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LEGAL SYSTEMSIN THE WORLD

[U.K., U.S.A., Italy, France, Germany, Japan,China, Russia, India etc.]

By

Dr. S.R. MyneniADVOCATE (A.P. Bar Council)

M.A. M.Ed, LL.M; Ph.D.,P.G. Diploma in Journalism & M.C.,

P.G. Diploma in Econometrics;P.G. Diploma in Mathematics;

Ekadhika in Vedic Mathematics;Diploma in Russian Language;

Rashtra Bhasha Praveena;

Foreword by

Dr. Madabhushi SridharLL.M.,M.CJ.,Ph.D.(Law)

Professor, NALSAR University of Law,Hyderabad

ASIA LAW HOUSEHYDERABAD

LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE WORLDCONTENTS

Foreword üiPreface viIntroduction

1. The Romano - Germanic Legal System (Civü Law system) 12. The Common Law Legal System 33. History of Common Law 44. The Muslim Legal System 65. The Socialist Legal System 8

UNIT - I

Judicial Systems in the Countries of (Romano - Germanic LegalSystem, Civil Law System)

(Civil Law System)

Chapter-1

LEGAL SYSTEM IN ITALY

I. Introduction 12

II. Roman Empire 12

III. Roman Law 12

IV. Salient Features of the Constitution of Italy, 1947 14(1) Form of State 14(2) Local autonomy 14(3) Condemnation of War 14(4) Minorities 14(5) Secular 14(6) Rights 14(7) Organization of the Republic 15(8) Auxüiary Bodies 15(9) Judiciary 15(lO)Rigidity 16

V. Judiciary System in Italy(1) Jurisdictional Organization 16

(2) Independent Judiciary 17(3) Court Structure 17

(4) Minister of Justice 19

vii

ii Legal Systems in the World

(5) Legal Proceedings 19

(6) Penal Proceedings 19

(7) Recourse to the Courts 19

(8) International Law 19

Chapter-2

LEGAL SYSTEM IN GERMANY

I. Historical Evaluation of Legal System in Germany 20

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of FederalRepublic of Germany 22(1) A democratic and Social Federal State 22

(2) Member of the European Union 22

(3) Fundamental Rights 22

(4) Forfeiture of Basic Rights (Art. 18) 23

(5) Restriction of Basic Rights (Art.19) 23

(6) Guarantee of self-Govemment (Art.28) 23

(7) Bicameral Legislature 23

(a) The House of Representatives 23

(b) The Senate 24

(c) The President 24

(d) The Government 24

(i) Chancellor 24

(ii) Ministers 24

(iii) Legislative Powers 24

(iv) Judiciary 25

(v) Other issues 25

III. Administration of Justice in the FederalRepublic of Germany 25

(1) Federal Courts 25

(a) Federal Constitutional Court 25

(i) Composition (Art.94) 25

(ii) Functions (Art.93) 26

(b) High Courts of Justice of the Federation (Art.95) 27

(c) Other Federal Courts (Art.96) 27

Contents IX

(2) Judges 28

(a) Iiulependence of the Judges (Art.97) 28

(b) Legal Status of Judges (Art.98) 28

(3) Disputes concerning State Law (Art.99) 29

(4) Compatibility of statutory law with the

Constitution (Art.100) 29

(5) Ban on extraordinary Courts (Art.101) 29

(i) Abolitkm of Capital Piinishment (Art.102) 30

(ii) Due process in Courts (Art.103) 30

(iii) Legal guarantees in the Event ofDeprivation of liberty (Art.104) 30

(iv) Continued validity of old law andprevious treaties (Art. 123) 30

(6) Judiciary in Germany 31

Chapter-3

FRENCH LEGAL SYSTEM

I. History of French Law 32

(1) Barbarian Customs 32

(2) Canon Law 32

(3) Roman Law 32

(4) Modern Ideas 33

I. Structure of French Law 33

(1) Public Law and Private Law 33

(2) Legal Rule 33

(3) Codified form of law 34

(4) Interpretation 34

I. The Nature of French Constitution, 1958 35

(1) Preamble 35

(2) Populär Sovereignty 35

(3) Rigid Constitution 36

(4) A mixture of Parhamentary and Presidential Forms 36

(5) Separation of Legislative and Executive Powers 36

(6) The Constitutional Council 37

(7) Community 37

c Legal Systems in the World

(8) Local Bodies 38

(9) Economic and Social Council (Advisory Organ) 38

(10) The High Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors(Advisory Organ) 38

