linguistic domains in a nutshell

8/13/2019 Linguistic Domains in a Nutshell

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Linguistic Domains in a Nutshell

(Source: An Introduction to Languageby Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman, 6th Ed.)

Part One: Introduction to Linguistics

Every human knows at least one lanuae, s!oken or sined. "inuistics is the science o# lanuae,includin the sounds, words, and rammar rules. $ords in lanuaes are #inite, but sentences are not.%t is this creative as!ect o# human lanuae that sets it a!art #rom animal lanuaes, which areessentially res!onses to stimuli.

&he rules o# a lanuae, also called rammar, are learned as one ac'uires a lanuae. &hese rulesinclude phonology, the sound system, morphology, the structure o# words, syntax, the combinationo# words into sentences, semantics, the ways in which sounds and meanins are related, and the

lexicon, or mental dictionary o# words. $hen you know a lanuae, you know words in thatlanuae, i.e. sound units that are related to s!eci#ic meanins. owever, the sounds and meanins o#words are arbitrary. For the most !art, there is no relationshi! between the way a word is !ronounced(or sined) and its meanin.

nowin a lanuae encom!asses this entire system, but this knowlede (called competence) isdi##erent #rom behavior (called performance.) *ou may know a lanuae, but you may also chooseto not s!eak it. +lthouh you are not s!eakin the lanuae, you still have the knowlede o# it.owever, i# you dont know a lanuae, you cannot s!eak it at all.

&here are two ty!es o# rammars: descri!tive and !rescri!tive. Descriptive grammarsre!resent theunconscious knowlede o# a lanuae. Enlish s!eakers, #or e-am!le, know that me likes a!!les isincorrect and % like a!!les is correct, althouh the s!eaker may not be able to e-!lain why./escri!tive rammars do not teach the rules o# a lanuae, but rather describe rules that are alreadyknown. %n contrast, prescriptive grammars dictate what a s!eakers rammar should be and theyinclude teachin rammars, which are written to hel! teach a #orein lanuae.

&here are about 0,111 lanuaes in the world riht now (ive or take a #ew thousand), and linuistshave discovered that these lanuaes are more alike than di##erent #rom each other. &here areuniversal conce!ts and !ro!erties that are shared by all lanuaes, and these !rinci!les are containedin the Universal Grammar, which #orms the basis o# all !ossible human lanuaes.

Part To: !orphology and "yntax

!orphemesare the minimal units o# words that have a meanin and cannot be subdivided #urther.&here are two main ty!es: #ree and bound. Free mor!hemes can occur alone and bound mor!hemesmust occur with another mor!heme. +n e-am!le o# a #ree mor!heme is bad, and an e-am!le o# abound mor!heme is ly. %t is bound because althouh it has meanin, it cannot stand alone. %t mustbe attached to another mor!heme to !roduce a word.


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Free mor!heme: bad2ound mor!heme: ly$ord: badly

$hen we talk about words, there are two rou!s: lexical (or content) and function(or rammatical)words. "e-ical words are called o!en class words and include nouns, verbs, ad3ectives and adverbs.

4ew words can reularly be added to this rou!. Function words, or closed class words, arecon3unctions, !re!ositions, articles and !ronouns5 and new words cannot be (or are very rarely) addedto this class.

#ffixes are o#ten the bound mor!heme. &his rou! includes prefixes$ suffixes$ infixes$ andcircumfixes. re#i-es are added to the beinnin o# another mor!heme, su##i-es are added to the end,in#i-es are inserted into other mor!hemes, and circum#i-es are attached to another mor!heme at thebeinnin and end. Followin are e-am!les o# each o# these:

re#i-: re7 added to do!roduces redoSu##i-: 7or added to edit!roduces editor

%n#i-: 7um7 added tofikas(stron) !roducesfumikas(to be stron) in 2ontoc8ircum#i-: e7 and 7t to lieb(love) !roducesgeliebt(loved) in 9erman

&here are two cateories o# a##i-es: derivational and inflectional. &he main di##erence between thetwo is that derivational a##i-es are added to mor!hemes to #orm new words that may or may not bethe same !art o# s!eech and in#lectional a##i-es are added to the end o# an e-istin word #or !urelyrammatical reasons. %n Enlish there are only eiht total in#lectional a##i-es:

