemy VI Philometor ("Mother-loving") 180-164, 145-145 PT-7 Cleopatra II 176-164 Queen PT-8 Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 145-145 PT-9 Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly") 145-116 PT-10 Ptolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("Chick-pea") 115-110, 108-107, 88-80 PT-11 Cleopatra III 115-101 Queen PT-12 Ptolemy X Alexander I 110-108, 107-88 PT-13 Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious") 107-80 Queen PT-14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80-80 PT-15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper") 80-58, 55-51 PT-16 Berenike IV 57-55 Queen PT-17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena 57-57 Queen PT-18 Cleopatra VII Philopator 51-30 Queen PT-19 Ptolemy XIII 51-47 PT-20 Ptolemy XIV 47-42 PT-21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion 42-41, 36-30 Roman EmperorsRoman EmperorsRoman EmperorsRoman Emperors 30 BCE30 BCE30 BCE30 BCE----395395395395 CE CE CE CE

29 His wife, Berenike, was reputed to have promised the Greek goddess Aphrodite that if her husband won an impending battle, she would cut off her beautiful long tresses. When Ptolemy III returned home victorious, according to the legend, she cut off her hair and laid it on the altar in the temple to Aphrodite. She is the only historical figure to have a constellation named for her. Coma Berenices, "Berenices 's Hair", is a constellation estimated to be 370 million light-years from earth and represents the hair she had trimmed off.


D-1

Appendix D

Dictionary

This dictionary contains the words and titles found in the PrimerPrimerPrimerPrimer. The definitions are not all inclusive nor does the dictionary purport to be a complete work of the Egyptian language. Rather, its function is to provide the student with a handy reference to locate words encountered in Chapters 1-40. In Egyptian words one finds variant forms, both in the spelling and the determinative. Egyptian also borrowed foreign words, especially place names. Such loan words were often spelled in quite different ways, sometimes even in the same text. Depending on context and location in a sentence, an Egyptian word could be a noun, verb, adjective, etc. No attempt has been made in this dictionary to give all such possible usages. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 3 (G1)

3w, adj., long.

3bd, n., month.

, , , 3bd 1, 3bd 2, 3bd 3, 3bd 4, n., first month, second month, third month, fourth month, or month 1, month 2, month 3, month 4, ('10.4).

3bḏw, n. loc., Abydos, a site on the west bank of the Nile about 120 km. by river north of Luxor. Location of the temple to the god ḫnty ìmntyw and after Dynasty 5 (2494-2345), one of the chief cult sites of Osiris, ('18.4, 26.4).

3ms, n., club, mace.

3ḥt, n., field. Sometimes written for a better graphic representation. For a similar reversal, cf. , ìmy-ìs, "counselor", below.

3ḫt, n., Season of Inundation (mid-July C mid-November), the first season of the Egyptian calendar, ('10.4).

, , , 3ḫt 1, 3ḫt 2, 3ḫt 3, 3ḫt 4, n., the first month of the Season of Inundation, the second month, etc.

3ḫ, d., the akh spirit, ('24.4).

3ḫ-n-ìtn, RN-nomen, Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362), lit. "the Spirit of the Aten", or "the One who is beneficial to the Aten", ('32.4).

3ḫt, n., horizon.

3ḫt-ìtn, n. loc., Akhetaten, capital city of Akhenaten, modern name el-Amarna, located approximately mid-way between the beginning of the Delta and Luxor, ('32.4).

3ḳ, v., perish.


D-2

3tf, n., the atef crown, ('20.4).

3tpw, pl. n., cargo, load.

3ṯp, v., load a ship, etc.

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

ì, j (M17)

(Some authors use j for )

⋅ì, 1st pers. sg. c. suffix pn., I, my, ('11.2, '13.2).

⋅ì, 1st pers. sg. fem. suffix pn., I, my; does not appear as a possessive before Dynasty 19 (1320-1200), ('11.2).

⋅ì, 1st pers. sg. suffix pn., I, my (when the king is speaking).

ì3t, n., office, function.

, ì3tt, n., milk, cream.

ì3w, adj., old.

, ì3w, n., old man.

, , , ì3bt, n., east, the East.

ì3btyw, nisbe adj. from a f. noun modifying a pl. m. noun, east, eastern, ('33).

ì3btt, nisbe adj. from a f. noun modifying a f. noun, east, eastern, ('33).

, ì3m, n., an unknown type of tree.

ì3m, n. loc., Yam, a country located west of the Nile valley, possibly in the area of the Dakhla Oasis.

ì3š, v., summon, call.

ì3ḳt, pl. n., vegetable(s), leek(s), (usually translated in the singular).

ì3t, n., office.

, i3tt, n. milk.

ìì, v., come, arrive.


D-3

ììt, inf. to come/coming, arriving.

ìì-m-ḥtp, m. PN, Imhotep, a senior official during the reign of Netjerykhet (3-2, 2667-2648), lit. "He who comes in peace", ('16.4).

ìì-ẖr-nfrt, m. PN, Ikhernofret, a senior official during the reign of Khakaure Senusert (12-5, 1878- 1843), perhaps lit. "He who comes bearing good things".

ì'b, n., cup, bowl.

ì'b, (1) intrans. v., to be united (note arrangement of signs for calligraphic purposes); (2) trans. v., to join someone; ì'b n, present to.

, ì'ḥ, n., moon.

ìw, v., come.

ìwt, inf., to come/coming.

ìw, n., island.

ìw, (1) v., be; (2) particle to introduce statements and adverbial phrases.

ìwf, n., meat.

ìwn, n., column, pillar.

ìwnw, n. loc., Heliopolis, a site near modern Cairo, location of temples to the sun god Re and Re-Atum, hence the Greek name "city of the sun".

, ìwnt, n., bow.

ìwntyw sty, n. loc., one of the Nine Bows located in northern Nubia, ('37.4).

, ìb, n., heart.

ìb ḥr, epithet, heart of Horus.

, ìbḥ, n., tooth.

ìp, v., count, reckon up.

ìpt, f. PN, Ipt.

ìpt, n., apartment(s), harem.

ìpt-nsw, n., royal apartments, note honorific transposition.


D-4

ìpt-swt, n. loc., temple of Amun at Karnak, located about 3 km. north of the Luxor temple in Waset (Thebes), lit. "the most select of places".

ìm, adv., there.

ìmy-, m. sg. titular prefix, one who is in, who is, ('34.2).

ìm(y)t, f. sg. titular prefix, one who is in, who is, ('34.2).

ìm(y)w, m. pl. titular prefix, one who is in, who is, ('34.2).

ìm(y)wt, f. pl. titular prefix, one who is in, who is, ('34.2), (rarely used).

ìmy-ìrty, title, ship captain, lit. "one who is at both eyes".

, ìmy-ìs, title, counselor, lit. "one who is in the council chamber. is so written for a better graphic appearance, cf. 3ḫt, "field", above.

ìmy-wt, epithet, epithet of Anubis, embalmed, lit. "one who is in the place of embalming", "one who is in the bandage(s)".

, , , , ìmy-r, titular prefix, overseer, lit. "one who is in the mouth", ('34.2).

ìmy-r 'w(w), title, overseer of the mercenaries, caravan leader.

ìmy-r ìpt pr-'3, title, overseer of the apartments of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.

, ìmy-r pr, title, overseer of the estate, steward.

ìmy-r 10 pr-'3, title, overseer of ten (men) of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.

ìmy-r pr wr m t3 r-ḏr⋅f, title, chief steward of the entire land (lit. "in the land to its end").

ìmy-r pr-ḥḏ, title, overseer of the treasury.

, ìmy-r mš'w, overseer of the army, general.

ìmy-r nìwt, n., overseer of the city, mayor, an important title often held by the vizier.

ìmy-r n⋅f, n., a list of persons, lit. "the one according/by his name".

ìmy-ḥwt, title, overseer of the estate.

ìmy-r ḥm(w)-nṯr, title, overseer of priest(s), chief priest.

ìmy-r ḫnty(w)-š, title, overseer of the tenant(s) of the palace.


D-5

, , ìmy-r šm'w, title, overseer of Upper Egypt.

ìmy-r sš n nsw, title, overseer of writing of the king.

ìmy-r šn'w, title, overseer of the warehouses.

ìmy-r sḏ3wtyw, or ìmy-r ḫtmw, title, keeper of the seals, chief of the treasurers.

ìmy-r k3t nbt nt nsw, title, overseer of all the works of the king.

ìmy-r ḳbbwy, title, overseer of the two slaughter houses, lit. "overseer of the two cool storehouses".

ìm3, n., an unknown type of tree.

, ìm3w, ìm(3)w, n., tent.

ìm3ḫ, n., spinal chord.

ìm3ḫ, epithet, venerated state.

ìm3ḫw, epithet, venerated one, honored one.

, ìmw, n., boat, ship.

ìmn, d., Amun, primeval and chief deity of the Egyptian pantheon, the chief deity at Karnak; usually ìmn-r' (see below), often portrayed as a ram.

ìmn-m-ḥ3t, RN-nomen, Sehetepibre Amenemhat (12-1, 1991-1962). ìmn-m-ḥ3t, lit. "Amun is in the forefront".

ìmn-m-ḥ3t ìṯ-t3wy, n. loc., Amenemhat is the Seizer of the Two Lands (full name of the capital city of Amenemhat), located near the Faiyum ('29.4)

ìmn-r', d., Amun-Re, syncretized chief deity of the Egyptian pantheon.

, ìmnt, n., west, the West.

ìmnty, nisbe adj. derived from a f. noun modifying a sg. m. noun, western.

, ìn, prep., by, (used to introduce agent '38.2, '38.3)

ìnì, v., fetch, bring.

ìnt, inf., to fetch/fetching, to bring/bringing.

ìnw, pl. n., gifts.


D-6

, ìnb, n., wall.

, ìnr, n., stone.

ìnt, n., fish.

ìnt, n., valley.

ìr, prep., to, as to; full form of prep. , r.

ìry, m. sg. titular prefix, relating to, connected with, belonging to, ('34.2).

ìr(y), m. sg. titular prefix, relating to, connected with, belonging to, ('34.2).

ìr(y)t, f. sg. titular prefix, relating to, connected with, belonging to, ('34.2).

ìr(y)w, m. pl. titular prefix, relating to, connected with, belonging to, ('34.2).

ìr(y)wt, f. pl. titular prefix, relating to, connected with, belonging to, ('34.2).

ìry-'3, title, doorkeeper, lit. "one connected with the door.

ìry-mrḥt pr-'3, title, keeper of the oil of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.

ìry nfr-ḥ3t, title, keeper of the diadem.

ìry nḫn, title, warden of Nekhen.

ìry-hp, title, custodian of laws, lit. "one connected with the laws".

, ìry-rdwy, title, one in attendance, lit. "one relating to/at the two feet (of a superior)".

ìry-ḥ3t, title, pilot, lit. "one relating to the prow/front".

ìry-ḫt, title, overseer, administrator, lit. "one connected with things/property".

ìry-ḫt pr-'3, title, keeper of (lit. "the one pertaining to") the property of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.

ìry ḫ(t) nswt, title, one pertaining to the king's property (?), note honorific transposition.

ìry-sšm, title, functionary, lit. "one connected with procedure" or "one connected with conduct".

ìry-sšr pr-'3, title, keeper of the cloth of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.

ìr, ìrì, v., make (an object), build; do or perform (an act or office).


D-7

ìrt, inf., to do/doing.

ìrt, n., eye.

ìrty, dual n., (two) eyes.

ìrt, n., duty, function.

ìrṯt, n. loc., Irtjet, a country located west of the Nile valley, possibly in the area of the el-Kharga Oasis.

ìs, n., tomb, chamber.

ìswt, pl. n., crew.

ìssì, RN-nomen, Djedkare Isesi (5-8, 2414-2375).

ìst, coll. n., crew (of a ship), gang of workmen.

ìst, conj., while.

ìsṯ, conj., while

ìḳr, adj., excellent.

, ìt, (ì)t, masc. n., father.

, ìtn, d., the Aten, Solar Disk, ('32.4).

, , ìtrw, n., river.

ìtrw, n., the river measure, equal to 20,000 cubits (10.5 km).

ìṯ, ìṯì, v., take, carry away.

, , ìṯ-t3wy, n. loc., Seizer of the Two Lands, abbr. name of the capital city of Sehetepibre Amenemhat (12-1, 1991-1962), located near the Faiyum, ('29.4).

ìdb, n., river bank.

ìdḥw, n., swamps (of the Delta).


D-8


' (D36) (1) ', n., arm, hand; (2) , m-', comp. prep., together with, lit. "in the hand of", because of, ('27.2).

