lesson2 (electro mag)
TRANSCRIPT
Electromagnetism, Electricity
And Digital Electronics
By
Engr. Jorge P. Bautista
Course Outline
I. Theory of Electrons and Electricity
II. Resistor and other passive elements
III. Ohm’s Law and Electric Circuits
IV. Theory of Magnetism
V. Diode and other Electronic Devices
VI. Logic Gates and flip-flops
VII. Combinational and sequential circuits
Text and References
• Digital Design by Mano
• Electronic Devices by Floyd
• Engineering Circuit Analysis by Hayt
• Introduction to Electric Circuits by Dorf
• Introduction to Digital Circuits by Bogart
Theory of Electrons
Principles of Electrons:
Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances from the nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits.
Bohr’s Atomic Theory of an atom
An atom consist of a nucleus in which it consist of a neutron and a proton in which electrons orbit around it.
Shells of an Atom
In an atom, orbits are group into energy bands know as shells. Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons at permissible energy levels. The shells are designated as K,L,M,N, and so on. The outermost shell is know as valence shell and the electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and bonding.
Shells of orbital Electrons in an Atom
s p d f g Total
K 2 2
L 2 6 8
M 2 6 10 18
N 2 6 10 14 32
O 2 6 10 14 18 50
Parts of an Atom
Proton – positively charge particle
Electron – negatively charge particle
Neutron – neutral charge particle or no charge at all.
Ionization
Ionization – the process of losing a valence electrons.
Ion – the resulting positively charge atom
Free electrons – the escaped valence electron.
Positive ion – ions that loses an electron
Negative ion – ions that gained an electron
What are insulators, conductors and semi-conductors?
Insulator – name given to materials that do not conduct electricity. They have less than 8 free electrons
Conductor – name given to materials that is a good conductor of electricity. They have many free electrons
Semiconductor – materials having 8 valence electrons.
Some insulators and conductors
*Insulator *ConductorGlass GoldPorcelain SilverMica CopperRubber AluminumAsbestos ZincParaffin TinPaper LeadAir iron
WIRE SIZES
AWG gauge
Diameter, mm
Ohms per Km
Ampacity
0 8.2524 0.3224 245A
1 7.3482 0.4063 211A
22 0.6451 52.9392 7A
24 0.5105 84.1976 3.5A
28 0.3200 212.872 1.4A
What is Electricity?Electricity is• the flow of electrons from an area high in electron
excess to one of lower electron content.• the flow of energy in a wire (similar to the flow of
water in a pipe) that is invisible, that causes the wire to become hot , causes a magnetic field to develop around the wire and can be put to work driving pumps, blowers, fans and so forth.
• Electricity cannot be generated. It can neither be created nor destroyed. It can, however, be forced to move and thus transmit power or produce electrical phenomena.
Two types of electricity:• Static electricity – electricity at rest• Dynamic electricity – electricity in motion
Common Sources of Electrical energy or Power.
1. Battery – a single unit capable of producing DC voltage by converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
2. Dynamo – a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice versa.
3. Motor – transformation from electrical energy to mechanical energy.
4. Generator – transformation from mechanical energy to electrical energy.
5. Solar energy – it converts solar energy from the sun through the use of solar cells.
Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC)
Direct current or DC is the first type of current because it is easy to produce. This current always flows in one direction. Its disadvantage is that it has an excessive voltage drop and power loss in the power lines for a long distance. Batteries are common sources of direct current.
Alternating current is the solution to the problem of DC. AC allows the flow of current in two directions. Today, it is possible to step up electricity to a power station, transmit it to any distant place and step it down for consumption. A transformer is the device used for stepping up and stepping down AC voltage.
Graphical Representation of a DC
Graphical Representation of an AC
How Electricity is Delivered to a Customer
What is electrical energy and power?
• Electrical Energy – the capacity to do electrical work
• Unit: watt-sec, kilowatt-hour, joule • W = P x t• Where: W = energy• P = power• t = time
• Conversion factor: 1 joule = 107 ergs
• Electric Power – the rate of doing electrical work or it is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy.
