Life of the Buddha

Context

• Prince Siddhartha Gautama• Part of the Shakya Clan (hence name

Shakyamuni)• Born Kapilavastu in Northern India,

563BCE• Indian religion at time was Hinduism• Buddhism part of a revolt against

Hinduism: expensive sacrifices, Caste System, pessimistic view of salvation, etc

Siddhartha’s Birth

• Birth stories very symbolic• Queen Maya’s dream: elephant in side• Born in garden at Lumbini• Trees bent down to support Queen Maya• Born out of her side• Golden Skin• Walked seven steps and lotuses grew at his feet• Declared this was his last rebirth

Siddhartha’s Early Life

• A seer called Asita told his father King Sudohanna that he would either grow up to be a great leader, or a holy man.

• To make sure he became a king like him, the King kept Siddhartha in the palace for his whole life.

• He was surrounded by youth, beauty, pleasure and wealth, and had no idea that life could be any different.

The Great Renunciation (The Four Sights)

• Siddhartha began to question life, and asked what was beyond the palace walls.

• He convinced his charioteer Channa to take him outside 4 times.

• On these occasions he saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and lastly a holy man (saddhu).

• The first three sights dispirited him, but the fourth gave him hope that he could figure out how to stop all the suffering in life (he was moved by great compassion)

• He decided to leave his family (wife and child too – also symbolising leaving attachments behind) to become a wandering holy man in search of the truth.

Asceticism• Siddhartha first came across some yogins who taught

him the art of meditation. He stayed with them for a couple of years, then moved on to join a group of ascetics.

• Ascetics deny themselves things in order to ‘force’ the mind to see clearly. For example, a lazy person might force themselves to stand all the time.

• Siddhartha decided that since he had lived a life of material luxury, he would starve himself.

• Legend has it that he reduced his food until he was living on 3 grains of rice a day and almost died.

• He eventually realised that this was not helping him realise the truth, and (with some help from a local girl) made himself better.

Enlightenment• Soon after this, Siddhartha sat under a

pipal tree (commonly known as a bodhi tree) and decided he would not move until he had an answer to the world’s suffering.

• For many days Siddhartha meditated, facing Mara and all of his temptations.

• Eventually Siddhartha came to realise the truth about reality and became enlightened.

• He was now the Buddha (enlightened one)• He spent the rest of his life travelling and

teaching what he had learned.

Buddhist Scriptures

Dhamma

Teachings of the Buddha

• Originally passed on orally• Meetings of Buddhists at special places during rainy

seasons = passing on of recent teachings and reminders of others

• People were used to remembering things ‘off by heart’ as writing was not common practice.

• The rainy season lasts for many weeks – plenty of time for discussion and learning.

The First Council• During the first rainy season after the Buddha died (usually

given as around 483BCE), Buddhists met to collate his teachings and agree on what he said.

• 500 senior members of the Sangha (Buddhist community) made up what is known as the ‘First Council’ and started to work through all of the Buddhist teachings to decide which ones were definitely taught by the Buddha

• This work was confirmed almost one hundred years later by a second council at Vaisali in around 386 BCE

Canonisation

• By the first century CE, the works were officially collated and organised (canonised)

• These original teachings are known as the Pali Canon, and are the main scriptures of Theravada Buddhism.

• The Pali Canon is accepted by all Buddhists, although schools other than Theravada also accept later works.

• The Pali Canon is made up of the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). These are three different collections of writing.

Tripitaka (Three Baskets)

Other Scriptures• There are also non-canonical works that are

considered important teaching aids in Buddhism.• For example, “The Questions of King Milinda” is

famous in Buddhism• Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism accept many

other scriptures (as well as the Tripitaka) as ‘canonical’ texts – they are written in many languages and are considered as ‘newer’ revelations of the Buddha’s teaching, still carrying the authority of the Buddha.

• Theravada Buddhists would usually not accept these as authentic.

The Dhammapada

• Part of the Pali Canon (Sutta Pitaka ‘basket’)• Used by all Buddhists• Said to be the actual words of the Buddha• It ‘argues’ between the foolish person, and the

wise person who understands the path of Buddhism

• It aims to ‘win’ the reader over to Buddhism by logic, verse, prose, and clever argument!

• This is the main text you will need to understand for this section of the course.

