lms final report
TRANSCRIPT
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Final Design Report Light Measurement
System LEDs Team Brown
Kevin Wilkins
MatE 340/360
Dr. Savage, Dr. London
12/05/2010
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Introduction
This report is a final design review of a light measurement system (LMS) designed to measure the
chromaticity values of Thor Labs Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
Application
We will be examining the light produced by LEDs for use in electronic displays and compare the collected
data to light produced by the phosphors in cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. The system will be able to
provide the data necessary to examine if LEDs are a viable replacement for CRT displays. We are
creating a light measurement system that will serve as a mount for three Thor Labs LEDs (Red, Green
and Blue). The LMS must measure the chromaticity values of each LED.
Users Needs
The end user for the LMS needs a prototype produced for proof of concept. It will be made from
aluminum A356 casting and ABS rapid prototyping. This system needs to simultaneously house three
Thor labs LEDs (red green and blue), be stable, easy to use, accurate, precise (0.04 repeatability, 0.10
reproducibility), and must be produced in a timeline of 10 weeks and for under $500 dollars. The system
must be compatible with SMA fittings for 200m fiber optic cables. The sample holder portion of the
system needs to be able to be remotely located from the detection unit (spectrometer), as the LMS
sample holder will potentially be used on the customers manufacturing floor for quality control. The light
detection equipment will likely be in a separate room to keep the sensitive equipment away from debris
and vibrations. The LEDs need to be easily removable so numerous samples can be measured quickly to
ensure a uniform product. The users needs have been organized in a Quality Function Deployment
matrix (QFD), Table I. Weighting factors have been applied to reflect the importance of each requirement
of the system to the user. The needs have been condensed into several categories.
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Table I: QFD matrix displaying the relative importance of each objective
Attributes Measurable Objective Weighting Factor
CostCost to produce
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Conceptual Design Solutions
In the conceptual design stages of development, we took into account that when the LEDs are operated
at the specified power settings from Thor Labs, they produce light at a higher intensity than the
spectrometer can measure. Each of the LEDs produces a different intensity of light at full power. We
created and examined several designs that incorporated different mechanisms to reduce the light
transmission to measurable levels. The first is an aperture controlled output design, incorporating simple
apertures (one for each LED) to get consistent light intensity from each sample, illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Aperture controlled output conceptual design sketch. This is a side view, demonstrating two
rotating wheels, one for an LED mount and one for aperture selection
This design involves two rotating wheels, one housing the three LEDs and the other with three apertures.
There are a higher number of parts in this design than the following design, which would increase the
expense reducing and ease of use. Having an aperture wheel in this design creates an additional
potential source of attenuation. This system would require that the user precisely position both wheels for
the system to be in proper alignment.
The second design we considered was a resistance controlled output design, Figure 3.
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Figure 3: Resistance controlled output conceptual design sketch. The rotating LED holder shown at leftwould contain resistors in series with the LEDs.
This design has fewer parts and can be made in a smaller footprint than the aperture design. This design
uses only the ABS sample holder, reducing the volume of ABS used. The lens holder assembly can be
moved closer to the LEDs as long as sufficient focal length is maintained. This concept involves using
resistors to equalize the power output of the LEDs to a measurable intensity. The two conceptual designs
are compared in a decision matrix, Table II.
Table II: Decision matrix comparing the two initial conceptual designs for the light measurement system.The numerical values are the averages from all group members
Attributes Weighting Factor Aperture Design Resistor DesignCost 1.75 8 9
Ergonomics 1 7.29 8.57
Manufacturability 0.25 7.43 8.57
Operation 2.5 9.14 9.43
Safety 1 7.29 7.86
Schedule 1.5 8.29 8.57
Stability 2 7.14 8
Total 75.5 85
.
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We determined from the decision matrix that the resistance controlled output design was superior, as it
requires fewer parts and is easier to achieve proper alignment. The design was further refined after
reviewing the detailed design specifications compiled from the performance objectives and the selected
equipment to be used in the LMS.
