Lecture 3Lecture 3

Behavioral Theories of Behavioral Theories of LearningLearning

Chapter 5 Chapter 5 Main ContentsMain Contents

• Part1.What is Learning?• Part2.What behavioral learning theories ha

ve evolved ？• Pavlov: Classical Conditioning• Thorndike’ theories of Learning• Skinner: Operant Conditioning• Principles of behavioral Learning• Part3 Bandura: Social Learning Theory ――

Modeling and Observational Learning

Part 1

What is leaning

Case Study P137Case Study P137

Critical and Creative Thinking ： What have students learnt in the class?

Have they learnt the behaviors the teacher expected?

Why didn’t Ms Esteban accomplish her goal ？ If you are Ms Esteban ， what are you going to do ？

Why ？

• Julia Esteban, first-grade teacher at Tanner Elementary School, was trying to teach her students appropriate classroom behavior.

"Children," she said one day, "we are having a problem in this class that I'd like to discuss with you. Whenever I ask a question, many of you shout out your answers instead of raising your hand and waiting to be called on. Can anyone tell me what you should do when I ask the class a question?"

Rebecca's hand shot into the air. "I know, I know!" she said. "Raise your hand and wait quietly!"

Ms. Esteban sighed to herself. She tried to ignore Rebecca, who was doing exactly what she had just been told not to do, but Rebecca was the only student with her hand up, and the longer she delayed, the more frantically Rebecca waved her hand and shouted her answer.

"All right, Rebecca. What are you supposed to do?" "We're supposed to raise our hands and wait quietly for you to call

on us." "If you know the role, why were you shouting out your answer before I called on you?" "I guess I forgot."

"All right. Can anyone remind the class of our rule about talking out of turn?"

Four children raised their hands and shouted together.. "One at a time!" "Take turns!" "Don't talk when someone else is talking!" Ms. Esteban called for order. "You kids are going to drive me

crazy!" she said. "Didn't we just talk about how to raise your hands and wait for me to call on you?"

"But Ms. Esteban," said Stephen without even raising his hand. "You called on Rebecca and she wasn't quiet!"

AnalysisAnalysis ：： p138p138 Children are excellent learners. What they learn, however, may not always be

what we intend to teach. Ms. Esteban is trying to teach students how to behave in class, but by paying attention to Rebecca’s outburst, she is actually teaching them the opposite of what she intends. Rebecca craves (expects) her teacher's attention, so being called on (even in an exasperated (angry) tone of voice) rewards her for calling out her answer. Not only does Ms. Esteban's response increase the chances that Rebecca will call out answers again, but Rebecca now serves as a model for her classmates' own calling out. What Ms.Esteban says is less important than her actual response to her students' behaviors.

What is learning?What is learning?

• Brainstorm:• When we hear the word “learning”

most of us think of studying and school. But learning is not limit to School.

• We learning everyday of our lives.• Given examples of what are learning

and what are not learning?

A Definition of LearningA Definition of Learning

Learning is usually defined as a change in an individual caused by experience

Understanding:Understanding:• In the broadest sense, learning

occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior.

• Changes simply caused by maturation, such as growing taller or turning gray, do not qualify as learning.

• Learning takes place in many ways.

Learning takes place in many ways.Learning takes place in many ways.

• Video• it is intentional, or it is unintentional

• It happens in human beings or animals• It happens in school or out of school• learning can be good or can be worse

Learning TheoriesLearning Theories ：：• There are two main theories: Behavioral learning t

heories and cognitive learning theories.• Behavioral learning theories Behavioral learning t

heories are explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior.

• (Social learning theories focus on the effects of thought on action and action on thought.)

• Cognitive learning theories are explanations of learning that focus on mental processes.

• There are two branches of cognitive learning theories: cognitive structure learning theory （认知结构学习论）， information － processing theory of learning （信息加工学习论）。

Part2

What behavioral learning theories have evolved ？

Early Explanations of LearningEarly Explanations of Learning

1. One of the earliest explanations of learning come from Aristotle (384-322B.C.)

2. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning was

discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist, in the late 1800s and early 1900s

• Aristole – (384-322BC)– Knowledge acquired t

hrough experience.• Four Laws of Association

– Law of similarity( 相似 )– Law of Contrast （对比）– Law of Contiguity （接

近）– Law of Frequency （频

率）

Some important concepts:Some important concepts:

• Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response.• Unconditioned Response A behavior that is prompted atomically by a stimulus.• Neutral Stimuli Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response.• Conditioned Stimulus A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular respons

e after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.• Classical Conditioning The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral( 中

性的 ) stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response.

