lexicostatistics compared with shared innovations the ...lexicostatistics compared with shared...

Lexicostatistics Compared with Shared Innovations:the Polynesian Case

jK=dÉääJj~ååI=fK=mÉáêçëI=pK=pí~êçëíáå

Santa Fe Institute

The Polynesian languages, together with Fijian and Rotuman, consti-

tute the Central Oceanic branch, which is usually included in a bigger

Oceanic family, part of Austronesian.

The Polynesian language family consists of 28 languages ([BIGGS �9�8])

most of which are fairly well known. The history of the family is also well

investigated: we have the phonological reconstruction of its protolan-

guage ([BIGGS �9�8], [MARCK 2000]), suggestions about morphology and

syntax ([WILSON �982]; [CLARK �9�6]), and a detailed comparative diction-

ary of the family — probably one of the best etymological dictionaries for

languages outside Eurasia ([BIGGS n.d.])

The Proto-Polynesian consonantal system is reconstructed as ([BIGGS

�9�8: �08–�09]):

*p *m *f *w

*t *n *s *l *r

*k *ŋ (*h)

` *ʔ

Using the principle of «irreversible changes», one can see that the systems

of daughter languages could be derived from Proto-Polynesian through a

sequence of simple innovations (mostly mergers):

�. Proto-Tongan: *p *m *f *w*t *n

��*s > *h *l

��*r > �

*k *ŋ *h*ʔ

�.�. Tongan p m f w t n

�� h l

��

k ŋ ʔ

2. Proto-Nuclear Polynesian: *p *m *f *w*t *n *s

��*l = *r

*k *ŋ

��*h > � ��

��*�

�� GÉää-M~åå, PÉáêçë, S. Sí~êçëíáå. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

2.�. Samoa p m f w t n s l��*k > ʔ ŋ �

2.2. East Polynesian *p *m *f *w*t *n

��*s > *h *l

*k *ŋ*�

2.�.3. Tahitian p m f v t n h r

��*k > ʔ

��*ŋ > ʔ

�

2.�.5. NZMaori p m��*f > wh w

t n�� h > ʔ r

k ŋ �

On the basis of these changes some authors have suggested an inno-

vation-based classification of the Polynesian languages:

Proto-Polynesian:

�. Proto Tongan: Tongan

2. Nuclear Polynesian:

2.�. Samoa.

2.2. East Polynesian: Tahitian, Maori.

This classification is an abbreviated version of the generally accepted

one (see Fig. �).The latter classification is supported by three kinds of evidence:

�. phonological innovations;

2. innovations in morphology, identified by A. PAWLEY ([�966]);

3. a lexicostatistical matrix presented by K. EMORY ([�963]).

The phonological reasons are quite similar to those given above. An es-

sentially similar subgrouping has been proposed by bäÄÉêí ([ELBERT �953]),

primarily on grounds of comparative phonology (see [PAWLEY �966: �0]).

A. PAWLEY has listed 6 morphological points to support his branching

([�966: �3-��]):

(�) «PPN *kim(o)ura ‛2nd pers. dual, nuclear’ and *kimo(u)uto(l)u ‛2nd

pers. pl., nuclear’ are replaced in PNP by *ko(u)lua and *ko(u)tou, respectively.

PPN *m(o)urua ‛2nd pers. dual, possessive’ and *m(o)uto(l)u ‛2nd pers. pl.,

possessive’ are replaced in PNP by *o(u)lua and *o(u)tou, respectively.»

Глл-Мнн, Пй, С. Сттин. Лексикостатистика и общие инновации... �5

Fig. � ([BIGGS �9�8: 69�], cf. also [GREEN �966])

(2) «PPN *eni ‛this, these’ is replaced in PNP by *tenei ‛this’ and *(ee)nei‛these’. PPN *ena ‛that, those (near addressee)’ is replaced by PNP *teenaa ‛that

(near addressee)’, and *(ee)naa ‛those (near addressee)’.»

(3) «PPN *ni, a postposed marker meaning ‛near speaker in time or space’

is replaced in PNP by *nei.»(�) «PPN *ha ‛indefinite article’ is replaced in PNP by *se ‛indefinite article

singular’ and *ni ‛indefinite article plural’.»

(5) «PPN *taha / ha- ‛one, a certain one’ is replaced in PNP by *tasi / a-».

(6) «PPN nominal articles, demonstratives, preposed possessive pro-

nouns and certain other markers are replaced in PNP by equivalents (not

necessary cognates) which make a distinction, not present in PPN, be-

tween singular and plural number.»

Points (2) — (6) have been discussed by I. DYEN ([�98�]), who dismissed

them as not decisive. He pointed out, in particular, that it is more plausible

�6 GÉää-M~åå, PÉáêçë, S. Sí~êçëíáå. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

to regard the distinction between singular and plural as an archaism and

not an innovation — it is rather Tongan that produced an innovation by

replacing singular forms by plurals, as in p. (2); that ha- and taha- in Tongan

actually reflect *se and *tasi / a-, which therefore are not innovative in PNP;

and that the distinction between the postposed markers *ni and *nei is cer-

tainly not significant enough to speak of an innovation in PNP.

For (�) we may suggest the following explanation: There are two roots

used in the Central Oceanic languages for the 2nd. person pronoun: *kamu(Fijian, Tongan) and *kou (Rotuman and most Polynesian, including Samoan).

Both roots can be attributed to the Proto-Central Oceanic level, so the use

of *kou is not a Nuclear Polynesian innovation.

Dual affixes of all languages can be traced back to the same form: *rua:

Fijian kee-mu-ru, Rotuman ’au-ra, Tongan kimo-ua, Samoan ’ou-lua, and thus

also cannot represent a PNP innovation.

The affixes of the plural are historically identical in Fijian kemutou and

Samoan ’outou. It is not clear whether the Tongan affix (kimoutola) may be

traced back to the same proto-form. The origins of the Rotuman affix must be

different: ’ausa.

If this explanation and aóÉå’s suggestions are accepted, no reliable mor-

phological evidence is known so far to support the above mentioned clas-

sification.

K. EMORY gives the following lexicostatistical matrix ([�963: 8�])1:

Rap Tah Mao Haw Mng Mar Sam Ton

Rapanui × 69 �6 �6 �5 �6 62 65

Tahitian 69 × 92 88 83 83 �2 6�

Maori �6 92 × 86 86 82 �0 66

Hawai’ian �6 88 86 × 86 82 62 6�

Mangarevan �5 8� 86 86 × 86 66 66

Marquesan �6 83 82 82 86 × 60 6�

Samoan 62 �2 �0 62 66 60 × 86

Tongan 65 6� 66 6� 66 6� 86 ×

Fig. 2

The word lists and etymological identifications used to generate the mat-

rix have never been published. However, on the basis of it one can work out a

classification:

1 The order of languages in the matrix has been rearranged by us.

Глл-Мнн, Пй, С. Сттин. Лексикостатистика и общие инновации... ��

Proto Polynesian:

Eastern Polynesian Western Polynesian

�. Easter I. 3. Tongan

2 a. Mangarevan �. Samoan

Marquesan

b. Maori

c. Hawai’ian

d. Tahitian

In �9�8 B. _áÖÖë presented a lexicostatistical matrix of �6 Polynesian lan-

guages which gives «percentages of basic vocabulary cognates among pairs

of Polynesian languages. All percentages are calculated on a slightly modified

200-word Swadesh list of basic vocabulary. All vocabularies were col-

lected by the approved method (most common conversational equivalent)

from informants, not dictionaries, and cognacy was determined in the know-

ledge of regular sound correspondences among all languages. This is almost

certainly the most reliable lexicostatistical matrix available for Polynesian

languages»2 ([BIGGS ��8: 692]).

The matrix, however, was used by B. _áÖÖë only «to dispel a once popular

view that there is but one Polynesian language». No classification has been

suggested and no data or etymologies have been published. Nevertheless

a possible classification based on _áÖÖë’s matrix is:

Eastern Polynesian Western Polynesian

a. Tahitian a. Kapingamarangi

b. Hawai’ian Nukuoru

Marquesan b. Rennellese

Maori: New Zealand Maori c. Samoan

RaraTongan d. (i) Pileni

Tikopia

(ii) Ellician

East Futunan

East Uvean

(iii) Tongan

Niuean

Several comments are appropriate:

�. ��% of shared forms between Tahitian and Maori seems doubtful to

us; one would expect to get a much higher percentage, and indeed in Fig. 4one does.

2 _áÖÖë probably meant bäÄÉêí’s and bãçêó’s data.

Tah

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Fig.

3


2. High percentages shown by Kapingamarangi with Pileni and Tikopia

are equally doubtful; our calculations (Fig. 4) do not confirm them.

3. Percentages revealed by RaraTongan with Tahitian or Hawaiian are

most likely results of borrowings into RaraTongan;

�. The high percentages between Ellician and Samoan, Ellician and Pi-

leni, and Ellician and Tikopia may be induced by borrowings.

We have conducted our own lexicostatistical study of Polynesian lan-

guages (data given in Appendix). It is summarized in the following matrix

(see Fig. 4).The Polynesian classification based on it is3 as follows (see Fig. 5).

Our tree shares several crucial features with the classification ob-

tained from _áÖÖë’s matrix:

�) the binary division of Polynesian languages into Eastern and West-

ern groups;

2) the Tongan languages not forming a primary branch of Polynesian;

3) a complex structure of the Western Polynesian group.

We see that lexicostatistical classifications do not agree with the inno-

vation-based one. Presumably one of the classifications is false: the ques-

tion is which one of them is preferable.

The main phonological difference between Proto-Tongan and the rest of

the Polynesian languages lies in the history of the *r — *l distinction. In the

original words of Proto-Tongan it is retained, while in all other languages *r

and *l have merged into either l or r. If one accepts the possibility that this

merger indicates the first split within Polynesian, the lexicostatistical classi-

fication seems to be wrong. But what are the reasons to believe that this

merger is a genetic rather than a contact-induced feature and that it is not a

later process which somehow failed to affect the Tongan languages?

We should keep in mind that the distinction between *r and *l is main-

tained in Tongan in a peculiar way: *l is preserved, but *r > �, cf.:

*l: *langi ‛sky’ langi *r: *rama ‛torch’ ama*lomi ‛squeeze’ lomi *renga ‛turmeric’ enga*lili ‛angry’ lili *roo ‛go’ oo

3 The dates in the tree are in centuries BCE (negative figures) or CE (positive

figures); they are generated by the STARLing computer program and are of course

approximate.

Fig

. 4R

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Fig.

5

22 GÉää-M~åå, PÉáêçë, S. Sí~êçëíáå. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Let us suppose that:

a) the merger of *r and *l took place at some time in the history of the

Eastern Polynesian languages after the split of Proto-Polynesian, and it later

spread, as a contact feature, to the Western Polynesian area;

b) Proto-Western-Polynesian preserved the distinction of *r and *l.c) Tongan was already separated from the other Western Polynesian lan-

guages at the time of this diffusion of the r / l merger, and it was after the

separation, but before the diffusion, that the change *r > � occurred.

In the outlined scenario the result of this diffusion would be the follow-

ing: the Western Polynesian languages that had preserved *r would be ex-

pected to merge it with *l, while Tongan would have had nothing to merge:

its *r had already disappeared by that time.

In fact, Tongan has quite a number of etymological doublets with � and

l reflecting Proto-Polynesian *r, e. g.:

*qaro ‛front’ ao ‛front’ ’alo ‛belly (of fish)’

*riki ‛small’ iiki ‛small’ -iliki ‛small’

*rongo ‛hear’ ongo ‛heard’ longo ‛silent’

*fara ‛pandanus’ faa ‛pandanus’ fala ‛mat’

*rara ‛heat over fire’ aa ‛heat leaves over fire’ lala ‛half-cooked’,

etc. (examples taken from [MARCK 2000]).