Anicca 1

(Impermanence)

Anicca

1. Literally means “impermanence”2. It is the idea that everything is constantly

changing (even if you can’t see it)3. This concept is at the root of all Buddhist

belief – if you accept and understand anicca, you are on the road to enlightenment!

Impermanence seen in life of Buddha:

1. The Four Sights2. Great Renunciation3. Search for correct ‘path’4. Travelling and teaching5. His Death

Why so important?Buddhists believe life is full of suffering. This suffering is mainly

caused by people’s unrealistic EXPECTATIONS of things – wanting more money / wanting to be happy forever / not wanting to get old / etc.

We resist change and are upset by it, we get upset when we don’t get what we want, etc.

If we understand that everything is impermanent and will always change, we shouldn’t have these unreasonable expectations. We will always realise that good things come to an end, and also that bad things will also pass.

This gives a realistic and truthful outlook on the world and allows Buddhists to properly understand other Buddhist teachings.

The Human Condition

The Four Noble Truths – Part One

The Four Noble Truths• These are the basis of all Buddhist teaching• These were alluded to in the Buddha’s first sermon (The

Sermon at Benares)• Buddhists use a doctor analogy to explain them:

1. The Buddha is the doctor who makes the diagnosis that something is ‘wrong’ – Dukkha

2. The diagnosis of the cause of the illness is craving (tanha) – Samudaya

3. There is a cure; it is to achieve nibbana – Nirodha4. The prescription is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path -

Magga

The First Noble Truth - Dukkha

• Also one of the Three Universal Truths / Marks of Existence

• Means ‘unsatisfactoriness’• Idea that suffering is everywhere all the time –

even if we think we are happy!• Caused by failure to understand anicca

Second Noble Truth - Samudaya• The cause of dukkha (the actual illness) is tanha (craving)• Because you do not understand anicca, you crave

permanence and possessions• You want relationships to always be good, you want to

never be ill, you always want money and possessions thinking they’ll make you happy forever, etc.

• This is also a link with the Three Mental Poisons (or Three Fires): Greed, Hatred and Ignorance

• All this craving makes you suffer: tanha causes dukkha• This is the Second Noble Truth of Samudaya • See Dhammapada 334-342 (Cravings)

The Human Condition

The Three Universal Truths / Three Marks of Conditioned Existence

1st Mark: Anicca (Impermanence)• The first key concept you need to know is ‘Anicca’• The word literally means ‘impermanence’• It is the First Mark of Existence / Universal Truth• This means that everything is constantly changing• Nothing stays the same (nothing is permanent)• Everything is changing around you just now: weather,

light, table, chair, apple, Bennachie – everything.• This applies to relationships and conditions as well.• See story of Nun Kisagotami (mustard seed story)

2nd Mark: Anatta (No Soul)• The Second Mark of Existence / Universal Truth is

Anatta• Anatta literally means ‘no soul’• This is basically Anicca applied to people!• If nothing is permanent, and everything changes, then

you also constantly change.• There is no permanent ‘thing’, so there can be no

eternal / lasting soul or ‘self’• Buddhists believe we are made up of five changing

‘bits’ / aggregates called the Five Skandhas.• The skandhas constantly change, so we are constantly

changing.• The only thing that stays the same is our ‘label’• See Questions of King Milinda (Chariot story)

Sunyata (Emptiness) - Higher

• This is NOT a Mark of Existence, but is related to the first two marks.

• This is Anatta and Anicca taken one stage further

• Found in the Prajna-Paramita Sutras• Sunyata is a Mahayana Buddhist concept – you

will not find it in the ‘strict/original’ Theravada Buddhism

• It states that every time you analyse something (like you did with a person for anatta) you find that no object / thing has any inherent substance – it is ‘empty’.

Sunyata (Emptiness) – Higher [cont]•Everything is always made up of smaller ‘bundles of bits’ (like humans are made of the skhandas)•Every named object amounts to the sum of its parts – all an object is is a particular configuration of it’s parts.•The name is just a label given to that particular collection of changing pieces.•If you analyse everything into small enough bits you find that everything is empty – has no existence of it’s own.•Car = mechanical and electrical bits = made up of smaller and smaller components = made up of basic material = made up of atoms = made up of subatomic particles = made up of ‘nothingness’!