't , n., limb, member of body.

'3, adv., here.

'3, adj., great.

'3, n., door.

, , '3m, n., Asiatic person.

'3mw ḫry-š', pejorative epithet, Asiatic sand dwellers.

' w, n., mercenary, caravaneer.

' ww, coll. n., mercenaries, caravaneers.

' ww, n. loc., modern Tura, located on the east bank of the Nile opposite Sakkara, famous for its limestone quarries.

' wt, the awet scepter, ('38.4).

, 'b, n., horn.

, 'b3, n., the aba scepter.

'b3, n., stela.

, 'nḫ, v., live.

abbr. for 'nḫ wḏ3 snb, royal epithet, may he live, be prosperous and well, abbr. in transliteration '.w.s. and in translation l.p.h.

'ntyw, n. myrrh.

, 'rwn3, n. loc., Aruna, town in central Israel located about 2 days march west of Megiddo.

, 'ḥ3, v., fight.

'ḥ3, RN-Horus name, (the Horus) Aha (1-2, c. 3050, '22.4).


D-9

'ḥ', v., stand.

, 'ḥ'w, coll. n., boats, ships.

'š, n., cedar, pine.

'ḳ, v., enter.

'ḳw, pl. n., income, revenues; provisions.

'dw, n., the bûri fish.

'ḏ, n., spool.

'ḏ-mr, title, administrator of a province, probably lit. "excavator of canals".

'ḏ-mr pr-'3, title, judge and boundary official of the pr-'3, note honorific transposition.


, y (M17; Z4)

(Rarely used at the beginning of words.)

yḥm, n. loc., Yehem, a town in central Israel, located about 3 days march southwest of Megiddo.


, w (G43; Z7)

, w3t, n., road, way; side.

w3w, n., wave (of the sea).

, w3w3t, n. loc., Wawat, a country located in the northern part of Nubia.

, , w3ḥ, (1) trans. v., set down, place, put down; (2) intrans. v., endure, live long.

, w3s, n., the was scepter.

w3st, n. loc., Thebes, a city located on the Nile encompassing the Luxor and Karnak temples on the east bank and the administrative and mortuary complexes on the west bank.

w3ḏ, adj., green.

w3ḏty, dual adj., green.

w3ḏt, d., the cobra goddess Wadjet of LE, protector of the king of LE and one of the Two Ladies in the king's title, ('37.2)

w3ḏ-wr, n., the sea, ocean, lit. "the great green".


D-10

w3ḏ swt, n. loc., "(Meryikare)" is Flourishing of Places, abbr. name of the pyramid of Merykare (10-4?) at Sakkara, (§19.4).

wì, 1st. pers. sg. c. dep. pn., me, (§18.2)

wì, 1st. pers. sg. dep. pn. (when the king is speaking), me.

wì, n, mummy.

wì3, n., the wia bark, a sacred boat used to transport a cult statue of a god, (§35.4) w', (1) n. one person; (2) adj., one, single.

, w' ty, nisbe adj. (§33), sole, single, lone, only, derived from the noun , w' , one.

, w'b, (1) adj. pure; (2) intrans. v., be pure; (3) trans. v. clean oneself.

w'b , title, wab priest, lit. "the pure one", (§9.4, §17.4).

w'b swt , n. loc., "(Userkaf)" is Pure of Places, abbr. name of the pyramid of Userkaf (5-1, 2494- 2587) at Sakkara, (§19.4).

, , wb3, v. open; open up, explore.

wbn, v. rise, shine (of sun); appear.

wpt, pl.n., horns.

, wp, wpì, v., open.

wpwty, ìpwty, n., messenger.

, , , wp-w3wt, d., Wepwawet, the jackal god of UE, lit. "Opener of the Ways".

wn , v., be, exist.

, wn, (1) v., open; (2) inf., to open

wnì, v., pass by, disregard.

, , , wnm, v., eat

wnmt, pl. n., food.

wnn-nfrw, d., Wenefer, an epithet applied to the resurrected god Osiris, perhaps "He Who Exists in Perfect Condition", (§27.4).


D-11

wnš, n., jackal, wolf-like animal.

wnḏw, pl. n., short-horned cattle, calf, goat, hoofed animal, etc.

wr, n. (1) greatness of size; (2) adj., great.

wrt, (1) f. sg. adj., great; (2) n., greatness of rank; (3) adv., very.

wrw, pl. n., princes, lit. "great ones".

wrw, pl. d., gods; dead ancestors; lit. "great ones".

wrrt, wrr(y)t, n., chariot, (§38.4)

wrḥ, v., anoint.

wrd, v., tire, grow weary.

, wḥ3t,n., cauldron.

wḥ3t, n., oasis.

wḥ', v., loosen, unfetter.

wḥ'(w), n., rations.

, wḥt, n., cauldron.

, , , wsìr, d., Osiris, god of the underworld, ('27.4).

, , , wsr, adj., strong, powerful.

, wsrt, n., neck.

wšb, v., answer, reply.

, wšd, v., ask, question.

wsḫ, n., cup.

wsḫt, n., a large barge, lit. "a (wide) boat".

-wt, f. pl. ending, often written for graphical reasons.

wt, pl. n., bandages, mummy wrapping.


D-12

, wt, v., bandage, bind.

wt, n., embalmer, lit. "bandager".

wdḥw, n. offering table.

, wḏ, v., command.

, wḏ3, (1) v., be prosperous, hale, uninjured; (2) inf. to prosper/prospering; (3) abbr. in the

royal epithet 'nḫ wḏ3 snb may he live, be prosperous and healthy, abbr. in translation l.p.h and in transliteration as '.w.s.

, wḏb, n., river bank, sand bank, bank of a stream.

, wḏb, v., turn back.

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC b (D58)

b, n., foot.

b3, d., the ba spirit, ('24.4).

b3w, n., galley, pleasure craft, ('35.4).

b3ḥ, n., phallus; abbr. in m-b3ḥ, comp. prep., in the presence of, lit. "in the foreskin of".

b3k, n., male servant.

, b3kwy, dual n., two male servants.

b3kw, pl. n., male servants.

b3kt, n., female servant.

b3kty, dual n., two female servants.

, b3k(w)t, pl. n., female servants.

b3kwt, pl. n., female servants, more frequently b3k(w)t.

bìn, adj., evil, bad.

bìt, n., a type of bread

bìt, n., bee.


D-13

, bìty, n., king of LE, often in the sense of "King of Bygone Days".

br, n., boat, ship, scow, ('35.4).

bnbn, n., the sacred stone of ìwnw (Heliopolis), ('26.4).

, bḥs, n., calf.

bdš, v., become faint, weak, exhausted. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

p (Q3)

pt, n., sky, heaven, rarely abbr. but often used as sign for the sky, especially in temple scenes and on stelae.

, , p3, (1) m. sg. demonstrative adj., this, ('24.1); (2) m. article (from Dynasty 13 on), the, ('36.3).

pìpì, PN, Pepi.

pìpì, RN-nomen, Meryre Pepi (6-3, c. 2300) and Neferkare Pepi (6-5,c. 2200).

pw, m. sg. demonstrative adj., this, ('24.1).

pf, m. sg. demonstrative adj., that, ('24.1).

pfy, m. sg. demonstrative adj., that, ('24.1).

pn, m. sg. demonstrative adj., this (near me), ('24.1).

pnw, n., mouse.

, pr, n., house.

prwy, dual n., two houses.

prwy ḳbb(wy), dual n., the two slaughter houses, lit. "the two cool houses".

, prw, pl. n., houses.

, , pr-'3, n., great house, palace, ('38.4), source for the word "pharaoh".

, , pr-nsw, pr-nswt, n., palace, lit. "house of the king", note honorific transposition, ('38.4).

pr-ḥḏ, n., treasury, lit. "house of silver".

pr, prì, v., go out, go forth.


D-14

prt, (1) n., a ritual procession; (2) inf. to go out/go forth, going out/forth.

prt, n., The Season of "Emergence" (i.e. from the Inundation) when the sowing was done, mid-November to mid-March, ('10.4).

, , , prt 1, prt 2, prt 3, prt 4, n., the first month of the Season of Emergence, the second month, etc.

, pḥ, v., reach

pḥwy, n. rear, rear guard, lit. "the hind quarters".

, , pḥty, n., strength, power/virility of the king.

pẖr, v., turn.

, , ptḥ, d., Ptah, god of Memphis.

, pḏt, n., bow.

pḏtyw šw, n. loc., one of the Nine Bows located between the Nile and the Red Sea, (§37.4).

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

f (I9)

⋅f, 3rd pers. sg. m. suffix pn., he, his, it, its, ('11, '13.4).

fnd, n., nose

, fnḏ, n., nose.

fdw, n., the number four.

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

m (G17)

m, prep., in; with; from; as (m of predication, '26.3).

, m33, v., see.

m3', adj., true, (Note: not used in the adjective).

, , , m3't, n., truth.

m3't, d., Maat, goddess of truth, ('13.4).

m3', v., lead, guide, direct; send, dispatch.


D-15

, , m3'-ḫrw, m. epithet, be justified, lit. "true of voice" = deceased.

* , m3't-ḫrw , f. epithet, be justified, lit. "true of voice" = deceased.

m3t, n., red granite, red granite bowl.

m3ṯ, n., red granite, red granite bowl.

, mìt, n. copy of a document.

m-', comp. prep., together with, lit. "in the hand of"; because of, ('27).

m-'⋅ì, comp. prep., in my hand/charge/possession, ('27).

, m'nḏt, n., mandjet bark, day bark of the sun god, ('35.4).

mw, s. and pl. noun, water.

, mwt, n., mother.

mwt, d., Mut, vulture mother goddess of the Theban triad; one of the symbolic mothers of the Pharaoh.

, m-b3ḥ, comp. prep., in the presence of, lit. "on the foreskin of", ('27).

, mfk3t, n., turquoise.

, mn, v., be firm, be established, be enduring; mn, inf., to be firm/established/enduring.

mnìw, n., herdsman.

mn 'nḫ, n. loc., "(Pepi)" is Established and Living, abbr. name for the pyramid of Pepi II (6-5) at Sakkara, ('19.4).

mnt, adj., daily.

mnt, (1) v., be ill; (2) n., malady, illness.

mnt, n., swallow.

mnt, n., thigh of a human, hock or thigh of an animal; knee.

mn-ìb, comp. v., be steadfast, lit. "enduring of heart".

mnmnt, pl. n., cattle.


D-16

mn nfr, n. loc., Memphis, the religious and administrative center as well as the necropolis of the 1st Lower Egyptian nome, stretching some 30 km. southward from the southern apex of the Delta. Located about 10 km. south of modern Cairo opposite Sakkara, it derived its ancient name from the shortened form of the pyramid city mn-nfr-pìpì of Pepi I (6-3, ca. 2150), Pepi is Established and Beautiful. See mn-nfr-pìpì below.

mn nfr pìpì, n. loc., the pyramid city of Pepi I (6-3, ca. 2150), Pepi is Established and Beautiful, located at Sakkara, ('19.4, '32.3). See mn-nfr above.

mnš, n., boat, ship, freighter, warship.

mn-ḫpr-r', RN-prenomen, Menkheperre Thutmose (18-6, 1504-1450), lit. "the form of Re endures".

mntyw nw stt, n., one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) located to the northeast, indicating bedouins of Asia. In the NK (1567-1085) may have referred to Naharin, ('37.4).

mnṯw, pl. n., bedouin(s).

mr, (1) n., pain, ailment; (2) adj., sick, ill, diseased; (3) adv., sorely.

, mr, mrì, v., love, want, wish.

mrìt, inf., to love/loving, to want/wanting, to wish/wishing.

mr-wr, n. loc., The Great Lake, i.e. the Faiyum, called Lake Moeris by the Greeks, ('29.4).

mrr, v., love; a different form of mrì above.

mrrì, PN, Merri, name of a FIP (2181-2040) official.

mrḥt, n., oil, grease, salve.

m-h3w, comp. prep., in the neighborhood/environs of; in the lifetime/reign of; at the approach of, ('27).

m-ḥ3t, comp. prep., in front of, before, ('27).

mḥ, n., cubit (a unit of measure varying from .44 to .50 meters), ('25.4).

, mḥyt, n., north wind.

, , mḥty, m. sg. nisbe adj., northern, ('33).

, mḥtt, f. sg. nisbe adj., northern, ('33).

, mḥtyw, m. pl. nisbe adj., northern, ('33).


