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List of human diseases associated with infectious

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This article is about diseases with possible (but as yet unconfirmed) infectious microbial causes.

For a list of diseases with proven infectious causes, see List of infectious diseases.

This article provides a list of diseases with possible (but unconfirmed) infectious

etiologies.

Many chronic diseases are linked or associated with infectious pathogens.[1][2]

A disease

is said to be linked or associated with an infectious pathogen when that pathogen is

found more frequently in patients with the disease than in healthy controls. Often,

infectious pathogens associated with a disease may be suspected of playing a causal role

in that disease — and some scientists believe a substantial portion of chronic diseases

may in part be caused by infectious agents[3]

— though association alone does not

automatically prove causality (because correlation does not imply causation).

Indeed, the terms linked and associated are used here in a strict technical sense: they

mean there is a frequent co-occurrence of certain pathogens in certain diseases; but it

should not be read that linked and associated imply there is a proven causal relationship

between pathogen and disease. An observed association only flags up the possibility

that there might be a causal relation.

For an infectious pathogenic microbe that has been noted to frequently accompany a

disease, there are several logical possibilities that can explain this observed association:

An epithelial cell infected with Chlamydophila pneumoniae bacteria.

The pathogen is an "innocent bystander" that plays no causal role in the etiology of the disease, but for some reason is more prevalent in patients with

the disease (perhaps because the disease compromises the immune response, for example).

The pathogen predisposes to disease development (increases the risk of getting the disease), but the pathogen does not cause the disease (for example, genital herpes increases the risk of acquiring HIV).[4]

The pathogen is a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of the disease: in other words, the pathogen can cause the disease, but does so only in combination with one or more other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxin exposure).

The pathogen is a direct and singular cause of the disease, but this causality has yet to be proven.

Determining whether a pathogen plays a causal role in a chronic disease is often

difficult[5]

for the following reasons:

The time between contracting an infectious pathogen and the appearance of the first disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.

An infectious pathogen may not cause disease in every person. An infection may be asymptomatic in its acute phase (when first contracted),

and so go unnoticed; symptoms may only appear much later — in the form of a chronic disease.

Sometimes, only specific strains of a pathogen are linked to a disease; other strains of the same microbe may be harmless.

A pathogen may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.

There may be more than one pathogen that can precipitate a given disease. A given pathogen may not always cause the same disease — infection with it

may lead to one of several different diseases. There may be pathogens that are not readily detectable that play a causal role

in a disease. For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate infectious pathogens into

humans to see if these do cause the disease or not. A pathogenic microbe may cause disease by relatively easy to track direct

means, such as by infecting and destroying cells; or may cause disease via more complex and convoluted indirect means, such as through the damage created by inflammatory cytokines or autoimmune processes that are induced by the microbial infection (for example, tuberculosis infection induces an inflammatory cytokine that then itself causes severe tissue damage).[6][7]

A pathogenic microbe may not necessarily be present in the diseased tissues or organs (bacterial toxins for example can travel and damage tissues at sites distant from the infection site; and inflammatory or autoimmune processes precipitated by infectious pathogens can also act at tissue sites far removed from the infection).

In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, evolutionary biologist Paul W.

Ewald and physicist Gregory M. Cochran are noted for their assertion that many

common chronic diseases of currently unknown etiology are likely caused by chronic

low-level microbial infection,[8][9]

countering the prevailing view that genes are

predominantly responsible for the development of chronic disease. Ewald and Cochran

support their thesis with the logic of evolutionary biology, with Ewald explaining that:

"chronic diseases, if they are common and damaging, must be powerful eliminators of

any genetic instruction that may cause them."[10]

In other words, any disease-causing gene that reduces survival and reproduction will

eliminate itself over a number of generations, just by evolutionary pressures; therefore

such genetic diseases are self-extinguishing. Ewald says the only genetic diseases that

will persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, genes that

encode for sickle cell anemia disease are maintained and persist down generations, as

these genes also protect against malaria, which kills millions worldwide each year.[10]

Infectious pathogens are one of several potential causes of disease; other causal factors

include: environmental toxins, certain types of radiation exposure, diet and lifestyle

factors, stress, genetics, and epigenetics. All these factors are generally explored as

potential causes of a disease.

