Learning,Memory, Learning,Memory, and Creative Problem and Creative Problem

SolvingSolving

I. Learning: Principles and I. Learning: Principles and Applications Applications

StimulusStimulus ResponseResponse ConditioningConditioning ReinforcementReinforcement RewardsRewards Punishment Punishment ShapingShaping

A. Classical ConditioningA. Classical Conditioning

A simple form of learning in which a A simple form of learning in which a stimulus (something that produces a stimulus (something that produces a reaction) calls forth a response (the reaction) calls forth a response (the reaction)reaction)

PavlovPavlov

Russian Physiologist who discovered that Russian Physiologist who discovered that dogs could learn to associate one thing dogs could learn to associate one thing with another (stimulus-response)with another (stimulus-response)

Ex. “Pavlov’s dog” experiment involving bell Ex. “Pavlov’s dog” experiment involving bell and foodand food

Salivation

B. Operant ConditioningB. Operant Conditioning

Type of learning that takes place as a Type of learning that takes place as a result of consequencesresult of consequences

““Reinforcement”- process by which a Reinforcement”- process by which a stimulus increases the chance that a stimulus increases the chance that a behavior will occur (ex. “Skinner behavior will occur (ex. “Skinner Box”)Box”)

Operant Operant ConditioningConditioning

A form of learning in which a specific action (an operant response) is made to occur either more frequently or less frequently by manipulating its consequences in the environment.

B.F. Skinner

Operant Response

Change in Environment

Change in response

Dog stands

Gets food

Dog stands again

An operant response “operates” on the environment and causes it to change in some way.The environment, in turn, causes the behavior to change in some way.

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning VersusVersus

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

In Classical Conditioning, the subject’s response has no consequences; it produces no change in the environment.

The dog gets the food after the bell is rung whether or not he salivates to the bell. His behavior doesn’t matter.

In Operant Conditioning, the dog has to stand up to get the food. His behavior does matter.

Positive ReinforcerPositive Reinforcer

Increase the frequency of the Increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when appliedbehavior they follow when applied

Ex. “Exercising because being in shape Ex. “Exercising because being in shape feels feels good”good”

““Studying a subject because the Studying a subject because the material is interesting”material is interesting”

Negative ReinforcerNegative Reinforcer

Increase the frequency of the Increase the frequency of the behavior when something is removedbehavior when something is removed

Ex. “Exercising to avoid getting fat or Ex. “Exercising to avoid getting fat or out of out of shape”shape”

““Studying to avoid a bad grade”Studying to avoid a bad grade”

Reinforcement Versus Reinforcement Versus PunishmentPunishment

Reinforcement Punishment

PositiveStimulus is ...

Presented

Behavior...

Increases

Negative Negative Positive

Removed Presented Removed

Behavior...

Behavior...

Behavior...

Increases Decreases Decreases

Stimulus is ... Stimulus is ...Stimulus is ...

Analyzing Analyzing BehaviorBehavior

The AB C ‘s of Operant ConditioningConsequences

Key point: reinforcers and punishers are defined by their effects on behavior, not by your intentions... While watching the 3 Stooges, 5-year-old Billy pokes his 4-year-old sister. His father says, “Stop that!” A minute later, Billy does it again, and his father yells at him. A few seconds later, Billy laughs and gives little Kelly another poke. In terms of operant conditioning, why did the poking response increase rather than decrease?Answer: the scoldings are a reinforcer.

What if…What if…

Billy’s father leaves the room for a few minutes to answer the telephone. While he is out of the room, Billy stops poking his sister. But when his father comes back in, Billy starts doing it again. Why?

PunishmentPunishment

Unwanted events that decrease the Unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied.when they are applied.

Some effects: Some effects: doesn’t teach alternativesdoesn’t teach alternatives Must be consistent to workMust be consistent to work Can create anger/hostilityCan create anger/hostility Can create the opposite effectCan create the opposite effect Can confuseCan confuse

ShapingShaping

Application of Operant Conditioning Application of Operant Conditioning where the teaching of a complex task where the teaching of a complex task is achieved by rewarding simpler is achieved by rewarding simpler steps in the processsteps in the process

SkinnerSkinner

Studied behavior using rat in cage Studied behavior using rat in cage deprived of food (“Skinner Box”)deprived of food (“Skinner Box”)

Developed an educational method called Developed an educational method called “Programmed Learning” based on shaping“Programmed Learning” based on shaping