SummarySummary （小结）（小结）• 1. Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful m

easurement and his systematic exploration of several aspects of learning helped to advance the scientific study of learning.

• 2. Pavlov also left other behavioral theorists with significant mysteries, such as the process by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.

• 3.Although his findings have few applications to classroom instruction, they can help a teacher understand many situations, such as when a child's anxiety about being among strangers gradually develops into a debilitating fear of coming to school.

Learning Guide for next Learning Guide for next sectionsection

• Thorndike, Skinner Experiments Conclusions Explanations Applications in Education

2. Thorndike’s theory of learning2. Thorndike’s theory of learning

• American psychologist and educator, born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, and educated at Wesleyan, Harvard, and Columbia universities. Thorndike joined the psychology faculty at Teachers College of Columbia University in 1899, where he served as adjunct professor of educational psychology from 1901 to 1904 and as professor of psychology from 1904 until his retirement in 1940. From 1922 to 1940 he also was director of the psychology division of the Institute of Educational Research at Teachers College.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

• Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist played major roles in developing learning theories. His early work involved cat’s that he placed in problem boxes.

• By using trial-and-error experiments with animals, Thorndike formulated his so-called law of effect—the more satisfying the result of a particular action, the better that action is learned—and applied it to the development of special teaching techniques for use in the classroom. He is particularly known for his construction of various intelligence and aptitude tests and for his repudiation of the belief that such primarily intellectual subjects as languages and mathematics discipline the mind.

Edward Thorndike played Edward Thorndike played major roles in developing learning theories. His early major roles in developing learning theories. His early work involved cat’s that he placed in problem boxes.work involved cat’s that he placed in problem boxes.

Experiments descriptionExperiments description

• Thorndike’s early work involved cats that he placed in problem boxes. To escape from the box and reach food outside, the cats had to pull out a bolt( 门闩 ) or perform some other task; they had to act on their environment. During the frenzied （狂乱的，激怒的） movements that followed the closing of the box, the cats eventually made the correct movement to escape, usually by accident. After repeating the process many times, the cats learned to make the correct response almost immediately

Thorndike's learning theory Thorndike's learning theory can be summarized as follows: can be summarized as follows: • 1

– The law of effect( 效果律 ) - responses followed by a reward will strengthen the response

– The law of readiness （准备律） - chaining a discrete responses to achieve a goal

– The law of exercise （练习律） - associations are strengthened with practice, weakened without it, and can be diminished with failure or punishment.

For these experimentsFor these experiments

• 2• Thorndike explained what was

learning . He viewed that learning was the linkage between stimulus and response. The learning occurred when stimuli prompt response (stimuli-response theory ,S-R theory).

3. Skinner’s Operant 3. Skinner’s Operant ConditioningConditioning

• American psychologist B. F.Skinner became

famous for his pioneering research on learning and behavior. During his 60-year career, Skinner discovered important principles of operant conditioning, a type of learning that involves reinforcement and punishment. A strict behaviorist, Skinner believed that operant conditioning could explain even the most complex of human behaviors.

Skinner’s experimentsSkinner’s experiments

• Skinner is famous for his development and use of a device( 装置 ) that is commonly referred to as the Skinner box. Skinner boxes contain a very simple apparatus（设备，仪器） for studying the behavior of animals, usually rats and pigeons.

• A Skinner box for rats would consist of a bar that is easy for the rat to press, a food dispenser （发配者） that could give the rat a pellet （小球） of food, and a water dispenser. The rat could not see or hear anything outside of the box, so all stimuli would be controlled by the experimenter.

Based on Skinner’s experimentBased on Skinner’s experiment

• He established the operant conditioning.

• Operant Conditioning is the use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.

Creative Thinking and Discuss in groupsCreative Thinking and Discuss in groups

• Compare the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner ‘s view of learning. What are the difference among them?

CONSEQUENCE EFFECT

Behaviors Reinforcer Strengthened or repeated behavior

4. Principles of 4. Principles of behavioral Learningbehavioral Learning

• consequences （结果） , • reinforcers （强化物） , • punishers （惩罚） ,• immediacy of consequences （结果的及时性） , • shaping( 塑造 ), • extinction （消退） , • schedules of reinforcement （强化的程序） , • maintenance （维持） , • and the role of antecedents( 先行事件的作用 ).

consequencesconsequences （结果）（结果）• The role of Consequences behavior changes according to its

immediate consequences. Pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it.

