listening comprehension need and neglect

7/29/2019 Listening Comprehension Need and Neglect

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PEDAGOGY:OMMUNITY COLLEGESPrepared by Carmen Salazar**Articlesfor this section may be sent to Professor Car-men Salazar,Dept. of ForeignLanguages, Los AngelesValley College, VanNuys, California91401.Please senda typed original and copy for each paper submitted.Maximumlength is 15 double-spacedpages.

PEDAGOGY:OLLEGES A N D UNIVERSITIESPrepared by Stella T. Clark*

Listening Comprehension:Need and NeglectMDonna Reseigh Long, The OhioState UniversityIntroduction

The importance of listening comprehen-sion in the second language learning/teachingprocess has been firmly established by thewealth of recent articles that have appearedin major professional journals.' In addition,instructional strategies based on listeningcomprehensionas the primary skill, such asthe Total Physical Response (TPR) method(Asher, 1977)and the NaturalApproach Ter-rell, 1977; 1982), have attracted a great dealof attention within the profession.Butin spiteof growing awareness of the role of listen-ing in second language acquisition, recentclassroom research reveals that second lan-guage teachers are still paying ittle attentionto the systematic development of their stu-dents' listening skills.2 Manymembersof theprofession, havingshifted awayfrom the tra-ditional grammar/translationand audiolin-gual approachesto second languageinstruc-tion, are concentratingtheir efforts on help-

ing students develop oral proficiency.Thisattitudeis due in large part to the promotionof notional/functionalyllabi,the ACTFLOralProficiencyinterview and communicativeap-proaches that have encouraged us to teachfor functionalproficiency,i.e., the ability touse the targetlanguageinreal life and lifelikesituations. It is true that those in our profes-sion need to work toward this goal. What islacking,however,is a more balancedperspec-tive that recognizes listening comprehensionas the other halfof oral communication.Truecommunication an takeplaceonlywhenbothaspects are present. Consequently, instruc-tors must begin teaching listening skills andincorporating listening practice into the sec-ond language curriculumif students are tobe truly able to communicate.Theoreticalperspectives

Understandinghow learning takes placecan help in prioritizinggoals of instructionaswell as selecting strategies and techniquesthatoptimize students'learning.Three majortheories help to focus the role of listeningcomprehensionwithin the second languageacquisitionprocess.Psychologist David Ausubel (1978) be-

*Members are invited to send material to: Dr. Stella T.Clark, Department of Foreign Languages, CaliforniaState University,San Bernardino,5500 State UniversityParkway, San Bernardino, CA 92404. Please send atyped original and copy for each paper submitted.Maximumlength is 15 double-spacedpages.


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922 HISPANIA0 DECEMBER987lieves that meaningful earning requiresbothpotentially meaningfulmaterial and a mean-ingfullearningset (adispositiontoward earn-ing on the part of the learner). AccordingtoAusubel, what the learner already knows isthe most importantfactor influencing learn-ing. Ausubel's theory points out the equalimportance of both cognitive and affectivefactors in learning. We are well aware of theaffectivecharacteristics of typicalsecondlan-guage learners who find themselves "cap-tive" in a required series of courses. Withrespect to existing cognitive characteristics,manystudents havelittle previousknowledgeabout their native language and how lan-guages in general operate and, as a result,encounter significant difficulties in learninga second language. In choosing methods andmaterials, as well as in prioritizinginstruc-tionalgoals, these factors must be taken intoaccount. Applying Ausubel's theory to thecase of listening comprehension brings outseveral imporantfactors:

1. Capitalizingon students' inherent need to com-prehendcan be a significant motivatingfactor in acquir-ing a second language.2. Lack of comprehensioncan produce anxiety andother affective barriers to learning.3. Input must be linked to what students' alreadyknow of the target language or to similar conceptsand structures in their native languagebefore it can beconverted to intake (i.e., for comprehension to takeplace).Krashen'sInput Hypothesis (1980) seeksto explain how languages are acquired.Though highly controversial, it does stressthe importanceof listeningcomprehension nthe acquisition/learning rocess. Krashenbe-