• Unit: joule/sec, watt
• P = work/time = EI = E2/R = I2R
• Where E = voltage
• I = current
• R = resistance
What is voltage?
Voltage - (potential Difference) or (electromotive force) – the force or pressure which makes electrons moves or tends to move from atom to atom along the wire.
Unit: volts
What are current and resistance?
Current – the rate of flow of electrons per unit of time. It can be direct current or alternating current.
Unit: Ampere
Resistance– the capability of the resistor to limit the flow of current and reduce the amount of voltage in a circuit.
Unit: ohms,
Ohm’s Law
The current is directly proportional to the voltage across the resistance and inversely proportional to the resistance.
V
I = -----
R
Power Relationship: P = VI
Mathematical PrefixesGiga = x109
Mega = x106
Kilo = x103
milli = x10-3
micro = x10-6
nano = x10-9
pico = x10-12
Conversion to Prefixes and Scientific Notations
1. 25000000V 2. 0.0000067A3. 1250000 meters4. 0.005 liters5. 2.4x103 meters6. 33x10-6watts7. 0.00045 A8. 6.6x106 Ω
EXERCISES
VOLTAGE CURRENT RESISTANCE POWER
24A 10Ω
30V 3Ω
10A 260W
1.2Ω 120W
12V 300W
Basic Electrical Variables
Variable Symbol Unit
Time t sec
Charge Q Coulomb
Current I Ampere
Voltage V Volts
Power P Watts
Energy W Joule
Resistance R Ohms
Conductance G Seimens, mho
Examples
1. A simple circuit has 12V and a resistance of 4.7K. Determine the current and power of the circuit.
2. The output current of a certain integrated circuit is 6mA and it is flowing into a resistance of 5K. Determine the voltage across the resistance.
3. Determine the hot resistance of a 60watts bulb operated from an effective voltage of 120V.
4. The power dissipated in a certain resistance is 100watts and the current is 4A. Determine the resistance.
5. Assume that a family leaves a 60watts light bulb on for a duration of a two weeks trip. If electricity cost 9 cents per kilowatt-hour, determine the cost incurred.
Assignment no. 1I. Research on the following scientist and state
what invention he contributed in the field of electronics
1. Cuneus and Muschenbrock
2. Benjamin Franklin
3. Charles Augustus Coulomb
4. Luigi Galvani
5. Alessandro Volta
6. Hans Christian Oersted
7. Andre Marie Ampere
8. Georg Simon Ohm9. Michael Faraday10. Karl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber11. Joseph Henry12. Heinrich Lenz13. Samuel Finley Breese Morse14. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff15. James Clerk Maxwell16. Joseph Wilson Swan17. Thomas Alva Edison18. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz19. Nikola Tesla20. Guglielmo Marconi
21. Albert Einstein
22. Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain
23. Jack Kilby
24. Robert Norton Noyce
25. Seymour Cray
II. Complete the Table below, show your solutionsresistance current voltage power
2.4A 220W
22Ω 13.75V
10mA 12V
100Ω 3W
III. Problem Solving1. What is the power in a circuit if the
secondary transformer rated at 12V, 2A?2. How much is the power loss of 100Ω
resistance, which consumes current of 10A?
3. How much current is flowing in a 1KΩ resistor with an input voltage of 12V?
4. How much resistance is needed to absorbed a current of 2.5mA with a voltage of 3V?
Electronics Test InstrumentsElectronics test instruments are crucial instruments
that are often use for troubleshooting, repairing and analyzing the operation of a specific device. The most frequently measured parameters are the voltage, resistance and current.
The multi-tester or multi-meter or sometimes called VOM(Voltmeter, Ohmmeter, Milliammeter) is best instrument that can measure voltage, resistance and current. But this instrument measures the numerical value, not the actual waveform, which is also important to know when troubleshooting and determining the frequency of the signal.