The very existence of these examples proves that an *-l-language exer-

cised its influence on Tongan, but here its influence could not result in a

phonological merger because of the preceding change *r > �. In other Western

Polynesian languages we cannot easily detect traces of the presumed East

Polynesian influence, because in most cases, due to the r/l-merger, it is im-

possible to make a distinction between inherited and borrowed items.

Glottochronology provides us with plausible dates for these events:

(i) *r and *l merged in Proto-Eastern-Polynesian not earlier than the time

when this group separated from Proto-Polynesian (around �000 BCE);

(ii) the contact that caused the merger had to reach the area of Tonga

after the first century CE, when Proto-Tongan separated from the rest of

Western Polynesian. It is possible, however, that in other parts of Western

Polynesia the distinction between *r and *l was lost earlier.

The proposed hypotheses and glottochronology allow us to put for-

ward the following scenario of Polynesian movements.

�. Proto-Polynesian came to the western islands of Tonga and Samoa

about 3000 BP;

Глл-Мнн, Пй, С. Сттин. Лексикостатистика и общие инновации... 23

2. The migration to Eastern Polynesia (Society Islands?) took place about

�000 years later. During this migration or soon after it, the merger of *rand *l occurred.

3. The speakers of Eastern Polynesian languages continued their explora-

tions and settled on other islands, including Easter Island and Hawai`i. As

there is no contradictory linguistic evidence, we assume that there was a

similar movement back to the west. It would be useful to review any non-

linguistic arguments for or against such an assumption. A possible trace of

this westward movement is seen in the *r and *l merger found in Western

Polynesian languages roughly dated by the first century CE.

�. The movement of Western Polynesian speakers outside Polynesia must

have begun only after the contacts with their Eastern Polynesian relatives, as

in all Polynesian Outliers we can see the results of the merger of *r and *l.

To sum up: the Polynesian situation does not seem, after all, to be incom-

patible with the lexicostatistical method. The latter also does not contradict a

classification based on shared innovations, as long as that classification is

modified as outlined above (with a change in the position of Tongan).

References

BIGGS �9�8 B. _áÖÖë. The History of Polynesian Phonology. � In:

S. A. tìêã and L. `~êêáåÖíçå (eds.). Second Inter-national Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Pro-ceedings. Fascicle 2: Eastern Austronesian (= Pacific Lin-guistics, Series C, № 6�). Canberra, Australian Na-

tional University; pp. 69�–��6.

BIGGS �980 B. _áÖÖë. The Position of East ’Uvean and Anutan in thePolynesian Language Family. � Te Reo, 23; pp. ��5–�3�.

BIGGS �990 B. _áÖÖë. English-Maori / Maori-English Dictionary.

Auckland University Press.

BIGGS n.d. B. _áÖÖë. POLLEX (Comparative Polynesian Lexicon).Computer file. Version obtained from the author in

�993.

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Appendix

Lexicostatistical lists for Polynesian and Fijian languages(compiled by I. mÉáêçë)

Note: Etymological identifications are marked by identical numbers;

borrowed items are marked by negative numbers; missing items are

marked as «―».

all Rapanui : taʔatoʔa (3); Tahiti : taʔatoʔa (3); Maori : katoa (2); Hawai-

ian : apan (�); Mangareva : ― ; Marquesas : hakatahi (6); Samoan : ― ; Ren-

nell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia : katoa (2); Anutan : katoa(2); Niue : katoa (2); Tongan : kotoa (2); Tuvalu : katoa (2); Nanumea : katoa(2); Makatea : pini (�); W. Futuna : oči (5); Mele-Fila : ― ; Kapingamarangi :

huakatoa (2); Nukuoro : alodahi (6); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

ashes Rapanui : ʔeo-ʔeo (8); Tahiti : rehu (�); Maori : puŋarehu (�); Ha-

waiian : lehu (�); Mangareva : reʔu (�); Marquesas : ʔehu (�); Samoan : lefu-lefu (�); Rennell : ŋgehu (�); Ontong Java : lehu (�); Sikaiana : lehu (�); Tiko-

pia : refu (�); Anutan : repu (�); Niue : efu (�); Tongan : efu-efu (�); Tuvalu :

lefu (�); Nanumea : lefu (�); Makatea : refu (�); W. Futuna : namuLaŋa (−9);

Mele-Fila : refu (�); Kapingamarangi : nia rehu (�); Nukuoro : lehu (�); W. Fi-

jian : ra�u (�); Bau (EF) : dra�usaa (�).

bark Rapanui : kiri miro (�0); Tahiti : paʔa raaʔau (�3); Maori : hiako (�2); Ha-

waiian : ʔili (�0); Mangareva : kiri (�0); Marquesas : kiʔi (�0); Samoan : paʔu (��);

Rennell : kiŋgi (�0); Ontong Java : ʔili (�0); Sikaiana : kili (�0); Tikopia : raukiri(�0); Anutan : raukiri (�0); Niue : kili (�0); Tongan : kiliʔi (�0); Tuvalu : pakili (�0);

Nanumea : laukili (�0); Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : kiri (�0); Ka-

pingamarangi : kiri (�0); Nukuoro : gili (�0); W. Fijian : taba (��); Bau (EF) : kuli (�0).

belly Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : ʔoopuu (�6); Maori : koopuu (�6); Hawaiian :

ʔoopuu (�6); Mangareva : manava (�5); Marquesas : kopu (�6); Samoan : ma-nava (�5); Rennell : tinaʔe (��); Ontong Java : maŋava (�5); Sikaiana : maŋava(�5); Tikopia : manava (�5); Anutan : ma(a)nava (�5); Niue : manava (�5); Ton-

gan : manava (�5); Tuvalu : manava (�5); Nanumea : tinae (��); Makatea : na-kau (�8); W. Futuna : činae (��); Mele-Fila : ― ; Kapingamarangi : tinae (��);

Nukuoro : dinae (��); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

big Rapanui : nui-nui (2�); Tahiti : rahi (20); Maori : nui (2�); Hawaiian :

nui (2�); Mangareva : nui (2�); Marquesas : nui (2�); Samoan : tele (22); Ren-

nell : huaʔeha (�6�); Ontong Java : lahi (20); Sikaiana : nanui (2�); Tikopia :

lasi (20); Anutan : rai (20); Niue : lahi (20); Tongan : lahi (20); Tuvalu : lasi(20); Nanumea : lahi (20); Makatea : lasi (20); W. Futuna : sore (23); Mele-

Глл-Мнн, Пй, С. Сттин. Лексикостатистика и общие инновации... 2�

Fila : pwoulapa (−�); Kapingamarangi : tamana (�52); Nukuoro : laanui (2�);W. Fijian : le�u (25); Bau (EF) : le�u (25).

bird Rapanui : manu (26); Tahiti : manu (26); Maori : manu (26); Hawaiian :

manu (26); Mangareva : manu (26); Marquesas : manu (26); Samoan : manu-lee(26); Rennell : manu (26); Ontong Java : maŋu (26); Sikaiana : manu (26); Tikopia :

manu (26); Anutan : manu (26); Niue : manu lele (26); Tongan : manu-puna (26); Tu-

valu : manu lele (26); Nanumea : manulele (26); Makatea : manu (26); W. Futuna :

manu (26); Mele-Fila : manu (26); Kapingamarangi : manu (26); Nukuoro : ma-nu-lele (26); W. Fijian : manumanu-δa�u (26); Bau (EF) : manumanu�uka (26).

bite Rapanui : ŋau (29); Tahiti : hohoni (28); Maori : uu (2�); Hawaiian :

ʔaki (30); Mangareva : ŋaʔuŋaʔu (29); Marquesas : kakahu (�2�); Samoan : uu(2�); Rennell : uʔu (2�); Ontong Java : ʔuu (2�); Sikaiana : nunu (�68); Tiko-

pia : ŋaŋau (29); Anutan : uuti (2�); Niue : ŋaŋau (29); Tongan : uʔu (2�);

Tuvalu : uu (2�); Nanumea : ― ; Makatea : utia (2�); W. Futuna : maŋošia(2); Mele-Fila : kaji (30); Kapingamarangi : khati (30); Nukuoro : kadi (30);

W. Fijian : kasi (30); Bau (EF) : kata, kati (30).

black Rapanui : ʔuri-ʔuri (3�); Tahiti : uri (3�), ʔereʔere (32); Maori : ma-ŋu (33); Hawaiian : ʔele (32); Mangareva : tikae (�30); Marquesas : keʔekeʔe(32); Samoan : uliuli (3�); Rennell : ʔuŋgi (3�); Ontong Java : uli (3�); Sika-

iana : uli (3�); Tikopia : uri (3�); Anutan : uri (3�); Niue : uli (3�); Tongan :

ʔuliʔuli (3�); Tuvalu : uli (3�); Nanumea : uli (3�); Makatea : uri (3�); W. Fu-

tuna : uri (3�); Mele-Fila : paku (3�); Kapingamarangi : ruuri (3�); Nukuoro :

uliulu (3�); W. Fijian : loo (35); Bau (EF) : loaloa (35).

blood Rapanui : toto (36); Tahiti : toto (36); Maori : toto (36); Hawaiian : koko

(36); Mangareva : toto (36); Marquesas : toto (36); Samoan : toto (36); Rennell : to-

to (36); Ontong Java : koko (36); Sikaiana : haeko (��0); Tikopia : toto (36); Anutan :

toto (36); Niue : toto (36); Tongan : toto (36); Tuvalu : toto (36); Nanumea : toto

(36); Makatea : toto (36); W. Futuna : toto (36); Mele-Fila : toto (36); Kapingama-

rangi : toto (36); Nukuoro : dodo (36); W. Fijian : draa (3�); Bau (EF) : draa (3�).

bone Rapanui : ivi (39); Tahiti : ivi (39); Maori : wheua (�26); Hawaiian : iwi(39); Mangareva : ivi (39); Marquesas : ivi (39); Samoan : ivi (39); Rennell :

ibi (39); Ontong Java : ivi (39); Sikaiana : ivi (39); Tikopia : ivi (39); Anutan :

ivi (38); Niue : hui (38); Tongan : hui (38); Tuvalu : ivi (39); Nanumea : ivi(39); Makatea : sui (−�); W. Futuna : i�i (39); Mele-Fila : ivi (39); Kapinga-

marangi : iwi (39); Nukuoro : ivi (39); W. Fijian : čua (�0); Bau (EF) : sui (38).

breast Rapanui : uu (��); Tahiti : tiitii (�2); Maori : uu (��); Hawaiian : uu(��); Mangareva : u (��), titi (�2); Marquesas : u (��); Samoan : susu (��); Ren-

nell : baiu (��); Ontong Java : uu (��); Sikaiana : uu (��); Tikopia : uu (��); Anu-

tan : uu (��); Niue : huhu (��); Tongan : huhu (��); Tuvalu : uu (��); Nanumea :


uu (��); Makatea : mumu (−3); W. Futuna : u (��); Mele-Fila : susu (��); Kapi-

ngamarangi : u (��); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fijian : δuδu (��); Bau (EF) : suδu (��).

burn tr. Rapanui : tutu (�3); Tahiti : tutuʔi te auahi (�3); Maori : tahu(��); Hawaiian : kuni (�5); Mangareva : tutu (�3); Marquesas : tutu (�3); Sa-moan : faʔa muu (�6); Rennell : tutu (�3); Ontong Java : kuŋi (��3); Sikaiana :vela (��); Tikopia : kaa (�3); Anutan : tutu (�3); Niue : tuŋi (��); Tongan : tu-tu (�3); Tuvalu : tafu (��); Nanumea : tafu (��); Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : ― ;Mele-Fila : tuuŋia (��); Kapingamarangi : ura (2��); Nukuoro : tutu (�3);W. Fijian : ta�u-nia (��); Bau (EF) : �aa-kama-a (�9).