Diseases may also be multifactorial,[11]

such that the disease only manifests when

multiple causal factors occur in combination. For example: in a murine model, Crohn's

disease can be precipitated by a norovirus, but only when both a specific gene variant is

present and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.[12]

Thus a pathogen's causal role in a

disease may well be contingent upon several other causal factors.

Infectious pathogen-associated diseases include many of the most common and

costly[13]

chronic illnesses. About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from

chronic diseases,[5]

with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US

healthcare costs (amounting to $1.7 trillion in 2009).[14]

List of diseases associated with infectious

pathogens[edit]

In the list of diseases associated with infectious pathogens given below, bear in mind

that there is no definitive proof that the associated pathogens do play a causal role in the

disease, just a possibility that they might. Further research is required to determine

whether or not these pathogens participate causally in their associated diseases. Note

that this list covers some of the most common human diseases associated with

infectious pathogens, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list.

Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease is associated with the

bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[15]

and

Helicobacter pylori,[16]

and with the

protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[17]

Herpes simplex virus 1 is associated with

Alzheimer's disease in individuals who

possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE

gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to

enter the brain).[18]

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most

common of five forms of motor neuron

disease, is associated with echovirus (an

enterovirus) infection of the central

nervous system,[19]

and with retrovirus[20]

activity (it is not known whether this

retrovirus activity arises from a human

endogenous retrovirus, or from an

exogenous retrovirus).

Anorexia nervosa Infection with Borrelia

[21] species bacteria

is associated with anorexia nervosa. In

rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise

after infection with Streptococcus[22]

species bacteria. Anorexia (which is

distinct from anorexia nervosa) is

associated with the protozoan parasite

Dientamoeba fragilis.[23]

Anxiety disorder Anxiety is associated with

cytomegalovirus,[24]

and the bacterium

Helicobacter pylori.[25]

Asthma Asthma is associated with rhinovirus,

human respiratory syncytial virus,[26]

and

the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[27]

Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly

associated with adult-onset asthma.[28]

Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is associated with the

bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[29][30]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) and learning disorders are

associated with the bacteria Borrelia

burgdorferi and Streptococcus, and with

HIV and enterovirus 71. Febrile seizures

due to human herpesvirus 6 or influenza

A are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral

infections during pregnancy, at birth, and

in early childhood are risk factors for

ADHD.[31]

Autism Autism is associated with prenatal

maternal infection with rubeolla virus or

cytomegalovirus.[32][33]

Clostridia bacteria

species are associated with autism (these

bacteria are present in greater numbers in

the guts of autistic children).[34]

Autoimmune diseases Autoimmune diseases are strongly

associated with enteroviruses such as

Coxsackie B virus.[35]

Autoimmune

diseases are also associated with Epstein-

Barr virus,[36]

cytomegalovirus,[37]

parvovirus B19,[38]

and HIV,[39]

and the

bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[40]

Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated

with Epstein-Barr virus[41]

and

Helicobacter pylori.[42]

Bipolar disorder Bipolar disorder is associated with

bornavirus,[43]

and with Borrelia[21]

species bacteria.

Cancer Some estimates currently attribute 15% to

20% of all cancers to infectious pathogen

causes.[44][45]

In future, this percentage

may be revised upwards if the pathogens

currently associated with cancers (such as

those listed below) are proven to actually

cause those cancers. (Note: for the sake of

completeness, some infectious pathogens

known to cause cancers are included in

the list, in addition to the infectious

pathogens associated with cancers.)

Adrenal tumor is associated with BK

virus and simian virus 40.[46]

Anal cancer is associated with human

papillomaviruses.[47]

Bladder cancer can be caused by

Schistosoma helminths.[48]

Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is

associated with cytomegalovirus,[49]

BK

virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.[50]

Breast cancer is associated with mouse

mammary tumor virus, Epstein-Barr virus,

and human papillomaviruses.[51]

Carcinoid tumors are associated with

enterovirus infections.[52]

Cervical cancer can be caused by human

papillomaviruses.[53]

Colorectal cancer is associated with the

bacteria Helicobacter pylori,

Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium

nucleatum,[54]

with human

papillomaviruses,[55]

and with the

helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[56]

JC

virus may be a risk factor for colorectal

cancer.[57]

Gallbladder cancer is associated with the

bacterium Salmonella typhi.[58]

Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with

Epstein-Barr virus,[59]

hepatitis C virus,[60]

and HIV.[61]

Kaposi's Sarcoma can be caused by

Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.

Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma

can be caused by hepatitis B virus,

hepatitis C virus,[62]

and by the helminth

Schistosoma japonicum.[63]

Lung cancer is associated with the

bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,[64]

with human papillomaviruses, and with

Merkel cell polyomavirus.[65]

Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia can be

caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.

Mesothelioma is associated with simian

virus 40,[66]

especially in conjunction with

asbestos exposure.

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma can be

caused by Epstein-Barr virus.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated

with HIV and simian virus 40.[67]

Oropharyngeal cancer can be caused by

human papillomaviruses.

Ovarian cancer is associated with

mumps virus.

Pancreatic cancer is associated with

hepatitis B virus and the bacterium

Helicobacter pylori.

Prostate cancer is associated with

xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related

virus and BK virus.

Skin neoplasm is associated with human

papillomaviruses.

Squamous cell carcinoma is associated

with human papillomaviruses.

Stomach cancer is associated with the

bacterium Helicobacter pylori.

Thyroid cancer is associated with simian

virus 40.

Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome (also known as

myalgic encephalomyelitis) is associated

with enteroviruses (such as Coxsackie B

virus),[68][69]

human herpesvirus 6 variant

A,[70]

human herpesvirus 7,[71]

and

parvovirus B19.[72][73]

The bacteria

Coxiella burnetii[74]

and Chlamydia

pneumoniae[75]

are known causes of

chronic fatigue syndrome (antibiotics can

cure these bacterial forms of chronic

fatigue syndrome).

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

(which includes both chronic bronchitis

and emphysema) is associated with

Chlamydia pneumoniae[76]

and Epstein-

Barr virus.[77]

Crohn's disease One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease

is associated with viral species from the

enterovirus genus (but note that all the

study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's

disease had disease-associated mutations

in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1

genes).[78]

Crohn's disease is associated

with Mycobacterium avium subspecies

paratuberculosis.[79]

In a murine model,

Crohn's disease is precipitated by the

norovirus CR6 strain,[12][80]

but only in

combination with a variant of the Crohn’s

susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and

chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other

words, in this mouse model, Crohn’s is

precipitated only when these three causal

factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in

combination.

Coronary heart disease Coronary heart disease is associated with

herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium

Chlamydia pneumoniae.[81]

Dementia Dementia is associated with herpes

simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus

type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus,

bornavirus, and HIV. Dementia is also

associated with the helminth Taenia

solium (pork tapeworm), and with

Borrelia[21]

species bacteria.

Depression Depression is associated with

cytomegalovirus[24]

and West Nile

virus,[82]

and the protozoan parasite

Toxoplasma gondii.[83]

It is thought that

depression may be precipitated by the

effect of immune signals (such as pro-

inflammatory cytokines) reaching the

brain from infections located in the

peripheries of the body.[84][85]

Major depressive disorder is associated

with bornavirus,[43]

as well as

Bartonella[86]

and Borrelia[21]

species

bacteria.

Seasonal affective disorder is associated

with Epstein-Barr virus.[87]

Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 1 is associated with

viral species from the enterovirus

genus,[88][89]

specifically echovirus 4[90]

and Coxsackie B virus (the latter it is

thought may infect and destroy the insulin

producing beta-cells in the pancreas and

also damage these cells via indirect

autoimmune mechanisms).[91][92]

Diabetes mellitus type 2 Diabetes mellitus type 2 is associated with

cytomegalovirus,[93]

hepatitis C virus,[94]

enteroviruses,[89]

and Ljungan virus.[95]

Dilated cardiomyopathy Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with

enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B

virus.[96]

Epilepsy Epilepsy is associated with human

herpesvirus 6.[97]

Guillain–Barré syndrome Guillain–Barré syndrome is associated

with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,

and with the viruses cytomegalovirus[98]

and enterovirus.[99]

Irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is

associated with the protozoan parasite

Giardia lamblia,[100]

and pathogenic

strains of the protozoan parasite

Blastocystis hominis.[101]

Irritable bowel

syndrome in those with HIV is associated

with the protozoan Dientamoeba

fragilis.[23]

IBS is also associated with the

bacterium Mycobacterium avium

subspecies paratuberculosis.[102]