D-17

mḥtwt, mht(w)t, f. pl. nisbe adj., northern, ('33).

m-ḫt, comp. prep., accompanying; afterwards; when, ('27).

m-ḫsfw, comp. prep., at the approach of, ('27).

m-ẖnw, comp. prep., in the interior of, inside, ('27).

(m)-ẖnw, cryptic writing of comp. prep., in the interior of, inside, ('27).

mẖrw, pl. n., provisions, rations.

msnw, n., harpooner.

msktt, n., meskett bark, night bark of the sun god, ('35.4).

msk3, n., skin.

msì, v., bear children, give birth; make/fashion (a statue).

mswt, pl. n., children, offspring, births.

mst, n., apron.

mš', (1) n., soldier; (2) pl. n., coll., army.

, , mš'w, pl. n., soldiers, army.

m-ḳ3b, comp. prep., in the midst of; in the presence of, ('29.5).

mkti, n. loc., Megiddo, a walled city located in central Israel.

mtwt, n., poison.

, , mṯn, n., road.

mḏt, n., stable.

mḏ3, n. loc., Medja, a country probably located in the western desert of Nubia. During the NK (1567-1085) men of this tribe were hired as policemen and mercenary troops in Egypt.

mḏ3t, n., papyrus book roll.

mḏw, n., the cardinal number ten.


D-18

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC n (N35)

n, (1) prep., to, for; in; because; belongs to, ('28); (2) genitival sg. m. adj., of, ('23).

⋅n, (1) 1st pers. pl. c. suff. pn., we, our, ('12, '13); (2) 1st pers. pl. c. dep. pn., us, ('19).

n3, (1) pl. c. demonstrative adj., these, ('24); (2) pl. c. article (from Dynasty 13 on), the, ('36.3).

n-ìb, comp. prep., for the sake of, lit. "for the heart of", ('28).

n sp, adv., never, at no time, ('39).

nywy, m. dual genitival adj., of.

nyty, f. dual genitival adj., of.

nì, v., reject, drive away.

nì3, n., ibex (OK form), ('8.1).

nìw, n., bowl.

nìwt, (1) n., city, town; (2) n. loc., the City, i.e. Waset (Thebes).

nìwt rst, n. loc., the Southern City, i.e. Waset (Thebes).

, n't, n., expedition.

, nw, m. pl. genitival adj., of, ('23).

, nw, n., hunter.

nw, pl. c. demonstrative adj., these, ('24).

, nwḥ, n., rope.

nb, m. sg. adj., all; often defectively for , nbt.

, nbw, pl. adj., all.

nbt, f. adj., all.

, , , nb, n., lord; possessor, owner.


D-19

nb, n., the lord, i.e. the king.

nb ìm3ḫ, n. venerable, lit. "possessor of veneration".

nbt, n., lady.

, nbty, dual n., pair of women/ladies, ('10).

nbty, title, Two Ladies title of king, ('22.4).

, nbw, n., gold.

nf, pl. c. demonstrative adj., those, ('24).

nfw, n., ship captain.

, nfr, (1) n. a happy event, a good deed; (2) m. adj., beautiful, good, happy, perfect.

nfr, n. loc., "(Isesi)" is Perfect, abbr. name for the pyramid of Isesi (5-8, 2414-2375) at Sakkara, ('19.4).

nfr-ḫpr(w), epithet, beautiful-of-forms.

nfr swt, n. loc., "(Unas)" is Beautiful of Places, abbr. name for the pyramid Unas (5-9, 2375-2345) at Sakkara, ('19.4).

nfrt, (1) f. n. beauty; (2) f. adj., beautiful, good, happy, perfect.

, nfr(w)t, f. pl. adj., beautiful.

nn, negative particle, no, not, there does not exist, without, ('39).

, nn, pl. c. demonstrative adj., these, ('24).

nny, v., be weary, inert.

nnì-nswt, n. loc., capital city of Dynasty 11 (2133-1991) kings about 12 km. west of the Nile in the Faiyum nome, perhaps meaning "Child of the king". The sound of the name of the city's ram headed god, , ḥry-š⋅f, "He who is upon his lake", led to the Greeks callings the city Herakleopolis ("The City of Herakles"), because the god's name sounded close to the name of their mythical hero Herakles (Hercules), ('29.4). Note the honorific transposition.

nnšm, n., spleen.

nht, n., sycamore fig tree.


D-20

, , nhr n, n. loc., Naharin (lit. "the Two Rivers"), also known as Mitanni, a country approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, and nearby Turkey, ('37.4).

, nḥḥ, n., eternity.

nḥsy, n., Nubian.

nḫ3ḫ3, n., flail, whip, ('38.4).

nḫḫw, n., flail, whip, ('38.4).

nḫb, n. loc., Nekheb, capital of the 3rd Egyptian nome during the NK, was located on the east bank of the Nile about 100 km. south of Waset (Thebes), modern name el-Kab.

nḫbt, d., the vulture goddess Nekhbet, protector of the king of UE and one of the Two Ladies in the king's title, ('22.4).

, , nḫn, n. loc., Nekhen, capital of the 3rd Egyptian nome until the NK, was located on the west bank of the Nile about 100 km. south of Waset (Thebes). The Greeks called the city Hierakonpolis. Its modern name is Kom el-Ahmar ("The Red Mound").

, nḫt, (1) masc. n., champion; victory; (2) adj. strong, mighty, victorious. Often abbr. or .

nḫtw, masc. pl. n., victories.

nḫtwy, dual adj., strong.

, , nsw, nswt, n., king.

nswt bìt, title, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, ('22.4).

nšmt, n., neshmet bark of Osiris, ('35.4).

n-g3w, comp. prep., through lack of, ('28).

nt, f. c. genitival adj., of, ('23).

ntk, 2nd pers. sg. m. indep. pn., you.

ntṯ, 2nd pers. sg. f. indep. pn., you.

, , nṯr, m. n., god; often only , especially in abbreviations and titles.

nṯr nfr, epithet of king, the perfect/good god.

nṯrt, f. n., goddess.

, , nḏ, v., ask, inquire.


D-21

, , , nḏ, v., save, protect, guard against.

nḏs, adj., small.

nḏs , n., poor man, wretch, commoner.

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC r (D21)

r, prep., to; at; concerning; more than; from, ('31).

r, n., mouth.

r-', comp. prep., near, besides, ('32).

r', n., (1) sun; (2) d., the sun god Re.

, r', d., the sun god Re, a variant of .

r', n., day; can often be an abbr. for hrw "day", cf. hrw below.

r-m3w n, comp. prep., in the sight of, ('32).

r mn, n., arm, shoulder.

r mṯ, (1) sg. n., man; (2) coll. n., men, people, mankind.

, r n, n., name.

r npt, n., year.

r npy, (1) v., be young; (2) adj., young.

r npwt, pl. n., years.

r ḫ, (1) v., know, know how (to do), learn; (2) n., knowledge.

r ḫt, n., knowledge.

r-r ḫt, n., comp. prep., to the knowledge of, ('32).

r-ḥ3t, comp. prep., in front of, ('32).

r-ḫt n, comp. prep., under the authority of, ('32).

r-s3, comp. prep., towards the back of, ('32).


D-22

, rs, (1) v., be awake, alert, watchful; (2) inf., to be alert, ('38.3).

r s-tp, comp. v., be vigilant, lit. "to be alert of head".

rsw, n., sentry, guard.

rsw, n., south wind.

rsw, m. pl. nisbe adj., southern, ('33).

rswt, f. pl. nisbe adj., southern, ('33).

rswt, n., south.

rsy, m. sg. nisbe adj., southern, ('33).

, rst, f. sg. nisbe adj., southern, ('33).

rš(w), v., rejoice.

ršwt, inf., to rejoice/rejoicing, ('38).

ršwt, n., joy.

r-gs, comp. prep., at the side of, in the presence of, in the company of, ('32).

see r mṯ above.

, rṯnw, n. loc., Retjenew, a country located in the Fertile Crescent approximating modern day central and western Syria, Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections, ('37.4).

rd, n., foot.

, rdwy, dual n., (two) feet, ('10).

, rdì, v., give, for writings without the r ( and ) see dì below.

rdìt, inf., to give/giving, ('38).

r-ḏr⋅f, prep. phrase (following the n. it modifies), entire, lit. "to its (full) extent/end".


D-23

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC h (O4)

h3, h3ì, v., go down, descend.

h3w, n., time; see m-h3w below.

h3b, v., send (someone).

hb, n., the ibis bird.

hp, n., law, ordinance.

, hrw, n., day, cf. r' above.


ḥ (V28)

ḥ3(w) nbwt, n., one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) who were located to the north, possibly seafarers from the coast of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete, ('37.4).

ḥ3t, (1) n. forehead; chief; (2) adj. forefront.

ḥ3ty-', n., local prince, nomarch, mayor.

ḥ3t-sp, n., regnal year.

ḥ3ty, n., heart; breast.

ḥ3tt, n., prow rope of ship.

ḥ3ḳ, v., plunder, capture, seize, carry off.

ḥ', n., flesh.

, ḥ' w, pl. n., body, lit. "(plural or collective of) flesh".

ḥ' ww, pl. n., boats, ships.

ḥ'py, n., the Nile inundation, ('33.3).

ḥwn, v., be young; rejuvenated, refreshed.

, ḥwt, n., temple; palace; administrative district; estate.


D-24

ḥwt wrt 6, n., possibly the law courts of ancient Egypt, lit. "The Six Great Houses", ('31.4).

ḥwt wrt , n. loc., Avaris, the capital city of the Hyksos located in the eastern Delta, ('33.4).

, ḥwt nṯr, n., temple, lit. "house of god", note honorific transposition.

, ḥb-sd, n., the Jubilee Festival, ('34.4).

ḥbs, n., clothes, clothing.

ḥbsw, pl. n., clothes, clothing.

ḥm, n., Majesty, Presence (of king or gods); perhaps originally "person".

ḥm, n., Majesty, the king.

ḥm, n., slave.

ḥm⋅f, n., His Majesty, His Presence, i.e. the king, or a god, perhaps originally "his Person".

, ḥm-nṯr, title, head priest, lit. "servant of god", ('17.4), note honorific transposition.

ḥm-nṯr-tpy, title, first priest, high priest, note honorific transposition.

ḥmt, n., wife, woman.

ḥn', (1) prep. with, together with; (2) adv., therewith, together with them.

ḥnw, n., the henew bark of Sokar, ('35.4).

ḥnn, n., hoe.

ḥns, adj., narrow; defective.

, ḥnt, n., cup.

ḥnḳt, n., beer; the was dropped out of the writing of this word for graphic reasons at an early stage.

ḥr, d., the falcon god Horus.

ḥr, (1) noun, face; (2) prep. w/suffixes, upon, in, at, from; (3) title, precedes the Golden Horus name in king's titulary; (4) conj., because.

ḥr n nbw, title, Horus of Gold, follows the Two Ladies name in king's titulary, ('22.4).


D-25

ḥr nb, prep. phrase serving as a pn., everyone, lit. "every face".

ḥr smr ẖt nbty nsw bìt, RN, The Horus 'Friend of the King's Body', Two Ladies, King of the Two Lands, Horus and Two Ladies' name of Semerkhet (1-7), ('22.4).

ḥr dn nsw bìt ḫ3sty, RN, The Horus Den, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, or possibly, King of the (Two) Uplands, (Two) Deserts, or (Two) Foreign Countries, Horus and nsw bìt names of Den (1-5), ('22.4).

ḥry, nisbe adj., above, ('34).

ḥry-wḏb, title, master of largess.

ḥry-š⋅f, d., "He-who-is-upon-his-lake", Arsaphes, the ram god of Herakleopolis, ('29.4).

ḥry-sšt3, title, master of the secrets, master of ceremonies/ceremonial gear.

ḥry-sšt3 m ḥwt-nṯr, title, master of the ceremonies of the temple, lit. "master of the secrets

of the temple", note honorific transposition.

ḥry-sšt3 n nb t3wy, title, privy to the secrets of the lord of the two lands, i.e. the king.

ḥry-tp '3, title, Nomarch, lit. "he who is above the great (ones)" or "he who is above the great chieftain".

ḥry-tp '3 n t3-wr, title, nomarch of the Thinite nome.

, ḥry-tp nḫb, title, mayor of Nekheb, note honorific transposition.

, ḥryw-š'y, pl. n., sand dwellers, lit. "those upon the sand", bedouin, (often used pejoratively).

ḥrty, v., travel overland.

ḥḥ, (1) d., the anthropomorphic god Heh personifying infinity; (2) no., 1,000,000.

ḥḥ n, adj., many.

ḥḥ n r npwt, adv. phrase, a million years, forever.