claw Rapanui : maʔikuku (53); Tahiti : maiʔuʔu (53); Maori : maikuku (53);Hawaiian : mikiʔao (52); Mangareva : matikuku, maekuku (53); Marquesas :maikuku (53); Samoan : maiʔuʔu (53); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sika-iana : ― ; Tikopia : maniia (5�); Anutan : maminia (5�); Niue : mahina lima (5�);Tongan : pesi (50); Tuvalu : mania (5�); Nanumea : maninia (5�); Makatea : ― ;W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : tapwaalasi (−3); Kapingamarangi : mata-miha(2�2); Nukuoro : aŋaaŋa (5�); W. Fijian : kuku (53); Bau (EF) : gugu (53).

cloud Rapanui : raŋi (59); Tahiti : ata (58); Maori : kapua (5�); Hawaiian : ao(55); Mangareva : aʔu (55); Marquesas : ao (55); Samoan : ao (55); Rennell : ʔao(55); Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia : kauao (55); Anutan : kauao (55);Niue : aolaŋi (55); Tongan : ʔao (55); Tuvalu : kaumana (56); Nanumea : kaumana(56); Makatea : pauri (−5); W. Futuna : poa (55); Mele-Fila : puao (55); Kapinga-marangi : kapua (5�); Nukuoro : gili-liŋi (�0); W. Fijian : o (55); Bau (EF) : oo (55).

cold Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : ― ; Maori : makariri (62); Hawaiian : huʔihuʔi(6�); Mangareva : anu (�28); Marquesas : anu (�28); Samoan : ― ; Rennell :ŋgoŋgohi (��5); Ontong Java : maliʔi (62); Sikaiana : saumalikitau (��6); Tikopia :mariki (62); Anutan : mariki (62); Niue : momoko (60); Tongan : ― ; Tuvalu :moko (60); Nanumea : ― ; Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : ― ; Kapi-ngamarangi : makariri (62); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

come Rapanui : oho mai (63, �62); Tahiti : haere mai (63); Maori : haere mai(63); Hawaiian : hele mai (63); Mangareva : naumai (63); Marquesas : hoe mai(63); Samoan : sau (6�); Rennell : aʔu (6�); Ontong Java : haa mai (63); Sikaiana :hale mai (63); Tikopia : au mai (63, 6�); Anutan : au (6�); Niue : omai (63, �62);Tongan : haʔu (6�); Tuvalu : o mai (63, �62); Nanumea : mai (63); Makatea : nu-mai (63); W. Futuna : hmai (63); Mele-Fila : fini mai (63); Kapingamarangi : hanimoi (63); Nukuoro : humai (63); W. Fijian : laa maa (63); Bau (EF) : lako mai (63).

die Rapanui : mate (66); Tahiti : pohe (6�); Maori : mate (66); Hawaiian :make (66); Mangareva : mate (66); Marquesas : mate (66); Samoan : oti (68);Rennell : mate (66); Ontong Java : make (66); Sikaiana : mate (66); Tikopia :mate (66); Anutan : mate (66); Niue : matulei (66); Tongan : mate (66); Tu-valu : maate (66); Nanumea : mate (66); Makatea : mata (66); W. Futuna : ma-


te (66); Mele-Fila : mate (66); Kapingamarangi : mate (66); Nukuoro : magau(69); W. Fijian : mase (66); Bau (EF) : mate (66).

dog Rapanui : paiheŋa (�2); Tahiti : ʔurii (��); Maori : kurii (��); Hawai-

ian : ʔilio (��); Mangareva : kani (�98); Marquesas : nuhe, peto (�29); Sa-

moan : maile (�3); Rennell : tokitoki (−20); Ontong Java : poi (−�0); Sikaiana :

kulii (��);Tikopia : kurii (��); Anutan : korii (��); Niue : kulii (��); Tongan : ku-lii (��); Tuvalu : kuli (��); Nanumea : kulii (��); Makatea : kuri (��); W. Fu-

tuna : kuli (��); Mele-Fila : korii (��); Kapingamarangi : phana (32�); Nuku-

oro : gaadu (−��); W. Fijian : čui (�5); Bau (EF) : kolii (��).

drink Rapanui : unu (�6); Tahiti : inu (�6); Maori : inu (�6); Hawaiian : inu(�6); Mangareva : ʔainu (�6); Marquesas : inu (�6); Samoan : inu (�6); Rennell :

binu (�6); Ontong Java : uŋu (�6); Sikaiana : unu (�6); Tikopia : inu (�6); Anutan :

inu (�6); Niue : inu (�6); Tongan : inu (�6); Tuvalu : inu (�6); Nanumea : inu (�6);

Makatea : �inu (�6); W. Futuna : numwia (−3); Mele-Fila : unu (�6); Kapingama-

rangi : inu (�6); Nukuoro : inu (�6); W. Fijian : homu (��); Bau (EF) : ŋunu-�u (�6).

dry Rapanui : paka (80); Tahiti : maroo (�8); Maori : maroke (�8); Hawaiian :

maloʔo (�8); Mangareva : magugugugu (�8); Marquesas : moó (�8); Samoan :

maŋo (�8); Rennell : mamala (−��); Ontong Java : paupaʔu (�9); Sikaiana : paku-paku (�9); Tikopia : pakupaku (�9); Anutan : pakupaku (79); Niue : maŋo (�8);

Tongan : moomoa (8�); Tuvalu : maloo (�8); Nanumea : ― ; Makatea : maro (�8);

W. Futuna : matu (82); Mele-Fila : maatuu (82); Kapingamarangi : hunu (333);

Nukuoro : mmasa (83); W. Fijian : maδamaδa (83); Bau (EF) : maamaδa (83).

ear Rapanui : tariŋa (8�); Tahiti : tariʔa (8�); Maori : tariŋa (8�); Hawai-

ian : pepeiao (85); Mangareva : teriŋa (8�); Marquesas : puaika (8�); Samoan :

taliŋa (8�); Rennell : taŋgiŋa (8�); Ontong Java : akaliŋa (8�); Sikaiana : kau-ralina (8�); Tikopia : tariŋa (8�); Anutan : tariŋa (8�); Niue : teliŋa (8�); Ton-

gan : teliŋa (8�); Tuvalu : taliŋa (8�); Nanumea : taliŋa (8�); Makatea : tariŋa(8�); W. Futuna : tariŋa (8�); Mele-Fila : tariŋa (8�); Kapingamarangi : tariŋa(8�); Nukuoro : daliŋa (8�); W. Fijian : bebe (86); Bau (EF) : tariŋa (8�).

earth Rapanui : ʔoʔone (89); Tahiti : repo (88); Maori : one-one (89); Ha-

waiian : lepo (88); Mangareva : repo (88); Marquesas : épo (88); Samoan :

atulau-lau (90); Rennell : keŋge (8�); Ontong Java : ʔeleʔele (8�); Sikaiana : ke-lekele (8�); Tikopia : kere (8�); Anutan : kerekere (8�); Niue : kelekele (8�);

Tongan : kelekele (8�); Tuvalu : laukele (8�); Nanumea : ― ; Makatea : kere(8�); W. Futuna : kere (8�); Mele-Fila : kere (8�); Kapingamarangi : ― ; Nu-

kuoro : gele-gele (8�); W. Fijian : gele (8�); Bau (EF) : gwele (8�).

eat Rapanui : kai (92); Tahiti : ʔamu (93); Maori : kai (92); Hawaiian : ʔai(92); Mangareva : kai (92); Marquesas : kai (92); Samoan : ʔai (92); Rennell : kai(92); Ontong Java : ʔai (92); Sikaiana : kai (92); Tikopia : kai (92); Anutan : kai


(92); Niue : kai (92); Tongan : kai (92); Tuvalu : kai (92); Nanumea : kai (92);

Makatea : kaikai (92); W. Futuna : kai (92); Mele-Fila : kai-na (92); Kapingama-

rangi : kai (92); Nukuoro : kai (92); W. Fijian : kana (92); Bau (EF) : kana (92).

egg Rapanui : mamari (9�); Tahiti : huoro moa (96); Maori : hua (95); Hawai-

ian : hua (95); Mangareva : mamari (9�); Marquesas : mamai (9�); Samoan :

fuaa-moa (95); Rennell : hua (95); Ontong Java : hua (95); Sikaiana : hua (95);

Tikopia : fuei (95); Anutan : puai (95); Niue : fua (95); Tongan : fuaʔi moa(95); Tuvalu : fuaamoa (95); Nanumea : fua (95); Makatea : fua-moa (95);

W. Futuna : �a�aka moa (98); Mele-Fila : atolu (−�); Kapingamarangi : ŋoko(�03); Nukuoro : ŋago (�03); W. Fijian : yaloka (�00); Bau (EF) : yaloka (�00).

eye Rapanui : mata (�0�); Tahiti : mata (�0�); Maori : kanohi (�02); Hawaiian :

maka (�0�); Mangareva : mata (�0�); Marquesas : mata (�0�); Samoan : mata(�0�); Rennell : mata (�0�); Ontong Java : alemaka (�0�); Sikaiana : kalemata(�0�); Tikopia : mata (�0�); Anutan : mata (�0�); Niue : mata (�0�); Tongan :

mata (�0�); Tuvalu : mata (�0�); Nanumea : mata (�0�); Makatea : mata (�0�);

W. Futuna : foi-mata (�0�); Mele-Fila : mata (�0�); Kapingamarangi : koro-mata (�0�); Nukuoro : ganomata (�0�); W. Fijian : mata (�0�); Bau (EF) : mata (�0�).

fat n. Rapanui : morii (�05); Tahiti : ʔaʔo (�03); Maori : ŋako (�03); Hawai-

ian : ʔaila (�0�); Mangareva : ŋaʔi (�03); Marquesas : kiko (2�0); Samoan : ŋa-ʔo (�03); Rennell : momona (369); Ontong Java : momoŋa (369); Sikaiana : mo-mona (369); Tikopia : moomona (369); Anutan : momona (369); Niue : ŋako(�03); Tongan : ŋako (�03); Tuvalu : ŋako (�03); Nanumea : ŋako (�03); Maka-

tea : ŋako (�03); W. Futuna : peči (−�); Mele-Fila : kanainai (�0�); Kapingama-

rangi : kiriithi (335); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fijian : uro (�08); Bau (EF) : uro (�08).

feather Rapanui : hu-hura (�09); Tahiti : huruhuru (�09); Maori : huruhuru(�09); Hawaiian : hulu (�09); Mangareva : ― ; Marquesas : huú (�09); Samoan :

fulu (�09); Rennell : huŋgu (�09); Ontong Java : pala (��9); Sikaiana : palaa (��9);

Tikopia : furu manu (�09); Anutan : puru (�09); Niue : fulu (�09); Tongan : fu-lufulu (�09); Tuvalu : fulufulu (�09); Nanumea : fulu (�09); Makatea : mbala (−�);

W. Futuna : fufuru (�09); Mele-Fila : vaero (365); Kapingamarangi : ŋaahuru(�09); Nukuoro : hulu manu (�09); W. Fijian : �ulu (�09); Bau (EF) : �uti (��2).

fire Rapanui : ahi (��3); Tahiti : auahi (��3); Maori : ahi (��3); Hawaiian : ahi(��3); Mangareva : aʔi (��3); Marquesas : ahi (��3); Samoan : afi (��3); Rennell :

ahi (��3); Ontong Java : ahi (��3); Sikaiana : ahi (��3); Tikopia : afi (��3); Anutan :

api (��3); Niue : afi (��3); Tongan : afi (��3); Tuvalu : afi (��3); Nanumea : afi (��3);

