THE CONCEPT OF THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE

Lecture 17Lecture 17

IntroductionIntroduction

Intelligence is the mental capacity to reason, Intelligence is the mental capacity to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. comprehend ideas and language, and learn.

Generally considered as distinct from Generally considered as distinct from creativity, personality, character, or wisdom.creativity, personality, character, or wisdom.

The Concept Of IntelligenceThe Concept Of Intelligence The concept of intelligence has presented clinical psychology The concept of intelligence has presented clinical psychology

with one of its greatest dilemmas. with one of its greatest dilemmas.

Despite efforts to quantify individual differences in intellectual Despite efforts to quantify individual differences in intellectual functioning for over a 100 years, intelligence has remained functioning for over a 100 years, intelligence has remained one of the most difficult and controversial psychological one of the most difficult and controversial psychological constructs to define and measure. constructs to define and measure.

Practical and Scientific significance to define and quantify Practical and Scientific significance to define and quantify intelligence intelligence

Practical significance : use of measures of intelligence in Practical significance : use of measures of intelligence in predicting academic and work potential and achievement. predicting academic and work potential and achievement.

Scientific perspective : for a comprehension of an important Scientific perspective : for a comprehension of an important aspect of human behavior and functioning (intelligence). aspect of human behavior and functioning (intelligence).

Two unresolved issues of intelligence:Two unresolved issues of intelligence:

1.1. Exactly what is meant by the term Exactly what is meant by the term intelligence? intelligence?

Because the precise definition of intelligence Because the precise definition of intelligence differs from psychologist to psychologist. E.g.,differs from psychologist to psychologist. E.g.,

innate general cognitive abilityinnate general cognitive ability a set of skills of problem solvinga set of skills of problem solving goal-directed adaptive behaviorgoal-directed adaptive behavior

2.2. How do we develop valid instruments for How do we develop valid instruments for measuring it?measuring it?

Psychometric concepts of reliability and Psychometric concepts of reliability and validity:validity:

ReliabilityReliability : : Consistency of a set of measurements or Consistency of a set of measurements or

measuring instrument.measuring instrument.

It is the consistency with which individuals It is the consistency with which individuals respond to test stimuli.respond to test stimuli.

Types of ReliabilityTypes of Reliability

There are several ways of evaluating reliability.There are several ways of evaluating reliability.

1.1. Test-retest reliabilityTest-retest reliability

2.2. Equivalent-forms reliabilityEquivalent-forms reliability

3.3. Split-half reliabilitySplit-half reliability

4.4. Inter-raterInter-rater or or inter-judge reliabilityinter-judge reliability

ValidityValidity The extent to which as assessment technique The extent to which as assessment technique

measures what it is supposed to measure. measures what it is supposed to measure.

Getting results that accurately reflect the concept Getting results that accurately reflect the concept being measured.being measured.

Types Of ValidityTypes Of Validity::

Content ValidityContent Validity indicates the degree to which a indicates the degree to which a group of test items actually covers the various group of test items actually covers the various aspects of the variable under study. aspects of the variable under study.

Criterion validityCriterion validity, is to correlate measures with a , is to correlate measures with a criterion measure known to be valid. criterion measure known to be valid.

Concurrent ValidityConcurrent Validity involves relating today’s test involves relating today’s test scores to a concurrent criterion. scores to a concurrent criterion.

Predictive ValidityPredictive Validity is demonstrated when test is demonstrated when test scores accurately predict some behavior or event in scores accurately predict some behavior or event in the future. the future.

Construct ValidityConstruct Validity is shown when test scores relate is shown when test scores relate to other measures or behaviors in a logical, to other measures or behaviors in a logical, theoretically expected fashion.theoretically expected fashion.

Definition Of IntelligenceDefinition Of Intelligence

No universally accepted definition. However, most No universally accepted definition. However, most have fallen into one of three classes:have fallen into one of three classes:

1.1. Definitions that emphasize adjustment or adaptation to Definitions that emphasize adjustment or adaptation to the environment – adaptability to new situations, the the environment – adaptability to new situations, the capacity to deal with a range of situations.capacity to deal with a range of situations.

2.2. Definitions that focus on the ability to learn – on Definitions that focus on the ability to learn – on educability in the broad sense of the terms.educability in the broad sense of the terms.

3.3. Definitions that emphasize abstract thinking the ability Definitions that emphasize abstract thinking the ability to use a wide range of symbols and concepts, the to use a wide range of symbols and concepts, the ability to use both verbal and numerical symbols.ability to use both verbal and numerical symbols.