If everything can reduce down to this nothingness, or emptiness, then everything is essentially the same, or

linked together.

3rd Mark: Dukkha (Unsatisfactoriness)• Third mark of existence is ‘Dukkha’• It literally means ‘unsatisfactoriness’ or ‘suffering’• Usual interpretation of Dukkha is suffering, but it is

‘more’ than that.• It is the dissatisfaction with life – the good and bad,

the fact that things change, things failing to live up to our expectations, etc.

• 3 Types of Suffering: Ordinary suffering, suffering from change, and from conditioned states.

• Human failure to understand anicca means that we have a misunderstanding of our ‘human condition’ and live our lives ‘wrongly’, so we ‘suffer’

3rd Mark: Dukkha (cont)• Not accepting that EVERYTHING changes = We expect / hope for

things to stay the same when they are good; we worry they’ll never change when they are bad; we strive to achieve goals that are ultimately meaningless we are ignorant to the truth of the world

• We are tied to the reality of samsara (the cycle of life, death and rebirth) because of our failure to understand the fact that not accepting anicca leads to dukkha, which in turn stops us becoming enlightened, and therefore keeps us tied to samsara!

• We are ‘tied’ to the Three Mental Poisons of Greed, Hatred, and Ignorance which keep this cycle going.

• Understanding anicca and dissolving the Three Poisons is the key to ridding ourselves of dukkha and becoming enlightened

• See Dhammapada 147-156 (Ageing)

Quick Tasks

1. Write a SHORT paragraph to explain:1. Anicca2. Anatta3. Dukkha

2. Explain briefly how the three marks of existence are linked. Use a diagram to illustrate your answer.

3. Higher: Explain the concept of Sunyata

The Goals

Kamma and Skilful Means

Kamma• Kamma means ‘action’• It is the natural law of cause and effect• Every action is determined by something• Every action has an effect / consequence• These consequences can have either negative or

positive kammic effects• Kammic effects may not be felt straight away• The ‘balance’ of kamma at the end of one life

determines the ‘state’ of the next life• The aim is to build up positive kamma to gain a better

rebirth and become closer to the ultimate goal of nibbana

Skilful Means / Skill in Means• Upaya Kausala = skilful means• This is using different strategies to ‘teach’ your

audience, e.g. football rules will be taught differently to a five year old, and someone on the school team.

•Skilful Means is using wisdom to use the appropriate method at the appropriate time•The Buddha used upaya kausala all the time – it is the message of the teaching that is important, not the method.•See parable of burning house / story of raft

The Goals

The Four Noble Truths – Part Two

The Four Noble Truths - Reminder

• These are the basis of all Buddhist teaching• These were alluded to in the Buddha’s first sermon (The

Sermon at Benares)• Buddhists use a doctor analogy to explain them:

1. The Buddha is the doctor who makes the diagnosis – Dukkha

2. The cause of the illness is craving (tanha) – Samudaya3. There is a cure, it is to achieve nibbana – Nirodha4. The prescription is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path -

Magga

The First Noble Truth - Dukkha• Also one of the Three Universal Truths / Marks of

Existence• Means ‘unsatisfactoriness’• Caused by failure to understand anicca

Second Noble Truth - Samudaya•The cause of dukkha (the actual illness) is tanha (craving)•Because you do not understand anicca, you crave permanence and possessions•All this craving makes you suffer: tanha causes dukkha

The Third Noble Truth - Nirodha• There is a way to cure the illness of dukkha• The way to be cured forever is to achieve

enlightenment (nibbana)• This is the ULTIMATE GOAL of all Buddhists• Nibbana is not a place, but a state of mind• Difficult to describe – must experience it to

understand fully (fish and turtle story)• Enlightened beings are outwith the realm of cause

and effect, so are not reborn when they die• See ‘What the Buddha Taught’ and ‘QKM’

The Theravada Ideal:The Arahat / Arahant

The Goals

The Arahat• The Arahat is the Theravadin ideal• All Theravadin Buddhists would like to become an

Arahat• An Arahat is an enlightened monk – they will not be

reborn when they die• It takes many rebirths to reach the stage where one

will become an Arahat in this lifetime• It takes a lifetime of dedication and study as a monk

to reach this stage• Few monks become Arahats

Implications for Lay People• Lay people = ordinary members of the community• Ordained people = monks and nuns• Lay people in Theravada Buddhism are VERY unlikely to become

enlightened• The best they can aim for is a better rebirth to get closer to being

able to become an Arahat• They do this by accumulating positive kamma (they might

become monks or nuns temporarily, and they will help the ordained community by providing food and clothing, etc)

• They would not expect to progress in “leaps and bounds” – enlightenment is a very distant goal.