Analog Multi-tester
The analog multi-tester has a moving coil assembly which is characterized by a needle pointer. The advantage of analog multi-tester over digital multitester is a resistance test in testing electronic components such as capacitor and transistor.
Steps in Using Analog Multi-tester1. Connect the test probe to the appropriate jack.
The red probe to the + jack and black probe to the (-) common jack.
2. Check is the pointer rest exactly at the zero position or infinite position at the ohmmeter range. If not adjust the zero corrector screw.
3. Check the accuracy of the ohmmeter by touching the two test probe. Set the multitester to x1 ohm or x10 ohms selector range. Hold the two test probe simultaneously. The pointer should not deflect when holding the two test probe. If the pointer deflects, the ohmmeter range is defective.
4. Check the probes if they are OK. Set the multi-tester to corresponding selector resistance range. Short the two probes lead together. The pointer should deflect towards zero ohm reading. Adjust the ohm adjustment if the pointer could not rest exactly at “0” ohm reading. If nothing happen the possible cause is low powered battery
Resistance Measurement
Select the desired resistance range scale with the selector switch. Read the pointer and multiply by the selected range.
DC/AC Voltage Measurement
Set the selector knob to the proper scale range. The chosen scale range must be higher than the anticipated voltage to be measured.
DC/AC Current Measurement
The ammeter scale is the same as the voltmeter scale. Apply the same procedure in measuring voltage. However, in current measurement , the meter must be connected in series with the circuit. Unlike in measuring voltage, the connection is parallel.
Advantages of Digital over Analog
1. More accurate
2. It draws essentially no energy from the circuit being measured and hence will not affect the measured quantity
3. Some are featured with autoranges that change the scale automatically providing the correct read out without having to change manually.
Resistor Color Codedesignation 4 bands 5 bands 6 bands
1st band Significant figure
Significant figure
Significant figure
2nd band Significant figure
Significant figure
Significant figure
3rd band Multiplier Significant figure
Significant figure
4th band tolerance Multiplier Multiplier
5th band tolerance tolerance
6th band Temp coef
Resistor Color CodeColor SF multiplier TOL TC
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 +/- 1% 100
Red 2 100 +/- 2% 50
Orange 3 1000 15
Yellow 4 10000 25
Green 5 100000 +/- 0.5%
Blue 6 10 6 +/- 0.25% 10
Violet 7 10 7 +/- 0.1% 5
Grey 8 10 8 +/- 0.05%
White 9 10 9 1
Gold 10 -1 +/- 5%
Silver 10 -2 +/- 10%
Exercises Decode the following resistor color.1. red, blue, violet, green2. Blue, black, red, red3. Yellow, red, orange, silver4. Blue, black, black, red, red5. Green, red, red, green, blue6. Grey, green, silver, green7. Yellow, green, black, white, gold8. Blue, green, violet, red, orange, red
Assignment no. 1I. Research on the life of at list 10 scientist who
contributed in the field of electrical, electronics, computer science and information technology.
II. Decode the following color coded resistor.
1. red, green, blue, violet
2. Yellow, green, silver, blue
3. Blue, yellow, orange, green, red
4. Red, blue, blue, red, orange
5. Violet, black, white, blue
III. Problem Solving:
1. Convert 2.5x10 7 ergs to joules.
2. Convert 1.2kw-hr to watt-sec
3. Convert 4 joules to ergs
4. A lamp operating at 120 volts has a resistance of 200, what is the power used?
5. An electric flat iron draws 11A at a source of 120V. What is the power?
6. A simple machine operates at 210watts at 240 volts, what is its resistance and power?
Resistivity FACTORS GOVERNING THE RESISTANCE OF
MATERIALS OR ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS:• The resistance of different materials varies
greatly. Some such as the metals conducts electricity very readily and hence called conductors. Others, such as wood or plates, at least when moist, are partial conductors. Still others, such as glass, porcelain and paraffin, are called insulators because they are practically non-conducting.