ḥḥ n sp, adv. phrase, often, many times.

ḥs, n., excrement.


D-26

ḥsì, v., praise (someone).

ḥsì t, inf., to praise/praising (someone), ('38).

ḥst, n., water pot.

, ḥḳ3, n., ruler (of a foreign land).

, ḥḳ3, n., ruler (of Egypt); a god.

ḥḳ3w ḫswt, n., Hyksos, lit. "rulers of foreign lands" (the Greek pronunciation approximates "hyksos"), name given to Dynasty 15 (1674-1567) which ruled from Avaris in the eastern Delta, ('33.4).

ḥḳr, v., be hungry.

ḥḳr, n., hungry man.

ḥknw, pl. n., sacred oil.

ḥt3, n., sail.

, ḥtp, (1) intrans. v., be pleased; be happy; be at peace; set (of the sun); (2) trans. v., satisfy; pacify;

(3) n., peace.

ḥtp m 'nḫ, (1) v., set of sun; (2) epithet, go to rest (a metaphor for "die" of persons), lit. "go down (as the sun)", "set in life".

ḥtp dì nsw, phrase, a favor which the king grants, a phrase which introduces the offering formula of the Egyptian funerary cult (the ordering and positioning of the signs in this expression can vary considerably), ('21.4), note honorific transposition.

ḥt-ḥr, d., Hathor, the cow goddess and symbolic mother of the pharaoh.

ḥḏt, n., the White Crown of Upper Egypt, ('20.4). CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

ḫ (Aa1)

ḫt, n., fire.

ḫt, (1) n., thing; (2) coll. n., things.

ḫt nb(t), prep. phrase serving as a n., everything.

ḫ3, no., 1,000.


D-27

ḫ3yt, n., disease.

ḫ3w nswt, n., the king's coronation, note honorific transposition.

ḫ3w, n., clothing, regalia, costume, ornaments.

, ḫ3wt, n., altar.

, ḫ3st, n., hill country, foreign land.

, ḫ3s(w)t, pl. n., hill countries, foreign lands.

ḫ' ì, v., appear in glory, rise (as the sun); make an (official) appearance (of the king).

ḫ' ì m mn-nfr, n., Appearing in Glory in Memphis, the name of a royal ship, ('35.4).

ḫ'-nfr, n. loc., "(Merenre)" Appears in Glory and Beauty, abbr. name for the pyramid of Merenre (6-4) at Sakkara, ('19.4).

ḫ' w, pl. n., weapons; funeral furniture; utensils.

ḫ wnì, PN, Khuni, ('40.2.G).

ḫbsw, pl. n., cultivated lands.

ḫf t, prep., in front of, face to face; opposite; as well as.

ḫf ty, n., enemy, lit. an "opponent".

, ḫpr, intrans. v., come into being, happen, exist.

, ḫprr, n., dung beetle.

ḫprš, n., the Blue Crown, war crown, ('20.4).

ḫpš, n., scimitar, battle ax.

ḫnt, prep., in front of; among; from; out of; pre-eminent.

ḫnt, n., face; joy.

ḫntì, v., sail upstream, sail southwards.

ḫnty ìmntyw, d., Khentyamentiu, lit. "Foremost of the Westerners", i.e. "the dead"; the original patron deity of the Abydos nome and separate from Osiris but later assimilated with him, ('27.4).


D-28

ḫnty(w)-š, n., tenants of the palace.

, ḫntš, v. take pleasure.

ḫr, prep., with; near; in the presence of.

ḫrw, n., voice, sound; abbr. in m3'-ḫrw.

, ḫrw, coll. n., enemy, lit. "fallen one".

ḫrp, v., govern, control, administer, be at the head of; make an offering, frequently abbr. in titles; see so 'b3 and sḫm.

, ḫrp k3(w)t, title, governor/controller/administrator of public works.

, , ḫsf, trans. v., drive away, ward off; oppose; meet (someone); punish.

ḫt, masc. n., wood; stick; tree.

ḫtw, pl. n., timbers, woodlands, trees.

, ḫtì, v., retire, retreat.

ḫt, prep., through, throughout.

ḫd, ḫdì, v., travel downstream, travel northwards.

ḫdìt, inf., to travel/traveling downstream, to travel/traveling northwards.


ẖ (F32)

ẖt, n., belly, body.

ẖt, coll., group (lit. "body") of gods or men.

ẖn-ìnw, pl. n., oxen ferry boats; wine transports, ('35.4).

ẖnì, v., row.

ẖnt, (1) inf. to row/rowing; (2) n. (water) procession.

ẖnw, n., interior; home, abode.


D-29

ẖnnw, n., turmoil, uproar, tumult.

ẖr, prep., under; with; in; at; carrying, bearing.

ẖr-ḥ3t, prep., in front of, before.

, , ẖry-ḥbt, title, lector priest, lit. "he who is under (i.e. carries) the ritual book", ('17.4).

ẖry-ḥt ìmy r npt, title, lector priest who is in the year (of duty).

ẖry-ḥbt ḥry-tp m nì wt⋅f, title, chief lector priest in his city.

ẖry-ḥbt smsw ìmy r npt, title, senior lector priest who is in the year (of duty).

ẖry-tp-nsw, title, chamberlain, royal attendant, lit. "he who is at the head of the king", note honorific transposition.

, ẖrd, n., child.

ẖrt-hrw, n., daytime, lit. "what belongs to the day"; the prescribed rituals performed during the day.

ẖrdw, n., childhood.

ẖs, n., vile.

ẖsy, n., vile.

ẖdb, v., kill. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

s, z (O34); s, Ñ (S29)

(Some authors use z for , some use Ñ for )

⋅s, 3rd pers. sg. fem. suffix pn., she, her, it; hers, its.

, s, n., man.

st, n., woman.

, , st, n., seat; throne; place.

st nt snḏm, n., dwelling place, lit. "place of sitting" or "place of rest".

, s3, n., back.


D-30

, s3, n., son.

s3 nsw, title, prince, lit. "son of the king", note honorific transposition.

s3 r ', titulary, son of Re, used before the royal nomen, ('22.4).

s3w, title, guardian, warden ('36.4).

s3w nḫn, title, warden of Nekhen, ('31.4, '36.4). See s3b ìry nḫn below.

s3w, (1) n., guard; (2) v., guard.

s3wt, inf. to guard/guarding.

s3wt, pl. n., walls.

s3b, title, dignitary (of unknown rank), worthy; often translated "judge". When prefixed to titles indicates "senior".

s3b ìry nḫn, title, senior warden for Nekhen, ('31.4, '36.4), most likely a different title from ìry nḫn, see s3w nḫn above.

s3b sš, title, senior scribe.

s3ḥ, v., kick; reach, arrive at; put to shore/land (from a ship).

s3ḫ(w), n., prayers, glorifications, lit. "making into an 3ḫ ", ('24.4).

, s3t, n., daughter, (f. form of s3, son.)

s3ṯ, n., an unknown type of boat, possibly a tow boat or barge, ('35.4).

s3ṯ '3 pḥt(y) ìssì r n⋅f, ship's name, the large boat called "The Power of Isesi", or the boat called "The Power of Isesi is Great", or possibly even the large boat called "The Power of Isesi is Great", ('35.4).

, sy, 3rd pers. sg. f. dep. pn., her, it, ('18.2).

sw, 3rd pers. m. dep. pn., him, it, ('18.2).

swt, conj., but.

, sb3, n., star.

sb3 t3wy, n., "The Star of the Two Lands", royal boat name in use over 1,000 years, ('35.4).


D-31

sb3, n., door, gate.

sb3, v., teach.

sbì, n., rebel.

sbh3, v., cause to retreat

sbḥ, v., cry, cry out.

sbk, d., the crocodile god Sobek.

sbt, v., laugh.

sp, n., time, occasion; fault; success.

, sp sn, adv., twice; sometimes used virtually as an exclamation point (!).

spr, v., arrive, reach, often with ; also "arrive in front of" or "arrive before" a place or town.

spr, n., rib.

spḥ, (1) v., lasso; (2) inf., to lasso/lassoing.

, spd, adj., skilled, lit. "sharp".

sm, n., deed; occupation, pastime; help, assistance.

sm, title, sm priest. See sm3, title below.

sm3, v., unite; with t3 in sm3-t3, reach land, i.e. be buried, land (a boat).

sm3, title, reading uncertain - possibly a stolist priest, ('35.3). See sm priest, title, above.

sm3, n., lung.

smì, v., report.

smìt, inf., to report/reporting.

smìt, n., desert; necropolis; note that the m has been omitted, probably for graphical reasons.

smr, n., friend (of the king), courtier. Often simply as in smr-w' ty below.


D-32

smr(w), pl. n., courtiers.

, smr w' ty, title, Sole/Unique Friend (of the King).

smr ẖt, title, friend, courtier, possibly "Friend of (the God's) Body", ('22.4).

, sn, (1) 3rd pers. pl. c. suffix pn., they, their, ('12.2); (2) 3rd pers. pl. c. dep. pn., them, ('19.2).

sn, n., brother.

snwy, dual n., two brothers.

sn, v., smell, kiss.

, snb, v., be healthy; abbr. in 'nḫ wḏ3 snb, royal epithet, may he live, be prosperous and well.

snb(t), n., jar.

snt, n., sister (f. form of sn, brother).

snty, dual n., two sisters.

snḏm, v., sit, be seated; rest. See st nt snḏm above.

sr, n., nobleman, magistrate, official.

sryt, n., military standard.

sr ḫ, n., temple or palace facade, ('22.4).

srḳt , d,. the scorpion goddess.

sḥ, n., booth; hall.

sḥ, n., council; counsel.

sḫtyw, pl. n., field workers.

, sḫtyw (ìm), sḫtyw ìm, n., one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) who were located in the north, possibly seafaring people from the eastern waters of the Mediterranean ranging from the coast of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete, ('37.4).

sḫ3, v., mention.


D-33

sḫpr, v., bring into being, create, make.

, sḫm, n., powerful one, superior; abbr. in titles , see also ' b3, ḫrp.

sḫm, adj., powerful.

sḫmty, n., the Double Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, lit. "the powerful ones", ('20.4). Note the parallel strokes to indicate duality.

sḫr, n., plan, counsel, determination; governance; conduct; fashion, nature; custom.

sḫr, v., overthrow, lit. cause to fall.

sḫrt, inf., to overthrow/overthrowing.

, sḫt, n. marshland; field; country.

, ssm(t), ssmt, n., horse, a Semitic loan word.

sš, v., write.

sš, v., pass; spread out; post sentries.

, sš, n., scribe.

sš pr-'nḫ, title, librarian of temple archives, lit. "scribe of the House of Life".

sš nswt, title, scribe of the king, note honorific transposition.

, , sšm, v., lead, guide.

sšm, n., procedure.

sšr, n. cloth.

sšt3, (1) n., secret; (2) adj., secret.

sḳr, v., smite.

sḳr-'nḫ, n., captive, lit. "be smitten alive".

sk, skì, v., wipe, wipe out.

skì, v., perish.


D-34

skr, d., the hawk god Sokar, the original chief god of the Memphite necropolis, perhaps the derivation of the modern place name Sakkara.

, st, 3rd pers. sg. f. dep. pn., it, them, ('18.2).

, , st, n., seat, place.

stt, n., one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) who were located in the northeast, perhaps bedouins of Asia, ('37.4). In the New Kingdom may have referred to Naharin, cf. mntyw nw stt and mntyw nw sṯt above and sṯt below.

sṯt, n., one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) who were located in the northeast, perhaps bedouins of Asia, ('37.4). In the New Kingdom may have referred to Naharin, cf. mntyw nw sṯt, mntyw nw stt and stt above.

sḏ3w, title, seal bearer (of the king).

sḏ3wty, title, treasurer.

sḏm, (1) v., hear; (2) inf. to hear/hearing. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

š (N37)

š rsy, n. loc., the Southern Lake, or Faiyum, ('29.4).

š3, n. country.

š3rḥ3n, šrḥn, n. loc., a border garrison town located about 25 km. south of the city of Gaza and 25 km. east of the Mediterranean Sea.

, , š3tyw, š3t(yw), one of the traditional enemies of Egypt (included in the Nine Bows) who were located in northern Nubia and south of the ìwntyw sty, ('37.4).

šw, v., be empty, devoid, missing.

šwbty, n., figurine to serve in the after life, ('9.4).

šwt, n., shadow, shade.

šfdw, n., papyrus roll.

, šm, v., go.

šmt, inf., to go/going.

, , šm'w, n. loc., Upper Egypt.