• Enlightenment in Theravada Buddhism is a largely personal goal – ultimately you have to ‘do it’ on your own.

The Means

Three Jewels

The Three Jewels

• The Three Jewels are the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha

• Also known as Three Treasures, Three Refuges, or the Tiratana

• The Dhamma could not have been taught without the Buddha, and could not have been followed without the Sangha, so the three are inseparable.

• They are known as the Three Refuges, because the Buddhist promise of devotion says:

“I take refuge in the Buddha,I take refuge in the Dhamma,I take refuge in the Sangha.”

• Taking refuge is making a promise to be devoted to the Buddha and his teachings.

• It is also a sign of the support structure of the religion – a refuge is somewhere you turn for security and guidance

Trikaya

• Trikaya = Three Bodies (of the Buddha)• This is a Mahayana concept, NOT a Theravada

one!• Theravada focus on the HISTORICAL example

of the man Siddhartha Gautama / the Buddha• Mahayana see different aspects to ‘him’ – the

historical and the supernatural / metaphysical side

Buddha - Trikaya

1. Nirmanakaya – Human form sent to teach humans / many different bodies (Siddhartha was one)

2. Sambhogakaya – Eternal Buddha / what gets embodied in human form, the ‘future Buddha’ Maitreya, etc

3. Dhammakaya – Ultimate reality / Buddha nature (in all beings)

Different Interpretations of Buddha (Historical V Trikaya)

TIMEHistorical Buddha Shakyamuni

Mahayana

Theravada

The Buddha is a historical figure ONLY – a ‘saint’. He left behind his teachings to show the ‘path’. Theravada Buddhists rely on themselves and the teachings only.

1 – Nirmana-Kaya (Physical Body) – Siddhartha Gautama [Buddha Shakyamuni]

2 – Dhamma-Kaya (Truth Body) – Qualities that make up the ‘buddha-nature’ / truth of reality.

3. Sambhoga-Kaya (Enjoyment Body) – e.g. Bodhisattvas

Dhamma

• Can mean ‘teachings’ / truth / way / etc• It is sometimes used to mean Buddhism• Usually seen as Four Noble Truths and

Eightfold Path• Scriptures can be dhamma• Central to Buddhism• Like a raft – to be used to reach

enlightenment

Sangha• Community of Buddhists• Specifically monks• Monks = bhikkus• Can become a monks for life, or just a short

time• Monks live by 10 Precepts and many other

rules in Vinaya Pitaka scriptures (laity only use 5 Precepts)

• Differences between monks and laity will differ depending on school of Buddhism

Questions

1. Why are the Three Refuges important? (6 KU)

2. Explain each aspect of the Trikaya (6 KU)3. What is dhamma? (4 KU)4. What is the sangha? (2 KU)5. Why are the Three Jewels important? (4 AE)

The Means

Eightfold Path / Ethics / Meditation

Noble Eightfold PathThe Noble Eightfold Path is the core of Buddhist

practice and lifestyle. It is a guide to life, with it’s basis in the central teachings of the Four Noble Truths.

• Split into three sections: Wisdom, Morality, and Meditation

• Not a step by step guide• All should be practiced simultaneously• All ‘stages’ are interconnected• It is seen as the ‘Way’ to achieve enlightenment• See: The Path (Dhammapada)

Noble Eightfold Path

1. Right View (understanding 4NT)2. Right Intention (Doing things for right reasons)3. Right Speech (no gossip / idle chat / lying)4. Right Conduct / Action (being useful/helpful)5. Right Livelihood (a good / helpful job)6. Right Effort (Work hard towards keeping to 4NT

and 8FP)7. Right Mindfulness (Awareness / See things in the

right way / Understanding how your actions affect everything around you)

8. Right Concentration (Meditation)

Ethics / Morality• Compassion is a central value to Buddhists – it

underpins all belief and action• Ahimsa = non-violence and respect for life• Metta = loving-kindness (compassion for all

creatures)• Using skilful means• Gaining good kamma (to enable a better rebirth)• Altruism = putting others first as based on

compassion and as seen in the Bodhisattva ideal of Mahayana Buddhism

Meditation• Develops understanding / mindfulness /

concentration• Samatha Meditation = developing mindfulness, but

not specifically Buddhist / won’t get you enlightened• Bhavana (Mental Culture) = specifically Buddhist /

essential for enlightenment / insight into nature of reality

• Not an escape from life, but developing an awareness and understanding of it!