Low back pain Lower back pain is associated with a

spinal disc infection with anaerobic

bacteria, especially the bacterium

Propionibacterium acnes.[103][104]

Lupus Lupus is associated with the viruses

parvovirus B19,[105]

Epstein-Barr

virus,[106]

and cytomegalovirus.[107]

Metabolic syndrome Metabolic syndrome is associated with the

bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[108]

and

Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses

cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus

1.[109]

Multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating

disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr

virus,[110]

human herpesvirus 6,[111]

varicella zoster virus,[112]

and the

bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[113]

Myocardial infarction Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is

associated with Chlamydia

pneumoniae,[114]

cytomegalovirus[115]

and

Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus).[116]

(Coxsackie B virus is also associated with

sudden unexpected death due to

myocarditis).[117]

Obesity Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36,

which is found in 30% of obese people,

but only in 11% of non-obese

people.[118][119]

It has further been

demonstrated that animals experimentally

infected with adenovirus 36 (or

adenovirus 5, or adenovirus 37) will

develop increased obesity.[120]

Adenovirus

36 induces obesity by infecting fat cells

(adipocytes), wherein the expression of

the adenovirus E4orf1 gene turns on both

the cell's fat producing enzymes and also

instigates the generation of new fat

cells.[121]

Evidence suggests that obesity

can be a viral disease, and that the

worldwide obesity epidemic that began in

the 1980s may be in part due to viral

infection.[122][123]

Obesity is also associated with higher gut

levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in

relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria.

Overweight individuals tend have more

Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium,

Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and

Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas

normal weight individuals tend have more

Bacteroidetes bacteria.[124]

Obsessive–compulsive disorder Obsessive–compulsive disorder is

associated with Streptococcus[125]

and

Borrelia[21]

species bacteria.

Panic disorder Panic disorder is associated with

Borrelia[21]

and Bartonella[86]

species

bacteria.[86]

Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is associated with

influenza A virus,[126]

as well as the

protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[127]

Psoriasis Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter

pylori trigger.[128]

Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with

parvovirus B19.[105]

Antibodies to

Borrelia outer surface protein A are

associated with rheumatoid arthritis.[129]

Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is associated with

Mycobacteria[130]

species, and the bacteria

Helicobacter pylori[131]

and Borrelia

burgdorferi.[132]

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is associated with

bornavirus,[43]

the bacterium Chlamydia

trachomatis,[133]

as well as Borrelia

species bacteria.[21]

Schizophrenia is also

linked to neonatal infection with

Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus), which

one study found carries an increased risk

of adult onset schizophrenia.[134]

Prenatal

exposure to influenza virus in the first

trimester of pregnancy increases the risk

of schizophrenia by 7-fold.[135]

Stroke Stroke is associated with the bacteria

Chlamydia pneumoniae,[136]

Helicobacter

pylori,[137]

Mycobacterium

tuberculosis,[138]

and Mycoplasma

pneumoniae,[139]

as well as the virus

varicella zoster virus[140]

and the fungus

Histoplasma.[141]

Thromboangiitis obliterans Thromboangiitis obliterans is associated

with Rickettsia species bacteria.[142]

Tourette syndrome Tourette syndrome is associated with the

bacterium Streptococcus.[125]

Aggravating

or contributory microbes in Tourette's

may include the bacteria Mycoplasma

pneumoniae,[143]

Chlamydia pneumoniae,

Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan

parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[144]

Vasculitis Vasculitis is associated with HIV,

parvovirus B19,[105]

and hepatitis B virus.

The hepatitis C virus is an established

cause of vasculitis.

Cross reference: Pathogens and their associated

diseases[edit]

For some selected pathogens, the set of their disease associations is shown in the bar

graphs below. For each bar below, the pathogen in question has been found more

frequently in patients with the listed diseases than it has in healthy controls — but it has

not been proven that the pathogen plays any causal role in the listed diseases; though

usually investigations to examine whether it might participate causally are ongoing. By

contrast, the diseases below enclosed in brackets ( ) indicate that the pathogen is a

proven cause of that disease.