(11) Superior Court of Justice 38

(12)Recognised the Political parties 38

IV. Main Features of The French Legal and Judicial System 38

(1) Codified Law 39

(2) No elected Judges 39

(3) Dual Hierarchy 39

(4) Court of Conflict 39

(5) Absence of Judicial Review 39

(6) The Institution of Parquet 40

(7) Independence of Judiciary 40

(8) Habeas Corpus: 40

V. French Administrative Tribunals 40

(1) Introduction 40

(2) Administrative Tribunals 42

(a) Tribunal Administratif (Regional Councils) 42

(b) Conseil d' Etat 43

(3) Important Features of the French Administrative Tribunals 44

(4) Jurisdiction of the French Administrative Tribunals 44

(5) Procedure of French Administrative Tribunals 45

(a) Stay Orders 45

(b) Execution 46

VI. Judiciary Institutions of the Constitution of France, 1958 46

(1) The Conseil superieur de la Magistraturl' 46

(2) The High Court of Justice 46

(3) The Constitutional Council 47

VII. Dispensation of Civil Justice in France 47

(1) Hierarchy of Civil Courts 47

(a) Tribunal d' Instance 47

(b) Tribunal de Grande Instance 48

(c) Cour a" Appel 48

Contents X1

(d) Cour de Cassation 48

(e) Tribunal of Conßicts (Tribunal des conßits) 49

(2) Constitution of Civil Courts 49

(a) Registrar 49

(b) Public Instrumentality 50

(c) The Bench 50

(3) The procedure of the Civil case in the Tribunal

de Grande Instance 51

(4) Summary Proceeding 51

VIII. Criminal Judiciary System in France 51

(1) Criminal Offences 51

(2) Criminal Courts 52

(a) Sessions Court for the Offences of Felony 52

(b) Court for the offences of misdemeanour

or violation 52

(c) In vestigations 53

(d) Prosecution 53

(e) Judicial Police Official 53

(f) Parties to the Criminal Proceedings 54

(g) Thal 54

(h) Punishment 55

IX. Essentials of Commercial Law in France 55

(1) Commercial Acts 56

(2) Businessmen and their obligations 56

(3) Business Association 57

(a) Commercial Societies 57

(4) Tribunal of Commerce 59

(5) Settlement of Industrial Disputes 60

(a) Individual Disputes 60

(b) Collective Disputes 61

X. Some Personal Laws in France 62

(1) Divorce in French Law 62

(a) Mutual Consent 62

(b) Divorce for break in common life 63

(c) Divorce for faults 63

;ii Legal Systems in the World

(d) Jurisdiction 63

(e) Procedure 64

(f) Judicial Separation 65

(2) Adoption in French Law 65

(a) Füll adoption 6-5

(b) Simple Adoption 66

XI. Difference between French and English Law 67

Chapter-4

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN SPAIN

I. Historical evolution of Legal System in Spain 69

II. Salient features of the Constitution of Spain, 1978 71

(1) Executive 71

(2) Legislative 71

(3) Political Parties 71

(4) Local Government 71

III. Judicial System in Spain 72

(1) Other Laws 72

Chapter-5

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN PORTUGAL

I. Introduction 73

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Portuguese, 1976 73

III. Judiciary System in Portugal 74

Chapter-6

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN NORWAY

I. Introduction 75

II. Salient features of the Constitution of Norway, 1814 75

III. Judiciary 76

Chapter-7

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN DENMARK

I. Introduction 77

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Denmark, 1953 77

Contents X I U

III. Judiciary 77

Chapter-8

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN SWEDEN

1. Introduction 78

[I. Salient Features of the Constitution of Sweden, 1975 78

III. Judiciary System in Sweden 79

IV. Health and Weifare Laws 79

Chapter-9

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN FINLAND

I. Introduction 80

II. Judiciary 80

UNIT-II

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE COUNTRIES OF COMMONLAW LEGAL SYSTEM

Chapter-1

LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

(Britain)