Some DefinitionsSome Definitions Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of

the individual to act purposefully, to think the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. environment. (Wechsler, 1939)(Wechsler, 1939)

As a concept, intelligence refers to the whole As a concept, intelligence refers to the whole class of cognitive behaviors which reflect an class of cognitive behaviors which reflect an individual’s capacity to solve problems with individual’s capacity to solve problems with insight, to adapt himself to new situations, to think insight, to adapt himself to new situations, to think abstractly, and to profit from his experience. abstractly, and to profit from his experience. (Robinson & Robinson, 1965)(Robinson & Robinson, 1965)

In general we can say that : In general we can say that :

Intelligence is a Intelligence is a very general mental capabilityvery general mental capability that, that, among other things, involves the among other things, involves the ability to reasonability to reason, , planplan, , solve problemssolve problems, , think abstractlythink abstractly, , comprehend complex ideascomprehend complex ideas, , learn quicklylearn quickly and and learn from experiencelearn from experience. .

A broader and deeper capability for comprehending A broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.things, or "figuring out" what to do.

Theories Of IntelligenceTheories Of Intelligence

FACTOR ANALYTICAL FACTOR ANALYTICAL APPROACHESAPPROACHES

Spearman’s “Spearman’s “gg” factor and “” factor and “ss” factor (1927).” factor (1927).

Cattell’s Theory:Cattell’s Theory: Two important second-order factors that seem Two important second-order factors that seem

to represent a partitioning of Spearman's “g” to represent a partitioning of Spearman's “g” into two components: into two components:

Fluid abilityFluid ability (the person's genetically based (the person's genetically based intellectual capacity) and intellectual capacity) and

Crystallized abilityCrystallized ability (the capacities, tapped by (the capacities, tapped by the usual standardized intelligence test that the usual standardized intelligence test that can be attributed to culture-based learning). can be attributed to culture-based learning).

Guilford’s TheoryGuilford’s Theory Guilford proposed a Guilford proposed a Structure of the Intellect (SOI) modelStructure of the Intellect (SOI) model

The The operationsoperations are cognition, memory, divergent are cognition, memory, divergent production (constructing logical alternatives), production (constructing logical alternatives), Convergent production (constructing logic-tight Convergent production (constructing logic-tight arguments), and evaluation. (5)arguments), and evaluation. (5)

The The contentcontent dimension involves the areas of dimension involves the areas of information in which the operations are information in which the operations are performed: figural, symbolic, semantic, and performed: figural, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral. (4)behavioral. (4)

Finally, when a particular mental operation is Finally, when a particular mental operation is applied to a specific type of content, there are six applied to a specific type of content, there are six possible possible productsproducts: units, classes, systems, : units, classes, systems, relations, transformations, and implications. (6)relations, transformations, and implications. (6)

120 separate intellectual abilities.120 separate intellectual abilities. (5 X 4 X 6 =120)(5 X 4 X 6 =120)

Traditional tests used to assess what we know Traditional tests used to assess what we know or can do. or can do.

Recent approaches take a highly cognitive or Recent approaches take a highly cognitive or information-processing look.information-processing look.

e.g., speed of information processing , e.g., speed of information processing , strategies & levels of processing. strategies & levels of processing.

Recent Developments:Recent Developments:

Gardner’s Theory Of Gardner’s Theory Of Multiple Multiple IntelligencesIntelligences

Gardner (1983) : intelligence is a set of problem-Gardner (1983) : intelligence is a set of problem-solving skillssolving skills

A family of six intelligences: A family of six intelligences:

linguisticlinguistic, , musicalmusical, , logical-mathematicallogical-mathematical, , spatialspatial, , bodily-kinestheticbodily-kinesthetic, and , and personalpersonal. .

Criticism: Criticism: “Talents” rather than “intelligences”.“Talents” rather than “intelligences”.

Sternberg’s Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Of Triarchic Theory Of IntelligenceIntelligence

People function on the basis of three aspects People function on the basis of three aspects of intelligence: of intelligence:

Componential (Componential (analytical thinkinganalytical thinking)), ,

Experiential (Experiential (creative thinkingcreative thinking)), and , and

Contextual (Contextual ("street smartness”"street smartness”)). .

The notion of a single IQ score suggests that The notion of a single IQ score suggests that

““gg” factor is still considered seriously.” factor is still considered seriously.

Despite many theories of multiple intelligences Despite many theories of multiple intelligences or multiple factors.or multiple factors.

Most current intelligence tests are composed of Most current intelligence tests are composed of subtests, suggesting that practicing clinicians subtests, suggesting that practicing clinicians think more in line with Spearman or Thurstone.think more in line with Spearman or Thurstone.