The resistance of an electric conductor depends upon the following:
• Type of conductor material• Length of the conductor• Cross sectional area of the conductor• Temperature• Distributing of current
Series Parallel ResistorsSeries Resistors:Conditions:1. The total resistance of a series resistors
is the sum of the individual resistances.2. The total voltage of a series resistors is
the sum of individual voltages or voltage drops in each resistor.
3. The total current of a series resistors is equal to the individual current in each resistors.
R1 1kR2 1k
R3 1k
V1
5
R1 R2 R3
I1 I2 I3
+VR1- +VR2- +VR3-
It Vt
Equations:
Vt = VR1 + VR2 + VR3
= I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
It = I1 = I2 = I3
Power Equation
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3
The total power in a series resistors is equal to the sum of the individual power in each resistor.
Example 1. Determine the total resistance, total current and
current and voltage in each resistor of the circuit below
R1
1k
R2
1k
V1 5
15V
5 ohms
8 ohms
2. Find Rx for the circuit shown below
R3
1k
R4
1k
R5
1k
TP
1
TP
2
Rt
Rx
= 33K ohms12K ohms
7.5K ohms
3. Determine the voltage and power in each resistor below. Find the input voltage.
R3
1
k
R4
1
k
R5
1
k
V2 5
2.5K ohms
1.75K ohms
5K ohms
It = 1.6mA
Assignment no. 34. Find Vt,P1, R1, V2, P2, R3, V3 and Pt for the
circuit shown.
R6 1k
R7
1k
R8 1k
V3 5
Vt
V1 = 2.2V
R1, P1
V2,P2R2 = 4.8 ohms
R3,V3
P3 = 3.12W
2A
Parallel Resistors:
Conditions:
1. The total resistance is equal to the sum of the inverse of the resistances.
2. The total current is equal to the sum of the current in each resistor.
3. The voltages in each parallel resistor are equal.
R4
1kR
5 1k
R6
1k
V2 5
Vt R1 R2 R3+VR1-
+VR2-
+VR3-
It I1 I2 I3
Equations
Vt = VR1 = VR2 = VR3
1 1 1 1
---- = ------ + ------ + -------
Rt R1 R2 R3
It = I1 + I2 + I3
Exercises
1. Find the total resistance of the given parallel resistors.
R1 1k
R2 1k
TP1TP2
Rt 5K 8.75K
2. Determine the total resistance of the given parallel resistors
R1 1
kR2
1kTP1
TP2
R3 1
k
Rt 5K8.75K 10K
3. Find Rx for the parallel resistor below
R7
1kR
8 1k
R9
1k
V2 5
Vt1.5K Rx 2K
20V
4.1mA6.8mA
Assignment no. 4 4. Find the total resistance and current, voltage and power
in each resistor below
R4
1k R5
1k
R6
1k
V1 5
30V16 ohms 12 ohms 18 ohms
Series-parallel resistor
1. Find the total resistance of the circuit below:
R10 1k
R11
1k
R12
1k
R13
1k
TP3TP4R14 1kRt
12
8
7
3
10
2. Find the total resistance of the circuit below. Determine the total current and power. R1 1k R
2 1
kR
3 1
k
R4 1kR5
1k
V1 5R6 1k
15
10
8 4
2
224V
3. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
R7 1k
R8
1k
R9 1k R10
1k R11 1k
R12
1k
V3 5
2 2
13
1.5
310V
4. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
R1
3 1
k
R1
4 1
kT
P1 TP
2R
15
1k
R1
6 1
k
Rt10 10
4
8
Assignment no. 51. Find the total current and resistance of the
circuit below.