D-35

šmw, n., The Season of "Lack of Water (?)" or The Season of "Heat" (?), when the harvesting took place (mid-March C mid- July), ('10.4).

, , , 3bd 1 šmw, 3bd 2 šmw, 3bd 3 šmw, 3bd 4 šmw, n., the first month of the Season of Lack of Water, the second month ..... , etc.

šms, v., follow, accompany.

šmsw, pl. n., followers.

šn, n., tree.

, šnì, v., encircle.

šny, n., hair.

, šn', v., repel.

, šn', n., warehouse.

šnw, n., circuit.

, šrìt, n., daughter; abbr. .

šrt, n., nose, nostril.

šs, n., alabaster.

šs, n., rope, cord.

šsr, n., arrow.

št3, adj., difficult; hidden, secret; mysterious.

šdw, n., water-skin.


ḳ, q (N29)

(Some authors use q for )

ḳ3, adj., tall.

ḳ3b, n., intestine.

ḳ3ḳ3w, n., a type of boat, ('35.4).


D-36

ḳ'ḥ, n., bend (in a river), lit. "elbow (in a river)"; corner, out-of-the-way place.

ḳbb, (1) v., cool; (2) adj. cool.

ḳbḥ, v., libate, purify.

ḳbḥw, adj., purified.

ḳbḥw, n. loc., "(Shepseskaf)" is Purified, abbr. name of the giant, sarcophagus-shaped mastaba of Shepseskaf (4-7, 2504-2500) at Sakkara, ('19.4).

ḳm3, v. throw.

, , ḳn3, ḳny, n. loc., Qina, a brook in central Israel (Upper r ṯnw) south of Megiddo.

ḳn(ì), n., adj. brave, capable, powerful.

ḳr ḥt, n., vessel.

ḳr sw, n., coffin, sarcophagus.

, ḳd, n., form; character, reputation (of a person).

, ḳd, v., build.

ḳd, n., builder.

ḳdšw, n. loc., Kadesh, a city located on the Orontes River in southwest Syria (Lower r ṯnw), site of the famous battle c. 1296 BCE between Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) in Year 5 of his reign and the Hittite king Muwatallis.


k (V31)

( , reversed form indicates original written in hieratic)

⋅k, 2nd pers. sg. m. suffix pn., you, your, ('11.2, '13.2).

k3, d., spirit, soul, ('24.4).

k3, n., bull.

k3š, n. loc., Cush, a part of Nubia.


D-37

k3t, n., work, construction.

ky, m. adj., other, ('25.2).

kywy, m. pl. adj., others, ('25.2).

kftyw, n. loc., Crete, an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea bordering the western Aegean Sea.

kmt, n. loc., Egypt, lit. "the black land".

kt, f. sg. and pl. adj., other, ('25.2).

ktt, f. sg. and pl. adj., little.


g (W11)

gb3, n., arm.

gm, gmì, v., find.

gmt, inf., to find/finding.

gmt, n. black ibis. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC t (X1)

t, n., bread.

t3, (1) f. sg. demonstrative adj., this, ('24.1); (2) later as f. def. article (from Dynasty 13 on), the, ('36.3).

t3, f. sg. demonstrative adj., this (frequently in this form in horizontal representation), ('24.3).

, t3, n., earth, land.

t3-wr, n. loc., 8th nome of Upper Egypt, Thinis (This), located about 450 km. south of the Delta and

about 100 km. north of Thebes (modern Luxor), ('26.4).


D-38

, , t3-mḥw, n. loc., the land of Lower Egypt, the Delta.

t3 ḥryw-š', n. loc., the land of the sand dwellers.

t3 st(ì), n. loc., the land of stì (Nubia); the first nome of Upper Egypt.

, , t3-šm'w, n. loc., the land of Upper Egypt, i.e. south of the Delta.

, , t3yt, n., curtain, shroud.

, t3ty, title, a high official, vizier, chief judge, lit. "He of the Curtain".

, t3'n3k, n. loc., Taanach, a city in central Israel (Retjenu, rṯnw) about 1

day's march southeast of Megiddo.

t3wy, n. loc., the Two Lands, i.e. Upper and Lower Egypt.

t3w, pl. n., lands.

t3š, n. frontier, boundary.

t3š kmt, n. loc., frontier, lit. "the boundary of Egypt".

tw, (1) f. sg. demonstrative adj., this, ('24.1); (2) also a common writing for the m. sg. dep. pn. ṯw, you, ('18.2); (3) indef. pn., one.

tp, n., head.

tp-r npt, n., feast of the first of the year

tpy, (1) n., chief; (2) adj. principal, first.

tf, f. sg. demonstrative adj., that, ('24.1).

tn, f. sg. demonstrative adj., this, ('24.1).

tnì, v., grow old.

, , tr, n., time, season.

tḫn, n., obelisk.

tḫnwy, dual n., two obelisks.


D-39


ṯ (V13)

⋅ṯ, 2nd pers. sg. f. suffix pn., you, your, ('11.2, '13.2).

, ṯ3y, n., male, man.

, ṯ3w, n., wind, breath, air.

ṯ3ty, title, vizier.

ṯ w, 2nd pers. sg. m. dep. pn., you, commonly written , ('18.2).

ṯ n, 2nd pers. sg. f. dep. pn., you, ('18.2).

ṯ n, 2nd pers. pl. c. dep. pn., you, ('19.2)

⋅ṯ n, 2nd pers. pl. c. suffix pn., you, your, ('12.2).

ṯ nì, n., old man.

ṯ ḥnw, n., a people living to the west of Egypt and included in the Nine Bows, ('37.4).

ṯs, v., tie.

ṯswt, pl. n., troops.

ṯst, coll. n., troop(s), gang (of workmen). CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

d (D46)

d3bw, pl. n., figs.

dì, v., give, see rdì above.

, , dw3t, n., the underworld, the netherworld.

, db, n., horn, wing of an army.

dbn, n., a unit of weight approximating 910 grams (2 lbs).

dpt, n., boat, ship.

dmì, v., touch.


D-40

dmì, n., town; quay, lit. "the place where a boat touches".

dmìt, inf., to touch/touching.

dn, RN, (the Horus) Den (1-5), King of the two deserts, ('22.4).

dḥr, n., hide, skin, leather.

dšrwy, dual adj., red.

dšrt, n., the Red Crown.

, dšrt, n., the Red Land, i.e. the desert.


ḏ (I10)

ḏ3, ḏ3ì, v., ferry (someone) across the water.

ḏyt, n., papyrus marsh.

ḏ w(t), adj., n., evil.

ḏb3, v., clothe (someone or a statue), adorn; exchange.

ḏr, prep., since, before, until.

ḏrw, n., boundary, end, limit.

, , , ḏḥwty, d., the ibis god Thoth, who presided over scribes, writing, knowledge, mathematics, learning, and medicine. Also associated with the moon.

ḏḥwty-ms, RN-nomen, Thutmosis, lit. "Thoth is born".

ḏsr, adj., holy.

, ḏsr ḏsrw, n., holy of holies or inner sanctuary of a temple.

ḏd, v., say.

ḏd, n., djed column (perhaps representing the spine of Osiris), a symbol of stability and duration.

ḏd swt, n. loc., "(Teti)" is Enduring of Places, abbr. name for the pyramid of Teti (6-1, 2345-2333) at Sakkara, ('19.4).


D-41

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC Numerals

1 10 100 2 20 , 200 3 30 300 4 , 40 , 400 5 , 50 , , 500 , , 6 60 600 7 , 70 , 700 , 8 80 800 9 90 900 1,000 10 by 10


E-1

Appendix E

WHERE SIGN FIRST DESWHERE SIGN FIRST DESWHERE SIGN FIRST DESWHERE SIGN FIRST DESCRIBEDCRIBEDCRIBEDCRIBED SIGN NUMBERSIGN NUMBERSIGN NUMBERSIGN NUMBER

1111 –––– CHAPTER NUMBERCHAPTER NUMBERCHAPTER NUMBERCHAPTER NUMBER

Sect. A. Man and his OccupationsSect. A. Man and his OccupationsSect. A. Man and his OccupationsSect. A. Man and his Occupations 1-4 2-7 6-9 7-24 9-20 12-4 13-40 15-24 17-11 19-19 21-4 24-13 27-38 28-21 35-37 40-18 41-23 42-38 45-38 46-38 47-36 48-34 50-21 53-9 Sect. B. Woman and her Occupations Sect. B. Woman and her Occupations Sect. B. Woman and her Occupations Sect. B. Woman and her Occupations 1-4 3-37 Sect. C. Anthropomorphic DeitiSect. C. Anthropomorphic DeitiSect. C. Anthropomorphic DeitiSect. C. Anthropomorphic Deitieseseses 10-32 11-25 19-16 20-16 Sect. D. Parts of the Human BodySect. D. Parts of the Human BodySect. D. Parts of the Human BodySect. D. Parts of the Human Body 1-17 2-23 3-38 4-8 19-38 21-2 28-20 33-35 34-19 34*-22 35-34 36-2 37-13 38-31 40-16 41-38 42-23 45-37 46-2 52-23 53-23 54-13 55-27 56-8 58-2 60-9 Sect. E. MammalsSect. E. MammalsSect. E. MammalsSect. E. Mammals 1-23 3-40 6-29 17-31 18-36 20-22 23-31 30-8 34-27 Sect. F. Parts of MammalsSect. F. Parts of MammalsSect. F. Parts of MammalsSect. F. Parts of Mammals 4-26 9-35 12-37 13-36 16-36 18-40 20-20 21-7 22-17 26-17 27-40 30-40 31-34 32-5 34-28 35-5 36-36 39-37 40-6 42-28 46-29 47-29 48-29 49-29 51-29 52-34

1 Based on EG 3, pp. 442-548.


E-2

Sect. G. BirdsSect. G. BirdsSect. G. BirdsSect. G. Birds 1-2 4-26 5-22 8-37 10-35 14-11 15-32 16-22 17-2 21-21 25-24 26-37 27-20 28-17 29-6 35-40 36-8 37-8 38-8 39-6 40-14 41-12 43-3 47-15 Sect. H. Parts of BirdsSect. H. Parts of BirdsSect. H. Parts of BirdsSect. H. Parts of Birds 6-7 7-37 Sect. I. Sect. I. Sect. I. Sect. I. Amphibious Animals, Reptiles, etc.Amphibious Animals, Reptiles, etc.Amphibious Animals, Reptiles, etc.Amphibious Animals, Reptiles, etc. 5*-29 6-23 9-5 10-2 12-22 13-22 Sect. K. Sect. K. Sect. K. Sect. K. Fishes and Parts of FishesFishes and Parts of FishesFishes and Parts of FishesFishes and Parts of Fishes 1-12 3-38 Sect. L. Invertebrata and Lesser Animals Sect. L. Invertebrata and Lesser Animals Sect. L. Invertebrata and Lesser Animals Sect. L. Invertebrata and Lesser Animals 1-7 2-22 7-27 Sect. M. Trees and PlantsSect. M. Trees and PlantsSect. M. Trees and PlantsSect. M. Trees and Plants 1-11 2-8 3-11 4-22 5-22 6-22 8-9 12-6 13-19 14-21 15-32 16-32 17-2 18-16 20-37 22-24 23-6 24-29 26-7 27-7 29-31 36-34 40-34 41-34 42-40 43-17 44-22 Sect. N. Sky, Earth, WaterSect. N. Sky, Earth, WaterSect. N. Sky, Earth, WaterSect. N. Sky, Earth, Water 1-7 5-4 7-4 11-10 12-10 14-10 15-27 16-7 17-7 18-24 20-34 21-28 22-34 23-10 24-7 25-12 26-23 27-32 28-12 29-5 31-12 33-7 (33)-9 35-2 (35)-3 36-10 37-2 40-13 41-23 42-40 Sect. O. Buildings, Parts of Buildings, etc.Sect. O. Buildings, Parts of Buildings, etc.Sect. O. Buildings, Parts of Buildings, etc.Sect. O. Buildings, Parts of Buildings, etc. 1-4 2-4 4-3 6-20 10-37 16-39 22-34 23-34 24-19 25-2 28-37 29-6 31-27 33-22 34-2 36-4 39-20 44-23 45-23 46-31 47-31 48-31 49-12 50-25


