GEOG3320 – Management of Wilderness Environments 1 Lecture 5

Lecture 5. Recreational use of wilderness and

wildland

Outline: Wilderness recreation and benefits Economics and development Management of recreational use Workshop: developing a wildland

policy for England and Wales

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THE main use of wilderness Focus of much research and

management This lecture:

- estimating levels and benefits- character and distribution- management

1. Recreational use and benefits

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Estimating levels of use- Difficult because:

• many access points - monitoring difficult• use is often dispersed over wide areas• use is light and variable

- Indirect methods of measurement:• sample observations• electronic counters and cameras• trail registers and mandatory permits• guestimates!

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Quantifiable? Units of measurement:

- number of overnight stays (NPS)- number of visitor days (USFS)- visitor hours- number of visits (regardless of length)- total number of people at one time (PAOT)

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Which to use? - depends on purpose Impact of camping and camper

congestion:- number of overnight stays

Measure of solitude:- number of visitor days- PAOT

Impact of overall visitor pressure:- number of visitor days- visitor hours

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Character and distribution- Determined by variety of factors:

• length of stay• party size• method of travel• activities pursued• season of use• social/organisational groupings• visitor residence• etc.

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Characteristics of the individual:- age- physical ability- gender- residence- income- occupation- education- membership of relevant bodies- etc.

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Who is the typical wilderness user?

Question:

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Who is the “typical” wilderness user? Results of US studies show:

- young (though older groups represented)- mostly male (3:1 ratio)- from nearby urban areas- moderately high income- professional-technical occupation- highly educated

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Uneven geographical distribution- wilderness recreation varies in popularity- inter-wilderness variations in use

• variations between wilderness areas- intra-wilderness variations in use

• many people concentrated in a few places• few people dispersed across many places

Management concerns:- extreme uneven distribution is undesirable- variations in carry capacity mean even

distribution also undesirable

1. Recreational use and benefits (cont’d)

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Planned management requires knowledge of future trends

Recent increase worldwide Current plateau in US usage Possible reasons:

- aging population- changes in population distribution- constraints on leisure time/transport costs- changing education and interests- expansion of NWPS

2. Economics and development

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Use projections Hampered by lack of suitable data:

- lack of longitudinal records- poor quality- incomparable (different standards, etc.)

Attempts to predict future use vary widely

Need to be prepared

2. Economics and development (cont’d)

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3. Managing recreational use

The goal of wilderness management is to:

“identify the desired resource, social and managerial conditions to be maintained or restored in wilderness, with these desired conditions expressed as explicit, measurable standards. Thus the focus of management attention shifts from defining maximum use to identifying desired conditions and managing use levels and/or other management parameters so that impacts do not exceed these conditions.” (Shelby and Heberlein, 1986)

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3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

4 basic considerations:- determining impacts and possible implications

is dependent on natural resource, socio-political and managerial factors

- recognition that recreational use inevitably leads to change

- determining acceptable level of change involves value judgement

- impacts related to factors other than amount of use

• i.e. type of use, timing, location, visitor behaviour, etc.

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Basic aims of wilderness management:

- manage to provide visitors with opportunity for quality wilderness experience

- manage to limit impact of recreation on the wilderness environment/resource to within specified carrying capacities

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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The tragedy of the commons...“Each man is locked into a system that compels him to

increase his [use of the commons] without limit - in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination to which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interests in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom of the commons brings ruin to all.” (Hardin, 1972, p.255)

Principles of wilderness management:- manage under a non-degradation concept - set carrying capacities to prevent unnatural change

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Definition of wilderness carrying capacity:

“the amount, kind and distribution of use that can occur without leading to unacceptable impacts on either the physical-biological resource or the available wilderness experience.” (Stankey et al., 1990, p.214)

- use an area can tolerate without unacceptable change

- wilderness carrying capacity is limited- Biophysical and socio-psychological components

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Biophysical carrying capacity:- the amount and type of use an ecosystem can

sustain without undue evidence of unnatural impact

- e.g. soil erosion and disturbance of wildlife

Socio-psychological carrying capacity:- the level of human use an area can

accommodate before solitude and other experiential values are diminished

- e.g. concentration of visitors

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Over-use can destroy wilderness quality

- e.g. too many people, trail erosion, devegetation of popular campsites, etc.