Makatea : afi (��3); W. Futuna : afi (��3); Mele-Fila : afi (��3); Kapingamarangi :

ahi (��3); Nukuoro : ahi (��3); W. Fijian : gwaya (��5); Bau (EF) : kama (��6).

fish Rapanui : ika (��); Tahiti : iʔa (��); Maori : ika (��); Hawaiian : iʔa(��); Mangareva : ika (��); Marquesas : ika (��); Samoan : iʔa (��); Rennell :


kaui (−�8�); Ontong Java : iʔa (��); Sikaiana : ika (��); Tikopia : ika (��); Anu-tan : ika (��); Niue : ika (��); Tongan : ika (��); Tuvalu : ika (��); Nanumea : ika(��); Makatea : ika (��); W. Futuna : ika (��); Mele-Fila : ika (��); Kapingama-rangi : ika (��); Nukuoro : mamu (−2); W. Fijian : ika (��); Bau (EF) : ika (��).

fly v. Rapanui : rere (��8); Tahiti : rere (��8); Maori : rere (��8); Hawaiian : lele(��8); Mangareva : rere (��8); Marquesas : ona (�32); Samoan : lele (��8); Rennell :ŋgeŋge (��8); Ontong Java : lee (��8); Sikaiana : lele (��8);Tikopia : rere (��8); Anu-tan : rere (��8); Niue : lele (��8); Tongan : puna (��9); Tuvalu : lele (��8); Nanumea :lele (��8); Makatea : rere (��8); W. Futuna : rere (��8); Mele-Fila : rere (��8); Kapinga-marangi : rere (��8); Nukuoro : lele (��8); W. Fijian : δa�u (�2�); Bau (EF) : βuka (�22).

foot Rapanui : vaʔe (�23); Tahiti : ʔaavae (�23); Maori : waewae (�23); Ha-waiian : waawaa (�23); Mangareva : vavae (�23); Marquesas : vae (�23); Sa-moan : vae (�23); Rennell : baʔe (�23); Ontong Java : vae (�23); Sikaiana : vae(�23); Tikopia : vae (�23); Anutan : vae (�23); Niue : vee (�23); Tongan : vaʔe(�23); Tuvalu : vae (�23); Nanumea : vae (�23); Makatea : �ae (�23); W. Fu-tuna : �ae (�23); Mele-Fila : vae (�23); Kapingamarangi : wae (�23); Nukuoro :vae (�23); W. Fijian : laa (�2�); Bau (EF) : ya�a (�2�).

full Rapanui : ku ʔii ʔaa (�2�); Tahiti : ʔii (�2�); Maori : kii (�2�); Hawaiian :piha (�26); Mangareva : pii (�99); Marquesas : pi (�99); Samoan : tumu (�28);Rennell : honu (�25); Ontong Java : pi (�26); Sikaiana : pi (�26); Tikopia : fonu(�25); Anutan : pito (50�); Niue : puke (�30); Tongan : fonu (�25); Tuvalu : fonu(�25); Nanumea : tumu (�28); Makatea : fonu (�25); W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila :fonu (�25); Kapingamarangi : honu (�25); Nukuoro : honu (�25); W. Fijian : �uga(�30); Bau (EF) : siinai (�3�).

give Rapanui : vaʔai, ʔavai (�5�); Tahiti : hoo, hooroʔa (�32); Maori : hoo mai(�32); Hawaiian : hoo (�32); Mangareva : tuku ?, atu ? (�33); Marquesas : tuku,tuú (�33); Samoan : ʔave (�5�); Rennell : haiŋgaʔa (�82); Ontong Java : auae (�5�);Sikaiana : kave (�5�); Tikopia : sori (�38); Anutan : tori (�38); Niue : atu (�3�);Tongan : fo-aki (��6); Tuvalu : ave (−�5�); Nanumea : avatu (�3�); Makatea : fuana(�35); W. Futuna : a�aŋe (−8); Mele-Fila : no- (−5); Kapingamarangi : (w)aŋa < Mi-cronesian (−385); Nukuoro : gamai (�36); W. Fijian : holi (�38); Bau (EF) : soli (�38).

good Rapanui : riva-riva (��2); Tahiti : maitaʔi (��); Maori : pai (��3); Ha-waiian : maikaʔi (��); Mangareva : maarie (�35); Marquesas : meitaí (��); Sa-moan : lelei (��0); Rennell : ŋgaoi (�3�); Ontong Java : laoi (�3�); Sikaiana : laoi(�3�); Tikopia : laoi (�3�); Anutan : rerei (��0); Niue : mitaki (��); Tongan : leilei(��0); Tuvalu : ʔlei (��0); Nanumea : lelei (��0); Makatea : sumaria (��5); W. Fu-tuna : rufwie (−9); Mele-Fila : marie (��5); Kapingamarangi : humaria (��5); Nu-kuoro : danuaa (��); W. Fijian : �inaa (��8); Bau (EF) : �inaka (��8).

green Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : maatie (�52); Maori : kaakaariki (�5�); Ha-

waiian : maʔo (�50); Mangareva : matie (−�); Marquesas : me he óu ti teé (�3�);


Samoan : ― ; Rennell : ʔusi (��9); Ontong Java : kea (�52); Sikaiana : ui (��9);

Tikopia : kefu (�36); Anutan : kepu (�36); Niue : lanu laufuti (�55); Tongan : ― ;

Tuvalu : usiusi (��9); Nanumea : lanu lau niu (�53); Makatea : ― ; W. Fu-

tuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : kesakesa (�36); Kapingamarangi : thea (�52); Nuku-

oro : nuui (�56); W. Fijian : drokadroka (�58); Bau (EF) : drokadroka (�58).

hair Rapanui : puʔoko (�63); Tahiti : rouru (2�5); Maori : makawe (�62); Ha-

waiian : oho (�6�); Mangareva : oʔo, rouru (�6�); Marquesas : ouoho (�6�); Sa-

moan : lau ulu (2�5); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia :

rauuru (2�5); Anutan : rau-uru (2�5); Niue : lauulu (2�5); Tongan : lou-ʔulu(2�5); Tuvalu : lauulu (2�5); Nanumea : fulufulu (�09); Makatea : fere-ure (�09);

W. Futuna : fufuru uru (�09); Mele-Fila : rauru (2�5); Kapingamarangi : ŋaahu-ru (�59); Nukuoro : ŋaŋaulu (��0); W. Fijian : �ulu (�09); Bau (EF) : ulu (�59).

hand Rapanui : rima (�65); Tahiti : rima (�65); Maori : riŋariŋa (��2);

Hawaiian : lima (�65); Mangareva : rima (�65); Marquesas : ʔima (�65); Sa-

moan : lima (�65); Rennell : ŋgima (�65); Ontong Java : pulima (�65); Sika-

iana : lima (�65); Tikopia : rima (�65); Anutan : nima (�65); Niue : lima (�65);

Tongan : nima (�65); Tuvalu : lima (�65); Nanumea : lima (�65); Makatea : rima(�65); W. Futuna : rima (�65); Mele-Fila : rima (�65); Kapingamarangi : rima(�65); Nukuoro : lima (�65); W. Fijian : lima (�65); Bau (EF) : liŋa (��2).

head Rapanui : puʔoko (�63); Tahiti : upoʔo (�63); Maori : upoko (�63); Ha-

waiian : poʔo (�63); Mangareva : oʔo (�59); Marquesas : upoko (�63); Samoan :

ulu (�59); Rennell : ʔuŋgu (−��); Ontong Java : pohoulu (�59); Sikaiana : pohou-lu (�59);Tikopia : pokouru (�59); Anutan : pokouru (�63); Niue : ulu (�59);

Tongan : ʔulu (�59); Tuvalu : ulu (�59); Nanumea : piho (�68); Makatea : na-uru (�59); W. Futuna : uru (�59); Mele-Fila : konoa (�69); Kapingamarangi :

ripoko (�63); Nukuoro : biho (�68); W. Fijian : ulu (�59); Bau (EF) : ulu (�59).

hear Rapanui : ŋaroʔa (��); Tahiti : faʔaloʔo (��); Maori : roŋo-hia (��); Ha-

waiian : lono (��); Mangareva : roŋo (��); Marquesas : ono (�38); Samoan : fa-ʔaloŋo (��); Rennell : hakaŋgoŋo (��); Ontong Java : haaloŋo (��); Sikaiana : lono(��); Tikopia : fakaroŋo (��); Anutan : roŋo (��); Niue : loŋo (��); Tongan :

fanoŋo (��); Tuvalu : laŋona (��); Nanumea : laŋona (��); Makatea : fanoŋo(��); W. Futuna : roŋona (��); Mele-Fila : raŋona (��); Kapingamarangi : roŋo(��); Nukuoro : laŋona (��); W. Fijian : roŋo-o (��); Bau (EF) : roŋo-δa (��).

heart Rapanui : mahatu (��6); Tahiti : maafatu (��6); Maori : manawa (�5);

Hawaiian : puʔuwai (��8); Mangareva : uopo (��); Marquesas : huopo (��); Sa-

moan : fatu (��6); Rennell : hinaŋaŋgo (�83); Ontong Java : hakumaŋava (�5,

��6); Sikaiana : atepili (��); Tikopia : fatumanava (�5, ��6); Anutan : patumana-va (�5, ��6); Niue : atevili (��); Tongan : mafu (��5); Tuvalu : fatu (��6); Nanu-

mea : fatu (��6); Makatea : mama (��9), roto (�8�); W. Futuna : faretoto (�80);


Mele-Fila : ufi kaanoa (�8�); Kapingamarangi : hatu manava (�5, ��6); Nukuoro :

hadu-manava (�5, ��6); W. Fijian : ra�ota (�82), nunu (�83); Bau (EF) : uto (�8�).

horn Rapanui : tara (�86); Tahiti : tara = ‛thorn’ (�86); Maori : haona (�89);

Hawaiian : kiwi (�88); Mangareva : tara (�86); Marquesas : niho (�90); Samoan :

nifo (�90), seu (�8�); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia : ― ;

Anutan : ― ; Niue : hoe (�85); Tongan : meʔa-tui (�9�); Tuvalu : suki (−�96); Nanu-

mea : tui loa (�9�); Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : tala (�86); Mele-Fila : nifo (�90); Ka-

pingamarangi : ― ; Nukuoro : haŋa (�95); W. Fijian : hi�i (�92); Bau (EF) : i-leu (�93).