E-3

Sect. P. Ships and Parts of ShipsSect. P. Ships and Parts of ShipsSect. P. Ships and Parts of ShipsSect. P. Ships and Parts of Ships 1-4 2-35 3-35 4-35 5-33 6-35 7-35 8-7 Sect. Q. Domestic and Funerary FurnitureSect. Q. Domestic and Funerary FurnitureSect. Q. Domestic and Funerary FurnitureSect. Q. Domestic and Funerary Furniture 1-18 2-38 3-2 6-19 7-16 Sect. R. Temple Furniture and Sacred EmblemsSect. R. Temple Furniture and Sacred EmblemsSect. R. Temple Furniture and Sacred EmblemsSect. R. Temple Furniture and Sacred Emblems

1-30 4-7 8-9 11-18 12-27 13-27 14-27 15-33 17-26 18-26 19-37 Sect. S. Crowns, DrSect. S. Crowns, DrSect. S. Crowns, DrSect. S. Crowns, Dress, Staves, etc.ess, Staves, etc.ess, Staves, etc.ess, Staves, etc. 1-20 3-20 5-20 7-20 8-20 12-9 15-B7 19-26 22-37 24-16 25-20 28-12 29-2 34-7 35-38 36-38 38-23 39-31 40-37 42-20 44-38 45-38 Sect. T. Warfare, Hunting, ButcherySect. T. Warfare, Hunting, ButcherySect. T. Warfare, Hunting, ButcherySect. T. Warfare, Hunting, Butchery 1-22 3-4 9-37 9*-37 10-37 (Aa32)-37 11-40 13-38 14-22 15-37 16-38 17-38 18-38 21-28 22-10 25-35 28-4 31-33 32-33 Sect. U. Agriculture, Crafts, and ProfessionsSect. U. Agriculture, Crafts, and ProfessionsSect. U. Agriculture, Crafts, and ProfessionsSect. U. Agriculture, Crafts, and Professions 1-7 2-13 3-32 4-7 6-15 7-15 8-35 13-34 19-8 20-8 21-8 23-8 26-38 28-8 29-23 30-23 33-31 34-27 35-27 36-14 Sect. V. Rope, Fiber, Baskets, Bags, etc.Sect. V. Rope, Fiber, Baskets, Bags, etc.Sect. V. Rope, Fiber, Baskets, Bags, etc.Sect. V. Rope, Fiber, Baskets, Bags, etc. 1-26 4-9 6-40 7-38 9-19 10-19 12-24 13-5

15-13 19-23 20-23 22-23 24-34 26-35 27-35 28-5 29-35 30-6 31-5 31*-27 32-34 38-34 Sect. W. Vessels of Stone and EarthenwareSect. W. Vessels of Stone and EarthenwareSect. W. Vessels of Stone and EarthenwareSect. W. Vessels of Stone and Earthenware 3-17 4-34 5-17 6-34 7-34 10-20 11-5 14-19 15-19 17-26 18-26 19-6 22-30 23-39 24-8 25-36


E-4

Sect. X. Loaves and CakesSect. X. Loaves and CakesSect. X. Loaves and CakesSect. X. Loaves and Cakes 1-2 2-7 3-30 6-30 8-13 Sect. Y. Writings, Games, MusicSect. Y. Writings, Games, MusicSect. Y. Writings, Games, MusicSect. Y. Writings, Games, Music 1-4 2-34 3-13 5-8 Sect. Z. Strokes, Signs Derived from Hieratic, Geometrical FiguresSect. Z. Strokes, Signs Derived from Hieratic, Geometrical FiguresSect. Z. Strokes, Signs Derived from Hieratic, Geometrical FiguresSect. Z. Strokes, Signs Derived from Hieratic, Geometrical Figures 2222 1-4 2-9 3-9 (N33)-9 4-9 7-12 8-38 9-18 10-34 11-34 Sect. Aa. UnclassifiedSect. Aa. UnclassifiedSect. Aa. UnclassifiedSect. Aa. Unclassified 3333 1-2 2-34 7-40 11-7 13-32 17-32 25-35 27-36 28-37 32-37

2 See N33. 3 See T10.


F-1

Appendix F ANSWERS TO EXERCISESANSWERS TO EXERCISESANSWERS TO EXERCISESANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2.62.62.62.6 1. ìnb, wall 6. nḏs, common man 11. ìpt, Ipt 2. bìt, bread 7. rḫt, knowledge 12. ḫt, thing 3. pìpì, Pepi 8. ḫt, thing 13. dpt, boat 4. mš', army 9. s, man 14. tḫn, obelisk 5. tḫn, obelisk 10. st, woman 15. n't, expedition

3.63.63.63.6 1. nḏsw, common men 6. nhwt, sycamore fig trees 11. st, woman 2. mš'w, army(s) 7. tḫnw, obelisks 12. nht, sycamore fig tree 3. srw, officials 8. ḫwt, things 13. sr, official 4. dpwt, ships 9. bìwt, bread (pl) 14. dpt, ship 5. ìnb, wall 10. mw, water 15. ìnbw, walls 4.64.64.64.6 1. ìnb, wall 9. ḫt, thing 2. r, Logo. mouth 10. nḏsw, poor men 3. mḏ3t, Logo. papyrus roll, book 11. tḫn, obelisk 4. bìt, bread 12. mš', army 5. ẖrt-hrw, ritual of the day 13. mw, water 6. ' , the sound 'ah' 14. pr-ḥḏ, treasury 7. sr, official 15. tḫn, obelisk 8. pr, Logo. house


F-2

5.65.65.65.6 1. ky, other (m) 9. r', sun; hrw, day, daytime 2. r, Logo. mouth 10. fdw, the number 4 3. ẖrt-hrw, ritual of the day 11. gmt, black ibis 4. ẖt, body 12. ntṯ, you (f) 5. nhwt, sycamore fig trees 13. sr, Logo. official 6. ntk, you (m) 14. ḥbs, clothes 7. mš'w, army(s) 15. ḳ3ḳ3w, boat (boat type referred to as a ḳ3ḳ3w boat) 8. pr-ḥḏ, treasury 6.66.66.66.6 1. pr-'3, great house 9. ḥbsw, clothing 2. b3kw, servants (m) 10. s3, son 3. bìt, bread 11. swt, but 4. ntk, you (m) 12. ẖt, body 5. nbt, lady 13. s3t, daughter 6. nht ḫ3, 1,000 sycamore fig trees 14. mw, water 7. mìt, copy of a document 15. tḫn fdw, 4 obelisks 8. 3w, long 7.67.67.67.6 1. m3'-ḫrw, deceased 9.'nḫ, life 2. t, loaf 10. mìt, copy of a document 3. ḥtp, altar 11. nfr, beauty 4. s3t, daughter 12. sḏm, hear 5. ẖrt-hrw, ritual of the day 13. m pr-'3, in the palace 6. t3, land 14. m3't, truth 7. šm'w, Upper Egypt 15. ḫprr, dung beetle 8. r' m pt, the sun is in the sky


F-3

8.68.68.68.6 1. mš', army 11. s3t, daughter 2. dpt ḫ3, 1,000 ships 12. b3kt, woman servant 3. tḫn, obelisk 13. bìn, evil, bad 4. sr, official 14. mnt, thigh 5. pr-ḥḏ, treasury 15. mnt, daily 6. inb, wall 16. nḏs, commoner, wretch 7. ẖrt-hrw, ritual of the day 17. ḥns, narrow 8. r', sun; hrw, day, daytime 18. ḥḳr, the hungry (one) 9. b3k, man servant 19. mnt, swallow 10. s3, son 20. 3ḳ, perish 9.69.69.69.6 1. b3kw, men servants 12. sr(w), officials 2. dp(w)t, boats 13. rḫt, knowledge 3. nḏs(w), commoners 14. n't, expedition 4. ḥḳr, hungry 15. t3-šm'w, the land of Upper Egypt 5. mš'w, armies 16. ḥḳr, the hungry (man), the hungry (one) 6. nṯrw, gods 17. mw, water 7. mr, ill 18. nht, sycamore fig tree 8. ḥtp m 'nḫ, deceased 19. ẖt, body 9. nṯr, god 20. ky, other (m) 10. t3, land 21. pr, house 11. pr(w) houses 22. nṯrw, gods


F-4

10.610.610.610.6 1. nṯrwy, two gods 11. ntṯ, you (f) 2. snw, brothers 12. pìpì, Pepi 3. pr(w), houses 13. snwt, sisters 4. b3kty, two servants (f) 14. rdwy, feet (two is understood) 5. nfr(w), beauty (pl) 15. b3k m pr, the servant is in the house 6. tḫnwy, two obelisks 16. ẖrt-hrw, daily ritual 7. prt, The Season of Sowing 17. t3wy, the two lands, i.e. Egypt 8. m3'-ẖrw, deceased 18. mḏ3t, papyrus roll 9. nw, hunter 19. šmw, The Season of the Harvest 10. gmt, black ibis 20. nbt, lady 11.611.611.611.6 1. mwt⋅ì, my mother 11. nb⋅f, his lord 2. prwy⋅k, your (m) two houses 12. šw, empty 3. dp(w)t⋅s, her ships 13. ẖrdw⋅k, your (m) children 4. ḫ(w)t⋅ṯ, your (f) things 14. mnt, daily 5. mḏ3t⋅ì, my document 15. nht⋅k, your (m) sycamore fig tree 6. ẖt⋅f, his body 16. nḏs, common man, wretch 7. ḥbs⋅ì, my (f) clothing 17. mš'⋅f, his army 8. s3⋅ṯ, your (f) son 18. prt, The Season of Sowing 9. b3kwy⋅s, her two male servants 19. nṯrw, gods 10. b3kty⋅f, his two female servants 20. nbt⋅ì, my lady


F-5

12.612.612.612.6 1. prwy⋅ṯn, your two houses 11. nht⋅ṯn, your sycamore fig tree 2. ḫ' w⋅sn, their weapons 12. ḥbs⋅s, her clothing 3. mḏ3t⋅ṯ, your papyrus roll 13. r⋅k, your mouth 4. ìrty⋅f, his (two) eyes 14. snw⋅ì, my brothers 5. nìwt⋅ì, my city 15. ìt⋅n, our father 6. 3ḫt, The Season of Inundation 16. t3⋅sn, their land 7. n' t⋅n, our expedition 17. b3kw⋅k, your servants (m) 8. rḫt⋅k, your knowledge 18. pr⋅ì, my house 9. mṯn(w)⋅sn, their roads 19. snt⋅f, his sister 10. ḥḳr, , , , the hungry (one) 20. ẖrdw⋅n, our children 13.613.613.613.6 1. sš⋅ì, I write, will write**** 11. ìt⋅ì m pr⋅f, My father is in his house. 2. rdì⋅k, you give, will give**** 12. 3ḳ⋅f, he perishes**** 3. m33⋅s, she sees, will see**** 13. nb⋅k, your lord 4. sš⋅n, we write, will write**** 14. s3⋅ì m dpt⋅ṯ, My son is in your boat. 5. rdI⋅ṯn, you give**** 15. ḏd⋅ì, I say**** 6. m33⋅sn, they see**** 16. mìt⋅ì, my copy of a document 7. ìṯ⋅ṯ, you take**** 17. šm⋅f, he goes**** 8. (r)dì⋅sn, they give**** 18. pr ḫ3, 1,000 houses 9. nht⋅ì, my sycamore fig tree 19. mwt⋅n m nìwt⋅s, Our mother is in her city. 10. prt, The Season of Sowing 20. rdì⋅sn, they give**** * Either the present or future tense is possible for such verbs, the correct translation depends on context.