lieves that language is acquired by under-standing input that contains structuresslightly beyond the acquirer's competence(i.e., comprehensible input) and that com-prehension is encouraged through contextand previous knowledge. According to theinput hypothesis, speech will emerge on itsown when the acquirer s readyand will con-tain many errors. Speaking ability is finetunedby exposure to additionalcomprehensi-ble input.A thirdtheoreticalperspective thatappliesnot only to listening, but also to all learningin general, is Carroll'sModel ofSchoolLearn-ing (1963). Carroll'smodelplaces time at thecenter of alllearning processes. Inthe model,learningis aproportionof time actuallyspenton a given learning task to time needed to

learn. Unless second language educatorsspendinstructional ime teachingandpractic-ing listening skills, learners will not masterthem.Listening- the neglected kill?

One convincing reason for the apparentneglect of listeningcomprehension s the lackof materialscurrentlyavailable o instructorswho wish to emphasize listening skills. Thestandardtape programsaccompanyingmajortextbooks consist primarilyof repetition andsubstitutiondrills and offer little in the wayof developmental exercises. Another majorproblem s instructorfatigue.Whenresponsi-bilityforprovidingcomprehensible nputfallsentirely on instructors who teach severalclasses a day,the burdenbecomes excessive.Visual reinforcement s also an essential com-ponent in developinglistening skills, yet thelogistics of arranging for videocassette re-corders and monitors, overhead projectorsand other audio-visualequipmentare prohibi-tive in manyof our schools and universities.In spite of such inconveniences, however,there are effective means by which listeningpractice can be providedin the second lan-guage classoroom once the important objec-tive of incorporatinglistening practice intothe curriculumon a regular, systematic basishas been established. Suggestions for copingwith those problemswill be discussed in thefollowing sections.ListeningActivities or Beginning Students

The first task in developing isteningcom-prehensionskills is puttinglearners at ease.In the beginning stages of instruction,learn-ers are unable to discern the relative impor-tance of individual omponentsof the linguis-tic code. To beginners, each word and struc-ture is as important as the next, and theyoften get lost trying to pay attentionto all ofthe sounds, structures, words, intonation,stress and pitch. Reminding them that thisis a normal stage of second languageacquis-ition may help to make beginners feel morecomfortable. In one's native language, it isnot necessary to pay such close attentionbe-cause everyday conversation s fullof naturalrepetitions, elaborations, rewordings, andother redundancies. The most importantpoint to stress is that total comprehension nevery situationis impossible-even in one'snative language. Many times a day we hear


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924 HISPANIA 70 DECEMBER 987

de vecindad. Ellos alquilancuartos, alquilancuartos, utilizan un bafio comtin. Eso es lagente pobre,muypobre.Ahora,el campesinovive en las fincas. Y alli les dan lo que sellama un rancho. Rancho es una casa queantes tenia techo de paja, pero ahoraes delkmina de zinc, limina galvanizada, y 6se(pause) es unas dos habitaciones general-mente y la cocina (pause), muy sencillo, ytiene un patio grande y alli generalmentesiembran,siembranalgo de lo que consumenellos o siembran lejos (pause). Siempre enlas fincas les danun terreno de siembraparaellos parasu propioconsumo. Ahorabien, lagente que tiene mayores ingresos, maisdine-ro, ellos viven en casas muy grandes. Ypasaen Guatemala, ahora estoy pensando en laCiudadde Guatemala, la capital, pasa lo quepasa en todas las ciudades del mundo, creoyo, que el que tiene mis dinero suele viviren las afueras dondehaymenos ruido,menoscongestionamientode trifico, dondehaymisarboles, entonces, entonces 6sa es la idea.Ahorabien, cuandoyo crecai, generalmenteyo vivia en casas muy grandes, de estilo co-loniales, con vario patios, tres patios. El t1l-timo patioera parala servidumbre, etc., etc.Pero eso se ha terminado porque el espaciose est~ agotando (laugh).Si, se esti agotan-do. Y como dije antes las casas se achican,se achican.Tambi6nya no se puede, la genteacomodada,digamos, ya no puede tener, aun-que tenga dinero, toda la servidumbre quese tenia antes. En primer lugares muy caroy segundo lugarla servidumbre,yo creo quees menos, gracias a Dios, porquela gente seeduca mis hoy dia. Entonces, y tambi6nhaym~s industria, entonces, consiguenotros tra-bajos, otros empleos. Gracias a Dios se hanmejorado as personasque en que los escasosrecursos se han mejorado y buscan mejoresempleos porqueser sirvienta es muy sacrifi-cado, muy sacrificado.>>In this passage (3 minutes, 16 seconds),one notes the types of redundancies and fil-lers mentionedabove, and a model for realis-tic monologuing emerges. In the languageclassroom, instructors can maximize stu-dents' opportunities for comprehensionandhelp them develop self-confidenceby provid-ing connected discourse which recombinesfamiliar vocabulary,and uses cognates, ges-tures, visual aids and other realia, as well asthe discourse features mentioned above. Itis not always necessary to limit grammar