Types of Consequences Pleasurable consequences and

Unpleasant consequences

reinforcersreinforcers （强化物）（强化物）• positive reinforer and negative reinfor

cer • Primary reinforcers and secondary rei

nforcers• Intrinsic （内部的） and Extrinsic （外

部的） reinforcers

Ways of reinforcerWays of reinforcer• general principle of reinforcer• Ways 1. Self-reinforcement 2. Praise 3. Attention 4. Grades and recognition 5. Home-based reinforcement 6. Activity reinforcers. 7. Tangible( 切实的，物质的 ) reinforcers

Theory into practiceTheory into practice1. Application of reinforcers------Premack Prin

ciple2.Classroom uses of reinforcement (1)Decide what behaviors you want from students, and reinforce these

behaviors when they occur. (2)Tell students what behaviors you want; when they exhibit the desir

ed behaviors and you reinforce them, tell them why. (3) Reinforce appropriate behavior as soon as possible after it occurs.

(4)to use the least elaborate( 精心制作的， ) or tangible （切实的） reinforcer

PunishersPunishers• Unpleasant Consequences that weake

n behavior are called punishers.

• (Thinking: if an unpleasant consequence can’t weeken behavior ,is it a punisher?)

PunishersPunishers• Punishment can take two primary forms:

• PRESENTATION PUNISHMENT （呈现惩罚）• • REMOVAL PUNISHMENT( 取消性惩罚 )

Immediacy of ConsequencesImmediacy of Consequences

• Consequences that follow behaviors closely in time affect behavior far more than delayed consequences do.

ShapingShaping• Shaping is an important tool in classro

om instruction 。

What is Shaping ？？？

Case study

• Example on page151 ， 4thP• we want students to be able to write paragraphs with a topic senten

ce, three supporting details, and a concluding sentence. This task has many parts: being able to recognize and then produce topic sentences, supporting details, and concluding sentences; being able to write complete sentences using capitalization, punctuation, and grammar correctly; and being able to spell. If a teacher taught a lesson on all these skills, asked students to write paragraphs, and then scored them on content, grammar, punctuation, and spelling, most students would fail and would probably learn little from the exercise. Instead, the teacher might teach the skills step by step, gradually shaping the final skill. Students might be taught how to write first topic sentences, then supporting details, then concluding sentences. Early on, they might be held responsible only for paragraph content. Later, the requirement for reinforcement might be increased to include grammar and punctuation. Finally, spelling might be added as a criterion for success. At each stage, students would have a good chance to be reinforced, because the criterion for reinforcement would be within their grasp. The principle here is that students should be reinforced for behaviors that are within their current capabilities but that also stretch them toward new skills.

Shaping(Shaping( 塑造塑造 )) When teachers guide students

toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success, they are using a technique called shaping.

ExtinctionExtinction• The weakening and eventual

elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn is called extinction.

(give some examples from your experience).

Schedules of Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement

• P155• This term refers to the frequency with whic

h reinforcers are given, the amount of time that elapses( 流逝，消逝 ) between opportunities for reinforcement, and the predictability of reinforcement （强化程序是指给予强化物的频数、强化物之间的时间间隔以及强化的预期性等） .

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement

ContinuousReinforcement

IntermittentReinforcement

(Time) (Number)

Fixed-interval

Variable-interval

Fixed-ratio Variable-ratio

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement• Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Presenting a reinforce

after every appropriate response.• Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule: Presenting a reinforce

r after some but not all responses.• Interval Schedule: Reinforcement based on the length of ti

me between refnforcers• Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement based on the number respo

nses between reinforcers• Fixed-interval Schedule: Reinforcement Schedule in which

desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time

• Variable-interval Schedule: Reinforcement Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time.

• Fixed- Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors.

• Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors

Self learningSelf learning

SCHEDULE DEFINITION EXAMPLE RESPONSE PATTERN

Maintenance(Maintenance( 维持维持 ))

• Maintenance means the continuation of behavior.

Antecedents Antecedents （先行事件）（先行事件） anand Behavior Changed Behavior Change

We have seen that the consequences of behavior strongly influence behavior. Yet it is not only what follows a behavior that has influence.

The stimuli that precede a behavior also play an important role.