• Pure Land Buddhists believe they can become enlightened simply by meditating on a mental image of the ‘Pure Land’!

Questions

1. Explain the importance of Right Understanding, Right Intention, Right Speech, and Right Livelihood (8 KU)

2. Explain the importance of Eightfold Path (3 AE)

3. Explain the concepts of metta and ahimsa (4 KU)

4. “Meditation is essential to enlightenment” – how far do you agree? (6 AE)

World Religion:Buddhism

Worship

Objects of Worship 1

• Bells are used at the beginning of worship to signal when to start. It is also used as a signal of change during worship.

• Some Buddhists also believe the sound is symbolic as it spreads around the room, reminding them of the effects of kamma.

Objects of Worship 2

• Prayer Wheels are used to focus the mind during Tibetan Buddhist meditation.

• The turning of the wheel moves prayers and mantras held inside, and this is believed to bring good kamma

Objects of Worship 3

• There will always be a Buddha Image in any shrine, at home or in a temple

• It is worshipped as a sign of devotion to Buddhism and to inspire people to follow his teachings

Objects of Worship 4

• Incense is used during worship, not only for it’s nice smell, but it reminds them of the law of kamma.

• The smell spreads around the room, like the consequences of our actions will have effects all over the world.

Objects of Worship 5

• Flowers are used in worship to remind Buddhists of the most important Buddhist teaching – that nothing lasts forever.

• The flower is fresh and beautiful, but it will soon wilt and die – everything constantly changes.

Objects of Worship 6

• Candles represent the light of wisdom, shining to light the right path through life.

Places of Worship 1

• Temples (sometimes referred to as a Wat) can be found all over the world.

• They do not have to be a specific design – they can be as simple or as elaborate as you like

Places of Worship 2• Samye-Ling is a Tibetan

Buddhist community in the Scottish Borders.

• This is the main shrine in their temple.

• Look for the objects of worship – how many can you see?

Samye-Ling

Shrines in Bhutan and Sri-Lanka

Worship in Temples• Buddhists will take their shoes off

when entering a temple (for cleanliness and as a sign of respect)

• Worship in temples is usually led by the monks, although you can also worship at home or in groups

• Buddhist worship includes giving offerings (candles, flowers, etc)

• Much of the worship will be meditation, usually on mats on the floor

• They will usually chant mantras to help concentration / bring good kamma

Why do Buddhists Worship?Some people wonder what the point in worship is if

Buddhists are not worshipping / trying to please a God like other religions do.

Buddhist worship is for:• Helping develop concentration and become better at

meditation• Developing a deeper understanding of their religion

through communal and individual activity• Giving time to reflecting on the concepts of the

religion, and considering the symbolic aspects of the activity.

• Inspiring and helping people achieve more in their religion

What do you remember about Buddhist Worship?

1. What are bells used for? (2)2. What 2 things does worshiping a Buddha image do / show?

(2)3. What do flowers symbolise? (1)4. What do candles symbolise? (1)5. Where can you find Buddhist temples? (1)6. What are Buddhist temples like? (1)7. What do Buddhists do before going into a temple? (1)8. What 3 things might they do during worship? (3)

Total ?/12 Marks: 10 - 12 /12 Very Good8 or 9 /12 Good6 or 7 /12 Okayless than 6/12 Revise!

Noble Eightfold Path

Higher / Int 2

Noble Eightfold PathThe Noble Eightfold Path is the core of Buddhist

practice and lifestyle. It is a guide to life, with it’s basis in the central teachings of the Four Noble Truths (It IS the Fourth Noble Truth [Magga]).