Design Specifications
The following is a list of equipment that will be used in the LMS. Having detailed design specifications
allows for a detailed design that will fulfill the users needs.
Power Supply
Elenco XP752
0-4 V
0-50 mA
LED sample holder
House 3 Thor Labs LEDs Red LED630E (639 nm center, 17nm FWHM),
Green LED528E (525 nm center, 35nm FWHM), Blue LED465E (465 nm center, 25nm FWHM)
LEDs must be removable
Must be able to be set to one specific position for each led and hold that position
Must hold LEDs in proper lateral and angular alignment (locate at center axis of lens assembly)
Must allow for easy connection of LEDs to power source
uPrint ABS rapid prototype, 0.01 design resolution
Must be smaller that 4x4x4
Base
A356 cast aluminum
ZCast mold
Max dimension: 6x6x4
Max volume of mold: 900 cm
3
Max volume of part and gating: 300 cm
3
Must accept ABS LED holder and Thor Labs lens holder to hold in specified positions
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Lens
0.5 diameterplano convex lens
Thor labs 0.5 lens holder with SMA fitting
Fiber Optics
200m diameter
SMA fitting on each end
About 2-3 feet in length
Detection
Ocean Optics USB4000 spectrometer w/ SMA input, .3 10 nm Resolution
Ocean Optics Spectra Suite software
Spectral AnalysisMicrosoft excel data sheet with chromaticity calculation formulas
Detailed Design Solution
After further refinement of the resistance controlled design, we opted to modify the settings on the
variable power supply rather than using resistors. It achieves the same result of resistance controlled
output, and allows for fewer parts. The design was further condensed, allowing for less material usage.
The power source settings must be modified according to standard operating procedure in order to
control the light being received by the spectrometer. A technician operating the system will be able tofollow the instructions to get repeatable and reproducible results. Having a setting controlled design
allowed us to minimize cost and create a superior, more stable product.
Solidworks Model
From the conceptual design and the detailed design specifications, we produced several part models in
Solidworks. Individual part drawings with dimensions are included in the Appendix A-D. Figure 4 shows
the exploded assembly drawing of the LMS. Figure 5 illustrates the assembled LMS, showing alignment
of the components.
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Figure 4: Exploded assembly drawing, indicating the individual parts of the LMS
Figure 5: Assembled LMS, with section cut illustrating how the components integrate together to createthe system
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There were several features added to the final design to meet the design specifications. The sample
holder is composed of the LED wedge and LED inserts. The wedge shape allows for a reduction in both
ABS and aluminum material from the original circular design. The wedge locates the LEDs in proper
lateral alignment to transmit light along the center of the lens holder assembly. The three individual LEDs
are located the same distance from the axis pin, allowing for the same lateral alignment for each LED
during testing. The LED inserts stabilize the LEDs by sandwiching the LED between both ABS parts
preventing angular misalignment. The inserts are easily removable so a technician could exchange
samples in under a minute as per customer specifications. A dowel pin was incorporated into the design
allowing for consistent positional settings for each LED. The lens holder assembly is located into proper
position by the v shaped groove in the base. The lens holder assembly is held in place by two cable ties
that are inserted through the square holes in the casting. The ties are cinched down onto the lens holder
assembly to prevent misalignment from the moment the fiber optic cable exerts on the lens holder
assembly.
Fabrication and Assembly
The Solidworks model of the base was modified to create a mold for ZCast 501 rapid prototyping. A
pouring cup, sprue and risers were added to the model, allowing for a mold to be modeled. The ZCast
501 powder is the most expensive component and it is important to take account of the volume of powder
used to create the mold. The volume of the mold is 1081 cm3. The volume of A356 aluminum used in the
part including the sprue, pouring cup and risers is 137.20 cm3
with a mass of .370 kilograms. Figure 6
shows the ZCast 501 rapid prototype mold. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the mold prepared for casting,
and the casting process, respectively.
