lecture 1 introduction to individual differences

Individual Differences:Personality and Intelligence

Katie [email protected] W12(Library Wing)

Phone: x4271

mailto:[email protected]

What this course is all about

1. Personality2. Intelligence3. Psychological testing – psychometrics4. Abnormal behaviour - psychopathology

2(c) Katie Page, 2008

Individual Differences

Administration

• Contact details• Course outline - handout• Reading lists • Email list• Reading pack – ready week 2• Helios– Enrolment key (quotient)


(c) Katie Page, 2008 4

Weekly anagram “LEARN I TO SPY”

Textbooks

• Chamorro-Premuzic (2007). Personality and individual differences. Blackwell Publishing: Maldon, MA.

• Haslam, N. (2008). Introduction to Personality and Intelligence. Sage Publications: London.

• Maltby, J., Day, L., & Macaskill, A. (2007). Personality, individual differences and intelligence. Pearson Education Ltd: Harlow, England.

• Funder, D.C. (2007). The personality puzzle (4th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company, Inc: New York.


Student websites

• Associated with some texts are student websites which are very useful and informative.

• wwnorton.com/college/psych/puzzle– Reviews, activities and quizzes (gradebook)

• www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby– Reviews, quizzes, references and advanced

readings


http://www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby

Learning Outcomes

• Appreciate why psychologists study personality• Be aware of a variety of definitions of personality• Understand the components of psychological

definitions of personality• Develop an understanding of the historical roots of

personality theory• Understand the major questions that personality

theories aim to address• Understand the criteria that can be used to evaluate

personality theories


What is personality for you?

STAGE 1:• Alone, jot down a few words or a sentence or two

which captures your definition or thoughts about personality

• Do not confer at this stageSTAGE 2:• Compare this with your friend’s definitions• How do they match? How are they different?• What can explain these differences?



“No two persons are born exactly alike; but each differs from the other in natural endowments, one being suited for one occupation and the other for another.” (Plato)

“Every man is in certain respects (a) like all other men, (b) like some other men, (c) like no other man" (Murray & Kluckhohn, 1953).


Individual Differences

TRAIT/DISPOSITION

BIOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONARY

PSYCHOANALYTIC

COGNITIVE

BEHAVIOURAL

PHENOMENOLGICAL

To what extent do you agree with the following statement?

Every individual is different?


1 – Strongly Disagree2 – Slightly Disagree3 – Disagree4 – Neither agree nor disagree5 – Agree6 – Slightly Agree7 – Strongly Agree

That people differ from each other is obvious.

How and why they differ is less clear = personality and individual differences


Definitions

• Latin persona meaning “mask”• Differential psychology aims to explain observable differences

between individuals in terms of underlying psychological determinants (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007; 2)

Personality• “A dynamic organisation , inside the person, of psychophysical

systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behaviour, thought and feelings (Allport, 1961; 11)

• “An individual’s characteristic pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind those patterns” (Funder, 2007; 5)


Key Components

• Psychological construct• Inside / internal• Stable (trait versus state)• Multiple components – thought, feelings,

behaviour• Individual level not group – measurements

issues


Scope

• Personality psychology addresses three parts of the psychological triad: a combination of how people think (cognition), feel (affect) and behave (action).

• Broader than many other areas of psychology• Tries to understand the big picture • Contributes to developmental, social,

cognitive, biological areas.


Aims of Studying Personality

• Motivational basis – Basic nature of human beings , what drives behaviour?

• Provide descriptions or categorisations of how individuals behave

• Measuring personality • Developmental theories

– When does personality start to develop?, is it fixed or does it change across the lifespan?

• Heritability versus environment • Understand mental illness and abnormal behaviour.



BEHAVIOUR MOODMOTIVATION

TRAITS

SITUATIONALFACTORS

Adapted from Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007

The Basic Criteria That a Theory of Personality Should Satisfy

Figure 1.4 The basic criteria that a theory of personality should satisfy


Basic Criteria - I

• Description– Bring order to complexity of behaviours– Should simplify, identify and clarify important

issues• Explanation– Understand the why– Must explain how and why commonly observed

instances of behaviour occur


Basic Criteria - II• Empirical validity

– Generate predictions which can be empirically tested – leads to validity– Can it predict future behaviour in particular situations?