structures andvocabulary o those previouslystudied, as long as there are sufficientotherclues to comprehension.Elaborationand re-combinationcan be used to go over the topicseveral times without its becoming tediousand will providethe redundanciesnecessaryforcomprehension.At least one suchexerciseshould be incorporatedinto every class ses-sion, starting off with 2-5 minute segmentsand gradually ncreasingthe length until thedesired course listening objectives are met.Topics may be reintroduced at later dates,but paraphrasedor reworded so as not tobecome monotonous.Follow-upexercises forbeginners might consist of asking questionsto which students can respond with simplesi/no, one-word answers or short phrases inSpanish, or even answer in English.As theirspeaking skills improve, students can beasked to make more and more verbal re-sponses in the target languagein the follow-up exercises, and small-groupdiscussions ofthe topics should be encouraged. By workingin small groups (includingpartnerwork) op-portunities for both listening and speakingare increased.

Students shouldalso be providedwith themeans of making incomprehensible input(input that contains vocabulary and struc-tures too far beyond the learners' control)comprehensible.They can be taught simpletechniquesfromthe beginningof instruction.Repeatingunfamiliarwords andphraseswitha rising intonation (Ifrontera? ?Col6n? idevez en cuando?), for example, alerts thespeaker that the listener does not under-stand. In addition to ?no comprendo>> and,?repita,por favor,,, students should have attheir disposal the interrogatives ?qui6n??qu6? cuaindo? d6nde? and ?por qu6? tohelp them pinpointspecific missing informa-tion. The speaker can then respondwith anappropriatetarget-language explanation ac-companiedby pantomimeor some other vis-ual clue.While live input by the instructor in theclassroom is most effective, all of the abovetypes of exercises can be recorded by theinstructor either on audio or video tape (ifthe necessary equipment is available) andused as reinforcementactivities later both inthe classroom and the language laboratory.Developing a libraryof taped materials willhelp relieve the fatigue factor that generallyaccompanies teaching multiple sections ofbeginning language. It also provides a sys-


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mediate students. In a conversation ex-change, half of the allocatedtime is devotedto conversation n Spanishandthe other halfto English.The instructors of the participat-ing groupsfacilitatethe procedureby explain-ing the guidelines, making necessary intro-ductions, and unobtrusively monitoringcon-versations. Because bothgroupshave limitedskills in the target language, tension usuallyfallsbythe waysideas the desire to communi-cate takes over. An informalsetting, such asa student lounge, helps to providea relaxedatmosphereforconversation. Both groupsre-ceive large quantitites of target-languageinputas well as a nonthreateningopportunityfor communicating n the languagethat theyare studying. If no ESL students are availa-ble, competentstudents from advancedSpan-ish classes may be recruited for an informalconversation session.Equipmentand Materials