I. History of the Structure of English Law 81

(1) Anglo - Saxon Period : Law of Customs 81

(2) The Norman Conquest : Common Law 83

(a) Common Law 84

(b) The Common Law Courts:— 85

1. Curia Regis or King's Council 85

(i) The Court of Exchequer 85

(ii) The Court of Common Pleas 55

(iii) The Court of King's Bench 85

2. Procedure in Common Law Courts 86

3. Canon law (Ecclesiastical Courts) 87

4. The Law Merchant (The Maiitime Courts) 88

(3) After Succession of Tudors : Growth of Equity(1485-1832) 90

iv Legal Systems in the World

(4) Modern Penod (1873-todate) 9 4

(a) The Judicature Acts 1873-5 94

II. Salient Features of the English Constitution 96

(1) Party Wntten and Partly Unwntten 96

(2) Evoluüonary " '

(3) Difference between Theory and Practice 97

(4) Parliamentary Sovereignty 97

(5) A Unitary Constitution 98

(6) A Flexible Constitution 98

(7) A Parliamentary Form of Government 98

(8) A Bicameral Legislature 98

(9) Rule of Law 9 8

(10) Separation of Powers 99

(11) A Blend of Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy 99

III. Features of British Judiciary 99

(1) No Single Form of Organization 99

(2) The Guardian of Human Liberties WO

(3) Absence of Judicial Review 100

(4) No Separate Administrative Courts 100

(5) Integration of Courts in England and Wales 100

(6) Jury System 100

(7) High Quality of Justice 101

(8) European Community Law 101

(9) Independent Judiciary 101

IV. The United Kingdom's Judicial Organization ICH

(1) Civil Courts in the United Kingdom 1Q1

(a) The Superior Courts 101

(i) The Appellate Committee of theHouse of Lords 101

(ii) Judicial Committee of the Privy

Council:— Another Supreme Court '02

(üi) Court of Appeal (Civil Division) 104

(iv) The High Court of Justice 104

Contents x v

(a) The Queen's Bench Division 104

(b) The Chancery Division 105

(c) Family Division 106

(v) The Interior Courts: Country Courts 106

(2) Criminal Courts in the United Kingdom 108

(a) The House of Lords 108

(b) Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) 109

(c) The Crown Court 109

(d) Magistrates' Courts (Courts of Petty Sessions) 112

(e) Justices of the Peace (J.P) 112

(f) Stipendiary Magistrates 112

(i) Court of Tnal 113

(ii) Court of Preliminary Investigation 114

(iii) Miscellaneous Jurisdiction 115

(g) Juvenile Courts (Juvenile Magistrate Courts) 115

(h) Appeals from Magistrates' Courts 115

(i) Other Courts: 116

(1) Courts-Martial Appeal Court 116

(2) Restrictive Practices Court 116

(3) Employment Appeal Tribunal 116

(4) Coroners' Court 116

(5) Court of Justice of the

European Communities II 7

(3) Administrative Tribunals 118

(a) Examples of Tribunals in the U.K 120

(1) Rent Tribunals 120

(2) Industriell Tribunals 120

(3) Domestic Tribunals 121

(4) Arbitration 122

V. Legal Sources in the U.K 124

(1) Judicial Precedent (Rule of Preceder:^ 125(a) The House of Lords and Precedent 127

(b) Rule of Precedent and Equity 127

x v j Legal Systems in the World

(c) Rule of Precedent and Statute Law 127

(2) Law Reports 121

(a) Reference to Reports 12?