• Testable concepts– Can the concepts in the theory be operationalised in order to allow

testing?– Concepts must be precise, independent and not vague and abstract

with multiple possible meanings• Comprehensiveness

– Encompass and explain a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviour

– Impossible (perhaps) to explain all – therefore theories often limited in scope


Basic Criteria - III

• Parsimony– Economical– Trade-off between complexity/comprehensiveness

and parsimony• Heuristic Value– Stimulates research and interest in the area

• Applied Value– Wider context – Practical usefulness – solve applied problems


DEEPCHAT - acronym

• D - description• E - evaluation• E – empirical validity• P - parsimony• C - comprehensiveness• H – heuristic value• A – applied value• T – testable concepts


Clarification - Terminology

• Allport (1937 publication) – personality– Key publication started the field

• Individual differences – term used by psychometricians – who develop accurate measures of differences between people (really individual differences in personality)


Themes and Issues

• Awareness / unconscious• Concept of self• Unique vs general laws– Idiographic vs nomothetic

• Person vs situation• Philosophical view of person• Past, present, future• Feeling, thoughts and behaviour


Feature Idiographic Nomothetic

Strategy Emphasises the uniqueness of individuals

Focuses on similarities between groups of individuals.

Goal To develop an in-depth understanding of the individual

To identify the basic structure of personality. Minimum number of traits necessary – universal personality.

Research Methodology Qualitative – case studies Quantitative: structure, measures and relationships are key

Data Collection Interviews, diaries, narratives, treatment, session data

Self-report personality questionnaires

Advantages Depth, lose no information General principles, parsimony

Disadvantages Difficult to generalise May not be accurate for any one person. Training needed to analyse profiles.


Five Approaches

1. Trait / dispositional2. Biological/evolutionary3. Psychoanalytic4. Phenomenological / humanistic / cross-

cultural5. Behavioural / social learning / cognitive

Cognitive sometimes separate chapter/approach


Trait / Dispositional

Key researchers / theorists– Shelldon, Allport, Eysenck, Cattell, Gray

Key claim• Aim for parsimony and to find basic structureKey Features• Assumption of stability• Lexical approaches, five factor model• Measurement is important– factor analysis• Types, categories of people / traits• Biological basis (?)


Psychoanalytic

Key researchers / theorists• Freud, Jung, Adler, HorneyKey claim (s)• Importance of unconscious motivationKey Features• Unconscious processes & conflict• Freud - personality – 3 structures (id, ego, superego)• Adler – inferiority – 4 personality types, birth order• Jung - psyche (opposing forces) – Myers-Briggs• Horney – cultural and social factors, neurotic personalities, 10

needs


Biological / Evolutionary

Key researchers / theorists• Darwin, Gray, Eysenck, Cloniniger, BussKey claim (s)• Adaptation and evolutionary theoryKey Features• Family studies, twin studies and adoption studies• Heritability estimates• Neuropsychological evidence• Physiological evidence – neurotransmittors• Animal research


Phenomenological / humanistic / cross-cultural

Key researchers / theorists• Maslow, Rogers (Ellis - ?)Key claim (s)• Importance of personal growthKey Features• Historical – existential philosophy• Humans by nature are positive and kind• Here and now is the focus• Personal responsibility and free will• Phenomenology – individual experience and consciousness


Behavioural / social learning / cognitive

Key researchers / theorists• Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Dollard & Miller, Bandura, Rotter,

MischelKey claim (s)• Learning is key – no inner motivesKey Features• Person-situation debate• Empiricism – rigorous methodologies• Some cognitive elements• Self-regulation & self efficacy• Locus of control


INTELLIGENCEPART 2:


Overview

• Why does intelligence matter?

• Implicit theories of intelligence

• What is intelligence?