I Rapanui : au (�9�); Tahiti : vau, au (�9�); Maori : ahau (�9�); Hawaiian : au(�9�); Mangareva : au (�9�); Marquesas : au (�9�); Samoan : aʔu (�9�); Rennell :

au (�9�); Ontong Java : aŋau (�9�); Sikaiana : anau (�9�); Tikopia : kuou (�9�);

Anutan : koau (�9�); Niue : au (�9�); Tongan : au, ou (�9�); Tuvalu : au (�9�); Na-

numea : aku, au (�9�); Makatea : kou (�9�); W. Futuna : �au (�9�); Mele-Fila :

avau (�9�); Kapingamarangi : au (�9�); Nukuoro : au (�9�); W. Fijian : jau (�9�);

Bau (EF) : jau (�9�).

kill Rapanui : tinaʔi (20�); Tahiti : haʔapohe (200); Maori : whaka-mate (66);

Hawaiian : pepehi aa make (66); Mangareva : ʔakamate (66); Marquesas : haá-mate (66); Samoan : fasi-oti (202); Rennell : taa (206); Ontong Java : kaa (206);

Sikaiana : taa (206); Tikopia : tamate (66, 206); Anutan : ta mate (66, 206); Niue :

taamate (66, 206); Tongan : taamateʔi (66); Tuvalu : tamate (66); Nanumea : taamate (66); Makatea : teia-kemate (66); W. Futuna : čia (203); Mele-Fila : fakama-tea (66), taia (206); Kapingamarangi : matemate (66); Nukuoro : hagamagau(20�); W. Fijian : �a-mase (66); Bau (EF) : �aka-mate-a (66).

knee Rapanui : turi vaʔe (20�); Tahiti : turi (20�); Maori : turi (20�); Hawai-

ian : kuli (20�); Mangareva : turi (20�); Marquesas : muó (�39); Samoan : tulivae (20�); Rennell : tuŋgi haŋoŋo (20�); Ontong Java : pukuli (20�); Sikaiana : tuli(20�); Tikopia : turi (20�); Anutan : turi (20�); Niue : tuli (20�); Tongan : tui(20�); Tuvalu : tulivae (20�); Nanumea : tuli vae (20�); Makatea : turi (20�);

W. Futuna : turi (20�); Mele-Fila : pwaatua (−9); Kapingamarangi : turiwae(20�); Nukuoro : duli (20�); W. Fijian : čuru (20�); Bau (EF) : duru (20�).

know Rapanui : ʔite (2�0); Tahiti : ʔite (2�0); Maori : maatau (2��); Ha-

waiian : ike (2�0); Mangareva : kite (2�0); Marquesas : ite (2�0); Samoan : iloa(209); Rennell : naʔa (�8�); Ontong Java : ailoa (209); Sikaiana : iloa (209); Ti-

kopia : iroa (209); Anutan : iroa (209); Niue : iloa (209); Tongan : ʔilo (209);

Tuvalu : iloa (209); Nanumea : iloa (209); Makatea : iroa (209); W. Futuna :

iroa (209); Mele-Fila : taaea (−2�2); Kapingamarangi : iroa (209); Nukuoro :

ilo (209); W. Fijian : kila (2��); Bau (EF) : kila (2��).

leaf Rapanui : raupaa (2�5); Tahiti : rauʔere (2�5); Maori : rau (2�5); Ha-

waiian : lau (2�5); Mangareva : rau (2�5); Marquesas : au (2�5); Samoan : lau

3� GÉää-M~åå, PÉáêçë, S. Sí~êçëíáå. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

(2�5); Rennell : ŋgau (2�5); Ontong Java : laumea (2�5); Sikaiana : lau (2�5);

Tikopia : raurakau (2�5); Anutan : rau (2�5); Niue : lau (2�5); Tongan : lau (2�5);

Tuvalu : lau (2�5); Nanumea : lau (2�5); Makatea : raurau (2�5); W. Futuna :

rau (2�5); Mele-Fila : rau (2�5); Kapingamarangi : rau (2�5); Nukuoro : lau(2�5); W. Fijian : rau (2�5); Bau (EF) : drau (2�5).

lie Rapanui : moe (2��); Tahiti : taʔoto (2�6); Maori : takoto (2�6); Hawaiian :

moe (2��); Mangareva : moe (2��); Marquesas : moe (2��); Samoan : taʔoto(2�6); Rennell : moe (2��); Ontong Java : moe (2��); Sikaiana : moe (2��); Tikopia :

takoto (2�6); Anutan : takoto (2�6); Niue : takoto (2�6); Tongan : tokoto (2�6);

Tuvalu : takoto (2�6); Nanumea : moe ki lalo (2��); Makatea : moe (2��); W. Fu-

tuna : moe (2��); Mele-Fila : moe (2��); Kapingamarangi : moe i rara (2��); Nu-

kuoro : bani (−33�); W. Fijian : daro (220); Bau (EF) : da�o (220).

liver Rapanui : ʔate (��); Tahiti : upaʔa (22�); Maori : ate (��); Hawaiian : ake

(��); Mangareva : ate (��); Marquesas : ate (��); Samoan : ate (��); Rennell :

ʔate (��); Ontong Java : ake (��); Sikaiana : ate (��); Tikopia : ate (��); Anu-

tan : ate (��); Niue : ate (��); Tongan : ʔate (��); Tuvalu : ate (��); Nanumea : ate

(��); Makatea : ate (��); W. Futuna : ate (��); Mele-Fila : ate (��); Kapingama-

rangi : ate (��); Nukuoro : ade (��); W. Fijian : yase (��); Bau (EF) : yate (��).

long Rapanui : roa (222); Tahiti : roa (222); Maori : roa (222); Hawaiian : loa(222); Mangareva : roa (222); Marquesas : oa (222); Samoan : ʔumi PN *kumi(223); Rennell : ŋgoa (222); Ontong Java : loloa (222); Sikaiana : loloa (222); Tiko-

pia : roa (222); Anutan : roroa (222); Niue : loa (222); Tongan : looloa (222); Tu-

valu : loa (222); Nanumea : loa (222); Makatea : le�ale�a (−5); W. Futuna : palo(222); Mele-Fila : tootoe (225); Kapingamarangi : roa (222); Nukuoro : loloe(222); W. Fijian : bala�u (222); Bau (EF) : bala�u (222).

louse Rapanui : kutu (226); Tahiti : ʔutu (226); Maori : kutu (226); Ha-

waiian : ʔuku (226); Mangareva : kutu (226); Marquesas : kutu (226); Sa-

moan : ʔutu (226); Rennell : kutu (226); Ontong Java : ʔuku (226); Sikaiana :

kutu (226); Tikopia : kutu (226); Anutan : kutu (226); Niue : kutu (226); Ton-

gan : kutu (226); Tuvalu : kutu (226); Nanumea : kutu (226); Makatea : kutu(226); W. Futuna : kutu (226); Mele-Fila : kutu (226); Kapingamarangi : kutu(226); Nukuoro : gudu (226); W. Fijian : kuču (226); Bau (EF) : kutu (226).

man Rapanui : taŋata (229); Tahiti : taane (22�); Maori : taane (22�); Hawai-

ian : kaane (22�); Mangareva : tamaroa (229); Marquesas : énata (229); Samoan :

taane (22�); Rennell : taaŋata (229); Ontong Java : kaŋata (229); Sikaiana : tanata(229); Tikopia : taŋata (229); Anutan : taŋata (229); Niue : taane (22�); Tongan : ta-

ŋata (228); Tuvalu : taŋata (228); Nanumea : taŋata (228); Makatea : taŋata (228);

W. Futuna : tane (22�); Mele-Fila : taane (22�); Kapingamarangi : taane (22�);

Nukuoro : daane (22�); W. Fijian : tamata-δola (229); Bau (EF) : taŋane (22�).


many Rapanui : rahi (20); Tahiti : rahi (20); Maori : rau (233), maha (238);Hawaiian : lau (233), nui (2�); Mangareva : nui (2�); Marquesas : tini (23�), nui(2�); Samoan : tele (22); Rennell : eha (�85); Ontong Java : komaʔi (�86); Sika-iana : tamaki (�86); Tikopia : rava (230), kapi (��); Anutan : rai (�88); Niue : lahi(20); Tongan : lahi (20); Tuvalu : uke (235); Nanumea : uke (235); Makatea : lasi(20); W. Futuna : sorehmafi (−�0); Mele-Fila : toope (−9); Kapingamarangi : roko(236); Nukuoro : lagolao (236); W. Fijian : wara (23�); Bau (EF) : le�u (25).

meat Rapanui : kiko (2�0); Tahiti : ʔiʔo (2�0); Maori : miiti (−8); Hawaiian :ʔiʔo (2�0); Mangareva : kiko (2�0); Marquesas : kiko (2�0); Samoan : ʔaʔano(239); Rennell : kanoŋguku (239); Ontong Java : poŋohi (239); Sikaiana : io (�89);Tikopia : kanofi (239); Anutan : kanopi (239); Niue : kakano (239); Tongan : ka-kano (239); Tuvalu : ʔkano (239); Nanumea : kanofi (239); Makatea : kanmata(239); W. Futuna : napisi (−�); Mele-Fila : viisiko (−�); Kapingamarangi : koneika(239); Nukuoro : kano (239); W. Fijian : �iδiko (2��); Bau (EF) : lewe (2�5).

moon Rapanui : mahina (2�6); Tahiti : ʔaavaʔe (2��); Maori : maahina (2�6),marama (2�8); Hawaiian : mahina (2�6); Mangareva : marama (2�8); Marquesas :mahina (2�6); Samoan : maasina (2�6); Rennell : maahina (2�6); Ontong Java :malama (2�8); Sikaiana : malama (2�8); Tikopia : marama (2�8); Anutan : maa-ina (2�6); Niue : mahina (2�6); Tongan : maahina (2�6); Tuvalu : masina (2�6);Nanumea : mahina (2�6); Makatea : masina (2�6); W. Futuna : mrama (2�8);Mele-Fila : ŋaale (2�9); Kapingamarangi : mahina (2�6); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fi-jian : �ula (250); Bau (EF) : �ula (250).

mountain Rapanui : maʔuŋa (25�); Tahiti : mouʔa (25�); Maori : mauŋa (25�);Hawaiian : mauna (25�); Mangareva : maŋa (25�); Marquesas : uta (��3); Sa-moan : mauŋa (25�); Rennell : oŋgo (�9�); Ontong Java : mouŋa (25�); Sikaiana :mouŋa (25�); Tikopia : mauŋa (25�); Anutan : mauŋa (25�); Niue : mouŋa (25�); Ton-gan : moʔuŋa (25�); Tuvalu : mauŋa (25�); Nanumea : mauŋa (25�); Makatea : mau-ŋa (25�); W. Futuna : ausafi (−6); Mele-Fila : tafuu (−�); Kapingamarangi : konotuu(�60); Nukuoro : mouŋa (25�); W. Fijian : yataŋa (252); Bau (EF) : delana (253).

mouth Rapanui : haha (256); Tahiti : vaha (256); Maori : waha (256); Ha-waiian : waha (256); Mangareva : ʔaaʔaa (−2); Marquesas : fafa (−2); Samoan :ŋutu (255); Rennell : ŋutu (255); Ontong Java : ŋutu (255); Sikaiana : pukua(−�92); Tikopia : puʔua (−�92); Anutan : ŋutu (255); Niue : puu ŋutu (255);Tongan : ŋutu (255); Tuvalu : ŋutu (255); Nanumea : ŋutu (255); Makatea : ŋu-tu (255); W. Futuna : fafa (256); Mele-Fila : ŋutu (255); Kapingamarangi : ŋu-tu (255); Nukuoro : ŋudu (255); W. Fijian : ŋuhu (255); Bau (EF) : ŋusu (255).

name Rapanui : ʔiŋoa (25�); Tahiti : iʔoa (25�); Maori : iŋoa (25�); Ha-waiian : inoa (25�); Mangareva : igoa (25�); Marquesas : ikoa (25�); Samoan :iŋoa (25�); Rennell : iŋoa (25�); Ontong Java : iŋoa (25�); Sikaiana : mele(�93); Tikopia : iŋoa (25�); Anutan : iŋoa (25�); Niue : hiŋoa (25�); Tongan :


hiŋoa (25�); Tuvalu : iŋoa (25�); Nanumea : iŋoa (25�); Makatea : iŋoa (25�);W. Futuna : iŋoa (25�); Mele-Fila : iŋoa (25�); Kapingamarangi : iŋoa (25�);Nukuoro : iŋoo (25�); W. Fijian : yaδa (258); Bau (EF) : yaδa (258).