• Split into three sections: Wisdom, Morality, and Meditation

• Not a step by step guide• All should be practiced simultaneously• All ‘stages’ are interconnected• It is seen as the ‘Way’ to achieve enlightenment• See: The Path (Dhammapada)

Noble Eightfold Path

1. Right View (understanding 4NT)2. Right Intention (Doing things for right reasons)3. Right Speech (no gossip / idle chat / lying)4. Right Conduct / Action (being useful/helpful)5. Right Livelihood (a good / helpful job)6. Right Effort (Work hard towards keeping to 4NT

and 8FP)7. Right Mindfulness (Awareness / See things in the

right way / Understanding how your actions affect everything around you)

8. Right Concentration (Meditation)

Samsara

• Buddhists have taken on the Hindu law of samsara, and changed it slightly

• It still means the cycle of life, death, and rebirth• However, in the Hindu system rebirth is

reincarnation. Your soul (atman) is reborn.• In Buddhism, there is no reincarnation as there is no

soul to be reborn.• Rebirth in Buddhism is more like a transfer of

energy, sometimes energy that carries with it a memory (see Tibetan Buddhist idea of Tulkus / Dalai Lama etc)

Introduction to kamma• The energy that is passed on in Buddhist rebirth is

kammic energy.• Kamma is the NATURAL law of cause and effect. You

accumulate positive or negative effects throughout your life, and this affects your ‘rebirth’

• Your kammic energy at the end of your life ‘ignites’ the next one.

• This is like transfer of momentum in pool balls. One ball moves another, but nothing of the first ball is attached to the second.

Dependent Origination• According to Buddhism, everything that exists does

so because of what has gone before (cause and effect)

• Everything depends on other thing for their existence

• Dependent Origination was a way for the Buddha to teach his followers that they are ‘agents of their own fortune’ – just because you are here because of what has gone before does NOT mean you are not in control.

• You are here because of previous events and choices, but you always have the power to choose the next step. You are always in control of where you are going!

Wheel of Life• Symbolic representation

of dependent origination (what life is really like)

• Three Poisons in centre• 6 realms of rebirth are

the ‘slices’• 12 nidanas / stages of life

are the sections round the edge

• The Buddha pointing to the moon represents the possibility of freedom / Nibbana

• Yama is the Lord of Death – in control of samsara.

Quick Tasks

1. Briefly explain samsara2. Briefly explain the law of kamma.3. What does the Buddha use to explain how you are

in control of your life?

The Mahayana Ideal:The Bodhisattva

The Goals

Bodhisattvas• Boh – dee – sat - va• ‘Bodhisattva’ means ‘enlightenment being’ –

someone who wished to become enlightened• Bodhisattvas act out of great compassion• In order to become fully enlightened, they put other

beings first and delay their own enlightenment to help others become enlightened

• By doing this they gain great kamma, and realise the ‘buddha-nature’ inside themselves and all other beings, and so actually become enlightened quicker. (Actually, they have been enlightened all along!)

• Bodhisattvas were originally seen as people who became enlightened and acted out of great wisdom

• However, unlike the earthly / human ideal (role model) of the Arahat in Theravada Buddhism, the Bodhisattva has become a more supernatural figure

• There are a few key bodhisattvas that can be found all-throughout different Mahayana and Vajrayana schools

• These bodhisattva-figures are often seen as embodiments of the Buddha

Bodhisattva Example: Avalokitesvara•Avalokitesvara (ava-lock-e-tesh-vara) is the Bodhisattva of compassion

•Also known in Tibetan Buddhism as Chenresig (the Dalai Lama is seen to be an incarnation of Chenresig), and in female from, Tara

•Bodhisattvas are a source of inspiration and guidance

•They play an important role in worship and meditation (for example, worshipping or meditating upon the image of Avalokitesvara helps Buddhists become more compassionate)

Implications for Lay People• Lay (ordinary) people in Mahayana Buddhism are faced with a

less ‘pessimistic’ situation than those in Theravada• Although it is true that Mahayana monks have more chance of

becoming enlightened, lay people have bodhisattvas to call upon for help and inspiration

• Aiming to become a bodhisattva should also help lay Buddhists be more compassionate (an important value in Buddhism) and thus gain more positive kamma and a better rebirth

• Although Mahayana lay people also aim for a better rebirth, Nibbana does not seem such a distant and ‘unattainable’ goal.

• They are ‘not alone’ as they have help along the way – it is a more motivational viewpoint.