Cytomegalovirus

Anxiety disorder

Autism

Autoimmune diseases

Brain tumor

Dementia

Depression

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Guillain–Barré syndrome

Lupus

Metabolic syndrome

Myocardial infarction

Enteroviruses

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

ADHD

Autoimmune diseases

Carcinoid tumors

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Crohn's disease

Diabetes mellitus type 1

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Dilated cardiomyopathy

Guillain–Barré syndrome

Myocardial infarction

Schizophrenia

Epstein-Barr virus

Autoimmune diseases

Breast cancer

Esophageal cancer

Hodgkin's lymphoma

(Nasopharyngeal carcinoma)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Seasonal affective disorder

Lupus

Multiple sclerosis

Hepatitis B virus

(Hepatocellular carcinoma)

Pancreatic cancer

Vasculitis

Hepatitis C virus

Hodgkin's lymphoma

(Hepatocellular carcinoma)

Diabetes mellitus type 2

(Vasculitis)

Herpes simplex virus

Alzheimer's disease

Coronary heart disease

Metabolic syndrome

HIV

ADHD

Autoimmune diseases

Hodgkin's lymphoma

(Kaposi's Sarcoma)

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Dementia

Vasculitis

Human herpesvirus 6

ADHD

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Epilepsy

Multiple sclerosis

Influenza A

ADHD

Parkinson's disease

Parvovirus B19

Autoimmune diseases

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Lupus

Rheumatoid arthritis

Vasculitis

Bartonella

Major depressive disorder

Panic disorder

Borrelia

Anorexia nervosa

ADHD

Bipolar disorder

Dementia

Depression

Obsessive–compulsive disorder

Rheumatoid arthritis

Sarcoidosis

Schizophrenia

Chlamydia pneumoniae

Alzheimer's disease

Asthma

Atherosclerosis

Lung cancer

(Chronic fatigue syndrome)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Coronary heart disease

Metabolic syndrome

Multiple sclerosis

Myocardial infarction

Stroke

Tourette syndrome

Helicobacter pylori

Anxiety disorder

Alzheimer's disease

Autoimmune diseases

Pancreatic cancer

Stomach cancer

(Stomach ulcers)

Metabolic syndrome

Obesity

Psoriasis

Sarcoidosis

Stroke

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Autoimmune diseases

Stroke

Streptococcus

Anorexia nervosa

ADHD

Colorectal cancer

Obsessive–compulsive disorder

Tourette syndrome

Toxoplasma gondii

Alzheimer's disease

Depression

Parkinson's disease

Tourette syndrome

Academic articles[edit]

Luiggi, Cristina (Dec 2010). "Equations that Spell Disaster: Researchers are Pinpointing the Factors that Combine to Produce Complex Diseases". The Scientist.

Landers, Susan J. (Jul 2004). "Infection Eyed as Culprit In Chronic Disease". American Medical News.

Hadley, Caroline (2006). "The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers—it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human microecology and the nature of chronic disease". EMBO Reports 7 (5): 470–3. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400699. PMC 1479565. PMID 16670677.

Cann, A. J. "MicrobiologyBytes Blog". A microbiology blog with an emphasis on microbe—disease connections.

"Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens". Autoimmunity Research Foundation. 2012.

Balin, Brian J. "Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease". Alzheimer Research Forum.

Szymanski, Jeff (Feb 2012). "Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?". Harvard Health Blog.

Nicolson, Garth L.; Haier, Jörg (Dec 2009). "Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1". British Journal of Medical Practitioners 2 (4): 20–8.

Nicolson, Garth L.; Haier, Jörg (Mar 2010). "Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2". British Journal of Medical Practitioners 3 (1): 301.

Tritz, Gerald. "Mechanisms of Viral Pathogenicity" (Lecture Notes). Forum on Microbial Threats (2004). Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon,

Stanley M et al., eds. The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. Washington DC. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4. PMID 22379643.

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99. Jump up ^ Fotheringham, Julie; Donati, Donatella; Akhyani, Nahid; Fogdell-Hahn, Anna; Vortmeyer, Alexander; Heiss, John D.; Williams, Elizabeth; Weinstein, Steven et al. (2007). "Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy". PLoS Medicine 4 (5): e180. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180. PMC 1880851. PMID 17535102.

100. Jump up ^ Visser, LH; Van Der Meché, FG; Meulstee, J; Rothbarth, PP; Jacobs, BC; Schmitz, PI; Van Doorn, PA (1996). "Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group". Neurology 47 (3): 668–73. doi:10.1212/WNL.47.3.668. PMID 8797462.