Antecedents Antecedents （先行事件）（先行事件） anand Behavior Changed Behavior Change

• CUEING Cueing, by definition, is the act of

providing an antecedent stimulus just before a particular behavior is to take place.

The cues must be discriminative .So we can provide an additional cue called prompt .

Part3Part3

Bandura: Bandura: Social Learning Theory ---Modeling anSocial Learning Theory ---Modeling and Observational Learningd Observational Learning

Main contents of Main contents of Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory • Modeling and Observational Learning

( 观察学习的模式 )• VICARIOUS LEARNING （替代性学习）• SELF REGULATED LEARNING （自我调

节学习• SELF-REINFORCEMENT( 自我强化 )

The experiments The experiments

• One of the classic experiments in social learning theory is a study done by Bandura (1965). Children were shown one of three films. In all three, an adult modeled aggressive behavior. In one film the model was severely punished. In another the model was praised and given treats （款待） . In a third the model was given no consequences. After viewing one of the films, the children were observed playing with toys. The children who had seen the model punished engaged in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their own play than did the children who had seen the model rewarded or had viewed the no-consequences film.

Modeling and Modeling and Observational LearningObservational Learning

• Brain storming ：• What kinds of behaviors are learnt wit

hout the effects of consequences?

four phases of four phases of observational learning observational learning

• Attentional Phase• Retention Phase• Reproduction Phase• motivational phase

VICARIOUS LEARNINGVICARIOUS LEARNING （替代（替代性学习）性学习）

• The experiments One of the classic experiments in social learning the

ory is a study done by Bandura (1965). Children were shown one of three films. In all three, an adult modeled aggressive behavior. In one film the model was severely punished. In another the model was praised and given treats （款待） In a third the model was given no consequences. After viewing one of the films, the children were observed playing with toys. The children who had seen the model punished engaged in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their own play than did the children who had seen the model rewarded or had viewed the noconsequences film.

SELF REGULATED LEARNINGSELF REGULATED LEARNING（自我调节学习）（自我调节学习）

• Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated Learning( 自我调节学习模式 )

Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated LearMeichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated Learning(ning( 自我调节学习模式自我调节学习模式 ))

• 1. An adult model performs a task while talking to self out loud (cognitive modeling).

• 2. The child performs the same task under the direction of the model's instructions (overt （明显的，公开的） , external guidance).

• 3. The child performs the task while instructing self aloud (overt self-guidance).

• 4. The child whispers the instructions to self as he or she goes through the task (faded, overt self-guidance).

• 5. The child performs the task while guiding his or her performance via private speech (covert self-instruction). (p. 32)

Example of Example of Self-Regulated LearningSelf-Regulated Learning TASK COMPLETION FORM[] Located material on Martin Luther King Jr.

in the library[] Read and took notes on material[] Wrote first draft of report[] Checked draft for sense[] Checked draft for mechanics:[] Spelling[] Grammar[] Punctuation[] Composed typed or neatly handwritten final

draft

Compare to Vygotskian approachCompare to Vygotskian approach • Both approaches emphasize

modeling private speech and gradually moving from teacher-controlled to student-controlled behaviors

Advantage of this strategy:Advantage of this strategy:

• breaking down a complex task into smaller pieces encourages students to feel that they are making progress toward their larger goal.

• checking off each step allows them to give themselves a mental pat on the back that reinforces their efforts (Manning & Payne, 1996).

SELF-REINFORCEMENT(SELF-REINFORCEMENT( 自我强化自我强化 )) • P120

• Information about one’s own behavior has often been found to change behavior, even when that information is self-provided.

Strengths and Limitations of Strengths and Limitations of Behavioral Learning TheoriesBehavioral Learning Theories

• The basic principles of behavioral learning theories are as firmly established as any in psychology and have been demonstrated under many different conditions. These principles are useful for explaining much of human behavior; they are even more useful in changing behavior.

• It is important to recognize, however, that behavioral learning theories are limited in scope( 范围 ). With the exception of social learning theorists, behavioral learning theorists focus almost exclusively on observable behavior

• Less visible learning processes, such as concept formation, learning from text, problem solving, and thinking, are difficult to observe directly and have therefore been studied less often by behavioral learning theorists. These processes fall more into the domain of cognitive learning,

• Social learning theory, which is a direct outgrowth of behavioral learning theories, helps to bridge the gap between the behavioral and cognitive perspectives.

The end of Chapter 3