F-6

14.614.614.614.6 1. m33 ḥm⋅f, His Majesty sees 11. wbn r', The sun rises. 2. sḏm⋅k, you hear 12. ìnb⋅ṯ, your wall 3. šmw, The Season of Harvest 13. ḫd dpt⋅f, His boat travels downstream. 4. bìn, evil 14. šm nḏs, the commoner goes 5. r' m pt, The sun is in the sky. 15. ḏd pìpì. Pepi says 6. ẖd n't, The expedition travels downstream 16. mnt⋅f, his thigh 7. t3wy, the two lands 17. m33 b3k⋅k your servant sees 8. ḏd st, the woman says 18. nìwt⋅ì, my city 9. 3ḳ mš'w, the army perishes 19. ḏd ḥm⋅f, His Majesty says 10. sḏm ìpt, Ipt hears 20. m3'-ḫrw, deceased 15.615.615.615.6 1. ḏd⋅n⋅f, he said 11. wbn r', The sun rises. 2. m33⋅n⋅s, she saw 12. tḫn⋅ì, my obelisk 3. pr⋅n ḥm⋅f, His Majesty went out. 13. (r)dI⋅n ḥm⋅f, the king gave 4. rdì⋅n nb⋅ì, my lord gave 14, pr⋅n⋅n, We went out. 5. sš sš, the scribe writes 15. ḥtp m 'nḫ, deceased 6. ḏd⋅n (srw), the officials said 16. pr⋅n, our house 7. t3⋅n, our land 17. šm⋅n s3⋅ì, My son went out. 8. ẖd⋅n n't, The expedition sailed downstream 18. ḫbsw⋅sn, their cultivated lands 9. šm⋅n⋅ì, I went 19. ìṯ⋅n b3kt, the maid took 10. mr⋅n st, the woman loved 20. sḏm⋅n ṯ3ty, the vizier heard


F-7

16.616.616.616.6 1. ìṯ⋅n sr b3kty⋅ṯ, The official seized your two maid servants. 2. ìr⋅n ḥm⋅f tḫn, His Majesty made an obelisk. 3. ìr⋅n ṯ3ty mṯn, The vizier made a road. 4. sḫpr⋅n b3k⋅k ḫt, Your servant made the fire. 5. ìp⋅n ḥm⋅f mš'(w), His Majesty counted the army. 6. pr⋅n nw, The hunter went out. 7. ḫd⋅n ẖrdw⋅ṯn, Your children traveled northward. 8. h3b sš mìt, The scribe will send a copy of the document. 9. ìr⋅n (I)t⋅ì pr⋅ì, My father made my house. 17.617.617.617.6 1. m33⋅k pr⋅k, You will see your home. 6. mr⋅n ìt⋅ì mwt⋅ì, My father loved my mother. 2. sḫpr⋅n⋅ì ḫt, I made a fire. 7. ìr⋅n ṯs(w)t mṯn, The troops made a road. 3. prt, The Season of Sowing (Winter) 8. ìt⋅ṯ sn, You will take them. 4. ìp⋅n⋅f ṯs(w)t, He counted the troops. 9. sḏm⋅s sr, She hears the official. 5. šm⋅n⋅f, He went out. 10. gm⋅n⋅ì sn⋅s, I found her brother. 18.618.618.618.6 1. sḏm⋅f wì, He hears me. 11. ìt⋅n⋅ṯn sy, You took her/it. 2. pḥ⋅n⋅sn sw, They reached him/it. 12. ḥbs⋅n, our clothing 3. b3kw⋅ṯ, your servants 13. ḫ3st⋅s, her country 4. ḏ3⋅n⋅k sw, You ferried him/it across. 14. m33⋅f st, He sees her/it. 5. mr⋅i ṯn, I love you. 15. mr⋅n⋅s ṯ w, She loved you. 6. ẖrt-hrw, daily ritual 16. ḫbsw⋅sn, their cultivated lands 7. rdì⋅n⋅k sw, You gave it. 17. sḏm⋅n⋅n sy, We heard her/it. 8. wšb⋅n⋅ì st, I answered her/it. 18. rdì⋅n⋅n sw, We gave it. 9. wsìr, Osiris 19. ìṯ⋅n⋅f wì, He took me. 10. snwt⋅ì, my sisters 20. m33⋅n⋅ì ṯn, I saw you.


F-8

19.6 19.6 19.6 19.6 1. m33⋅ì sn, I see them. 12. s3t⋅k, your daughter 2. šm⋅n⋅ṯn, You went ... 13. 'ḫ3⋅f n, He fights us. 3. 'nḫ wḏ3 snb, may he live, be healthy, and prosperous; abbr. l.p.h. 4. mr⋅sn wì, They love me. 14. ìṯ⋅ì ṯn, I will take you. 5. 'ḥ3⋅n⋅n sn, We fought them. 15. m3't, truth 6. pr-'3, palace 16. m33⋅n⋅ṯ sn, You saw them. 7. ḫd⋅n ḥm⋅f, His Majesty traveled downstream. 8. h3b⋅ṯ sw, You will send him. 17. ḏd⋅n ṯ3ty, The vizier said ... 9. ḥtp m 'nḫ, deceased 18. wsìr, Osiris 10. sḏm⋅n⋅n ṯn , We heard you. 19. ḳ3ḳ3w⋅sn, their kakaw boats 11. (r)dI⋅n⋅f sn, He gave them ... 20. sḏm⋅ì sn, I hear them. 20.620.620.620.6 1. h3b ṯw ìt⋅s, Her father sends you. 2. mr⋅n mwt⋅n mwt⋅s, Our mother loved her mother. 3. m33⋅k sn, You will see them. 4. šḏm⋅n sn⋅ì ẖrdw⋅f, My brother heard his children. 5. ḏd⋅n st nṯr, The god said it. 6. mr⋅n ṯn ìt⋅ì, My father loved you. 7. ḏ3⋅n sw sš, The scribe ferried him across. 8. ḏ3⋅n⋅f wì, He ferried me across. 9. ḏ3⋅n⋅f ìmy-r nìwt, He ferried across the mayor of the city. 10. 'ḥ3⋅n sn ìmy-r mš'w, The general fought them. 11. wšb sn snty⋅f, The brother answers his two sisters. 12. pḥ⋅k ẖnw, You will reach home. 13. sḫpr⋅n⋅ì ḫt, I made a fire. 14. ìp⋅n sn sr, The official counted them. 15. h3b⋅n ṯ3ty mìt, The vizier sent a copy of the document. 16. šm ḥm⋅f, His Majesty will go. 17. rdì⋅n⋅ì sw, I gave it. 18. rdì st ḥm⋅f, His Majesty gives it. 19. sḏm⋅n⋅ì ḫrw⋅f, I head his voice. 20. ìṯ⋅n⋅ì sn, I took them.


F-9

21.621.621.621.6 1. 'ḥ3⋅n ḥm⋅f ḫs(w)t ẖst, His Majesty fought the evil countries. 2. sḏm⋅f ḫrw⋅ṯ, He hears your voice. 3. ìt⋅sn nfr, their good father 4. sḏm⋅n nbt b3k(w)t bInt, The lady heard her bad servants. 5. ìṯ b3kw ẖrd(w)⋅k, The servants will take your children. 6. st nfrt, the beautiful woman 7. m33⋅ì nht ḳ3t, I see the tall sycamore fig tree. 8. s3w⋅s '3w, her great sons 9. ì3š⋅n ṯ3ty nḏsw, The vizier summoned the commoners. 10. h3b⋅n sr ìḳr sš, The clever official sent the scribe. 11. h3b⋅n sr sš ìḳr, The official sent the clever scribe. 12. ì3š⋅n sy ìmy-r ḥwt, The overseer of the estate summoned her. 13. m33⋅n⋅ì ḫ'-nfr, I saw the pyramid "(Merenre)" Appears in Glory and Beauty. 14. mr⋅n⋅sn s3⋅s nfr, They loved her good son. 22.622.622.622.6 1. ḏ3⋅n⋅f s3t⋅f ktt, He ferried across his small daughter. 2. sḏm⋅n nṯr ḫrw, The god heard the voice. 3. rnpy s3t⋅sn, Their daughter is young. 4. ḥns mṯn, The road is narrow. 5. 'ḥ3⋅n ḥm⋅f nḥsyw ẖs(w), His Majesty fought the vile Nubians. 6. gm ⋅n ⋅ì pr⋅k, I found your house. 7. ì3š⋅n wì ìmy-r ḥm-nṯr, The overseer of priests summoned me. 8. sḫpr⋅n b3k⋅k nfr ḫt, Your good (man) servant made a fire. 9. ìr⋅n st b3k(w)t⋅k nfrt, Your good (maid) servant did it. 10. mr⋅n⋅ì ìt⋅ì nfr, I loved my good father. 11. sš⋅n sw sš ìḳr, The excellent scribe wrote him. 12. h3b⋅n sš nsw mḏ3t, The royal scribe sent the papyrus roll. 13. pr⋅n ḥm-nṯr, The priest went out. 14. spd ⋅sn, They are sharp. 15. ìr⋅n ẖm⋅f mn-'nḫ, His Majesty made the pyramid "(Pepi)" is Established and Living.


F-10

23.623.623.623.6 1. ḥm-nṯr n nìwt⋅f, the ḥm-nṯr priest of his pyramid city 2. mr ṯw ẖrd⋅k, Your child loves you. 3. nìwt nt nḥḥ, the city of eternity 4. ẖrt sšt3 n nbty, the keeper of the secrets of the Two Ladies 5. h3b ṯ3ty dp(w)t, The vizier sends the boats. 6. ì3s⋅n sr sš ìḳr, The official summoned the excellent scribe. 7. pḥ⋅n⋅n w3w3t, We reached Wawat. 8. gm⋅n⋅f pr n snk⋅k, He found the home of your brother. 9. m33⋅n⋅ì ḥḳ(3) n ìrṯt, I saw the ruler of Irtjet. 10. dpt '3 n pr-'3, a large boat of the palace 11. ìp⋅n ìmy-r mš'w mš'w⋅f, The general counted his army. 12. m33⋅n⋅ì ìpt-nsw, I saw the royal apartments. 13. ì3š⋅n sr ìḳr sš, The excellent official summoned the scribe. 14. ìmy-r ḥm-nṯr(w) nw šm'w, the overseer of the high priests of Upper Egypt 15. ì3t⋅ì nt ḥry sšt3, my office of keeper of the secrets 24.624.624.624.6 1. ḥḳ3wy nt nw n ḫs(w)t, the two rulers of these foreign lands 2. ḫd⋅n dpt tf, That boat traveled downstream. 3. hrw n ḥb ḫ'w-nswt, the day of the festival of the king's coronation 4. ìp⋅n sr ṯs(w)t⋅f, The official counted his troops. 5. nf n snw ìḳrw, those excellent brothers 6. wr nbt tf, That lady is great. 7. sḏm⋅n⋅ì sšt3 n ìpt-nswt, I heard a secret of the harem. 8. h3b⋅n sn ìmy-r ḥwt, The manager of the estate sent them. 9. r' pf n 'ḫ3 '3, that day of the great fight 10. ḥm-nṯr n nìwt⋅f, the priest of his pyramid city 11. sḏm⋅n ìmy-r nìwt⋅f nf n ẖrdw, The mayor of the city heard those children. 12. 'nḫ wḏ3 snb, may he live, be prosperous, be healthy; l.p.h. 13. p3 tḫn n mḥ 20, this obelisk of 20 cubits 14. mṯn pf n ìrṯt, that road of Irtjet 15. rdì⋅n⋅s šfdw pw, She gave this papyrus roll. 16. t3 dpt nt mḥ 50, this boat of 50 cubits


F-11

25.625.625.625.6 1. m33⋅n⋅f dp(w)t nbt, He saw all the ships. 2. sp 3 h3b⋅n sw ḥm⋅f, Three times His Majesty sent him. 3. mṯn pf sšt3 n ì3m, that secret road of Yam 4. sr(w) nw ḫ3s(w)t nbt, the nobles of all the foreign lands 5. gm⋅n⋅s ky sn, She found the other brother. 6. sḫpr⋅n b3k(w)t⋅sn ḫt tn, Their maid servants made this fire. 7. ìr⋅n ḥm⋅f p3 tḫn n mḥ 30, His Majesty made this obelisk of 30 cubits. 26.626.626.626.6 1. h3b⋅n⋅ṯn sn m ìw pn, You sent them from this island. 2. rdì ṯw ḥm⋅f m ì3t ḥry-sšt3, His Majesty will appoint you to the office of Keeper of the Secrets. 3. s m pr pf, the man in that house 4. m33⋅n sš ḏd swt, The scribe saw the pyramid "(Teti)" is Enduring of Places. 5. wbn r' m pt, The sun will rise in the sky. 6. ḫd⋅n s3 nswt m dpt, The prince traveled downstream in the boat. 7. m33 mwt s3t⋅s m nìwt, The mother will see her daughter in the town. 27.627.627.627.6 1. m-b3ḥ ṯ3ty, in the presence of the vizier 2. m-' rmṯ nt kmt, together with the people of Egypt 3. m-ḫsfw ḫrw pf ẖs, at the approach of that vile enemy 4. ḫd⋅n ìt⋅ì m-h3w pìpì, My father traveled northward at the time of Pepi. 5. m33⋅n ẖry-ḥbt ḳhbw, The lector priest saw the pyramid "(Shepseskaf)" is Purified. 28.628.628.628.6 1. ìṯ⋅n⋅ì ḥk3wy nt nw ḫ3s(w)t n ḥm⋅f, I took the two rulers of these foreign lands to His Majesty. 2. n hrw 17 m 3bd 2 šmw, in 17 days of month 2 of the Season of Harvest 3. m33⋅n sr w'b swt, The official saw the pyramid "(Userkaf)" is Pure of Places. 4. pḥ⋅n⋅n ìrṯt, We reached Irtjet. 5. pr pn n mwt⋅ì, this house of my mother