7s rd !erson sinular !resent she waits

7ed !ast tense she waited

7in !roressive shes eatin

7en !ast !artici!le she has eaten

7s !lural three a!!les

7s !ossessive "oris son

7er com!arative you are taller

7est su!erlative you are the shortest

&he other ty!e o# bound mor!hemes are called bound roots. &hese are mor!hemes (and not a##i-es)that must be attached to another mor!heme and do not have a meanin o# their own. Some e-am!lesare ceivein !erceive and mitin submit.

%nglish !orphemes

+. Free;.

2. 2ound;. +##i-

a. /erivational


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b. %n#lectional=. Root

&here are si- ways to #orm new words. &ompounds are a combination o# words, acronymsarederived #rom the initials o# words, 'ac()formationsare created #rom removin what is mistakenlyconsidered to be an a##i-, a''reviations or clippings are shortenin loner words, eponyms are

created #rom !ro!er nouns (names), and 'lending is combinin !arts o# words into one.8om!ound: doghouse+cronym:NBA(4ational 2asketball +ssociation)orscuba (sel#7contained underwater breathin a!!aratus)2ack7#ormation: edit#rom editor+bbreviation:phone#rom telephoneE!onym:sandwich#romEarl of Sandwich2lendin:smog#romsmoke and fog

9rammar is learned unconsciously at a youn ae. +sk any #ive year old, and he will tell you that %eat and you eat, but his do eats. 2ut a humans syntactical knowlede oes #arther than what is

rammatical and what is not. %t also accounts #or ambiuity, in which a sentence could have twomeanins, and enables us to determine rammatical relationshi!s such as sub3ect and direct ob3ect.+lthouh we may not consciously be able to de#ine the terms, we unconsciously know how to usethem in sentences.

Synta-, o# course, de!ends on le-ical cateories (!arts o# s!eech.) *ou !robably learned that there are> main !arts o# s!eech in rammar school. "inuistics takes a di##erent a!!roach to these cateoriesand se!arates words into mor!holoical and syntactic rou!s. "inuistics analy?es words accordinto their a##i-es and the words that #ollow or !recede them. o!e#ully, the #ollowin de#initions o# the!arts o# s!eech will make more sense and be o# more use than the old de#initions o# rammar schoolbooks.

Open Class ords

Nouns@@@@@ A !lural endinsdos

/et. +d3. @@@@@ (this is called a 4oun hrase)the bi do

*er's@@@@ A tense endinss!eaks

+u-. @@@@ (this is called a Verb hrase)have s!oken

#d+ectives@@@@ A er B estsmall

/et. @@@@ 4ounthe smaller child

#dver's+d3. A ly

'uickly

@@@@ +d3. or Verb or +dv.

'uickly ran

Closed Class ords

Determinersa, an, the, this, that, these,those, !ronouns, 'uantities

@@@@ +d3. 4ounthis blue book

#uxiliary *er's#orms o# be, have, may,can, shall

4 @@@@ Vthe irl is swimmin


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Prepositions at, in, on, under, over, o#@@@@ 4 (this is called a re!ositional hrase)in the room

&on+unctions and, but, or4 or V or +d3. @@@@ 4 or V or +d3.a!!les and oranes

"u'categori,ationde#ines the restrictions on which syntactic cateories (!arts o# s!eech) can or

cannot occur within a le-ical item. &hese additional s!eci#ications o# words are included in ourmental le-icon. Verbs are the most common cateories that are subcateori?ed. Verbs can either betransitive or intransitive. Transitive ver'stake a direct ob3ect, while intransitive ver'stake anindirect ob3ect (usually they need a !re!osition be#ore the noun).