(3) Legislation (Statute Law) 128

(4) Text Books (Legal Writing) 131

(5) Local Custom 1Ji

Chapter-2

LEGAL SYSTEM

IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

I. Early History of legal System in the USA (or US) 134

II. Salient Features of the U.S. Constitution 136

(1) Written Character 136

(2) Federal Character 131

(3) Supremacy of the Constitution 131

(4) Presidential Form of Government 138

(5) Dual Citizenship 138

(6) Spoils System 138


(8) Republicanism 135

(9) Judicial Review 135

(10) Separation of Powers 14(

(11) Populär Sovereignty 14(

(12) Checks and Balances 14*

(13) Bill of Rights 141

(14)Rigidity 141

(15) Amendments 141

III. Sources of American Law 14*

(1) Judge-made law (Decision of Courts) 14*

(2) The Rule of Stare Decisis (Let the decision stand) 14*

(3) Statute Law 1#

(i) President's Powers I4f

(4) American Codes or Revised Laws or Consolidated Lawsl^

Contents xvii

(3) Rigidity with flexibility (Amendments) 180

(4) Referendum 180

(5) State Organization 180

(a) President 180

(b) The National Parliament 181

(c) The Government 181

(d) The Council of State 181

(6) The Comptroller and Auditor 182

(7) The Judiciary 182


(9) Directive Principles of State Policy 182

III. Judicial System in Ireland 182

(1) The Courts 183

(2) Judges by Appointment 184

(3) Organization by Law 185

(4) No Invalidation 185

(5) Trial of offences 185

(6) Treason 186

(7) Reference of Bills to the Supreme Court 186

(8) The Attorney General 186

Chapter-4

LEGAL SYSTEM IN CANADA

I. Introduction 188

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Canada, 1982 188

(1) Written Constitution 188

(2) A Federal Constitution 189

(3) Rigidity-cum-Flexibihty 189

(4) A Charter of Rights and Freedoms 189

(5) A Fully Sovereign State 190

(6) Equalization 190

(7) Parliamentary Form of Government 190

(8) A Bicameral Legislature 190

(a) Supreme Court 190

xviii Legal Systems in the World

191(b) Bilingualism(c) Provision of Referendum

III. The Judicial System in Canada 1 9

191(1) The Supreme Court

192(2) The Federal Courts

193(3) The Provmcial Courts

193

(4) Country Courts .-. '

(5) The Mmior provincial Courts

(6) The Magistrates' Courts 193

194

(7) Court Languages

(8) Enforcement (Access to Courts) 1:"

(9) Legal Rights m

(a) Personal Integrity (Art. 7) 194

(b) Search and Seizure (Art. 8) 194

ins.

(c) Imprisonment (Art. 9) iy

(d) Arrest (Art. 10) 195

(e) Fair Trial (Art., 11) 195

(f) No Cruel Punishment (Art. 12) 195

(g) Right Against Self-Incrimination (Art. 13) '96(h) Right to Interpreter (Art. 14) l 9 6

Chapter-5LEGAL SYSTEM IN AUSTRALIA

I. Historical Evaluation 197

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Australia 198

(1) A Union between Independent States 199

(2) A Federal Constitution l "(3) Parliamentary Government 200(4) Equal Representation in the Senate 200(5) States' Constitutions 200(6) Inter-State Commission 2°0(7) Separation of Powers 201(8) Independent Judiciary 201(9) Civil Liberties 201

