lit review: female ex-combatants of sri lanka

Home for Human Rights July 2013

Female ex-combatants of Sri LankaLiterature Review

In Sri Lankas post-conflict period, the female ex-combatantsreintegration in the society is a complex issue. This is mainlyexplained by Tamils conservative society. Most family members ofthese women ex-combatants are unwilling to welcome them backinto the family. Often, the family members declare, It will lead tosecurity problems for the rest of the family, we feel ashamed if theycome back. Additionally, finding a life partners for most of theunmarried women ex-combatants is almost impossible.1

Scholars, journalists or female ex-combatant interviews highlightthose complexities. Since the subject of reintegration is very recent,very few articles have been writing on this subject. Mainly theacademics, testimonies or journalists are focusing in denouncing thediscriminations toward the female ex-combatants rather thatoffering concrete solutions.

The following sources have been done through classical sources viaInternet and legal databases.

Keywords: female, ex-combatant, Sri Lanka, ex-fighters, DDR

1. Meet the leaders Programme on Womens Economic,Social and Cultural Rights (hereafter PWESCR), online:.

In its research, PWESCR relates Tamil women testimonies and theirdifficult situation post conflict. They are suffering fromdiscrimination while attempting to return in their societies.According to the Sri Lanka, Minister for Prisons Reforms andRehabilitation, ChandrasriGajadeera, merely 700 ex-combatants of11 000 remain in the rehabilitation centers. Of these, an estimated3000 were women. The Government has free 104 women ex-combatants.

1DushiyanthiniKanagasabapathipillai, Post-war Sri Lanka denies rights of womenex-combatants, online .MsDushiYanthiniKanagasabapathipillaiis ajournalist since 20 years in Sri Lanka.She was the first Tamil woman journalist in Sri Lanka who is able travel on herown to the war zone.


2. SRI LANKA: Fewer "I do's" for former female rebels,online .

A female ex-combatants in northern Sri Lanka has accepted toshare her rough experience when she is returning to civilian life.She testifies the discrimination she has undergone (e.g. lack ofmarriage options as well as education and job opportunities).

3. Miranda Alison, Women as Agents of Political Violence:Gendering Security (2004) Security Dialogue, v. 35, no. 4,pp. 447-463online:and same subject in 2009 Women and Political Violence:Female Combatants in Ethno-national Conflict.This article confronts the common opinion that women because oftheir gender are necessarily more peaceful than men in armedconflicts. In taking the two examples of female combatants in SriLanka and Northern Ireland, it is stressed that the role of thefemale combatant is not as evident that literature usually relate.Their roles are confusing and prove a tension between differentconceptualizations of societal security namely at the national andcommunity level. Anti-state, liberatory nationalisms generally offermore room (ideologically and practically) for women to contribute inthe war than do institutionalized state or pro-state nationalisms,and this can be seen in the cases of the LTTE in Sri Lanka.It would have been interesting to integrate the tool of legalpluralism into this analysis.

4. Vandana Bhatia&W. Andy Knight, Female SuicideTerrorism in South Asia: Comparing the Tamil Separatistsand Kashmir Insurgents, (2011) South Asian Survey vol. 18issue 1 p. 7-26 online:.

In this article the authors contrast two conflicts in South Asiacivilwar in Sri Lanka and the insurgency in Kashmirto examine theenabling conditions for female suicide terrorism in the former, andthe lack thereof in the latter. Theirs conclusions is that femalesuicide terrorism is a result of plethora of factors and elements. It isshown that the decision needs to be put in the specific socio-cultural, political and economical context. This analysis is interestingto explain why communities are reluctant to reintegrate female ex-combatants.

5. Jordan, Kim &Denov, Myriam, Birds of Freedom? Perspectiveson Female Emancipation and Sri Lankas Liberation Tigers of Tamil


Eelam (2007) Journal of International Women's Studies, 9(1), 42-62. online: .The authors inform us that females have always play a crucial rolein combating the hostility forces both in international conflicts andinternal conflicts. Whereas some academics argue that recentarmed conflicts have driven women into new positions in thesociety, enabling them to transform their social situations, shiftingtheir future and challenging the traditional community values,others clearly doubt that those females combatant are attainingemancipation. As a notable example, the Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam in Sri Lanka recurrently recruited female cadres. It gives aninteresting context to look at issues of female empowerment in thecontext of armed struggle. With four Sri Lankans living in Canadastatements, this article defends that the participation of females inunconventional military roles represents a radical transformation inbehavior expected of Tamil women. Again it gives someenlightenment about why women are facing discriminations whilethey reintegrating their communities. Conventional societies haveimposed separate and specific role for women and men. With theseposition combatant normally connected to men, the genderconstruction is challenged and not necessarily fully accepted inpost-conflict situation.