F-12

29.629.629.629.6 1. h3b⋅n sw ìmy-r nìwt n smr w'ty, The overseer of the city wrote it to the Unique Friend of the king. 2. gm⋅n⋅i pr⋅k, I found your house. 3. rdì⋅n nswt pr n sr, The king gave the house to the official. 4. sḏm⋅n⋅ì sšt3 n ìpt-nswt, I heard a secret of the harem. 5. ìp⋅n⋅ì ṯs(w)t n ìmy-r ms'(w), I counted the troops for the general of the army. 6. ḫd⋅n s3 nswt m dpt⋅f, The prince traveled northward in his boat. 7. (r)dì⋅n st ìt⋅ì n mwt⋅ì, My father gave it to my mother. 8. 'ḥ3⋅n ḥm⋅f nḥsyw ẖsw, His Majesty fought the vile Nubians. 9. (r)dì⋅n⋅ì t n ḥḳr, I gave bread to the hungry. 30.630.630.630.6 1. rdì⋅n wì ḥm⋅f m ìmy-r nìwt, His Majesty appointed me mayor of the city. 2. (r)dì⋅n⋅ì n⋅f p3 šfdw, I gave that papyrus roll to him. 3. h3b sn ìmy-r 'ww, The overseer of mercenaries will write them. 4. ḏd⋅n⋅f n smr w'ty, He spoke to the Sole Friend of the king. 5. smì⋅n st sr n nswt, The noble reported it to the king. 6. ìṯ⋅n⋅ì n⋅k sn, I took them to you. 7. sḫpr⋅n⋅sn n⋅s ḫt, They made a fire for her. 8. ìp⋅n sn ṯ3ty n ẖnw, The vizier counted them for the Residence. 9. ìp⋅n ṯ3ty ṯs(w)t n ẖnw, The vizier counted the troops for the Residence. 10. ì3š⋅n sw ìmy-r ḥwt, The overseer of the estate summoned him. 11. ì3š⋅n ìmy-r ḥwt ìmy-r pr, The overseer of the estate summoned the overseer of the house. 31.631.631.631.6 1. pḥwy n mš'⋅f m nḫtw r dmi n 'rwn3, The rear of his army of victories (was) in the town of Aruna. 2. spr⋅k r ẖnw n 3bd 2, You will reach home in 2 months. 3. r sr⋅f nb, more than any (other) official of his 4. hrw n ḥb h'w-nswt, the day of the festival of the king's coronation 5. h3b⋅n wI ḥm⋅f r 3bḏw, His Majesty sent me to Abydos. 6. pr pf n snt⋅ì, that house of my sister 7. m-hnw ìnbw r dmì n t3'n3k, in front of the walls of Taanach. 8. spr⋅n ḥm⋅f r dmì n mktì, His Majesty approached the town of Megiddo.


F-13

32.632.632.632.6 1. ḫd⋅sn r-gs nswt r hrw 5, They traveled downsream in the company of the prince for 5 days. 2. spr⋅n ḥm⋅f r-ḥ3t dmì n 'rwn3, His Majesty approached in front of the town of Aruna. 3. m33⋅n⋅ì ìt⋅ì snt⋅ì m-b3ḥ ṯ3ty, I saw my father and my sister in the presence of the vizier. 4. rdI⋅n ìmy-r ḥwt-nṯr ssm n ìmy-r pr , The overseer of the temple gave a horse to steward of the house. 5. ìṯ⋅n⋅i ḥḳ3 n ì3m r-ḥ3t nswt, I brought the ruler of Yam before the king. 6. ìr⋅n⋅ì n⋅f nt ìmy-r šm'w, I performed the office of overseer of Upper Egypt for him. 7. smì⋅n st smr-w'ty n ẖḳ3 ìrṯt, The Sole Friend of the king reported it to the ruler of Irtjet. 8. m33⋅n⋅i s pn r-s3 pr⋅k, I saw this man in the rear of your house. 9. ḏd⋅n⋅ì n mwt⋅ì r-gs sn⋅ì, I spoke to my mother in the presence of my brother. 10. t3⋅n r-ḫt n ṯ3ty, Our land is under the authority of the vizier. 33.633.633.633.6 1. h3b⋅n⋅f n r nIwt rst, He sent us to Thebes, lit. "the southern city". 2. m3'⋅k sw r Iw mḥty, You will send him to the northern island. 3. ḏ3⋅ì r ìdb ì3bty ḥr r 3bdw, I will cross to the eastern bank at Abydos. 4. r' m 3ḫt ìmntt, The sun is in the western horizon. 5. rdì⋅n⋅f n⋅ì šfdw tpy, He gave me the first scroll. 6. ìṯ⋅n⋅ì ḥḳ3 n w3w3t r ẖnw n hrw 22 m 3bd 4 3ḫt, I brought the ruler of Wawat to the Residence in 22 days of month 4 of the Season of Inundation. 34.634.634.634.6 1. ìṯ⋅n ḥry-tp n ḥ'ww bIty ìmy-ìrty m 3bḏw, The captain of the king's ships captured the captain of Abydos. 2. gm⋅k sy m ḏdw m pr⋅s, You will find her in Busiris in her house. 3. 'ḥ3⋅n nswt ḥḳ3w m ḫ3s(w)t mḥtt, The king fought against the rulers of the northern foreign lands. 4. ìp⋅n sn sš n ìmy-r pr wr m t3 r-ḏr⋅f, The scribe counted them for the chief steward of the entire land. 5. ì3š⋅n n ḥm⋅f r mn-nfr n 3bd 4 šmw, His Majesty summoned us to Memphis in the 4th month of summer, lit. "The Season of Lack of Water". 6. ḏ3⋅n ẖry-ḥbt smsw ìmy rnpt r ìdb ì3bty n ìtrw ḥr nìwt, The senior lector priest who in the year (of duty) cossed to the eastern bank of the river at Thebes, lit. "the city". 7. h3b⋅n ìmy-r pr-ḥḏ nbw dbn 12 r ḥry-tp '3 n t3-wr, The overseer of the treasury sent 12 deben weight of gold to the nomarch of the Thinite nome.


F-14

35.635.635.635.6 1. ḫd⋅n⋅ì r ḫ'ì nfr m wsḫt 6 s3t 4, I traveled northward to the pyramid "(Merenre) Appears in Glory and Beauty" in 6 wsḫt barges and 4 s3ṯ boats. 2. h3⋅n⋅ì r w3ḏ-wr m dpt nt mḥ 120 m 'w⋅s, I went down to the sea, lit. "the great green", in a boat of 120 cubits in length. 3. (r)dì⋅n⋅ì t n ḥḳr, I gave bread to the hungry man. 4. m3'⋅n⋅ì sn m ìw mḥty, I sent them from the northern island. 5. rdì⋅n wì ḥm⋅f r smr, His Majesty appointed me to the rank of Friend. 6. (r)dì⋅n sw nswt m ḥ3ty-' m šmw, The King of Upper and Lower Egypt appointed him a local prince and the Overseer of Upper Egypt. 36.636.636.636.6 1. ḫd⋅n wpwty r mn-nfr ḫntì⋅n sš r 3bḏw, The messenger traveled downstream to Memphis (while) the scribe sailed upstream to Abydos. 2. ìn⋅n n⋅k st sn⋅s, Her brother brought it to you. 3. h3b⋅n ìmy-r šm'w ḥ3ty-' ḏd⋅f n⋅ì sḫr, The overseer of Upper Egypt sent the local prince (so that) he might tell the plan to me. 4. sm⋅n⋅ì st n nswt, I reported it to the king. 5. spr⋅n ḥm⋅f r mktì pr⋅n s3 nswt r 'rwn3, His Majesty reached Megiddo (while) the prince advanced to Aruna. 6. gm⋅k sn m nì wt rsy m pr⋅sn, You will find them in Thebes, lit. "the southern city", in their house. 7. šm⋅n snt⋅f r nì wt ìsṯ sḫpr⋅n⋅f ḫt, His sister went to town (while) he made a fire. 37.637.637.637.6 1. hnt⋅n ḥm⋅f m s3ṯ pḥt(y) rn⋅f, His Majesty traveled upstream in the large boat named "The Power of Isesi". See §35.4, fn. 10 for other possible translations. 2. ì3s⋅n⋅f sr(w) nw ḫs(w)t nbt, The officials summoned the princes of all the foreign lands. 3. h3b⋅n n⋅n st šs pr-'nḥ, The temple library scribe wrote, lit. "sent", it to us. 4. ḏ3⋅sn r ìdb ì3bty n ìtrw ḥr 3ẖt-ìtn, They will cross to the eastern bank of the river at Akhetaten. 5. 3ṯp⋅n⋅i mnmnt m ẖn-ìnw, I loaded cattle into the oxen ferry boat. 6. (r)dì⋅n ìmy-ìs ssmty n ìmy-r šn'w, The counselor gave two horses to the overseer of the warehouses.


F-15

38.638.638.638.6 1. rdìt t n ḥḳr, Giving bread to the hungry. 2. ḫd⋅n ìmy-r mš'w r 'ḥ3 ḥḳ3w ḫswt, The general traveled northward in order to fight the Hyksos. 3. prt 2 ì3š⋅n ṯ3ty r t3-wr, The second month of the Season of Winter, the vizier summoned us to t3-wr (the Thinite nome). 4. 3ḫt 4 sw 16 prt r nìwt, The 16th day of the fourth month of the Season of Inundation going forth to Thebes, lit. "the city". 5. wḏ⋅n⋅ì n⋅f ìrt st, I commanded him to make it. 6. wḏ⋅n ìmy-r ìrty ẖnt m wsrw, The captain commanded to row with strength. 7. ìnì n⋅k st snt⋅s, Her sister brought it to you. 8. ìrt mẖrw n srw wḥ'w n šmsw, Giving provisions to the officers (and) rations to the followers, i.e. the army. 9. mrì⋅n sn⋅s snt⋅ì, Her brother loved my sister. 10. mrìt snt⋅ì ìn sn⋅s, Her brother loves my sister. 39.639.639.639.6 1. n sp h3b sw s3b sš, The senior scribe never sent him. 2. n rdì ìmy-r šn'w t n ḥḳr, The overseer of the warehouses did not give bread to the hungry. 3. wḏ⋅n ìmy-r sḏ3wty pr⋅s, The overseer of the seal commanded (that) she go out. 4. n sp m33⋅k ìw pn, You will never see this island. 5. n m33⋅n⋅ì ḥry-ẖbt n t3 ḥwt-nṯr, I do not see the lector priest in this temple. 6. nn m33⋅ì ḥry-ẖbt n ḥwt-nṯr tw, I will not see the lector priest in this temple. 7. n m33⋅ì ḥry-ẖbt n tf ḥwt-nṯr, I did not see the lector priest in that temple. 8. n sp m33⋅ì ḥry-ẖbt n ḥwt-nṯr tn, I never saw the lector priest in this temple. 9. nn rdì⋅ì n⋅k ssmt nb(w), I will not give any horses to you. 10. h3b⋅n wì ìmy-r mš'w m-' wrry(w)t 150, The general sent me together with 150 chariots. 11. wḏ⋅n⋅f ìrt m3't, He commanded me to do maat. 12. nn ḏ3⋅ì r ìdb i3ty ḥr 3bḏw, I will not cross to the eastern bank at Abydos.


F-16

40404040.6.6.6.6 1. ìt⋅n⋅tw sḳr-'nḫ ìn ṯ3ty r ìṯ-t3wy, The captive was taken by the vizier to Itjtawy. 2. šnì⋅n⋅tw dmì, The town was surrounded. 3. wḏ⋅n ḥm⋅f ḫdìt r 3ḫt-ìtn, His Majesty commanded to sail downstream to Akhetaten. 4. h3b⋅n⋅tw ṯst r 3bḏw, The troops were sent to Abydos. 5. h3b⋅k šs ḏd⋅f sḫr⋅k, You will send the scribe (so that) he may say your plan. 6. wnm⋅t(w) wnmt ìn rmṯ, The food is eaten by the people. 7. m33⋅tw s m ḥwt-nṯr, The man is seen in the temple. 8. smì⋅n⋅ì n⋅f ḫt nbt, I reported everything to him. 9. ìr⋅n n⋅k ìt⋅ì dpt nt mḫ 150 m ' w⋅s, My father made for you a boat of 150 cubits in its length. 10. n sp wšb⋅ì sw, I never answered him. 11. ẖdb⋅n⋅tw ssmt m šsr pf, The horse was killed by that arrow.


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