&ransitive verb: to eat % ate an a!!le. (direct ob3ect)

%ntransitive: to slee! % was slee!in in the bed. (indirect ob3ect)

%ndividual nouns can also be subcateori?ed. For e-am!le, the noun ideacan be #ollowed by are!ositional hrase or thatand a sentence. 2ut the noun compassioncan only be #ollowed by a

re!ositional hrase and not a sentence. (Cnrammatical sentences are marked with asterisks.)

the idea o# stricter laws his com!assion #or the animals

the idea that stricter laws are necessary Dhis com!assion that the animals are hurt

Phrase structure rulesdescribe how !hrases are #ormed and in what order. &hese rules de#ine the#ollowin:

4oun hrase (4) (/et.) (+d3.) 4oun ()

Verb hrase (V) Verb (4) ()

re!ositional hrase () re!. 4Sentence (S) 4 V

&he !arentheses indicate the cateories are o!tional. Verbs dont always have to be #ollowed by!re!ositional !hrases and nouns dont always have to be !receded by ad3ectives.

Passive "entences

&he di##erence between the two sentences ary hired 2ill and 2ill was hired by ary is that the#irst is active and the second is !assive. %n order to chane an active sentence into a !assive one, theob3ect o# the active must become the sub3ect o# the !assive. &he verb in the !assive sentence becomes

a #orm o# be !lus the !artici!le #orm o# the main verb. +nd the sub3ect o# the active becomes theob3ect o# the !assive !receded by the word by.

#ctive Passive

ary hired 2ill. 2ill was hired by ary.

Sub3ect A Verb A


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&here are three ty!es o# the study o# the sounds o# lanuae. #coustic Phoneticsis the study o# the!hysical !ro!erties o# sounds. #uditory Phoneticsis the study o# the way listeners !erceive sounds.#rticulatory Phonetics (the ty!e this lesson is concerned with) is the study o# how the vocal tracts!roduce the sounds.

&he orthora!hy (s!ellin) o# words in misleadin, es!ecially in Enlish.


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Some s!eakers o# Enlish !ronounce the words which and witch di##erently, but i# you !ronounceboth words identically, 3ust use w #or both words. +nd the sounds B B and BMB are !ronounced thesame, but the #ormer is used in stressed syllables, while the latter is used in unstressed syllables. &hislist does not even bein to include all o# the !honetic symbols thouh.


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!anners of #rticulation

Sto!: obstruct airstream com!letelyFricative: !artial obstruction with #riction+##ricate: sto! airstream, then release"i'uids: !artial obstruction, no #riction9lides: little or no obstruction, must occur with a vowel

*ou should !ractice sayin the sounds o# the Enlish al!habet to see i# you can identi#y the !laces o#articulation in the mouth. &he sounds are described by voicin, !lace and then manner o# articulation,so the sound B3B would be called a voiced !alatal lide and the sound BsB would be called a voicelessalveolar #ricative.

/ila'ial La'iodental Interdental #lveolar Palatal *elar Glottal

"top 0oral1 !b

td

k

Nasal 0stop1 m n N

2ricative #v

IJ

s?

KL

h

#ffricate H

Glide w 3

w

h

Li3uidl r

For rows that have two consonants, the to! consonant is voiceless and the bottom consonant isvoiced. 4asal sto!s are all voiced, as are li'uids. &he sound B3B is also voiced. %# sounds are in two!laces on the chart, that means they can be !ronounced either way.

*oels

Vowels are !roduced by a continuous airstream and all are voiced. &hey are classi#ied accordin toheiht o# the tonue, !art o# tonue involved, and !osition o# the li!s. &he tonue can be hih, mid, orlow5 and the !art o# the tonue used can be #ront, central or back.


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Front 8entral 2ack

Tongue

4eight

ih i

u

id e

M

o

"owO a

&he bold vowels are tense, and the italic vowels are rounded. Enlish also includes the di!hthons:Pa3 as in bite, Paw as in cow, and Po3 as in boy.