neck Rapanui : ŋao (��); Tahiti : ʔaʔii (��); Maori : kakii (��); Hawai-ian : ʔaaʔii (��); Mangareva : kakii (��); Marquesas : kaki (��); Samoan :ua (��5); Rennell : uʔa (��5); Ontong Java : uua (��5); Sikaiana : uua (��5);Tikopia : ua (��5); Anutan : ua (��5); Niue : ua (��5); Tongan : kia (��6); Tu-valu : ua (��5); Nanumea : ua (��5); Makatea : ua (��5); W. Futuna : kapup-wenaua (��5); Mele-Fila : penaaua (��5); Kapingamarangi : ua (��5); Nuku-oro : ua (��5); W. Fijian : domo (260); Bau (EF) : domo (260).

new Rapanui : ʔaapii (262); Tahiti : ʔaapii (262); Maori : hou (26�); Ha-waiian : hou (26�); Mangareva : ʔou (26�); Marquesas : hou (26�); Samoan :fou (26�); Rennell : hoʔou (26�); Ontong Java : hoou (26�); Sikaiana : hou (26�);Tikopia : fou (26�); Anutan : pou (26�); Niue : foou (26�); Tongan : foʔou (26�);Tuvalu : fou (26�); Nanumea : foou (26�); Makatea : fou (26�); W. Futuna : fou(26�); Mele-Fila : foou (26�); Kapingamarangi : hou (26�); Nukuoro : hoou(26�); W. Fijian : �ou (26�); Bau (EF) : �ou (26�).

night Rapanui : poo (263); Tahiti : poo (263); Maori : poo (263); Hawai-ian : poo (263); Mangareva : poo (263); Marquesas : po (263); Samoan : poo(263); Rennell : poo (263); Ontong Java : poo (263); Sikaiana : poo (263); Tiko-pia : po (263); Anutan : poo (263); Niue : poo (263); Tongan : poo (263); Tu-valu : po (263); Nanumea : poo (263); Makatea : po (263); W. Futuna : tapo(263); Mele-Fila : poo (263); Kapingamarangi : po (263); Nukuoro : boo (263);W. Fijian : boŋi (263); Bau (EF) : boŋi (263).

nose Rapanui : ihu (26�); Tahiti : ihu (26�); Maori : ihu (26�); Hawai-ian : ihu (26�); Mangareva : iʔu (26�); Marquesas : ihu (26�); Samoan : isu(26�); Rennell : isu (26�); Ontong Java : isu, ʔaaisu (26�); Sikaiana : kaiusu(26�); Tikopia : isu (26�); Anutan : iu (26�); Niue : ihu (26�); Tongan : ihu(26�); Tuvalu : isu (26�); Nanumea : ihu (26�); Makatea : isu (26�); W. Fu-tuna : isu (26�); Mele-Fila : usu (26�); Kapingamarangi : uhi (26�); Nuku-oro : usu (26�); W. Fijian : ŋiδu (26�); Bau (EF) : uδu (26�).

not Rapanui : kai (265); Tahiti : ʔaite (265); Maori : kaahore (265); Ha-waiian : ʔaʔole (265); Mangareva : eai (265); Marquesas : aua (265); Samoan :leai (26�); Rennell : siʔai (268); Ontong Java : seai (268); Sikaiana : seai (268);Tikopia : siei (268); Anutan : kairo (265); Niue : naakai (265); Tongan : ʔikai(265); Tuvalu : e se (266); Nanumea : hee (266); Makatea : ee (266); W. Fu-tuna : čikai (−265); Mele-Fila : saai (268); Kapingamarangi : tee (269); Nuku-oro : de (269); W. Fijian : sikai (265); Bau (EF) : seŋa (266).

one Rapanui : tahi (2��); Tahiti : tahi (2��); Maori : tahi (2��); Hawaiian : ʔekahi

(2��); Mangareva : taʔi (2��); Marquesas : tahi (2��); Samoan : tasi (2��); Rennell : ta-


hi (2��); Ontong Java : kahi (2��); Sikaiana : kahi (2��); Tikopia : tasi (2��); Anutan :

tai (2��); Niue : taha (−2); Tongan : taha (−2); Tuvalu : tasi (2��); Nanumea : tahi(2��); Makatea : tasi (2��); W. Futuna : tasi (2��); Mele-Fila : tasi (2��); Kapingama-

rangi : tahi (2��); Nukuoro : dahi (2��); W. Fijian : tahila (−�); Bau (EF) : dua (2�2).

person Rapanui : taŋata (229); Tahiti : taʔata (229); Maori : taŋata (229); Ha-

waiian : kanaka (229); Mangareva : taŋata (229); Marquesas : énana (229); Sa-

moan : taŋata (229); Rennell : peŋgea (�95); Ontong Java : kama (503); Sikaiana :

tama (503); Tikopia : taŋata (228); Anutan : taŋata (229); Niue : taŋata (229); Ton-

gan : taŋata (229); Tuvalu : tino (2�3); Nanumea : taŋata (229); Makatea : taŋata(229); W. Futuna : taŋata (229); Mele-Fila : taŋata (229); Kapingamarangi : taŋa-ta (229); Nukuoro : daŋata (229); W. Fijian : e-δola (232); Bau (EF) : tamata (229).

rain Rapanui : ʔua (2��); Tahiti : ua (2��); Maori : ua ina (2��); Hawaiian :

ua (2��); Mangareva : ua (2��); Marquesas : ua (2��); Samoan : ua (2��), timu(2��); Rennell : ʔua (2��); Ontong Java : ua (2��); Sikaiana : ua (2��); Tikopia : ua(2��); Anutan : ua (2��); Niue : uha (2��); Tongan : ʔuha (2��); Tuvalu : ua (2��);

Nanumea : ua (2��); Makatea : ua (2��); W. Futuna : ua (2��); Mele-Fila : ua(2��); Kapingamarangi : ua (2��); Nukuoro : bala laŋi (2�5); W. Fijian : lu�u(2�6); Bau (EF) : uδa (2��).

red Rapanui : mea-mea (280); Tahiti : ʔuraʔura (2�8); Maori : whero (2�9);

Hawaiian : ʔula (2�8); Mangareva : kura (2�8); Marquesas : pukiki (��); Sa-

moan : muumuu (28�); Rennell : uŋga (2�8); Ontong Java : mea (280); Sikaiana :

ula (2�8); Tikopia : mero (280); Anutan : mero (280); Niue : kula (2�8); Tongan :

kulokulo (2�8); Tuvalu : ʔkula (2�8); Nanumea : kula (2�8); Makatea : loa (−283);

W. Futuna : mea (280); Mele-Fila : mmea (280); Kapingamarangi : mhee (280);

Nukuoro : mmea (280); W. Fijian : dradra (3�); Bau (EF) : damudamu (282).

road Rapanui : ara (28�); Tahiti : ʔeeʔa (286); Maori : huanui (285); Ha-

waiian : ala (28�); Mangareva : ara(nui) (28�); Marquesas : áánui (28�); Sa-

moan : ala (28�); Rennell : aŋga (28�); Ontong Java : ala (28�); Sikaiana : ala(28�); Tikopia : ara (28�); Anutan : ara (28�); Niue : puhala (28�); Tongan :

hala (28�); Tuvalu : ala (28�); Nanumea : alatuu (28�); Makatea : ara (28�);

W. Futuna : retu (5); Mele-Fila : ara (28�); Kapingamarangi : ara (28�); Nu-

kuoro : haiava (2�9); W. Fijian : δalevu (28�); Bau (EF) : ŋau-ni-sala (28�).

root Rapanui : aka (28�); Tahiti : aʔa (28�); Maori : pakiaka (28�); Ha-

waiian : aʔa (28�); Mangareva : aʔa (28�); Marquesas : aka (28�); Samoan :

aʔa (28�); Rennell : aka (28�); Ontong Java : pakiaʔa (28�); Sikaiana : patiaka(28�); Tikopia : vaiaka (28�); Anutan : vaiaka (28�); Niue : vaka (28�); Ton-

gan : aka (28�); Tuvalu : aka (28�); Nanumea : aka (28�); Makatea : kai (rakau)

(288); W. Futuna : kainea (288); Mele-Fila : koaakoa (−2); Kapingamarangi :

aka (28�); Nukuoro : aga (28�); W. Fijian : waka (28�); Bau (EF) : waka (28�).


round Rapanui : ʔohu (29�); Tahiti : menemene (293); Maori : porotaka(292); Hawaiian : poepoe (29�); Mangareva : poo- (292); Marquesas : kapoípoí(��8); Samoan : laapotopoto (289); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ;

Tikopia : ― ; Anutan : ― ; Niue : ― ; Tongan : fuopotopoto (289); Tuvalu : pu-

kupuku (290); Nanumea : ― ; Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : mwo-liimwoli (−9); Kapingamarangi : puŋupuŋu (�5�); Nukuoro : moe (295); W. Fi-

jian : giligili (29�); Bau (EF) : mokimokiti (298).

sand Rapanui : ʔone (259); Tahiti : one (259); Maori : onepuu (259); Ha-

waiian : one (259); Mangareva : one (259); Marquesas : one (259); Samoan :

oneone (259); Rennell : one (259); Ontong Java : one (259); Sikaiana : keʔele(8�); Tikopia : one (259); Anutan : kerekere (8�); Niue : one (259); Tongan : ʔo-neʔone (259); Tuvalu : one (259); Nanumea : one (259); Makatea : one (259);

W. Futuna : one (259); Mele-Fila : woraone (−9); Kapingamarangi : kerekere(8�); Nukuoro : gelegele (8�); W. Fijian : �oli�oli (302); Bau (EF) : nuku (303).

say Rapanui : vanaŋa (309); Tahiti : parau (308); Maori : kii (30�); Hawai-

ian : ʔoolelo (306); Mangareva : takao (��9); Marquesas : tekao (��9); Samoan :

tautala (3�0); Rennell : heŋgeu (−�55); Ontong Java : kakala (�9�); Sikaiana : ta-atala (�9�); Tikopia : muna (305); Anutan : karaŋa (�56); Niue : lea (30�); Ton-

gan : lea (30�); Tuvalu : muna (305); Nanumea : fai (3�2); Makatea : muna (305);

W. Futuna : tukua (3��); Mele-Fila : vaanaŋa (309); Kapingamarangi : herekhai(�55); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fijian : �oha (3��), tata (3�6); Bau (EF) : �osa (3��).

see Rapanui : tikeʔa (2�0); Tahiti : ʔite (2�0); Maori : kite (2�0); Hawai-

ian : ʔike (2�0); Mangareva : kite (2�0); Marquesas : ite (2�0); Samoan : vaʔai(3�8); Rennell : kite (2�0); Ontong Java : ʔike (2�0); Sikaiana : kite (2�0); Tiko-

pia : pula (2�0); Anutan : mamata (�0�); Niue : kitia (2�0); Tongan : sio (3��),

ʔilo (3�9); Tuvalu : kite (2�0); Nanumea : kilo (3�9); Makatea : kutea (2�0);

W. Futuna : katea (2�0); Mele-Fila : seia (320); Kapingamarangi : kitee (2�0);

Nukuoro : gide (2�0); W. Fijian : daa-nia (32�); Bau (EF) : rai-δa (32�).

seed Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : huore (326); Maori : pua (325); Hawaiian : ʔanoʔa-no (239); Mangareva : ― ; Marquesas : kakano (239); Samoan : fatu = ‛stone’ (��6);

Rennell : hatu (��6); Ontong Java : hua (325); Sikaiana : hatu (��6); Tikopia : fatu(��6); Anutan : teŋa (322); Niue : teŋa (322); Tongan : teŋa (322); Tuvaluu fuaŋa (323);

Nanumea : fatu (��6); Makatea : fatu (��6); W. Futuna : noftu (��6); Mele-Fila : ― ;