Cognitive Factors in Cognitive Factors in LearningLearning

Latent LearningLatent Learning

Learning that remains hidden until it Learning that remains hidden until it is neededis needed

E.C. Tolman concluded that learning E.C. Tolman concluded that learning takes place even when not rewarded. takes place even when not rewarded. Incidental learning lies dormant until Incidental learning lies dormant until it is needed for something (ex. rat in it is needed for something (ex. rat in maze)maze)

Observational LearningObservational Learning

Knowledge and skill is obtained by Knowledge and skill is obtained by observing and imitating othersobserving and imitating others

Albert Bandura concluded that this Albert Bandura concluded that this form of learning accounts for much form of learning accounts for much human learning (ex. “mimicking human learning (ex. “mimicking parents”)parents”)

Media LearningMedia Learning

Many believe that observational Many believe that observational learning is the reason humans are so learning is the reason humans are so aggressive is from over-exposure of aggressive is from over-exposure of violence in the media (television, violence in the media (television, computer and video images)computer and video images)

D. Learning SystemsD. Learning Systems

PQ4R – Study Reading PQ4R – Study Reading Learning SystemLearning System

PreviewPreview QuestionQuestion ReadRead ReflectReflect ReciteRecite ReviewReview

Mind Mapping – Non-Mind Mapping – Non-traditional notetaking traditional notetaking

systemsystem

II. MemoryII. Memory

The Memory Span TestThe Memory Span Test

A Measure of the Capacity of A Measure of the Capacity of

Short-Term Memory Your are to read a short list of digits or

letters. Immediately afterwards, you try to recite all the items in their original order.

P R T Y C U G

You can increase the number of You can increase the number of letters you remember by letters you remember by grouping them intogrouping them into CHUNKSCHUNKS, , likelike PP AA RR. . You can remember You can remember about 7 chunks, regardless of about 7 chunks, regardless of how many letters they contain.how many letters they contain.

P R F H Z T P R F H Z T KK

ForgettingForgetting

MemoryMemory: The capacity to : The capacity to retain information over time.retain information over time.

EncodingEncoding: the conversion of : the conversion of incoming information into a form that incoming information into a form that can be stored in memory.can be stored in memory.

StorageStorage: maintaining information in : maintaining information in memory over a period of time.memory over a period of time.

RetrievalRetrieval: the process of searching : the process of searching for stored information and bringing it for stored information and bringing it to mind.to mind.

•Visual encoding - the processing of images

•Acoustic encoding-the processing of sound, particularly the sound of words •Semantic encoding - the processing of meaning; particularly the meaning of words.

Types of encoding:Types of encoding:

Three steps of memory information processing:

• Encoding- (processing and combining of received information)

• Storage-(creation of a permanent record of the encoded information)

• Retrieval-(calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in some process or activity)

7 Steps in the Memory 7 Steps in the Memory ProcessProcess

Organize the informationOrganize the information Intend to rememberIntend to remember Test yourself repeatedlyTest yourself repeatedly Space out learningSpace out learning Several sensesSeveral senses Overlearn the materialOverlearn the material Study before sleepStudy before sleep

Creative Problem SolvingCreative Problem Solving

The Matchstick The Matchstick ProblemProblem

How would you How would you arrange six arrange six matches to form matches to form four equilateral four equilateral triangles? triangles?

The Matchstick The Matchstick ProblemProblem

Solution to Solution to the the matchstick matchstick problemproblem

The Candle-Mounting The Candle-Mounting ProblemProblem

Using these Using these materials, materials, how would how would you mount you mount the candle on the candle on a bulletin a bulletin board? board?

The Candle-Mounting The Candle-Mounting ProblemProblem

Solving this Solving this problem problem requires requires recognizing recognizing that a box that a box need not need not always serve always serve as a as a containercontainer

Connect the dots Connect the dots using 4 straight linesusing 4 straight lines

Count every " F" in Count every " F" in the following text: the following text:

FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT

OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE COMBINED WITH THE

EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE

OF YEARS OF PRACTICE.OF YEARS OF PRACTICE.

What if. . .it rained tennis shoes on weekends?

everyone looked the same?animals had people for pets?

you had a dragon for a next door neighbor?cows could fly?

Picasso had painted the Last Supper?people were magnetic?

everyone lived on their own island?the oceans were made of chocolate pudding?

everyday at 2:00 PM gravity went haywire for twenty minutes?nothing could be thrown away?

works of art came to life?all the art in the world was stolen by aliens?

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