Contents XIX

(10) Rigid Constitution 201

(11) Finance and Trade 202

III. Judicial System in the Commonwealth of Australia, 1901 202

(1) The Federal Judicature (The High Court) Composition 202

(a) Jurisdiction 203

(i) Appellate 203

(ii) Original 204

(b) The Federal Court 205

(c) The Family Court 206

(d) The State Courts 206

Chapter-6

LEGAL SYSTEM IN SWITZERLAND

I. Home-Land of Direct Democracy 208

II. Salient Features of the Swiss Constitution, 1999 209

(1) Written and Lengthy Constitution 209

(2) A Republican Constitution 209

(3) A Federal Form of Government 210

(4) Liberty, Equality and Freedom 210

(5) Citizens1 Rights 211

(6) Democratic Character 211


(8) Plural Executive 211

(9) Secondary Position to the Judiciary 212

(lO)Rigid Constitution (Amendment) 212

(a) Through Referendum 212

(b) Through Constitutional Initiative 212

III. Judicial System in Switzcrland 212

(1) Federal Judiciary (The Federal Tribunal Composition) 212

(2) Jurisdiction of the Tribunal 213

(a) Original Jurisdiction 213

(i) Civil Cases 213

(ii) Criminal Cases 214

(iii) Constitutional cases (Public Law Jurisdiction) 214

KX Legal Systems in the World

(b) Federal administrative and disciplinary jurisdiction 216

(c) Appellate Jurisdiction (Civil cases) 216

(3) As Guardian of the Constitution 216

(4) The Cantonal Judiciary 216

(a) Justice of the Peace 2 ^

(b) Special Magistrate Courts 2 t 6

(c) Courts of Appeal 21^

(d) The Cantonal High Court 217

Chapter-7

LEGAL SYSTEM IN JAPAN

I. Historical Factors of Japan 2 ^

II. Historical Evaluation of legal System in Japan 219

(1) Early period 2 l 9

(2) Meiji Era - Westemization of Japanese Law 22*

III. General Features of the Shova Constitution i.e.

the Constitution of Japan, 1946 223


(2) Sovereignty of the People 223

(3) Rigid Constitution with Flexibility 223

(4) Renunciation of War 22

(5) Limited Monarchy 224

(6) Parliamentary Government 224

(7) Unitary Government 224

(8) Bicameral System 224

(9) Business of Military 22^


(ll)Adult Suffrage 225

(12) Supreme Law 225

(13)Local Autonomy 225


IV. The Judicial System in Japan 226

(1) Earty Judicial System 226

(2) Judicial system from Meiji rule to the period of

Contents X X I

Second World War 226

(3) Present day Judicial System

(The Post-war Judicial System) 227

(4) Organisation of Jusdiciary 227

(a) The Supreme Court 228

(b) Appointment and Removal of Judges 228

(c) The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 228

(5) The Lower Courts : (The Inferior Courts) 229

(a) High Courts 229

(b) District Courts 229

(c) Summary Courts 230

(d) The Procurators 230

(6) The Main Features of New Judicial System 230

(7) Importance of Conciliation in Japan 231

(a) Pre-trial Conciliation (Jidan) 232

(b) Conciliation During Trail {Wakai) 232

(8) Mediation (Chotei) 232

(9) Arbitration (Chusai) 233

Chapter-8

LEGAL SYSTEM IN SINGAPORE

I. Introduction 234

II. Salient Features of the Constitution ofthe Republic of Singapore, 1963 234

(1) Sovereign Republic 234

(2) Rigidity 234

(3) Protection of Liberties 235

(4) Democratic form of Government 235

(5) Protection to Minorities 236


(7) Wntten Constitution 236

III. The Judicial System in Singapore 236

(1) Composition of the Supreme Court 236

(2) Appointment of Judges of the Supreme Court 237

(3) Qualifications of Judges of the Supreme Court 237

vxii Legal Systems in the World

(4) Oath of Office of Judges and Judicial Commissionersof the Supreme Court 238

(5) Tenure of Office and Remuneration of Judgesof the Supreme Court 238

(6) Restriction on Parliamentary Discussion of

Conduct of a Judge of the Supreme Court 239

(7) Advisory Opinion 239

(8) Jurisdiction to Determine Questions as to Validityof Presidential Election 239

Chapter-9

LEGAL SYSTEM IN SOUTH AFRICA

I. Introduction 241

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of South Afnca 242


(2) Sovereign Republic 242


(4) Co-operative Government 243


(6) Federal Form of Government 243

(7) Democratic Form of Government 244

(8) State institutions Supporting Constitutional Democracy 244

III. Judicial System in South Africa 245

(1) Judicial Authonty 245

(2) Judicial System 245

(a) The Constitutional Court 245

(b) The Supreme Court of Appeal 246

(c) The High Court 246

(d) Magistrate Courts and Other Courts 246

(e) Court Procedures 247

(3) Powers of Courts in Constitutional matters 247

(4) Inherent Power of Courts 247

(5) Appointment of Judicial Officers 247

(6) Judicial Service Commission 249

Contents xx»>

(7) Prosecuting Authority 250

Chapter-10

LEGAL SYSTEM IN BRAZIL

I. Introduction 252

II. Salient Features of Constitution of theUnited States of Brazil, 1988 252

III. Judicial System in Brazil 253

Chapter-11

LEGAL SYSTEM IN MEXICO

I. Introduction 254

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Mexico, 1917 255III. Judicial System in Mexico 256

UNIT-lll

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE MUSLIM OR ISLAMICCOUNTRIES