History Of Intelligence History Of Intelligence TestingTesting

Intelligence Testing: Yesterday Intelligence Testing: Yesterday And TodayAnd Today

Two important historical developments in the Two important historical developments in the latter half of the nineteenth century greatly latter half of the nineteenth century greatly influenced the ultimate introduction of measures influenced the ultimate introduction of measures of intelligence:of intelligence:

First, compulsory education in the United States.First, compulsory education in the United States.

Second, psychologists’ belief that mental abilities Second, psychologists’ belief that mental abilities could be measured. could be measured.

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon became Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon became leaders in the intelligence testing movement leaders in the intelligence testing movement when they devised the Binet-Simon test.when they devised the Binet-Simon test.

Binet's original purpose was to develop an Binet's original purpose was to develop an objective method of identifying those truly objective method of identifying those truly lacking in academic ability (not behavior lacking in academic ability (not behavior problems).problems).

Binet and Simon regarded intelligence as a Binet and Simon regarded intelligence as a "faculty" that was inherited, although they also "faculty" that was inherited, although they also spoke of it as affected by training and spoke of it as affected by training and opportunity.opportunity.

Interest in quantifying intellectual performanceInterest in quantifying intellectual performance

Interest in individual differences (such as levels Interest in individual differences (such as levels

of intelligence) was taken by institutions such of intelligence) was taken by institutions such as schools, industries, military forces, and as schools, industries, military forces, and government. government.

Unchallenged & widespread use of intelligence Unchallenged & widespread use of intelligence tests for a while, but then attacked for tests for a while, but then attacked for discriminating through the inclusion of unfair discriminating through the inclusion of unfair items.items.

Issue of African AmericansIssue of African Americans The California State Board of Education in The California State Board of Education in

1975 imposed a moratorium on the use of 1975 imposed a moratorium on the use of intelligence tests to assess disabilities in intelligence tests to assess disabilities in African Americans.African Americans.

IQ testing is prejudicial to African American IQ testing is prejudicial to African American children and tends to diagnose them as children and tends to diagnose them as mentally retarded.mentally retarded.

This became a hotly debated issue.This became a hotly debated issue.

The most widely used intelligence The most widely used intelligence tests in the United Statestests in the United States

The most widely used intelligence tests in the U. S. were The most widely used intelligence tests in the U. S. were developed by David Wechsler during the 1940’s and developed by David Wechsler during the 1940’s and 1950’s. 1950’s.

He based his works on many existing tests.He based his works on many existing tests.

Wechsler’s belief was that there is a total or global level of Wechsler’s belief was that there is a total or global level of intellectual capacity that can be measured – thus; his tests intellectual capacity that can be measured – thus; his tests yield a score that represents the person’s overall yield a score that represents the person’s overall intelligence.intelligence.

Wechsler’s tests have shaped psychologist’s perception of Wechsler’s tests have shaped psychologist’s perception of intellectual functioning as comprised of separate but intellectual functioning as comprised of separate but related verbal and performance (non-verbal abilities).related verbal and performance (non-verbal abilities).

Wechsler’s Wechsler’s Functional intelligenceFunctional intelligence

Wechsler (1939) emphasized that an IQ test Wechsler (1939) emphasized that an IQ test measures measures functional intelligencefunctional intelligence, not intelligence it , not intelligence it self.self.

Some non-intellectual factors including motivations & Some non-intellectual factors including motivations & emotional adjustment can influence functional emotional adjustment can influence functional intelligence.intelligence.

For Wechsler, score on an IQ test is a reflection of For Wechsler, score on an IQ test is a reflection of what one has learned, which is a function of the what one has learned, which is a function of the environmental opportunities.environmental opportunities.

Continued Adaptation Of Intelligence Continued Adaptation Of Intelligence TestingTesting

Represented in the history of the Wechsler scales Represented in the history of the Wechsler scales (through revisions).(through revisions).

These changes have taken two forms:These changes have taken two forms:

1.1. Changes in test items to make them concurrent.Changes in test items to make them concurrent.

2.2. New normative samples to provide up-to-date New normative samples to provide up-to-date sources of comparison.sources of comparison.

ConclusionConclusion

Intelligence tests have been misused at timesIntelligence tests have been misused at times

Some tests have contained certain unfair Some tests have contained certain unfair items.items.

Test development, administration, and Test development, administration, and interpretation requires great sensitivity.interpretation requires great sensitivity.

However, banning tests seems an However, banning tests seems an inappropriate cure that may ultimately harm inappropriate cure that may ultimately harm the very people who need help.the very people who need help.