V1 5
R1 1k
R2
1k
R3
1k
R4
1k
R5 1k
R6
1k
R8 1k
4
2
3
36
4
4
20V
Series Parallel Capacitor
For series capacitor:
1/Ct = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
C1 1uC2 1uC3 1u
TP3TP4
Ct
C1 C2 C3
For parallel capacitor:
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3 C4
1uC
5 1u C6
1u
TP5
TP6
CtC1 C2 C3
Series Parallel InductorFor series inductor
Lt = L1 + L2 + L3L1 1mL2 1m
L3 1mTP7TP8
L1 L2 L3
Lt
For parallel inductor1/Lt = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 L1
1m
L2 1
m L3 1
m
TP1TP2
Lt L1 L2 L3
ExercisesDetermine the total capacitance or inductance of
the circuit below1.
C1 1u
C2
1u
C3 1u C4 1u
C5
1u
C6 1uTP3
TP44uF 10uF
12uF
15uF
4uF
12uF
Ct
2. Find the total inductance.
L4 1m L5 1m
L6 1
m
L7 1
m
L8 1mL9 1mTP5TP6
10mH
5mH
10mH
25mH
12.5mH
5mH
Lt
Assignment no. 61. Find the total inductance of the circuit below
L1
1m
L2
1m
L3 1mL4 1m
L5 1mL6 1m
L7
1m
L8
1mL9
1m
L1
0 1
m
TP
1TP
2
4H 4H
4H 4H
2H 2H 2H 2HLt
1H
1H
2. Change the inductor in problem 1 with Farad and determine the total capacitance.
Magnetism• What is a magnet?• A magnet is an object made of certain materials which
create a magnetic field. Every magnet has at least one north pole and one south pole. By convention, we say that the magnetic field lines leave the North end of a magnet and enter the South end of a magnet. This is an example of a magnetic dipole ("di" means two, thus two poles). If you take a bar magnet and break it into two pieces, each piece will again have a North pole and a South pole. If you take one of those pieces and break it into two, each of the smaller pieces will have a North pole and a South pole. No matter how small the pieces of the magnet become, each piece will have a North pole and a South pole.
The ancient Greeks and Chinese discovered that certain rare stones, called lodestones, were naturally magnetized. These stones could attract small pieces of iron in a magical way, and were found to always point in the same direction when allowed to swing freely suspended by a piece of string. The name comes from Magnesia, a district in Thessaly, Greece
Things that uses magnet:
Headphones, stereo speakers, telephone receivers, phone ringers, microwave tubes, doorbell ringer solenoid, floppy disk recording and reading head, credit card, computer monitor deflection coil, computer hard drive recording, TV deflection coil, clothes washer and dryer, DVD spinner and head positioner, hard disk spinner, starter motor, A/C clutch, etc.
Ten facts about magnet• 1. North poles point north, south poles point south. • 2. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract. • 3. Magnetic forces attract only magnetic materials. • 4. Magnetic forces act at a distance. • 5. While magnetized, temporary magnets act like permanent
magnets. • 6. A coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it
becomes a magnet. • 7. Putting iron inside a current-carrying coil increases the
strength of the electromagnet. • 8. A changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a
conductor. • 9. A charged particle experiences no magnetic force when
moving parallel to a magnetic field, but when it is moving perpendicular to the field it experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the direction of motion.
• 10. A current-carrying wire in a perpendicular magnetic field experiences a force in a direction perpendicular to both the wire and the field.
Types of magnets
Permanent magnet
Temporary magnets
Electromagnets
• Permanent Magnets• Permanent magnets are those we are most
familiar with, such as the magnets hanging onto our refrigerator doors. They are permanent in the sense that once they are magnetized, they retain a level of magnetism. As we will see, different types of permanent magnets have different characteristics or properties concerning how easily they can be demagnetized, how strong they can be, how their strength varies with temperature, and so on.
• Temporary Magnets• Temporary magnets are those which act like a
permanent magnet when they are within a strong magnetic field, but lose their magnetism when the magnetic field disappears. Examples would be paperclips and nails and other soft iron items.
• Electromagnets• An electromagnet is a tightly wound helical coil
of wire, usually with an iron core, which acts like a permanent magnet when current is flowing in the wire. The strength and polarity of the magnetic field created by the electromagnet are adjustable by changing the magnitude of the current flowing through the wire and by changing the direction of the current flow.