For the com!lete %+ chart with symbols #or the sounds o# every human lanuae, !lease visit the%nternational honetic +ssociations website. +nd youre lookin #or a way to ty!e Enlish %+symbols online, !lease visit i!a.ty!eit.or

!a+or &lasses of "ounds 0Distinctive 2eatures1

+ll o# the classes o# sounds described above can be !ut into more eneral classes that include the!atternin o# sounds in the worlds lanuaes. &ontinuantsounds indicate a continuous air#low,while non)continuantsounds indicate total obstruction o# the airstream. O'struent sounds do notallow air to esca!e throuh the nose, while sonorantsounds have a relatively #ree air#low throuh themouth or nose. &he #ollowin table summari?es this in#ormation:

O'struent "onorant

&ontinuant #ricatives li'uids, lides, vowels

Non)&ontinuant oral sto!s, a##ricates nasal sto!s

Major Class Features

PA 8onsonantal consonantsP7 8onsonantal vowels

PASonorant nasals, li'uids, lides, vowelsP7 Sonorant sto!s, #ricatives, a##ricates (obstruents)

PA +!!ro-imant lides P3, wP7 +!!ro-imant everythin else

Voice Features

PA Voice voicedP7 Voice voiceless

PA S!read 9lottis as!irated P! , t , k P7 S!read 9lottis unas!irated
http://ipa.typeit.org/http://ipa.typeit.org/


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PA 8onstricted 9lottis e3ectives, im!losivesP7 8onstricted 9lottis everythin else

Manner Features

PA 8ontinuant #ricatives P#, v, s, ?, K, L, I, JP7 8ontinuant sto!s P!, b, t, d, k, ,

PA 4asal nasal consonants Pm, n, NP7 4asal all oral consonants

PA "ateral PlP7 "ateral Pr

PA /elayed Release a##ricates PH, P7 /elayed Release sto!s P!, b, t, d, k, ,

PA Strident noisyT #ricatives P#, v, s, ?, K, L

P7 Strident P, J, hPlace Features

P"abial involves li!s P#, v, !, b, w

P8oronal alveolar ride to !alate PI, J, s, ?, t, d, K, L, n, r, lPA +nterior interdentals and true alveolarsP7 +nterior retro#le- and !alatals PK, L, H, , 3

P/orsal #rom velum back Pk, , N

P9lottal in laryn- Ph,

Vowels

eiht PU hih PU low2ackness PU back"i! Roundin PU round&enseness PU tense

$hereas !honetics is the study o# sounds and is concerned with the !roduction, audition and!erce!tion o# o# s!eech sounds (called !hones),phonology describes the way sounds #unction withina iven lanuae and o!erates at the level o# sound systems and abstract sound units. nowin thesounds o# a lanuae is only a small !art o# !honoloy. &his im!ortance is shown by the #act that youcan chane one word into another by sim!ly chanin one sound. 8onsider the di##erences betweenthe words time and dime. &he words are identical e-ce!t #or the #irst sound. Pt and Pd can there#oredistinuish words, and are called contrasting sounds. &hey are distinctive sounds in Enlish, and alldistinctive sounds are classi#ied as phonemes.

!inimal Pairs

inimal !airs are words with di##erent meanins that have the same sounds e-ce!t #or one. &hesecontrastin sounds can either be consonants or vowels. &he words !in and bin are minimal !airsbecause they are e-actly the same e-ce!t #or the #irst sound. &he words read and rude are also e-actly


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/issimilation: sounds become less like neihborin sounds5 these rules are 'uite rare, but onee-am!le in Enlish is P# #I becomin P# #t (B#B and BIB are both #ricatives, but BtB is a sto!)

E!enthesis: insertion o# a sound, e.. "atin homre became S!anish hombre7 rothesis: insertion o# vowel sound at beinnin o# word7 +na!ty-is: vowel sound with !redictable 'uality is inserted word7internally

7 araoe: insertion o# vowel sound at end o# word7 E-crescence: consonant sound inserted between other consonants (also called sto!7intrusion)

/eletion: deletion o# a sound5 e.. French word7#inal consonants are deleted when the ne-t wordbeins with a consonant (but are retained when the #ollowin word beins with a vowel)7 +!haeresis: vowel sound deleted at beinnin o# word7 Synco!e: vowel sound is deleted word7internally7 +!oco!e: vowel sound deleted at end o# word

etathesis: reorderin o# !honemes5 in some dialects o# Enlish, the word asked is !ronouncedPOks5 childrens s!eech shows many cases o# metathesis such as aminal #or animal

"enition: consonant chanes to a weaker manner o# articulation5 voiced sto! becomes a #ricative,#ricative becomes a lide, etc.