The overheadprojector s one of the finesttools for helping students develop listeningcomprehension skills. Appropriate trans-parencies can be used to illustrate presenta-tions and to make the input comprehensible.They provide visual reinforcement and alsohelp students acquire vocabulary. Unfortu-nately, many instructors do not have readyaccess to an overheadprojector,or lack thenecessary transparencies. Restricted bud-gets orincompatibleacilities (locationofelec-trical outlets, projection screens, movabledesks, etc.) may prevent them from takingadvantage of this desirable piece of equip-ment, but good alternatives do exist. Slideprojectors are often more readily availableandeasier to carry frombuildingto building.Non-photographicslides are easy and inex-pensive to prepare(See Seng, 1985,andWipf,1978) and can be used like overhead trans-parenciesas visualaids to listeningactivities.If a slide projectoris not available,or if theclassroomhas no screen, blankwalls or win-dow shades, then the instructormust rely onother visual aids. Posters, maps, photo-graphs, drawings, magazines, newspapers,books, pamphlets, cartoons, andother typesof printmaterials can all be incorporated ntolisteningactivities. Dolls anddollhouses, col-orforms, trucks, cars, tinker toys, buildingblocks, andother childrens'toys can be usedto illustrate many presentations- especiallythose relatinga series ofevents. Garagesales

are excellent and inexpensive sources ofthese materials. Finally,realia collected dur-ing visits to Spanish-speakingcountries areunique accompaniments to travelogue-typepresentations. Don't overlookthe mundane.Ticketstubs, postcardsandstamps, receipts,menus, napkins,matchbooks,wrappers, plas-tic bags, advertisements, coins andbills, bot-tles andcans, T-shirts, etc. are all novel andinteresting to students who have never beento the country.Often these realia call to mindamusinganecdotes that can be related to stu-dents. Students who have sufficientspeakingskills can then respondby describing similar(or contrasting) experiences that they havehad.TestingListening Comprehension

Whenteachinga second language,instruc-tors are faced with nonnatural anguage set-tings and formats, which they must attemptto make as realistic as possible through nclu-sion of lifelike activities and exercises andencouraging students to use the languagethey are studying. Second language testingplaces similardemands on the instructor,andmany second languageeducators(see Omag-gio, 1986)believe thattesting formatsshouldbe contextualizedsimilarlyto everydayclass-room practice. Contextualization of testitems is especially important for beginningstudents whose skills are limited, and oftenthe context must be presented in English.Asstudents gain more skill in the target lan-guage, advanceorganizers maybe presentedin the target language as well. The usualdichotomousaural formats- cierto/falso, si/no, 16gico/absurdo, tc. -can be used effec-tively in testing listening comprehensionatbeginning levels of instruction, especiallywhen preceded by written or visual advanceorganizers, and often a group of test itemscan be based on a single context. Example:

Advance organizer: students look at the visual inwhich students are in a classroom with their professor,studying a map of Mexico.Silno. Los estudiantes estudian el mapade

Espafia.Answer: no.Cierto/falso. ElprofesorestAalladodelmapa.Answer: cierto.L6gicolabsurdo. Losestudiantes estin en la clase defrances.Answer:absurdo.


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PEDAGOGY:OLLEGESND UNIVERSITIES 927

Auralmultiple-choicetems can be usedatany evelandmay ake he formofquestion/answer, ncomplete tem/rejoinder,equenc-ing of events, predictinghe outcome, den-tifying irrelevancies, dentifying he maintopic,andmakingnferences.Thelimitationof these itemformatss thattheydonothavethe characteristicsof natural utterances.However,when groupedarounda specifictopicandcontextualized,heybecomemoreacceptable s test items.Question/answerAdvanceorganizer: Las ?D6nde se compranlossiguientes preguntas se peri6dicos?refieren a las tiendas y a. En la biblioteca.negocios que se encuen- b. En el banco.tran en el centro de una c. En la pasteleria.ciudadtipica. d. En el quiosco.Incomplete tem/rejoinderAdvanceorganizer:Jorge, No es posibleirde Omahaun estudiante chileno, a Nueva Yorken ...piensa hacer un viaje por a. autobiislos Estados Unidos. Com- b. avi6nplete los consejos de su c. barcoamigo norteamericano, d. cocheJerry.Sequencingevents.Advance rganizer:he Ayerme evante las sie-following uestions re te. Me vesti y ...basednmydailyoutine. a. meacost&.b. mebafie.c. desayune.Predictingutcome.Advance rganizer:El a. choc6con un taxi.pobrede Mariano e le- b. semeti6 n unapastele-vant6 ardeesta mafiana. ria.Se vistioripidamente c. apag6aradio.sali6en cochepara u d. salud6a unamigo.oficina.eniamucharisay no vio la luzroja.Asi,pas6porel crucey ...Identifyingmain topic.Advance rganizer:jCuail Esta bellaestrellade laes el temade asiguiente televisi6n aci6 n M6xiconarraci6n? y aprendi6nglesescu-chandoosdiscos eElvis

Presley. A los diecisdisafiosgan6el titulo de"Miss lPaso." ctual-mentehace el papeldeMelissanla telenovelapopularisimaFalconCrest."a. unprogramade televi-si6n.b. lamisica de Elvis Pres-ley.c. un concurso de belleza.d. una actriz popular.