• Neodymium Iron Boron magnet = Nd2Fe14B or Nd15Fe77B8.
Coulomb’s law
The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point electric charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of each of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the total distance between the two charges.
k Q1Q2
F = -------------- where k = 8.99E9 Nm2/C2
r2
K = 1 / 4o
But = 8.854x10E-12
Examples1. Two charges of +1C each is separated at
a distance of 1meter. Determine the force of repulsion of the two charge.
2. Two balloons are charge with identical quantity of -6.25uC. They are separated with a distance of 66.67cm. Determine the force of repulsion of the two balloons.
3. Two charges +1.2uC and -2.4uC are separated with a distance of 2m. Determine the force of attraction of the two charges.
4. The force of attraction between a +2.2uC and an unknown charge is 1.2N. They are separated by 120cm distance. Find the charge of the other electron.
5. Given the figure below:
Find the total force of the two charges on charge -3.3uC. Which has greater force of attraction?
+2.2uC -3.3uC +4.5uC
21cm
45cm
Assignment no. 71. Two charges, -10uC and +15uC, are
acting on a force of attraction of 4.5N. Determine their distances.
2. Two point charges, +25nC and -75nC, are 10cm apart. Determine the force of attraction between them.
3. Determine the force of attraction of two negatively charge particle to the positively charge particle. Determine total force.
+12uC
-20uC-20uC
4cm
3cm
4. Find the total force develop by three positive charge to the negative charge particle in the figure
-20uC +10uC
+20uC+40uC
12in
10in
Semiconductor Materials• Semiconductors conduct less than metal
conductors but more than insulators.• Some common semiconductor materials
are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and carbon (C).
• Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material in the electronics industry.
• Almost all diodes, transistors, and ICs manufactured today are made from silicon.
• Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in their purest form.
• Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors with other atoms mixed in.
• These other atoms are called impurity atoms.
• The process of adding impurity atoms is called doping.
The figure below illustrates a bonding diagram of a silicon crystal.
• Thermal energy is the main cause for the creation of an electron-hole pair, as shown in Figure
• As temperature increases, more thermally generated electron-hole pairs are created.
• In the figure, the hole acts like a positive charge because it attracts a free electron passing through the crystal.
• The figure shows the doping of a silicon crystal with a pentavalent impurity.(N type)
• Arsenic (As) is shown in this figure, but other pentavalent impurities such as antimony (Sb) or phosphorous (P) could also be used.
• The figure shows the doping of a silicon crystal with a trivalent impurity.(P type)
• Aluminum (Al) is shown in this figure, but other trivalent impurities such as boron (B) or gallium (Ga) could also be used.
• A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by joining p- and n-type semiconductor materials, as shown in Fig. a.
• The doped regions meet to form a p-n junction.
• Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow in one direction.
• The schematic symbol for a diode is shown in Fig. b.
The PN junction
Biasing of Diodes
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Volt-Ampere Characteristic Curve
• Previous slide is a graph of diode current versus diode voltage for a silicon diode.
• The graph includes the diode current for both forward- and reverse-bias voltages.
• The upper right quadrant of the graph represents the forward-bias condition.
• Beyond 0.6 V of forward bias the diode current increases sharply.
• The lower left quadrant of the graph represents the reverse-bias condition.
• Only a small current flows until breakdown is reached.
Diode Approximations
1. First approximation(switch)
2. Second approximation(voltage Ge=0.3V, Si=0.7V)
3. Third approximation(with internal resistance called bulk resistance)
Polarity of Diodes
Diodes
Cathode Lead
Anode Lead
Diodes
Cathode LeadCathode Lead
Anode LeadAnode Lead
Diode ApplicationDetermine whether the diode is forward or reverse
bias.
1.
V1 5D1 1N1183
R1
1k
Si
10V1K
I
2.