alatali?ation: sound becomes !alatal when ad3acent to a #ront vowel 8om!ensatory "enthenin:sound becomes lon as a result o# sound loss, e.. "atin octo became %talian otto

#ssimilation in %nglish

+n interestin observation o# assimilation rules is evidenced in the #ormation o# !lurals and the !asttense in Enlish. $hen !lurali?in nouns, the last letter is !ronounced as either Ps, P?, or PM?. $hen#ormin !ast tenses o# verbs, the 7ed endin is !ronounced as either Pt, Pd, PMd. %# you were to sortwords into three columns, you would be able to tell why certain words are #ollowed by certainsounds:

Plural nouns

o!e#ully, you can determine which consonants !roduce which sounds.%n the nouns, BsB is added a#ter voiceless consonants, and B?B is addeda#ter voiced consonants. BM?B is added a#ter sibilants. For the verbs, BtB isadded a#ter voiceless consonants, and BdB is added a#ter voicedconsonants. BMdB is added a#ter alveolar sto!s. &he reat thin about thisis that no one ever tauht you this in school. 2ut thanks to linuistics,

you now know why there are di##erent sounds (because o# assimiliationrules, the consonants become more like their neihborin consonants.)

BsB B?B BM?B

cats dads churches

ti!s bibs kisses

lauhs dos 3udes

Past Tense

BtB BdB BMdBkissed loved !atted

washed 3oed waded

couhed teased seeded

6riting 5ules

+ eneral !honoloical rule is + W 2 B / @@ E (said: + becomes 2 when it occurs between / and E)


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boundary, ( ) X o!tional, and [ \ X eitherBor. + deletion rule is + W Y B E @@ (+ is deleted when itoccurs a#ter E) and an insertion rule is Y W + B E @@ (+ is inserted when it occurs a#ter E).

+l!ha notation is used to colla!se similar assimilation rules into one. 8 W P] voice B @@ P] voice(+n obstruent becomes voiced when it occurs be#ore a voiced obstruent +4/ an obstruent becomesvoiceless when it occurs be#ore a voiceless obstruent.) Similarly, it can be used #or dissimilation rules

too. 8 W P7] voice B @@ P] voice (+n obstruent becomes voiced when it occurs be#ore a voicelessobstruent +4/ an obstruent becomes voiceless when it occurs be#ore a voiced obstruent.)9emination rules are written as 8;8= W 8=8= (#or e-am!le, !d W dd)

"ylla'le "tructure

&here are three !eaks to a syllable: nucleus(vowel), onset(consonant be#ore nucleus) and coda(consonant a#ter nucleus.) &he onset and coda are both o!tional, meanin that a syllable could containa vowel and nothin else. &he nucleus is re'uired in every syllable by de#inition. &he order o# the!eaks is always onset 7 nucleus 7 coda. +ll lanuaes !ermit o!en syllables (8onsonant A Vowel), butnot all lanuaes allow closed syllables (8onsonant A Vowel A 8onsonant). "anuaes that onlyallow o!en syllables are called 8V lanuaes. %n addition to not allowin codas, some 8V lanuaesalso have constraints on the number o# consonants allowed in the onset.

&he sonority !ro#ile dictates that sonority must rise to the nucleus and #all to the coda in everylanuae. &he sonority scale (#rom most to least sonorous) is vowels 7 lides 7 li'uids 7 nasals 7obstruents. Sonority must rise in the onset, but the sounds cannot be ad3acent to or share a !lace o#articulation (e-ce!t Ps in Enlish) nor can there be more than two consonants in the onset. &hise-!lains why Enlish allows some consonant combinations, but not others. For e-am!le, !rice P!ra3sis a well7#ormed syllable and word because the sonority rises in the onset (!, an obstruent, is lesssonorous than r, a li'uid)5 however, r!ice Pr!a3s is not a syllable in Enlish because the sonority doesnot rise in the onset.

&he a-imality 8ondition states that onsets are as lare as !ossible u! to the well7#ormedness ruleso# a lanuae.