Gisting.Having tudentsgist or sum-marizethe content s an excellenttestingtechnique,andcorrespondsmorefavorablywith naturalistening ormats hando thediscrete-pointests explainedabove.Gistsmaybe given orallyor in writing n eitherthe target anguageor in English.Forpur-posesofpractice,nstructorsmayprefer ralgisting,as studentscan be providedwithimmediateeedback.Writtenistingmaybereserved or estingsituations. rovidinghegist in Englishassures that an incorrectan-sweris the result of lackof comprehension,not nabilityoproduce summarytatementin the target anguage.Listing.Listinghe salientpointsof a lis-teningpassages alsoa realisticesting ech-nique hatcorrespondsonote-takingnreallife. Because istings notas difficult sthesummarizingkillsrequired ygisting,evenbeginninganguageearners an ist tems nthe target anguage.English as a SecondLanguageWhilegood upplementaryisteningmate-rials orSpanish re ustbeginningoappearonthemarket,manyinematerials avebeenproducedor heteaching fEnglish saSec-ondLanguage.4heir echniques ndcharac-teristicsmaybe adaptedo many anguagesand culturesand are goodsources of ideasforSpanishnstructorswho wish to makelistening omprehensionmore ntegral artof instruction.SummaryThe listening kill hasrecentlyreceivedmuch ttentionn the literature fPedagogy,althoughlassroom ractice asbeenslow ofollow.Thismaybe duelargely o the lackof suitable isteningmaterials urrently nthemarket r the navailabilityf videoandothertechnologicalids.Whileappropriatecommercially-preparedistening omprehen-sion materials re notplentiful,appropriatepractice nd estingactivitiesor heSpanishclassroom an be developedbyresourcefulinstructorswithout reat nvestments f timeandmoney.* NOTES

'See Byrnes, 1984; Krashenet al., 1984; Terrell,1983; Richards, 1983.'See Long, 1986; Nerenz and Knop, 1983; Nerenz,1979.Inthe Longstudy, isteningactivities (definedasactivities designed principally or the developmentof


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listening skills) constituted only 2% of total classroomtime. Teacher talk in the target language (22%of totalclassroom time) consisted primarily of questions, notmonologuing or other forms of connected discourse.Nerenz and Knop found that on the average, about 4.9of the total availabletime was devoted to the listeningskill by eightpreservice student teachers. They reportedthat listening instructiontook place in large groups andwas teacher-centered, including structuring (15.8%),modeling (11.5%), questioning (23.8%), explaining(23.5%), evaluating(24.2%) andmanagement(.4%)be-haviors. In her 1979 study, Nerenz found that 20 inser-vice classroom teachers used 2% of available time forlistening activities.3See Allen and Valette (1977)321-22. In writing thistype of five-line poem, students work in pairsor on theirown. In the first line, they state a subject in one word(a noun). In the second line they describe the subjectin two words (a noun and adjective or two adjectives).The third line is a description of an action about thesubject in three words (usually three verbs). Line fourexpresses an emotion about the subject in four words.In line five the subjectis restated in anothersingle word(usually a noun).