101. Jump up ^ Clement, Oliva; Vázquez, Mauricio; Pérez, Elda; Magaña, Anastasia; Santillán, Marco; Briseño, Baltazar (2000). "Determinación de enterovirus en casos con diagnóstico de síndrome de Guillain-Barré mediante la utilización de la técnica de concentración ácida" [Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. Gaceta médica de México (in Spanish) 136 (2): 93–7. PMID 10815319.

102. Jump up ^ Morken, Mette Helvik; Valeur, JøRgen; Norin, Elisabeth; Midtvedt, Tore; Nysæter, Gunnar; Berstad, Arnold (2009). "Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome". Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 44 (11): 1296–303. doi:10.3109/00365520903274401. PMID 19821794.

103. Jump up ^ Stensvold, C. R.; Lewis, H. C.; Hammerum, A. M.; Porsbo, L. J.; Nielsen, S. S.; Olsen, K. E. P.; Arendrup, M. C.; Nielsen, H. V.; Mølbak, K. (2009). "Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite". Epidemiology and Infection 137 (11): 1655–63. doi:10.1017/S0950268809002672. PMID 19393117.

104. Jump up ^ Scanu, Antonio M.; Bull, Tim J.; Cannas, Sara; Sanderson, Jeremy D.; Sechi, Leonardo A.; Dettori, Giuseppe; Zanetti, Stefania; Hermon-Taylor, John (2007). "Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities". Journal of Clinical Microbiology 45 (12): 3883–90. doi:10.1128/JCM.01371-07. PMC 2168579. PMID 17913930.

105. Jump up ^ Albert HB, Sorensen JS, Christensen BS, Manniche C; Sorensen; Christensen; Manniche (April 2013). "Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy". Eur Spine J 22 (4): 697–707. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y. PMC 3631045. PMID 23404353.

106. Jump up ^ Albert HB, Lambert P, Rollason J, et al.; Lambert; Rollason; Sorensen; Worthington; Pedersen; Nørgaard; Vernallis; Busch; Manniche; Elliott (April 2013). "Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?". Eur Spine J 22 (4): 690–6. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z. PMC 3631023. PMID 23397187.

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108. Jump up ^ James, Judith A; Harley, John B; Scofield, R Hal (2006). "Epstein–Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus". Current Opinion in Rheumatology 18 (5): 462–7. doi:10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94. PMID 16896283.

109. Jump up ^ Rider, JR; Ollier, WE; Lock, RJ; Brookes, ST; Pamphilon, DH (1997). "Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus". Clinical and experimental rheumatology 15 (4): 405–9. PMID 9272302.

110. Jump up ^ Lin, Ching-Yih; Su, Shih-Bin; Chang, Chih-Ching; Lee, Tsung-Ming; Shieh, Jiunn-Min; Guo, How-Ran (2009). "The Association Between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Metabolic Syndrome in Taiwanese Adults". Southern Medical Journal 102 (12): 1203–8. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9. PMID 20016424.

111. Jump up ^ Nabipour, Iraj; Vahdat, Katayon; Jafari, Seyed; Pazoki, Raha; Sanjdideh, Zahra (2006). "The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study". Cardiovascular Diabetology 5: 25. doi:10.1186/1475-2840-5-25. PMC 1697801. PMID 17140429.

112. Jump up ^ Haahr, Sven; Höllsberg, Per (2006). "Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection". Reviews in Medical Virology 16 (5): 297–310. doi:10.1002/rmv.503. PMID 16927411.

113. Jump up ^ Voumvourakis, Konstantine I.; Kitsos, Dimitrios K.; Tsiodras, Sotirios; Petrikkos, George; Stamboulis, Eleftherios (2010). "Human Herpesvirus 6 Infection as a Trigger of Multiple Sclerosis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings 85 (11): 1023–30. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0350. PMC 2966366. PMID 20926836.

114. Jump up ^ Sotelo, Julio; Martínez-Palomo, Adolfo; Ordoñez, Graciela; Pineda, Benjamin (2008). "Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis". Annals of Neurology 63 (3): 303–11. doi:10.1002/ana.21316 (inactive 2014-03-25). PMID 18306233.