Chapter-1

MUSLIM OR ISLAMIC LEGAL SYSTEM

I. Sources of Mohammedan or Muslim or Islamic Law 257

(1) Introduction 257

(2) The Taklid 257

(3) Sources of Muslim Law 258

(a) Quran 258

(b) Sunna or Tradition 259

(c) The ijmaa 259

(d) Qiyas 260

II. Different Schools of Islamic Law (Muslim Rites) 261


(2) The Shia School 261

(3) The Sunni School 262

(4) The Hanafi rite 262

(5) The Maliki rite 262

(6) The Shafei rite 263

x x j v Legal Systems in the World

(7) The Hanbali rite 2 6 3

III. Companson of or differences between Shia and Sunni Law

(1) Marriage (Nikah) 263

(2) Dower {Mahr) 264

(3) Divorce (Talaq) 2 6 4

(4) Matermty z w

(5) Guardianship (Hizamat) 2 6 5

(6) Maintenance (Nafqah) 265

(7) Gift (Hiba) 2 6 5

(8) Pre-emption (Sufa) 265

(9) Will (Wassiyat) 2 6 5

(lO)Inheritance 2 6 6

IV. Crimes and Punishments in Mohammedan Law 2°6

(1) Kisa 2 6 6

(2) Hadd 2 6 7

(3) Tazeer 267

V. Adaptation of Muslim Law to the Modern World 267

VI. Muslim Law in Some Muslim Countries 26o


(2) Characteristics of Contemporary Development

in Law of Muslim Countries 269

(3) Judicial System in Pakistan 269

(4) Judicial System in Saudi Arabia 2^9

(5) Judicial System in United Arab Emirates 270

(6) Judicial System in Iran (ancient name Persia) 2 7 °

(7) Judicial System in Egypt 271

(8) Judicial System in Bahrain (or Bahrein) 273

(9) Judicial System in Syna 274

(10) Judicial System in Malaysia 274

(11) Judicial System in Indonesia 275

(12)Judicial System in Morocco 276

(13)Judicial System in Tunitia 277

(14) Judicial System in Albama 277

(15) Judicial System in People's Republic of Bangladesh 278

Contents x x v

(a) Salient Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh ...278

(b) Judiciary in Bangladesh 279

(1) Supreme Court (Art. 94-113) 279(ii) Subordinate Courts Art. 114-116A) 279

(iii) Administrative Tribunals (Art. 117) 279

UNIT-1V

JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN COUNTRIES OF SOCIALISTLEGAL SYSTEM

Chapter-1

LEGAL SYSTEM IN CUBA

I. Introduction 281

II. Salient Features of Cuban Constitution, 1976 281

III. Judicial System in Cuba 283

Chapter-2

LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE PEOPLE'S

REPUBLIC OF CHINA

I. Historical Changes in China 285

II. Legal System in Ancient China 285

(1) In Communist China 287

(a) The common Programme, 1949 287

(b) The Constitution of 1954 287

(c) The Constitution of 1975 288

(d) The Constitution of 1978 288

III. Salient features of The Constitution of 1982 288

(1) A written Document 289

(2) Flexibility289

(3) Umtary State 289

(4) Power with the People in Socialist State 289

(5) Planned Economy 290

(6) Democratic Centralism 290

(7) Rights and Duties 291

(8) Protection of Private Property 291

x x v j Legal Systems in the World

(9) The Structure of the State 291

992(10)Role of Judiciary Z7 i

TV Judicial Structure in People's Republic of China 292

(1) Introduction ^L

(2) Supreme People's Court LyL

(a) Composition 2

(b) Powers Ay}

(3) The People's Procuratorates Lyj

Functions of Procurators LZ>

V. Salient Features of Judicial System in People'sRepublic of China 294

(1) Judiciary to Protect the Socialist Legal System,Rule of Law 294

(2) Judicial organs are State Organs 295

(3) Single Integrated Judicial System 295

795(4) Independence "(5) Elected Judiciary 295

(6) No Qualifications or Tenure 295

(7) OpenTrial 295

(8) No Judicial Review 2 9 5

(9) Independence of Functions 29o(lO)Language in Trials 2

(11) Courts and Procuratorates 2"(12)Types of Courts 2 9 6

VI. Mediation and Arbitration in Chinese Legal System 2"(1) Influence of Traditional Concept of Chinese 29/(2) Influence of Confucianism 297(3) Present Day Methods of Mediation 2 9 8

(4) Transformation 299Chapter-3

LEGAL SYSTEM IN RUSSIAN FEDERATION

(RUSSIA)

I. Historical Evolution of Russian Legal System 301II. Salient Features of the Constitution of

Russian Federation 1993 304

Contents x x v»