6. Miranda Alison, Cogs in the wheel? Women in theliberation tigers of Tamil Eelam (2003) Civil Wars, volume6, Issue 4, online:.

This article studies women's participation as combatants in the SriLankan Tamil guerrilla organisation the Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam. It explains the reason for women's to enroll with the LTTE. Italso shows the perception of gender construction by LTTE and howwomen are transforming and challenging those constructions. Thetraditional role of women as described in International HumanitarianLaw conventions is seriously defied. Testimonies show that womenalso have a strong nationalism feeling that they are ready to die forit. However it this strength that prevent them to be fully reintegratein their society after war. Indeed often women have been a tooluseful to fight the enemy but she has to suffer from thisemancipation while trying to fit again in her community.

A relevant testimony by LTTE woman ex-combatant:

() the experience of these other struggles has shown that afterwar ceased, usually women were expected to resume their


traditional roles or were restricted to supportive political and publicpositions. Liyanage asserts, therefore, that one is justified inconcluding that the LTTE movement has been projected and definedby men particularly by Prabhakaran, executed by men and thatwomen fight to fulfill mens nationalistic aspirations.

7. Valkyrie (contributor to the ground views website),Female ex-combatants of LTTE in post-war Sri LankaFebruary 2012 online:.

The contributor of this website clarifies the main challenge thatfemale ex-combatant have to face after returning home. The lack ofemployment and education, which impacts on their ability to live anormal life, is the main issue. Additionally, marriages options forfemale ex-combatants who fought with the Liberation Tigers ofTamil Eelam are also problematic in the very conservative Tamilsociety. The estimated number of female ex-combatants is over3000. Rehabilitated ex-combatants are suffering while looking for ajob because employers are reluctant to hire them. They are notconsidered as normal women because they were part of the LTTE.Those women are too often considered as trouble makers and notseen as the common women anymore.

8. Video Female ex-combatants of LTTE in post-war SriLanka, online:.

In 2011, two years after the end of war, female ex-combatants arestill collectively struggling to seek social acceptance from acommunity that in the past celebrated their role as "brave mothersand sisters" when they fought on the battlefield. Testimonies showsthat theirs role as a combatant during the war has challenged theirtraditional role in the society. When they attempt to reintegratethey dont belong anymore where they used to. They are facingdiscriminations from the public and private spheres. The society atlarge is rejecting them on the basis that they took arms and fightalong with men. Women has to fulfill the conventional role e.g.being a submissive wife and a perfect mother.

9. The Social Architects South Asia,Haunted By HerYesterdays, March 2013 .

This documentary reveals how women have been obliged to deny


their identity. They were struggling between the Government of SriLanka, which believes they betrayed the state and their community,which rejecting them. Those women fought alongside men asmembers of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) during SriLanka's thirty-year civil war. From protectors and defenders of theirfamilies, villages and nation, thousands of female ex-combatantshave came back home to attempt to move on with their life andembrace common aspiration including finding a job and get marriedand build a family. "Haunted by Her Yesterdays" is addressing thecore of those women sufferings --This short documentary is a callfor help and adapted programme to support the ex-combatant tomove on with their life in the specific context of post conflict in SriLanka.

10. Alternative report on the implementation of the UNConvention on the Elimination of Discrimination againstWomen, online:.

Sri Lanka presented its combined 5th, 6th, and 7th periodic reportsto the CEDAW Committee on the 26 January 2011. This report givethe women situation post-conflict. It is also investigating whether anational policy or action plan is envisaged to address theresettlement and reintegration into society of IDPs, with specialmeasures to address the concerns and needs of female ex-combatants or detainees.Moreover the CEDAW Committee is askingfor accounts concerning the long delay in processing cases ofdomestic/sexual violence. It raised the issue in relation to ex-combatants and asked the government why it has not implementedthe National Action Plan on Re-integration of Ex-combatants draftedin 2009.