115. Jump up ^ Munger, Kassandra L.; Peeling, Rosanna W.; Hernán, Miguel A.; Chasan-Taber, Lisa; Olek, Michael J.; Hankinson, Susan E.; Hunter, David; Ascherio, Alberto (2003). "Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis". Epidemiology 14 (2): 141–7. doi:10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E. PMID 12606878.

116. Jump up ^ Arcari, Christine M.; Gaydos, Charlotte A.; Nieto, F. Javier; Krauss, Margot; Nelson, Kenrad E. (2005). "Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Acute Myocardial Infarction in Young Men in the United States Military: The Importance of Timing of Exposure Measurement". Clinical Infectious Diseases 40 (8): 1123–30. doi:10.1086/428730. PMID 15791511.

117. Jump up ^ Gabrylewicz, Bogna; Mazurek, Urszula; Ochała, Andrzej; Sliupkas-Dyrda, Elektra; Garbocz, Piotr; Pyrlik, Andrzej; Mróz, Iwona; Wilczok, Tadeusz; Tendera, Michał (2003). "Zakażenie wirusem cytomegalii w świeżym zawale serca. Powiązania przyczynowo-skutkowe?" [Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?]. Kardiologia Polska (in Polish) 59 (10): 283–92. PMID 14618212.

118. Jump up ^ Andréoletti, Laurent; Ventéo, Lydie; Douche-Aourik, Fatima; Canas, Frédéric; De La Grandmaison, Geoffroy Lorin; Jacques, Jérôme; Moret, Hélène; Jovenin, Nicolas et al. (2007). "Active Coxsackieviral B Infection Is Associated With Disruption of Dystrophin in Endomyocardial Tissue of Patients Who Died Suddenly of Acute Myocardial Infarction". Journal of the American College of Cardiology 50 (23): 2207–14. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080. PMID 18061067.

119. Jump up ^ Gaaloul, Imed; Riabi, Samira; Harrath, Rafik; Evans, Mark; Salem, Nidhal H; Mlayeh, Souheil; Huber, Sally; Aouni1, Mahjoub (2012). "Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemstry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem". BMC Infectious Diseases 12: 212. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-212. PMC 3462138. PMID 22966951.

120. Jump up ^ Atkinson, R L; Dhurandhar, N V; Allison, D B; Bowen, R L; Israel, B A; Albu, J B; Augustus, A S (2004). "Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids". International Journal of Obesity 29 (3): 281–6. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830. PMID 15611785.

121. Jump up ^ Atkinson, Richard L.; Lee, Insil; Shin, Hye-Jung; He, Jia (2010). "Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children". International Journal of Pediatric Obesity 5 (2): 157–60. doi:10.3109/17477160903111789. PMID 19593728.

122. Jump up ^ McAllister, Emily; Dhurandhar, Nikhil; Keith, Scott; Aronne, Louis; Barger, Jamie; Baskin, Monica; Benca, Ruth; Biggio, Joseph et al. (2009). "Ten Putative Contributors to

the Obesity Epidemic". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 49 (10): 868–913. doi:10.1080/10408390903372599. PMC 2932668. PMID 19960394.

123. Jump up ^ Fusinski, Keith A (2008). Adenovirus 36 E4orf1 gene induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells (PhD Dissertation). Wayne State University. ISBN 978-0-549-66718-6.

124. Jump up ^ Vasilakopoulou, A; Le Roux, C W (2007). "Could a virus contribute to weight gain?". International Journal of Obesity 31 (9): 1350–6. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623. PMID 17420782.

125. Jump up ^ Atkinson, RL (2007). "Viruses as an etiology of obesity". Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic 82 (10): 1192–8. doi:10.4065/82.10.1192. PMID 17908526.

126. Jump up ^ Ley, Ruth E.; Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Klein, Samuel; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (2006). "Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity". Nature 444 (7122): 1022–3. doi:10.1038/4441022a. PMID 17183309.

127. ^ Jump up to: a b Mell, L. K.; Davis, RL; Owens, D (2005). "Association Between

Streptococcal Infection and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Tourette's Syndrome, and Tic Disorder". Pediatrics 116 (1): 56–60. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2058. PMID 15995031.

128. Jump up ^ Takahashi, M; Yamada, T (1999). "Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection". Japanese journal of infectious diseases 52 (3): 89–98. PMID 10507986.