4See Burling, 1982, and Ur, 1984, for general ESLlistening strategies and techniques.0 WORKSCITEDA-LMSpanish. New York:HarcourtBrace&World, nc.,1961.Allen, Edward David, and Rebecca M. Valette. Class-roomTechniques:ForeignLanguagesand English asa Second Language. New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich,1971.Asher, James J. Learning Another Language ThroughActions: The CompleteTeacher'sGuide. Los Gatos,CA:Sky Oaks Publications, 1977.Ausubel, David P., Joseph D. Novak, and Helen Hane-sian. EducationalPsychology:A CognitiveView.NewYork:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978.Burling, Robbins. Sounding Right. Rowley, MA: New-bury House, 1982.Byrnes, Heidi. "The Role of Listening Comprehension:A Theoretical Base." Foreign LanguageAnnals 17

(1984): 317-29.Carroll, John B. "AModel of School Learning."TeachersCollegeRecord64 (1963): 723-33.Chaudron,Craig. "ForeignerTalk n the Classroom-- AnAid to Learning?"In ClassroomOrientedResearch nSecond Language Acquisition. Eds. Herbert W.Seliger and Michael Long. Rowley, MA: NewburyHouse, 1983. 127-45.Krashen,Stephen D. "SecondLanguageAcquisitionRe-search:Needs andPriorities." nACTFLProceedingsof theConference n ProfessionalPriorities. Ed. DaleL. Lange. Hastings-on-Hudson,NY:ACTFLMateri-als Center, 1980. 64-9.Krashen, Stephen D., Tracy D. Terrell, Madeline E.Ehrman, and Martha Herzog. 'A Theoretical BasisforTeachingthe Receptive Skills."ForeignLanguage

Annals 17 (1984): 261-75.Long, Donna Reseigh. "Listening:What'sReally GoingOn In the Classroom?" n SecondLanguageAcquisi-tion: Preparingfor Tomorrow.Ed. BarbaraSnyder.Report of the Central States Conference on theTeaching of Foreign Languages. Lincolnwood, IL:NationalTextbook, 1986. 28-37.Nerenz, Anne G. and Constance K. Knop. 'AllocatedTime, CurricularContent,and Student EngagementOutcomes in the Second-Language Classroom."Canadian ModernLanguageReview39 (1983): 221-32.Nerenz, Anne G. and Constance K. Knop. "HelpingStu-dent Teachers Maximize Class Time in the Second-

Language Classroom."Canadian ModernLanguageReview39 (1983): 840-46.Nerenz, Anne. "UtilizingTime in ForeignLanguageIn-struction." n Teaching he Basics in theForeignLan-guage Classroom:Optionsand Strategies.Ed. DavidP Benseler. Reportof the CentralStates Conferenceon the Teaching of ForeignLanguages. Skokie, IL:NationalTextbook Company,1979. 78-89.Omaggio, Alice C. TeachingLanguagein Context:Profi-ciency-Orientednstruction.Boston: Heinle&Heinle,1986.Richards,JackC. "ListeningComprehension:Approach,Design, Procedure."TESOL Quarterly 17 (1983):219-40.Seng, MarkW. "InexpensiveNonphotographicSlides Il-lustrate GrammaticalConcepts or LexicalItems andStimulate Student Conversation." oreign Language

Annals 13 (1985): 117-25.Stockwell, Robert P. and J. Donald Bowen. Sounds ofEnglish andSpanish. Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress, 1970.Terrell, Tracy D. "The NaturalApproachto LanguageTeaching:AnUpdate."TheModernLanguageJournal66 (1982): 121-32.Terrell, Tracy D. 'A NaturalApproachto Second Lan-guage Acquisitionand Learning."The ModernLan-guage Journal 61 (1977): 325-37.Ur,Penny.TeachingListeningComprehension.New York:CambridgeUniversity Press, 1984.Valdes, Guadalupe, Donna Reseigh Long and CeciliaPino. "Building Enrollment Through CurriculumChange: The Implementationof a Comprehension-Based Program nSpanish." oreignLanguageAnnals19 (1985): 413-25.Winitz, Harris. 'A Reconsideration of Comprehensionand Production in Language Training."In HarrisWinitz, ed., The ComprehensionApproachoForeignLanguageInstruction.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse,1981. 101-40.

Wipf,JosephA. "ThePreparationandUse of Non-Photo-graphic Slides in the Second-LanguageClassroom."In Teaching or Tomorrow n the ForeignLanguageClassroom. Ed. Reid Baker. Report of the CentralStates Conference on the Teachingof Foreign Lan-guages. Skokie, IL: National Textbook Company,1978. 111-21.

listening comprehension need and neglect

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