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The )nyms

omonyms: di##erent words that are !ronounced the same, but may or may not be s!elled the same(to, two, and too)

olysemous: word that has multi!le meanins that are related conce!tually or historically (bear canmean to tolerate or to carry or to su!!ort)

omora!h: di##erent words that are s!elled identically and !ossibly !ronounced the same5 i# they are!ronounced the same, they are also homonyms (!en can mean writin utensil or cae)

eteronym: homora!hs that are !ronounced di##erently (dove the bird and dove the !ast tense o#dive)

Synonym: words that mean the same but sound di##erent (couch and so#a)

+ntonym: words that are o!!osite in meaninComplementar! pairs$alive and dead

%radable pairs$bi and small (no absolute scale)y!onym: set o# related words (red, white, yellow, blue are all hy!onyms o# color)

etonym: word used in !lace o# another to convey the same meanin (3ock used #or athlete,$ashinton used #or +merican overnment, crown used #or monarcy)

Retronym: e-!ressions that are no loner redundant (silent movie used to be redundant because alon time ao, all movies were silent, but this is no loner true or redundant)

Thematic 5oles

&hematic roles are the semantic relationshi!s between the verbs and noun !hrases o# sentences. &he#ollowin chart shows the thematic roles in relationshi! to verbs o# sentences:

Thematic 5ole Description %xample

+ent the one who !er#orms an action &ariaran

&heme the !erson or thin that underoes an action ary called'ohn

"ocation the !lace where an action takes !lace %t rains in Spain

9oal the !lace to which an action is directed ut the cat on the porch

Source the !lace #rom which an action oriinates e #lew #rom Chicagoto "+

%nstrument the means by which an action is !er#ormed e cuts his hair with scissors

E-!eriencer one who !erceives somethin Sheheard 2ob !lay the !iano8ausative a natural #orce that causes a chane (he winddestroyed the house

ossessor one who has somethin &he tail of the catot cauht

Reci!ient one who receives somethin % ave it to the girl

"entential !eaning

&he meanin o# sentences is built #rom the meanin o# noun !hrases and verbs. Sentences containtruth conditions i# the circumstances in the sentence are true. ara!hrases are two sentences with the


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same truth conditions, des!ite subtle di##erences in structure and em!hasis. &he ball was kicked bythe boy is a !ara!hrase o# the sentence the boy kicked the ball, but they have the same truthconditions 7 that a boy kicked a ball. Sometimes the truth o# one sentence entails or im!lies the trutho# another sentence. &his is called entailment and the o!!osite o# this is called contradiction, whereone sentence im!lies the #alseness o# another.)e was assassinatedentails that he is dead.)e wasassassinatedcontradicts with the statement he is alive.

Pragmatics

ramatics is the inter!retation o# linuistic meanin in conte-t. "inuistic conte-t is discourse that!recedes a sentence to be inter!reted and situational conte-t is knowlede about the world. %n the#ollowin sentences, the kids have eaten alread!andsurprisingl!* the! are hungr!, the linuisticconte-t hel!s to inter!ret the second sentence de!endin on what the #irst sentence says. &hesituational conte-t hel!s to inter!ret the second sentence because it is common knowlede thathumans are not usually hunry a#ter eatin.

!axims of &onversation

9rices ma-ims #or conversation are conventions o# s!eech such as the maxim of 3uantity that statesa s!eaker should be as in#ormative as is re'uired and neither more nor less. &he maxim of relevanceessentially states a s!eaker should stay on the to!ic, and the maxim of manner states the s!eakershould be brie# and orderly, and avoid ambiuity. &he #ourth ma-im, the maxim of 3uality, statesthat a s!eaker should not lie or make any unsu!!orted claims.

Performative "entences

%n these ty!es o# sentences, the s!eaker is the sub3ect who, by utterin the sentence, is accom!lishinsome additional action, such as darin, resinin, or nominatin. &hese sentences are all a##irmative,declarative and in the !resent tense. +n in#ormal test to see whether a sentence is !er#ormative or notis to insert the wordsI hereb!be#ore the verb.I hereb! challenge !ou to a match orI hereb! fine !ou+,--are both !er#ormative, butI hereb! know that girlis not.