11. ILO, National Framework Proposal for Reintegration ofEx-combatants into Civilian Life in Sri Lanka, online:.

The Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights ismandated to formulate and implement policies, programmes andprojects for disaster mitigation, response and recovery.ILO had draft this project document to support ex-combatantreintegration in the society. Support will involve a systematicassessment of gender-specific needs, and ensure gender-responsiveness in all phases and activities. Therefore, as anexample ILO incorporate the need for the basic needs kit for female


ex-combatants such as basic provisions for female hygieneproducts, baby supplies etc. In the event of cash payments for maleex-combatants, depositing cash disbursements in bank accountsthat are jointly held by a husband and wife has been documented asa best practice in many countries and will be implemented in SriLanka. The programme is focusing on the material aspect of thereintegration and fulfills basic needs. However not much is said onthe structural psychological aspect of returning in a home thatdiscriminates female ex-combatant.

12. Jo Baker Reconciling Truth and Gender, Lessons for SriLanka, online: .

This master thesis is exploring the need for gender sensitive truthcommissioning following the conflict, and to assess key legal andpractical obstacles, in reference to the international legal frameworkon non-discrimination. Drawing on critiques of Sri Lankas past andcurrentCommissions ofInquiry, and on best practice, it thenbriefly proposes ways to place Tamil women more centrally, andtherefore legally, within the transitional narrative.

13. De Silva, Mada K Re-integration of Former LiberationTigers of Tamil Eelam Combatants into Civilian Society inPost-War Sri Lanka 2012, online:https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=720328, March 2012.

This master thesis describes the way and challenges to go forwardand it shares some ideas to integrate the ex-combatants in thesociety. He recalls that a national plan is needed and responsibilitylies with the government in rehabilitating ex-combatants is toensure a long-term, results-oriented process. Considering the highlysensitive status quo of the issue at the aftermath of its conflict, theSri Lankan government needs to contribute its share to rebuild thenation. Therefore, this thesis analyses the programme put in placeby the government. The author gives details on the bureaurehabilitation programs projects. It has conducted for adult femaleex-combatants include: classes for General Certificate of Education(Ordinary Level) and General Certificate of Education (AdvancedLevel) examinations, language training (Sinhala and English), typingshorthand for clerical work, diploma in e.g. nursery management,tailoring programs.

14. Speech of Shavendra Silva at UN, Thursday, October 28,2010 Govt's reintegration programme for ex-combatantsunparalleled online:


01010/20101028govt_reintegration_prog_for_ex_conbantanta_unparallelled.htm>.

Major general Shavendra Silva is addressing to the UN andexplained the efforts made by the government of Sri Lanka and itsconcerted actions to rehabilitate child combatants and girls childcombatant: With the defeat of terrorism in May 2009, through amassive humanitarian rescue mission, the Government tookconcerted action to rehabilitate and reintegrate all former childcombatants. Among them, 351 were girls. Knowing that thesechildren had been forced to take up guns instead of school books,the Government of Sri Lanka adopted a prudent, practical andcompassionate approach towards their reintegration. Such anapproach was based on the principles of women empowerment,livelihood training, psycho-social support, and above all, restorativejustice. For those who missed the opportunity of experiencing achildhood and a formal education, arrangements have been madethrough the catch up schools to enable them to complete theGeneral Certificate of Education examinations, irrespective of theircurrent age. The state and society view them as victims and not asperpetrators. The lessons learnt and the good practices adopted bySri Lanka in the arduous process of rapidly restoring the future ofthese children, deserve appreciation. Ours is a success story thathas no parallel elsewhere.

15. ChandaniJayatillekeEx-Tamil Fighters Start Factory Lifein Sri Lanka, online:.

Short article showing how Sri Lankan women who were Tamilcombatants a year ago are leaving rehabilitation camps and movinginto the work force. Four hundred just arrived at a hostel forworkers in a factory that ships clothes to Target and Wal-Mart.

16. Murry, Rebecca, Scarred by Sri Lankas war with Tamiltigers, female ex-fighters build new lives, (2010) TheChristian Science Monitor (Boston) online:.

This article is highlighting the women fight for the Tamil Tigers inSri Lanka's 26-year war. Significant gaps in education, psychologicalproblems, and physical injuries make job opportunities quitechallenging if not impossible.


16. Sonny Inbaraj Krishnan, The transition of teenage girlsand young women from ex-combatants to civilian life: a casestudy in Sri Lanka2011, Volume 9, Number 2, Page 137 144.