V2 5D2 1N1183
R2
1k
Si
1K10V
I
3. Find the current and the voltage across the load if possible.
D3 1N1183D4 1N1183V3 5
R3
1k
Si Ge
12V1.5K
4.
D3 1N1183V3 5
R3
1k
D4 1N1183
Si Ge
12V1.5K
Si Si
5. Find the voltage and current in 1KΩ
V4 5
D5 1N1183 R4
1k
Ge
1K10V
6.Determine the current and voltage across 1.5KΩ
V5 5D6 1N1183 D7 1N1183
D8 1N1183 R5
1k
Si
Si
Si
1.5K12V
7. Determine which switch will turn “ON” the LED.(all diode are silicon)
V1 5D1 1N1183
D2 1N1183
D3 1N1183
D4 1N1183
D5 1N1183
LED
1 C
QX
35A
SW1
SW2
SW3
SW4
SW5
12V
8. Find the output voltage
D6
1N
118
3
R1
1k
D7 1N1183
V2 5
12V
Si
Si
0.9K
Vo
Assignment no. 8
1. Determine whether the diode is in forward or reverse bias. Why?
V3 5D8 1N1183R2 1k R
3 1k
Ge
2. Identify the switches that will make the LED to “ON” D9 1N1183D10 1N1183D11 1N1183
D12 1N1183
D1
3 1
N11
83
D1
4 1
N11
83
LE
D2
CQ
X3
5A
V4 5SW6SW7SW8
SW9
SW10
SW
11
SW
12
A
B
C
D
E F G
3. Find the output voltage VoD15 1N1183D16 1N1183
D17
1N
1183
V5 5
V6 5
6.8V
Si Si
Si
1.4V
Vo
4. Find the current and voltage across 2KΩ
V7 5
R4 1k
D1
8 1
N11
83
V8 5
R5
1k
15V
2K
3V
0.5K
Si
Special types of diodes
1. Zener diode – a silicon pn junction device that differs from rectifier diode because it is designed for operation in the reverse breakdown region.
Symbol:
Z1 1N2804
2. LED(light emitting diode) – it is made of gallium arsenide or gallium arsenide phosphide.
Operation: when the device is forward bias, electrons cross the pn junction from the n type material to p type material. When recombination takes place, the electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. LED1 CQX35A
3. photodiode- a pn junction that operates in reverse bias. It has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn junction.
Z1 1N2804
4. Current regulator diode - it maintain a constant current as the zener diode maintain constant voltage.
K
5. Varicap (variable capacitor)
VD1 BA102
Transistor- a three terminal device used for signal amplification.
Three parts: collector, base and emitter
Two types: bipolar junction transistor
field effect transistor
Types of transistor: pnp and npn
Symbol:
NPN PNP
T1 !NPN
T2 !PNP
Construction:
nn p
p n p
e
b
c
e
b
c
npn transistor
pnp transistor
Diode equivalent
D1
1N
11
83
D2
1N
11
83
N
P
N
D1
1N
11
83
D2
1N
11
83
P
N
P
Transistor configuration:
Common base
Common collector
Common emitter
Current consideration: Ic + Ib = Ie
Transistor parameters:
Alpha and beta
BJT proper biasing
Mode e-b jct. c-b jct. Use
Active forward reverse amplifier
Cutoff reverse reverse switch, off pos.
Saturation forward forward switch, on pos.
Transistor characteristics curve:
Simple transistor circuit:
T4 !NPN
R3
1k
R4 1kV1 5
V2 5
Vcc
Rc
Rb
VbbSi
Vcc
RcRb
Vbb
= 10V=100= 10K
= 5VB = 150
Logic gates and Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra(logic operation)
1+1=1
1+0=1
0+0=0
1x1=1
1x0=0
1’ = 0
Binary addition : 1+1 = 10
Perform binary addition for the following:
1. 11101101
+ 1011101
2. 101011111
+ 111101101
Use truth table to simplify the given expression.
1. Y = A’ + BC’
2. Y = (AB)’(A+C)’
3. Y = A + A’(A)
4. Y = B’