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Part 2ive: Neurolinguistics

&he human brain consists o# ;1 billion nerve cells (neurons) and billions o# #ibers that connect them.&hese neurons or ray matter #orm the cortex, the sur#ace o# the brain, and the connectin #ibers orwhite matter #orm the interior o# the brain. &he brain is divided into two hemis!heres, the le#t andriht cerebral hemis!heres. &hese hemis!heres are connected by the corpus callosum. %n eneral, the

le#t hemis!here o# the brain controls the riht side o# the body and vice versa.

&he auditory cortexreceives and inter!rets auditory stimuli, while the visual cortexreceives andinter!rets visual stimuli. &he angular gyrusconverts the auditory stimuli to visual stimuli and viceversa. &he motor cortexsinals the muscles to move when we want to talk and is directed by 2rocasarea. &he nerve #iber connectin $ernickes and 2rocas area is called the arcuate fasciculus.

Laterali,ationre#ers to any conitive #unctions that are locali?ed to one side o# the brain or theother. "anuae is said to be laterali?ed and !rocessed in the le#t hemis!here o# the brain. aul 2roca#irst related lanuae to the le#t side o# the brain when he noted that damae to the #ront !art o# thele#t hemis!here (now called /roca7s area) resulted in a loss o# s!eech, while damae to the riht sidedid not. e determined this throuh auto!sies o# !atients who had ac'uired lanuae de#icits#ollowin brain in3uries. + lanuae disorder that #ollows a brain lesion is called aphasia, and!atients with damae to 2rocas area have slow and labored s!eech, loss o# #unction words, and !oorword order, yet ood com!rehension.

8arl $ernicke also used studies o# auto!sies to describe another ty!e o# a!hasia that resulted #romlesions in the back !ortion o# the le#t hemis!here (now called 6ernic(e7s area.) Cnlike 2rocas!atients, $ernickes s!oke #luently and with ood !ronunciation, but with many le-ical errors and adi##iculty in com!rehension. 2rocas and $ernickes area are the two main reions o# the corte- o#the brain related to lanuae !rocessin.

+!hasics can su##er #rom anomia$ +argon aphasia$and ac3uired dyslexia. +nomia is commonlyre#erred to as ti! o# the tonue !henomenon and many a!hasics e-!erience word #indin di##icultyon a reular basis. ^aron a!hasia results in the substitution o# one word or sound #or another. Some


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a!hasics may substitute similar words #or each other, such as table #or chair, or they may substitutecom!letely unrelated words, such as chair #or enine.


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!roduce sounds based on what lanuae in!ut they receive.


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&he 8&ritical #ge 4ypothesis8suests that there is a critical ae #or lanuae ac'uisition withoutthe need #or s!ecial teachin or learnin. /urin this critical !eriod, lanuae learnin !roceeds'uickly and easily. +#ter this !eriod, the ac'uisition o# rammar is di##icult, and #or some !eo!le,never #ully achieved. 8ases o# children reared in social isolation have been used #or testin thecritical ae hy!othesis. 4one o# the children who had little human contact were able to s!eak anylanuae once reintroduced into society. Even the children who received linuistic in!ut a#ter bein

reintroduced to society were unable to #ully develo! lanuae skills. &hese cases o# isolated children,and o# dea# children, show that humans cannot #ully ac'uire any lanuae to which they are e-!osedunless they are within the critical ae. 2eyond this ae, humans are unable to ac'uire much o# synta-and in#lectional mor!holoy. +t least #or humans, this critical ae does not !ertain to all o# lanuae,but to s!eci#ic !arts o# the rammar.