– Psychological definitions

• Theories and themes


Why does intelligence matter?

• One’s perception and evaluation of our own and others’ intelligence matters – affects lots of choices and judgements

• In friendships• In love • In work


In all of these domains intelligence plays a role. We

want out partners to be intelligent. Employers will

choose a more intelligence employer over a less intelligent

one

Implicit theories

• Definition– People’s everyday ideas about a particular topic

• Importance1. Influential in everyday life2. Can give rise to more formal theories3. Provide avenues to research when explicit theories

are wrong4. Can inform theories about psychological constructs,

such as development of intelligence or cross-cultural aspects


Implicit Theories: Research

• Sternberg et al (1981)– 61 college students, 63 people entering

supermarket, 62 waiting for a train– List behaviours characteristic of “everyday

intelligence”, “academic intelligence” or “unintelligence”

– 122 other people rated how well each of the behaviours reflected aspects of intelligence


Sternberg Results

• 3 dimensions of intelligence

1. Practical problem solving2. Verbal ability3. Social competence


Practical Problem Solving (PPS)

• Ability to be practical and logical• Ability to analyse situations well and engage in a decision

making process that involves reasons• Find alternative solutions and viewpoints to a problem• Student has a problem with an essay– Good PPS – explore the topic, talk to lecturer, re-looking at

lecture notes, research key papers and ask questions– Bad PPS – complain how hard it is and then head to the

pub!


Verbal Ability

• Ability to express oneself – converse with others confidently

• Understand correct meanings for words, uses language confidently

• Competent use of antonyms and analogies• Good reading skills


Social Competence

• High levels of knowledge, understanding, competency, motivation, and confidence in terms of themselves and others

• High self-awareness, good interpersonal skills, good balance between independence and interdependence

• Takes personal responsibility and has positive regard for others


1981 Sternberg Study

• Laypeople implicit theories1. Practical problem-solving ability2. Verbal ability3. Intellectual balance and integration4. Goal orientation and attainment5. Contextual intelligence6. Fluid thought


Issues with implicit theories

• These theories differ significantly:– Between cultures– By experts– Across the life-span


Lay-persons’ Implicit Theories of Intelligence (Taiwanese Chinese)

• A general cognitive factor of intelligence • Inter-personal intelligence • Intra-personal intelligence• Intellectual self-assertion • Intellectual self-effacement.

(Yang & Sternberg, 1997)

Implicit Theories of Intelligence by Countries Around the World


EXERCISE – RATE YOU OWN COUNTRY

Similarities and Differences Between Expert Implicit Theories of Intelligence Across Academic Disciplines (Sternberg, 1985)

Dictionary Definitions

• The ability to understand, a greater or lesser capacity to know or learn.

• A group of all the functions whose objective is knowledge (sensation, association, memory, imagination, understanding, reason, conscience).


Problems

• First definition aspects related to learning that do not have much to do with intelligence, such as memory in its distinct dimension of the memory manager, are included.

• The second is definition is excessively generic.


What is intelligence?

Everyday definitions

• ability to think abstractly• ability to learn quickly• ability to adapt to environment


Definitional Issues

• Discussed widely• No one definition which is widely accepted• Single general ability or does it encompass a

wide range of skills, aptitudes and talents?


What is intelligence?

Psychological definitions:• the ability to judge, comprehend, or reason• mental abilities that enable one to adapt to,

shape, or select one’s environment• the ability to understand and deal with

people, objects and symbols


The Bell Curve

• Controversial• Led to many debates• APA task force– What is current state of

knowledge?


Overview of Theories

• Spearman – g factor• Thurstone – primary mental abilities• Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences• Sternberg’s – triarchic theory of intelligence• Cattell – fluid vs crystallised intelligence• Emotional intelligence


Measuring Intelligence

• Galton Intelligence Scale• Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

(WISC)


Summary

• Next week: psychoanalytic approaches & phenomenological approaches to personality

• Questions?


I am the third force!

lecture 1 introduction to individual differences

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