Kapingamarangi : kore (−32�); Nukuoro : -golee (32�); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

sit Rapanui : noho (328); Tahiti : noho (328); Maori : noho (328); Hawai-

ian : noho (328); Mangareva : noʔo (328); Marquesas : noho (328); Samoan :

nofo (328); Rennell : noho (328); Ontong Java : ŋoho (328); Sikaiana : noho(328); Tikopia : nofo (328); Anutan : nopo (328); Niue : nofo (328); Tongan :

nofo (328); Tuvalu : nofo (328); Nanumea : noho (328); Makatea : nofoiraro


(328); W. Futuna : puku (329); Mele-Fila : nofo (328); Kapingamarangi : noho(328); Nukuoro : noho (328); W. Fijian : tadra (33�); Bau (EF) : dabe (332).

skin Rapanui : kiri (�0); Tahiti : ʔiri (�0); Maori : kiri (�0); Hawaiian : ʔili (�0);

Mangareva : kiri (�0); Marquesas : kií (�0); Samoan : paʔu (��); Rennell : kiŋgi(�0); Ontong Java : ʔili (�0); Sikaiana : kili (�0); Tikopia : raukiri (�0); Anutan :

kiri (�0); Niue : kili (�0); Tongan : kili (�0); Tuvalu : pakili (�0); Nanumea : kili (�0),

pau (��); Makatea : kiri (�0); W. Futuna : kiri (�0); Mele-Fila : kiri (�0); Kapinga-

marangi : kiri (�0); Nukuoro : gili (�0); W. Fijian : taba (33�); Bau (EF) : kuli- (�0).

sleep Rapanui : haʔuru (336); Tahiti : taʔoto = ‛lie’ (2�6); Maori : moe(2��); Hawaiian : moe (2��); Mangareva : moe (2��); Marquesas : hiamoe (2��);

Samoan : moe (2��); Rennell : moe (2��); Ontong Java : moe (2��); Sikaiana :

moe (2��); Tikopia : moe (2��); Anutan : moe (2��); Niue : momohe (2��); Ton-

gan : mohe (2��); Tuvalu : moe (2��); Nanumea : moe (2��); Makatea : moe(2��); W. Futuna : mweroa (−5); Mele-Fila : moe (2��); Kapingamarangi : khii(�5�); Nukuoro : seni (33�); W. Fijian : moδe (2��); Bau (EF) : moδe (2��).

small Rapanui : ʔitiʔiti (339); Tahiti : iti (339); Maori : iti (339); Hawai-

ian : iki (339); Mangareva : iti (339); Marquesas : iti (339); Samoan : itiiti(339); Rennell : miʔimeʔa (�99); Ontong Java : soliliʔi (338); Sikaiana : likiliki(338); Tikopia : vikilake (338); Anutan : riki (338); Niue : ikiiki (338); Tongan :

siʔi (3�0); Tuvalu : foliki, toniki (338); Nanumea : foliki (338); Makatea : tiiti(3�0); W. Futuna : sisi (3�0); Mele-Fila : kekeela (−6); Kapingamarangi : tamaa(�58); Nukuoro : masei (3�2); W. Fijian : hewa (3��); Bau (EF) : lailai (3�3).

smoke Rapanui : ʔau (3�5); Tahiti : auauahi (3�5); Maori : au (3�5); Ha-

waiian : uahi (3�5); Mangareva : kakauaʔi, kavauaʔi (3�5); Marquesas : auahi(3�5); Samoan : asu (−�); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tiko-

pia : au (3�5); Anutan : kokopu (�60); Niue : ahu (3�5); Tongan : ʔahu (3�5);

Tuvalu : au (3�5); Nanumea : au (3�5); Makatea : asu-afi (3�5); W. Futuna :

ausafi (3�5); Mele-Fila : silaŋo (−3); Kapingamarangi : huiahi (�59); Nuku-

oro : use-ahi (3�5); W. Fijian : kobulu (3�6); Bau (EF) : kubou (3�6).

stand Rapanui : maroa (3�9); Tahiti : tiʔa (3�8); Maori : tuu (3��); Hawai-

ian : kuu (3��); Mangareva : tuu (3��); Marquesas : tu (3��); Samoan : tuu (3��);

Rennell : tuʔu (3��); Ontong Java : kuu (3��); Sikaiana : tuu (3��); Tikopia : tu(3��); Anutan : tu (3��); Niue : tuu (3��); Tongan : tuʔu (3��); Tuvalu : tu (3��);

Nanumea : tuu (3��); Makatea : tui ruŋa (3��); W. Futuna : tu kake (3��); Mele-

Fila : tuu (3��); Kapingamarangi : tuu (3��); Nukuoro : duu (3��); W. Fijian :

uǯu (��2); Bau (EF) : tuu (3��).

star Rapanui : hetuʔu (35�); Tahiti : feetiʔa (35�); Maori : whetuu (35�); Ha-

waiian : hookuu (35�); Mangareva : ʔetu (35�); Marquesas : fetu (35�); Samoan :

fetuu (35�); Rennell : hetuʔu (35�); Ontong Java : hekuu (35�); Sikaiana : hetuu


(35�); Tikopia : fetuu (35�); Anutan : petuu (35�); Niue : fetuu (35�); Tongan :

fetuʔu (35�); Tuvalu : fetuu (35�); Nanumea : fetuu (35�); Makatea : fetu (35�);

W. Futuna : fetu (35�); Mele-Fila : mwasoi (−�); Kapingamarangi : hatuu (35�);

Nukuoro : heduu (35�); W. Fijian : ǯiliŋo (352); Bau (EF) : kalokalo (353).

stone Rapanui : maʔea (355); Tahiti : ʔoofaʔi (356); Maori : koohatu (��6);Hawaiian : poohaku (��6); Mangareva : poʔatu (��6); Marquesas : keá (�50);Samoan : maʔa (355); Rennell : hatu (��6); Ontong Java : hatu (��6); Sika-iana : hatu (��6); Tikopia : fatu (��6); Anutan : patu (��6); Niue : maka (355);Tongan : maka (355); Tuvalu : fatu (��6); Nanumea : fatu (��6); Makatea : fatu(��6); W. Futuna : fatu (��6); Mele-Fila : fatu (��6); Kapingamarangi : hatu(��6); Nukuoro : hadu (��6); W. Fijian : �aču (��6); Bau (EF) : �atu (��6).

sun Rapanui : raʔaa (35�); Tahiti : mahana (39�); Maori : raa (35�); Ha-waiian : laa (35�); Mangareva : ra (35�); Marquesas : oumati (�5�); Samoan :laa (35�); Rennell : ŋgaʔaa (35�); Ontong Java : laa (35�); Sikaiana : laa (35�);Tikopia : ra (35�); Anutan : raa (35�); Niue : laaa (35�); Tongan : laʔaa (35�);Tuvalu : la (35�); Nanumea : laa (35�); Makatea : matara (�0�, 35�); W. Fu-tuna : ra (35�); Mele-Fila : reaa (35�); Kapingamarangi : raa (35�); Nukuoro :laa (35�); W. Fijian : mata-ni-hiŋa (�0�, 360); Bau (EF) : siŋa (360).

swim Rapanui : kau (362); Tahiti : ʔau (362); Maori : kaukau (362); Ha-waiian : ʔau (362); Mangareva : kau (362); Marquesas : kau (362); Samoan :aʔau (362); Rennell : ― ; Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia : kau (362);Anutan : kakau (362); Niue : kakau (362); Tongan : kakau (362); Tuvalu : ʔkau(362); Nanumea : kakau (362); Makatea : kaokao (362); W. Futuna : kau (362);Mele-Fila : kau (362); Kapingamarangi : khaukhau (362); Nukuoro : kau(362); W. Fijian : gau (362); Bau (EF) : galo (362).

tail Rapanui : hiku (36�); Tahiti : ʔaero (365); Maori : whiore (365); Hawai-ian : huelo (365); Mangareva : vero (365); Marquesas : veo (365); Samoan : si-ʔusiʔu (36�); Rennell : siku (36�); Ontong Java : mosuʔi (36�); Sikaiana : muisuki(36�); Tikopia : sikusiku (36�); Anutan : tikutiku (36�); Niue : hiku (36�); Ton-gan : hiku, iku (36�); Tuvalu : felo, velo (365); Nanumea : huelo (365); Makatea :siku (36�); W. Futuna : siku (36�); Mele-Fila : puupue (−9); Kapingamarangi : hu-ku (36�); Nukuoro : sugi (36�); W. Fijian : laulau (36�); Bau (EF) : bui (366).

that Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : ― ; Maori : teeraa (3��); Hawaiian : keelaa (3��);Mangareva : tera (3��); Marquesas : tena (3��); Samoan : lea (3��); Rennell : ― ;Ontong Java : ― ; Sikaiana : ― ; Tikopia : tera (3��); Anutan : ena (3�0); Niue :anaa (3�0); Tongan : ― ; Tuvalu : tela (3��); Nanumea : teelaa (3��); Makatea : ira(3��); W. Futuna : tera (3��); Mele-Fila : ― ; Kapingamarangi : teeraa (3��); Nu-kuoro : delea (3��); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

this Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : ― ; Maori : teenei (3�2); Hawaiian : keeia (3��);

Mangareva : ― ; Marquesas : nei (3�2); Samoan : lenei (3�2); Rennell : te nei

Глл-Мнн, Пй, С. Сттин. Лексикостатистика и общие инновации... ��

(3�2); Ontong Java : ke ŋei (3�2); Sikaiana : te nei (3�2); Tikopia : tenei (3�2); Anu-

tan : ieni (3�2); Niue : nei (3�2); Tongan : eni (3�2); Tuvalu : nei (3�2); Nanumea :

teenei (3�2); Makatea : reni (3�2); W. Futuna : tenei (3�2); Mele-Fila : tenei (3�2);

Kapingamarangi : nei (3�2); Nukuoro : de naa (3�3); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

thou Rapanui : koe (3�5); Tahiti : ʔoe (3�5); Maori : koe (3�5); Hawaiian :

ʔoe (3�5); Mangareva : koe (3�5); Marquesas : koe (3�5); Samoan : ʔoe (3�5);

Rennell : koe (3�5); Ontong Java : aʔoe (3�5); Sikaiana : akoe (3�5); Tikopia :

koke (3�5); Anutan : kokoe (3�5); Niue : koe (3�5); Tongan : koe (3�5); Tuvalu :

koe (3�5); Nanumea : koe (3�5); Makatea : akue (3�5); W. Futuna : koe (3�5);

Mele-Fila : akoe (3�5); Kapingamarangi : koe (3�5); Nukuoro : goe (3�5);

W. Fijian : iko (3�5); Bau (EF) : iko (3�5).

tongue Rapanui : ʔarero (3�6); Tahiti : arero (3�6); Maori : arero (3�6); Ha-

waiian : alelo (3�6); Mangareva : erero (3�6); Marquesas : éó (3�6); Samoan :

laulaufaiva (3�8); Rennell : aŋgeŋgo (3�6); Ontong Java : alelo (3�6); Sika-

iana : alelo (3�6); Tikopia : alelo (3�6); Anutan : arero (3�6); Niue : alelo (3�6);

Tongan : ʔelelo (3�6); Tuvalu : alelo (3�6); Nanumea : alelo (3�6); Makatea : ar-ero (3�6); W. Futuna : rero (3�6); Mele-Fila : liimena (−�); Kapingamarangi :

horore (3�6); Nukuoro : alelo (3�6); W. Fijian : maa (3��); Bau (EF) : yame (3��).