(2) A Sovereign Democratic Federal Republic 304

(3) Sovereignty of people 305

(4) A Social State 305

(5) A Secular State 305

(6) Presidential Form of Government 305

(7) Bicameral legislature 305

(8) Governance of the Russian Federation 306

(9) Incorporation of Rights and Duties 306

(lO)Significant Role of Judiciary 307

(11) Rigidity of the Constitution 307

(12)Supremacy of Constitution 307

III. Judicial Organisation in Erstwhile USSR 308

(1) The hierarchy of Courts 308

(2) Judicial Personnel 308

(3) The role of the USSR Supreme Court 309

(4) Working of the Courts 309

(5) Remedies Against Judgments 310

(6) Extra-Judicial Contentions Proceedings 311

(7) Appeals to People's Organisations 311

IV. Legal system in present day Russian Federation 312


(2) Structure 312

(a) Constitutional Court of Russia 312

Its powers : 312

(b) Supreme Court of Russian Federation 314

(c) Structure of the Supreme Court of

Russian Federation 314

(I) The Plenum 314

(ii) The Presidium 314

(iii) Judicial Chambers 314

(iv) Offices, Departments and Structural Units 314

(d) Judges of the Supreme Court 314

(3) The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation 315

Administrative Courts 315

x x v u i Legal Systems in the World

(4") Structure of General Jurisdiction Courts 315

(a) Military Courts i l

(b) Justice of Peace J 1 D

(c) Prosecutor's Office (Art. 129) *• 316

(5) Judges

(a) Qualifications. 317

(b) Appointment(c) Independence of Judges 3

318(6) Salient Features of Judiciary in Russia J 1

319(7) Summary of Russia's Judiciary J 1 7

Chapter-4LEGAL SYSTEM IN INDIA

I. Historical Evaluation of Legal System in India J i l

321(1) Ancient Hindu Legal Systems ^

(a) The Vedic (Shruti) or ¥re-Sutra Period 321

(b) The Dharma Shastra Period ^ '

(c) The Smriti-Period (Swfra-Period) 3 2 1

(d) Other works 3 2 1

(e) The Post-Smriti Period 3 2 1

(2) Sources of Law in the Medieval (Mohammedan)

Period in India 322

(3) National Law During the British Rule 322

(4) Period of Codification under the British Administration 324

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of India 3 2 "

(1) The Lengthiest Written and Enacted Constitution 326

(2) The Preamble as a Guidance 327

(3) Parliamentary Form of Government 327

(4) Fundamental Rights 3 2 7

(5) Directive Principles of State Policy 328

(6) Fundamental Duties 328

(7) Independent Judiciary and Conformation of Previous Law 328

(8) Adult Suffrage 328

(9) Single Citizenship 328

(10) Gross-Root Democracy 329

Contents XXIX

(11) Miscellaneous Provisions 329(12) Unique Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility 329

(13) Both Federal and Unitary 329

III. Court System under the Indian Constitution 330

(1) The Supreme Court 330

(a) Constitution 330

(b) Appointment 330

(c) Qualifications 331(d) Appointment of Acting Chief Justice 331

(e) Appointment of ad hoc Judges 331(f) Retired Judges to sit in the Supreme Court 332(g) Salaries etc of Judges 332

(h) Status of the Supreme Court (Article 129) 332

(i) Seat of the Supreme Court (Article 130) 332

(j) Jurisdiction (i.e. Powers and Functions) 332

(i) Original Jurisdiction of theSupreme Court (Art. 131) 332

(ii) Appellate Jurisdiction 333

(iii) Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court in Appealsfrom High Courts in Certain Matters (Art.132) 333

(iv) Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court inAppeals from High Courts RegardingCivil Matters 333

(v) Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court inRegard to Criminal Matters 334

(vi) Exercising the Jurisdiction and Powers ofthe Federal Court 334

(vii) Special Leave to Appeal 334

(viii) Advisory Jurisdiction 334

(k) Review of Judgments or Orders by the

Supreme Court 335

(1) Transfer of Certain Cases 335

(m) Enlargement of the Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court ..335

(n) Ancillary Powers of Supreme Court 336

(o) Writ Jurisdiction 336

(p) Rule of precedent (Law Declared by the

x x x Legal Systems in the World

Supreme Court to be binding on all Courts) 336

(q) Miscellaneous Provisions 336(2) High Courts in the States (Arts. 214-232) 337