"econd Language #c3uisition Teaching !ethods

%rammar"translation$the student memori?es words, in#lected words, and syntactic rules and usesthem to translate #rom native to taret lanuae and vice versa5 most commonly used method inschools because it does not re'uire teacher to be #luent5 however, least e##ective method o# teachin/irect method$the native lanuae is not used at all in the classroom, and the student must learn thenew lanuae without #ormal instruction5 based on theories o# #irst lanuae ac'uisitionAudio"lingual$heavy use o# dialos and audio, based on the assum!tion that lanuae learnin isac'uired mainly throuh imitation, re!etition, and rein#orcement5 in#luenced by !sycholoyNatural Approach$em!hasis on vocabulary and not rammar5 #ocus on meanin, not #orm5 use o#authentic materials instead o# te-tbookSilent a!$teachers remain !assive observers while students learn, which is a !rocess o# !ersonalrowth5 no rammatical e-!lanation or modelin by the teacher(otal 0h!sical 1esponse$students !lay active role as listener and !er#ormer, must res!ond toim!erative drills with !hysical actionSuggestopedia$students always remain com#ortable and rela-ed and learn throuh memori?ation o#meanin#ul te-ts, althouh the oal is understandinCommunit! Language Learning$materials are develo!ed as course !roresses and teacherunderstands what students need and want to learn5 learnin involves the whole !erson and lanuae isseen as more than 3ust communicationCommunit! Language (eaching$incor!orates all com!onents o# lanuae and hel!s students withvarious learnin styles5 use o# communication7based activities with authentic materials, needs o#learner are taken into consideration when !lannin to!ics and ob3ectives

2our s(ill areas

&he #our skill areas o# learnin a #orein lanuae need to be addressed consistently and continually.9ood lesson !lans incor!orate all #our:Listening$ "pea(ing$ 5eading 0and *oca'ulary1$ and6riting 0and Grammar1. 4ative s!eakers do not learn the skill areas se!arately, nor do they usethem se!arately, so they shouldn_t be tauht se!arately. owever, it is easy to #all into the tra! o#teachin about the lanuae, instead o# actually teachin the lanuae. ost te-tbooks resort toteachin rammar and vocabulary lists and nothin more.

Part "even: "ociolinguistics

+ dialectis a variety o# lanuae that is systematically di##erent #rom other varieties o# the samelanuae. &he dialects o# a sinle lanuae are mutually intelliible, but when the s!eakers can no


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loner understand each other, the dialects become lanuaes. 9eora!hical reions are alsoconsidered when dialects become lanuaes. Swedish, 4orweian, and /anish are all consideredse!arate lanuaes because o# reular di##erences in rammar and the countries in which they ares!oken, yet Swedes, 4orweians, and /anes can all understand one another. indi and Crdu areconsidered mutually intelliible lanuaes when s!oken, yet the writin systems are di##erent.


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S!anish, French, and %talian were dialects o# "atin. Furthermore, earlier #orms o# roto79ermanic and"atin were once dialects o# %ndo7Euro!ean.

"inuistic chanes like sound shi#t is #ound in the history o# all lanuaes, as evidenced by thereular sound corres!ondences that e-ist between di##erent staes o# the same lanuae, di##erentdialects, and di##erent lanuaes. $ords, mor!hemes, and !honemes may be altered, added or lost.

&he meanin o# words may broaden, narrow or shi#t. 4ew words may be introduced into a lanuaeby borrowin, or by coinae, blends and acronyms. &he le-icon may also shrink as older wordsbecome obsolete.

8hane comes about as a result o# the restructurin o# rammar by children learnin the lanuae.9rammars seem to become sim!le and reular, but these sim!li#ications may be com!ensated #or bymore com!le-ities. Sound chanes can occur because o# assimilation, a !rocess o# ease o#articulation. Some rammatical chanes are analogic changes, enerali?ations that lead to morereularity, such as swee!ed instead o# swe!t.

&he study o# linuistic chane is called historical and com!arative linuistics. "inuists identi#y

reular sound corres!ondences usin the com!arative method amon the conates (words thatdevelo!ed #rom the same ancestral lanuae) o# related lanuaes. &hey can restructure an earlier!rotolanuae and this allows linuists to determine the history o# a lanuae #amily.

Old %nglish$ !iddle %nglish$ !odern %nglish


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Le3ical change$


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2elarusian Russian Ckrainian

o Southern 2ularian 8roatian

acedonian


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Sodian

Uralic(or Finno7Cric) is the other ma3or #amily o# lanuaes s!oken on the Euro!ean continent.Finnish, Estonian and unarian are e-am!les.

#fro)#siaticlanuaes are s!oken in 4orthern +#rica and the iddle East. &hey include 2erber,

Ey!tian,

linguistic domains in a nutshell

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