tooth Rapanui : niho (�90); Tahiti : niho (�90); Maori : niho (�90); Hawai-

ian : niho (�90); Mangareva : niʔo (�90); Marquesas : niho (�90); Samoan : nifo(�90); Rennell : niho (�90); Ontong Java : ŋiho (�90); Sikaiana : niho (�90); Ti-

kopia : nifo (�90); Anutan : nipo (�90); Niue : nifo (�90); Tongan : nifo (�90);

Tuvalu : nifo (�90); Nanumea : nifo (�90); Makatea : nifo (�90); W. Futuna :

niho (�90); Mele-Fila : nifo (�90); Kapingamarangi : niha (�90); Nukuoro :

niho (�90); W. Fijian : basi (380); Bau (EF) : bati (380).

tree Rapanui : tumu (38�); Tahiti : tumu raaʔau (382); Maori : raakau (382);

Hawaiian : laaʔau (382); Mangareva : rakau (382); Marquesas : tumu ákau (382);

Samoan : laaʔau (382); Rennell : ŋgaʔakau (382); Ontong Java : laaʔau (382); Sika-

iana : laakau (382); Tikopia : rakau (382); Anutan : raakau (382); Niue : akau (382);

Tongan : fuʔu ʔakau (382); Tuvalu : lakau (382); Nanumea : laakau (382); Maka-

tea : rakau (382); W. Futuna : rakau (382); Mele-Fila : raakau (382); Kapingama-

rangi : rakau (382); Nukuoro : ― ; W. Fijian : �uu (383); Bau (EF) : �uu (383).

two Rapanui : rua (386); Tahiti : piti (38�); Maori : rua (386); Hawaiian : lua(386); Mangareva : tokorua (386); Marquesas : ua (386); Samoan : lua (386);

Rennell : ŋgua (386); Ontong Java : lua (386); Sikaiana : lua (386); Tikopia : rua(386); Anutan : rua (�62); Niue : ua (386); Tongan : ua (386); Tuvalu : lua (386);

Nanumea : lua (386); Makatea : rua (386); W. Futuna : rua (386); Mele-Fila : rua(386); Kapingamarangi : rua (386); Nukuoro : lua (386); W. Fijian : rua (386);

Bau (EF) : rua (386).


walk (go) Rapanui : haʔere (390); Tahiti : haere (390); Maori : haere (390);Hawaiian : haele (390); Mangareva : ʔere (390); Marquesas : heʔe (390); Sa-moan : ― ; Rennell : hano (�6�); Ontong Java : haele (390); Sikaiana : heele (390);Tikopia : poi (390); Anutan : aru (390); Niue : fano (388); Tongan : ʔalu (389); Tu-valu : fano (388); Nanumea : haele (390); Makatea : saere (390); W. Futuna : fano(388); Mele-Fila : saaria (390); Kapingamarangi : hana (�6�); Nukuoro : lo (393);W. Fijian : laa (39�); Bau (EF) : taubale (392).

warm Rapanui : ― ; Tahiti : mahana (39�); Maori : mahana (39�); Hawai-ian : mahana (39�); Mangareva : maʔana (39�); Marquesas : mahana (39�); Sa-moan : maafanafana (39�); Rennell : mahana (39�); Ontong Java : mahaŋa (39�);Sikaiana : mahana (39�); Tikopia : mafana (39�); Anutan : mapanapana (39�);Niue : mafana (39�); Tongan : mafana (39�); Tuvalu : maafanafana (39�); Nanu-mea : ― ; Makatea : ― ; W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : ― ; Kapingamarangi : ― ;Nukuoro : mahana (39�); W. Fijian : ― ; Bau (EF) : ― .

water Rapanui : vai (395); Tahiti : vai (395), pape (39�); Maori : wai(395); Hawaiian : wai (395); Mangareva : vai (395); Marquesas : vai (395);Samoan : vai (395); Rennell : bai (395); Ontong Java : vai (395); Sikaiana : vai(395); Tikopia : vai (395); Anutan : vai (395); Niue : vai (395); Tongan : vai(395); Tuvalu : vai (395); Nanumea : vai (395); Makatea : �ai (395); W. Fu-tuna : �ai (395); Mele-Fila : vai (395); Kapingamarangi : wai (395); Nuku-oro : vai (395); W. Fijian : wai (395); Bau (EF) : wai (395).

we Rapanui : maatou (398); Tahiti : maatou (398); Maori : maatou (398);Hawaiian : maakou (398); Mangareva : matou (398); Marquesas : matau (398);Samoan : maatou (398); Rennell : kimaatou (398); Ontong Java : maakou (398);Sikaiana : maatou (398); Tikopia : matou (398); Anutan : matou (398); Niue :mautolu (398); Tongan : kimautolu (398); Tuvalu : maatou (398); Nanumea :maatou (398); Makatea : maatou (398); W. Futuna : akimea (399); Mele-Fila :maateu (398); Kapingamarangi : kimaatou (398); Nukuoro : gimateu (398);W. Fijian : kematou (398); Bau (EF) : keimami (398).

what Rapanui : he aha (�0�); Tahiti : eaha, te aha (�0�); Maori : heaha(�0�); Hawaiian : aha (�0�); Mangareva : aʔa (�0�); Marquesas : aha (�0�); Sa-moan : aa (�00); Rennell : nia, te aa (�00); Ontong Java : ea, ke a (�00); Sika-iana : hea (�00); Tikopia : ea (�00); Anutan : ea (�0�); Niue : se a (�00, �02);Tongan : haa (�00); Tuvalu : haa (�00); Nanumea : aa (�00); Makatea : rea(�00); W. Futuna : taha (�0�); Mele-Fila : afa (�0�); Kapingamarangi : aha(�0�); Nukuoro : aha (�00); W. Fijian : δaa (�0�); Bau (EF) : δa�a (�00, �0�).

white Rapanui : tea-tea (�03); Tahiti : ʔuoʔuo (�06); Maori : maa (�05); Ha-

waiian : keʔokeʔo (�0�); Mangareva : tea (�03); Marquesas : tea (�03); Samoan :

paʔepaʔe (�08); Rennell : susuŋgu (50�); Ontong Java : maʔiŋi (502); Sikaiana :

maa (�05); Tikopia : tea (�03); Anutan : tea (�03), kena (�63); Niue : tea (�03);


Tongan : hinehina (�09); Tuvalu : tea (�03); Nanumea : tea (�03); Makatea : keŋo(��0); W. Futuna : tetea (�03); Mele-Fila : teetea (�03); Kapingamarangi : khene(�63); Nukuoro : tea (�03); W. Fijian : buδo (��); Bau (EF) : �ula�ula (��2).

who Rapanui : ko ai (��3); Tahiti : ʔo vai (��3); Maori : wai (��3); Hawaiian :

wai (��3); Mangareva : ai (��3); Marquesas : ai (��3); Samoan : ai (��3); Rennell : ko-

ai (��3); Ontong Java : ʔoai (��3); Sikaiana : koai (��3); Tikopia : koai (��3); Anutan :

koai (��3); Niue : ko oi (��3); Tongan : hai (��3); Tuvalu : ko hai (��3); Nanumea : ai

(��3); Makatea : koi (��3); W. Futuna : akai (��3); Mele-Fila : kuai (��3); Kapinga-

marangi : ai (��3); Nukuoro : go-ai (��3); W. Fijian : δei (��3); Bau (EF) : δei (��3).

woman Rapanui : viʔe (��5); Tahiti : vahine (��); Maori : waahine (��); Ha-

waiian : wahine (��); Mangareva : toaʔaʔine (��); Marquesas : vehine (��); Sa-

moan : fafine (��); Rennell : hahine (��); Ontong Java : hiŋe (��); Sikaiana : ha-hine (��); Tikopia : fafine (��); Anutan : papine (��); Niue : fifine (��); Ton-

gan : fefine (��); Tuvalu : fifine (��); Nanumea : fafine (��); Makatea : fafine(��); W. Futuna : fine (��); Mele-Fila : ffine (��); Kapingamarangi : ahina (��);

Nukuoro : hine (��); W. Fijian : huna-ni-�anua (��6); Bau (EF) : yalewa (��).

yellow Rapanui : toua mamari (�2�); Tahiti : reʔareʔa (�2�); Maori : reŋa(�2�); Hawaiian : lena (�2�); Mangareva : reŋareŋa (�2�); Marquesas : ʔena(�2�); Samoan : samasama (�22); Rennell : heŋgo (2�9); Ontong Java : helo(2�9); Sikaiana : helo (2�9); Tikopia : seŋa (��8); Anutan : teteŋa (��8); Niue :

aŋo (�20); Tongan : eŋeeŋa (�2�); Tuvalu : aŋo (�20); Nanumea : sama (�22);

Makatea : ferofero (2�9); W. Futuna : ― ; Mele-Fila : mwonoomwono (−�);

Kapingamarangi : rou pukeʔ (�6�); Nukuoro : ganoaŋo (�20); W. Fijian : dro-modromo (�22); Bau (EF) : dromodromo (�22).

Word lists used in the lexicostatistical analysis are taken from:

�. Comparative dictionaries of modern languages:

Anutan: [TRYON & HACKMAN �983]Bauan: (Eastern Fijian) [TRYON ÉÇK �995], by P. dÉê~ÖÜíó

Makatea: [TRYON �9�6]Mele-Fila: [TRYON ÉÇK �995], list by R. `ä~êâNadrogaa: (Western Fijian) [TRYON ÉÇK �995], by P. dÉê~ÖÜíó

Ontong Java: [TRYON & HACKMAN �983]Rapanui: [TRYON ÉÇK �995], list by R. tÉÄÉê and N. tÉÄÉê

Rennellese: [TRYON & HACKMAN �983]Samoan: [TRYON ÉÇK �995], list by U. jçëÉä

Sikaiana: [TRYON & HACKMAN �983]Tahitian: [TRYON ÉÇK �995], list by Y. iÉã~áíêÉ

�� GÉää-M~åå, PÉáêçë, S. Sí~êçëíáå. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Tikopia: [TRYON & HACKMAN �983]Tongan: [TRYON ÉÇK �995], list by P. dÉê~ÖÜíó

W. Futunan: [TRYON �9�6]

2. Dictionaries:

Hawaiian: [PUKUI & ELBERT �9��]Kapingamarangi: [LIEBER & DIKEPA �9��]Mangarevan: [RENSCH �99�]Maori: [BIGGS �990]Marquesan: [DORDILLON �932]Nanumea: [RANBY �980]Niue: [SPERLICH �99�]Nukuoro: [CARROLL & SOULIK �9�3]Tuvaluan: [JACKSON �99�]

Авторы рассматривают один из случаев, когда результаты традиционной генеало-гической классификации, опирающейся на т. н. «метод общих инноваций», не совпадаютс результатами, полученными в результате лексикостатистической обработки данных потем же языковым группам. Таким случаем оказывается классификация полинезийскихязыков; в частности, существенным ее отличием от лексикостатистической является тотфакт, что, согласно первой, тонганская ветвь (тонга, ниуэ) наиболее рано отделяется от об-щеполинезийского «ствола», в то время как согласно второй она является лишь одной изнескольких подгрупп внутри западнополинезийской ветви рассматриваемой семьи.

В ходе анализа ситуации выясняется, что традиционная классификация держится впервую очередь на том, что в тонганских языках сохраняется фонологическое различиемежду праполинезийскими фонемами *l и *r (вторая из них дает нулевой рефлекс), в товремя как в остальных полинезийских языках их рефлексы совпадают. Авторы выдвига-ют альтернативную гипотезу, согласно которой совпадение рефлексов *l и *r могло бытьспецифической чертой восточнополинезийских языков, впоследствии распространив-шейся ареальным образом и на ряд западнополинезийских подгрупп. В этом случаелексикостатистическая классификация должна будет оказаться точнее традиционной.

lexicostatistics compared with shared innovations the ...lexicostatistics compared with shared...

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