This masters thesis is based on an empirical field research of 23Tamil Tiger women and young women ex-combatants interviews,between April to June 2010. The author has done a good job indescribing various women backgrounds. It is interesting to see thecondition of women with disabilities. Even though Sri LankasNational Action Plan for the Reintegration of Ex-Combatantsincludes disabled daughters, disabled female ex-combatants barelyperceive support. The author argument is that funding is allocatedon programmes that prevent post-conflict trust between the Tamilpopulation and the Sri Lankan government, but rather reconcilingex-combatants with local communities.

17. Ruwan M. Jayatunge, Psychosocial Rehabilitation Of TheWar Affected Sri Lankan Combat Veterans (2013) Colombo TelegraphDrJayatunge is explaing the reasons why Sri Lanka ispsychologically challenged by the adverse effects of the Eelam War.A large number of combatants faced the painful armed conflictsconsequences for over thirty years. Various trauma related ailmentssuch as PTSD, Adjustment Disorders, Depression , Somatization etchave found among the combatants. The author explained why it iscrucial for the government to pay attention on the needs of theveterans of the war. It is essential that therapy be offered to themin order to secure their reintegration in their home and society.They and their family should received proper support to rebuildtrust and faith in the society.

18. Professor Sultan Barakat An Evaluation of Post WarRecovery in Eastern Sri Lanka Batticaloa District (2011)online:.


Professor Sultan Barakat, Director Post-war Reconstruction andDevelopment Unit at York University have donea field studyresearch in Sri Lanka. His conclusion is that the post-conflictsituation in Sri Lanka is very complex.In his research attention is also paid to women and to ex-combatant. For example he put in evidence that communities tookcare of female and male ex-combatants in a different way, withwomen suffering several gender-specific difficulties with theirreintegration, including the fact that families are suspicious ofhaving them at home because the government is controlling, and ofhusbands refusing to accept them back if they weresexuallyassaultedwhen being with LTTE forces.

19. TahiraGonsalves, Gender and Peacebuilding: A SriLankan Case Study (2004) The International DevelopmentResearch Center, online: .

This paper examines and provides a critique of the theory andpractice of gender and peacebuilding, using the specific case offemale combatants of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) inSri Lanka. This has been donein the framework of the UnitedNations Security Council Resolution 1325, as well as the practice ofDisarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) as aspectsof gender and peacebuilding.

20. Doctor BishnuPathak, Women and DDR I theWorld(2011), Peace and Conflict Studies Center.

The paper provides an overview of the Disarmament,Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) practices worldwide. Itquestions theaims of the United Nations initiate DDR programs inpost-conflict countries. It challenges the scale and consequences ofthe various roles of ex-combatants, particularly the women ex-combatants in a transitional society. It aims to compare and exploresome of the best and worst practices of DDR and militarizedmasculinity before, during, and after the violence.It give the specific example of women in Sri Lanka and when thefemale ex-combatant returned home it was a compulsory for themto take their traditional role and for example to wear traditionalcivilian clothes to respond and fit in the formalsociety construction.On the other side, they gained respect articulately for the timebeing, but society totally rejected for their roles as civilian housewives.

21. Sri Lanka: former Tamil Tigers still searching for


reconciliation (June 2012) The guardian, online:.

The guardian relates the post-conflict situation in reintegrating theex-fighters. Most of the former combatants are strugglingeconomically and regret the lack of support for them. After theconflict, ex-combatants have been asked to complete a six-stagerehabilitation programme that could last up to two years if theywished to receive general amnesty, otherwise they would faceterrorism charges. Little information are given about thisreintegration programme and its contents.

22. Death, the name of the game online:. 2012

Women cadres of the LTTE in Sri Lanka are trying to move on afterthe battle. ShanikaSriyanandatestifieshow she was dragged by thLTTE to be a combatant. It shows the solidarity between women andthe process in trying to fit in the community again. Very fewreceived full support and a decent welcoming. It is shown thatyoung women are talented and all they need is to benefit fromappropriate measures to help them to work and start a new life.

23. International Crisis Group SRI LANKAS NORTH I: THEDENIAL OF MINORITY RIGHTSAsia Report N219 16 March 2012, online:.The International Crisis Group has been written a researchdenouncing the challenges face by the community in the Northernpart of the country after the end of the hostilities. Women ex-cadres, report they dont sense violence from other communitymembers upon their return (though some NGO workers do reportthat some former female detainees find it difficult to get married).We have no problem in settling down as far as our families andvillagers are concerned. There are one or two persons who havebeen spoken to angrily by some affected mothers, but that is onlyone or two in the thousands that have been released.

lit review: female ex-combatants of sri lanka

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