“By anyone’s definition, wilderness has been lost when such conditions prevail.” (Hendee, et al., 1990, p.215)

Establishment of appropriate levels of use is typically addressed through the concept of carrying capacity

- fundamental principle of wilderness management

- problem: determining carrying capacity

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Determining carrying capacity:- simple concept - difficult to implement- dynamic nature of ecosystems makes it difficult

to calculate- it can be increased/decreased by management

actions/human use- it is NOT a fixed value- is different for different uses- varies spatially and temporally- product of value judgement as well as scientific

evidence

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Management implementation:- biophysical and socio-psychological evidence

important only as decision aid- based largely on value judgements- determination of consensus view- recognise that wilderness management is really

about managing wilderness users and their impacts (Principle 9)

- political process- Visitor Impact Management (VIM)- Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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The LAC model

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Typical management paradox:- impacts affect visitor experience- reducing these would improve experience- management of impacts restricts visitors- adversely affects visitor experience

Quandry of management: can’t keep everyone happy

- i.e. solutions rarely work without affecting something else and/or creating problems elsewhere

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Types of recreational problems:- illegal actions- careless/thoughtless violation of regulations- unskilled actions- uninformed behaviour- unavoidable minimum impacts

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Question:What kind of problems fit into these categories?- illegal- careless- unskilled- uniformed- unavoidable

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Illegal actions:- direct contravention of regulations- examples:

• motorised transport• graffiti and vandalism

- incompatible with wilderness- effects of motorised transport:

• disruption of wildlife• disturbance of other visitors• excessive erosion and noise pollution

- appropriate management response is law enforcement

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Careless/thoughtless violation of wilderness regulations:

- due to irresponsible actions- examples:

• littering• short-cutting of trail switchbacks• building wood fires in prohibited areas

- manager must try to alter behaviour:• persuasion• making it easier to do the right thing• discouraging the wrong thing

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Unskilled actions:- many once recommended practices are now

considered inappropriate- examples:

• burying rubbish• ditching around tents• building bivouac shelters

- most are unnecessary with modern gear- management response:

• educate users in new ways• enforce rules where necessary

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Uniformed behaviour:- can intensify impacts- examples:

• use of popular trails and access points leading to concentration of use

• pursuit of certain activities in sensitive areas

- managers can:• inform users of alternative areas to disperse

use• set entry quotas at key access points• inform users of sensitive areas

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Unavoidable minimum impacts:- every visitor causes unavoidable impact- examples:

• trampling vegetation• going to the toilet• disturbing/attracting wildlife

- managers can:• encourage minimum impact practices• move use to less sensitive areas

- If all other options have failed and impact remains unacceptable then manager must regulate to reduce/eliminate use

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Management parameters (aspects of use that can be controlled or influenced):

- amount of use- distribution of use- timing of use- method of travel- party size- length of stay- behaviour- effect on environment- effect on other visitor’s experience

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Question:

What problems are likely to arise when attempting to manage wilderness users?

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General management approaches:- direct management- indirect management

Direct management emphasises regulation

- loss of experiential value- requires extra resources- set behavioural standards- prevent over use

Indirect management emphasises influencing or modifying visitor behaviour through education

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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Guidelines for regulatory practices are:

- use non-regulatory alternatives if possible- try to develop non-regulatory practices- explain regulations- regulate at minimum level needed- regulate at entry rather than activity level- monitor problem and effects of regulation- remember wilderness exists partly for visitor

use

3. Managing recreational use (cont’d)

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4. Examples

Managing the impacts of recreations is the main focus of most wilderness management

Main areas of management include:- managing campsite impacts- managing trail impacts- managing horse-related impacts

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4. Examples (cont’d)

Managing campsite related impacts:- more time spent on campsite than anywhere

else- impacts include:

• changes in vegetation and soil characteristics

• due to trampling, collecting fire wood, etc.- factors influencing impact include:

• amount and frequency of use• type and behaviour of users• environmental characteristics of site itself

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- management strategies include:• limiting use• changing type and behaviour of users• shifting use to more durable sites

- encouraging minimum impact camping:• use of proper equipment• keeping party sizes small• selecting resistant and appropriate sites• being careful with fire• avoiding ‘site improvement’• minimising pollution (rubbish and human

waste)• limiting length of stay

4. Examples (cont’d)

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Managing trail impacts- localised impacts but very visible- costly to repair- common problems:

• excessive erosion• boggy areas in saturated soils• proliferation of unplanned or impromptu

trails- management options include:

• rehabilitation of badly eroded/multiple trails• relocation of trails to more durable routes• trail engineering

4. Examples (cont’d)

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Managing horse related impacts- use of horses still significant in certain areas

(e.g. USA, South Africa, Siberia, etc.) but banned in others (e.g. Australia)

- impacts similar to hikers but more pronounced and with behavioural differences

- management strategies:• limit or reduce their use• encourage less damaging behaviour• discourage use during sensitive seasons• encourage use in only resistant areas• contain impacts to certain trails

4. Examples (cont’d)

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5. Summary

Carrying capacity as a key concept in wilderness management

- builds on Harding’s ideas re: the tragedy of the commons

- practical application through LAC model

General principles and approaches in managing wilderness recreation

Types of recreational problems Examples of recreation management

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Directed reading

Hendee et al., (1990) Wilderness Management. Fulcrum Publishing, Colorado. [Chapter 9]

Mitchell, B. (1979) Geography and Resource Analysis. Longman, London. [Chapter 7]

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Workshop• Developing an wildland policy for

England and Wales

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Next week...

6. Non-recreational use of wilderness Hunting and fishing Forestry and forest products Water resources Minerals, oil and gas Agriculture Renewable energy Workshop: web poster development

Q&A session