(a) Establishment 337(b) Constitution of High Court 337(c) Appointment of Judges 337(d) Qualifications 337(e) Appointment of Acting Chief Justice, Additional

and Acting Judges and Retired Judges at Sittingsof High Courts 337

(f) Oath or Affirmation by Judges of High Courts 338

(g) Restriction on Practice After Being aPermanent Judge 338

(h) Salaries and Allowances of Judges 338(i) Tenure, Resignation and Removal of a Judge 338(j) Transfer of a Judge from One High Court

to Another 339(k) Jurisdiction (Powers and Functions) of

the High Court 339(i) The writ Jurisdiction 339(ii) Power of Superintendence over all the Courts....340(iii) Transfer of Certain Cases to High Court 340(iv) Power to Punish for Contempt 341(v) Appellate jurisdiction 341

1. Appeals in Civil cases 3412. Appeals in Criminal Cases 341

3. Issue of Certificate for Appeal tothe Supreme Court 341

(1) Appointment of Officers and Administrationof Expenses 341

(3) Subordinate Courts in Indian Judiciary 341(a) Subordinate Civil Judicature 341

(i) The Court of District Judge or District Court 341(ii) Village Panchayat Courts and Civil Jurisdiction...343(iii) Revenue Courts 343

(b) Subordinate Criminal Judicature 344(i) Courts of Sessions 344

Contents XXXI

(ii) Courts of Magistrates 344(iii) Panchayats and Criminal Jurisdiction 345

(4) New Dispute-Resolution Machinery(Alternative Dispute Resolution) Systems 345(a) Lok Adalats 345(b) Family Courts 345(c) Consumer Dispute Redressal Agencies and

National Council 346(d) Tribunals 346

(5) Subordinate Courts under the Indian Constitution 347(a) Appointment of District Judges 347(b) Validation of Appointment of , and Judgements etc.

Delivered by, Certain District Judges 348(c) Recruitment of Persons Other than District Judges

to the Judicial Service 348(d) Control over subordinate Courts 348

IV. Legal Procedure in Civil and Criminal Matters in India 349(1) Different stages in the procedure of a civil law suit 349

(a) Institution of a suit 349(b) Service of summons 349(c) Written Statement 349(d) Discovery 349(e) First Hearing and Striking of Issues 350(f) Production of Evidence and Argument 350(g) Judgment 350(h) Decree 350(i) Execution 350(j) Appeal 351

(2) The stages of procedure in Criminal Offences in India....351(a) The First Information Report (The FIR) 351(b) Investigation 351(c) Institution of a Case 352(d) Commencement of Proceedings-scrutiny of

the Complaint 352(e) Commencement of Proceedings before the Magistrate ..352(f) Provisions as to Bail and Bonds 353(g) Preliminary Pleas to Bar Trial 353(h) Charge 353(I) Trial Before a Court Sessions 353

x x x ü Legal Systems in the World

V. Legal Profession in India(1) The Legal Practitioners Act of 1846 356(2) The Legal Practitioners (XX) Act of 1853 356

(3) The Indian Bar Council Act, 1926 357

357(4) The Advocates Act, 1961 J J

Chapter-5

LEGAL SYSTEM IN SRI LANKA

T T A •• ~ ~~ ....360I. Introduction

II. Salient Features of the Constitution of Sri Lanka, 1977 360(1) Democratic Socialist Republic 3w(2) Unitary State 361(3) Secular State 361

(4) Fundamental Rights 361(5) Directive Principles of State Policy 36(6) Fundamental Duties 362

362(7) Parliamentary Democracy JO

(8) Local Government 362

(9) The judiciary 363

(10) Referendum 363

(11) Rigid Constitution (Amendment Procedure) 363III. Judicial System in Sri Lanka 363

(1) Establishment of Courts 363

(2) Public Sittings 364

(3) Independence of the Judiciary ^(a) Appointments and Removal of Judges of

Supreme Court and Court of Appeal 36->(b) Appointment, Removal and Disciplinary Control

of Judges of the High Court J- 3^(c) Commissioners of the High Court 366(d) Judicial Service Commission 366(e) Interference with Judiciary an Offence 367

(4) The Superior Court 367(a) The Supreme Court 367(b) The Court of Appeal 368(c) High Court 370

BIBLIOGRAPHY 372

legal systems in the world - gbv.de · salient features of the constitution of italy, ... (art. 18)...

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