129. Jump up ^ Miman, Ozlem; Kusbeci, Ozge Yilmaz; Aktepe, Orhan Cem; Cetinkaya, Zafer (2010). "The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease". Neuroscience Letters 475 (3): 129–31. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057. PMID 20350582.

130. Jump up ^ Qayoom, S; Ahmad, QM (2003). "Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori". Indian journal of dermatology, venereology and leprology 69 (2): 133–4. PMID 17642857.

131. Jump up ^ Hsieh, Y.-F.; Liu, H.-W.; Hsu, T.-C.; Wei, J. C.-C.; Shih, C.-M.; Krause, P. J.; Tsay, G. J. (2007). "Serum Reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis". Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 14 (11): 1437–41. doi:10.1128/CVI.00151-07. PMC 2168181. PMID 17881508.

132. Jump up ^ Drake, Wonder Puryear; Newman, Lee S (2006). "Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine 12 (5): 359–63. doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94. PMID 16926652.

133. Jump up ^ Herndon, BL; Vlach, V; Dew, M; Willsie, SK (2004). "Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis". Journal of investigative medicine 52 (2): 137–43. doi:10.2310/6650.2004.17876. PMID 15068230.

134. Jump up ^ Lian, W; Luo, W (1995). "Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in biological samples from patients with sarcoidosis using the polymerase chain reaction technique". Chinese medical sciences journal = Chung-kuo i hsueh k'o hsueh tsa chih / Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences 10 (2): 93–5. PMID 7647327.

135. Jump up ^ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2010). "The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia". World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 11 (5): 739–43. doi:10.3109/15622971003653246. PMID 20602604.

136. Jump up ^ Rantakallio, P; Jones, P; Moring, J; Von Wendt, L (1997). "Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up". International Journal of Epidemiology 26 (4): 837–43. doi:10.1093/ije/26.4.837. PMID 9279617.

137. Jump up ^ Brown, Alan S.; Begg, Melissa D.; Gravenstein, Stefan; Schaefer, Catherine A.; Wyatt, Richard J.; Bresnahan, Michaeline; Babulas, Vicki P.; Susser, Ezra S. (2004). "Serologic Evidence of Prenatal Influenza in the Etiology of Schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry 61 (8): 774–80. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774. PMID 15289276.

138. Jump up ^ Cook, PJ; Honeybourne, D; Lip, GY; Beevers, DG; Wise, R; Davies, P (1998). "Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project". Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation 29 (2): 404–10. doi:10.1161/01.STR.29.2.404. PMID 9472881.

139. Jump up ^ Ponzetto, A; Marchet, A; Pellicano, R; Lovera, N; Chianale, G; Nobili, M; Rizzetto, M; Cerrato, P (2002). "Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study". Hepato-gastroenterology 49 (45): 631–4. PMID 12063957.

140. Jump up ^ Sheu, J.-J.; Chiou, H.-Y.; Kang, J.-H.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Tuberculosis and the Risk of Ischemic Stroke: A 3-Year Follow-Up Study". Stroke 41 (2): 244–9. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735. PMID 20035070.

141. Jump up ^ Leonardi, S; Pavone, P; Rotolo, N; La Rosa, M (2005). "Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 24 (9): 843–5. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56. PMID 16148858.

142. Jump up ^ Kang, J.-H.; Ho, J.-D.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Increased Risk of Stroke After a Herpes Zoster Attack: A Population-Based Follow-Up Study". Stroke 40 (11): 3443–8. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017. PMID 19815828.

143. Jump up ^ Cleary, J; Pearson, M; Oliver, J; Chapman, S (2008). "Association Between Histoplasma Exposure and Stroke". Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases 17 (5): 312–9. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015. PMID 18755412.

144. Jump up ^ Fazeli, Bahare; Ravari, Hassan; Farzadnia, Mahdi (2011). "Does a species of Rickettsia play a role in the pathophysiology of Buerger's disease?". Vascular 20 (6): 334. doi:10.1258/vasc.2011.cr0271. PMID 21803838.

145. Jump up ^ Muller, N; Riedel, M; Blendinger, C; Oberle, K; Jacobs, E; Abelehorn, M (2004). "infection and Tourette's syndrome". Psychiatry Research 129 (2): 119–25. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009. PMID 15590039.

146. Jump up ^ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2009). "Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 260 (4): 359–63. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3. PMID 19890596.

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