Figure 6: ZCast 501 rapid prototyped mold. The mold was produced in two sections to allow removal ofcasting sand from the mold cavity to avoid contamination
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Figure 7: ZCast 501 mold prepared for casting. Additional sand with oil based binder is placed around theparting line to avoid spilling of molten A356
Figure 8: Molten A356 is poured into mold until it overflows from risers
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Metallurgical Analysis of Casting
The casting incorporated a pouring cup, sprue and risers, Figure 9. The risers helped to reduce porosity
in the final product, and assisted in achieving a full fill. The risers allowed the part to draw in extra
material during shrinkage that occurred upon cooling. The risers and sprue were removed using basic
machining processes including a band saw and dremel tool. The risers and sprue were kept for
metallurgical analysis.
Figure 9: The casting after removal from the mold. Samples for metallurgical analysis were taken from the
sprue before and after heat treatment.
To produce the base, molten A356 aluminum at 740C was poured into the mold and allowed to solidify
by cooling for several hours. It is important to note that the casting was not equilibrium cooled, which
created thermal stresses in the part. In order to achieve superior mechanical properties (higher hardness
and strength), the part received a T6 heat treatment as per customer specifications. The time and
temperatures for each step of the heat treatment process and contained in Table III. In order to examine
the microstructure of the as cast aluminum, samples were taken from the sprue for hardness testing and
metallography before and after the heat treatment.
Sprue
Pouring
Cup
Risers
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Table III: T6 heat treatment specification for A356.1
Alloy Temper
Type of
casting
Solution heat treatment Aging treatment
Temperature Time, h Temperature Time, h
A356.0 T6 Sand 540 C 12 155 C 3-5
The sample was solutionized for 12 hours, a sufficient period of time to dissolve the silicon solid solution
that was precipitated out of the aluminum solid solution. The magnesium that provides the ability to
precipitation strengthening must also be dissolved into solution and allowed to diffuse into a
homogeneous solid solution. The temperature must be raised to a temperature near but just below the
eutectic temperature for the Al-Si system, and held at temperature for a sufficient period of time to allow
diffusion to occur to create the homogeneous solid solution. The sample must then be quenched to create
a supersaturated solid solution, a prerequisite for precipitation strengthening. The ASTM standards
specify that the sample be quenched in 65C-100C water to prevent thermal stress and quench cracks,
however due to lack of facilities and the fact that the base is a prototype that is not intended for extended
use, the sample was quenched in room temperature water. The base does not require optimal
mechanical properties or durability as testing will extend for only a one week period. Due to the thick
geometry of the part, there was not any significant relaxation from the residual stresses created during
casting that would change dimensions and geometry. A change in geometry would have been of concern,
however the design was robust enough to not exhibit any change. Other groups developing similar
systems have expressed that there were significant changes to geometry as a result of having thin,
unsupported sections and complex geometries. The release of residual stresses during the heat
treatment process had no significant effects on our casting.
Aside from the change in quenching temperature, the T6 heat treatment was performed according to
ASTM specifications, with the aging treatment held for three hours. Both the mold and the pouring
cup/sprue were given the same heat treatment. Additional samples for hardness testing and
metallography were taken from the sprue after completing the heat treatment. One important note is that
the testing conducted on the samples taken from the sprue may exhibit minor differences in
microstructure and hardness, as the sprue and risers were designed to contain the majority of the
porosity from the casting. To avoid using samples with porosity, the samples were taken from the end of
the sprue that meets with the casting. Metallurgical analysis was conducted to determine if the T6
condition was achieved, and to examine the effect of the heat treatment on the microstructure.
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Metallography
To examine the microstructure of the base in as cast and heat treated conditions, the as cast and heat
treated samples from the sprue were mounted in epoxy, ground and polished to 1m. The samples were
examined under an optical microscope and we determined that no etchant was necessary to examine the
important features of the microstructures, Figure 10.
Figure 10: Micrographs of as cast and heat treated A356 aluminum. Samples taken from sprue, mounted
and polished. No etchant used. Micrographs taken at 500x.
From the micrographs, we can see the significant changes between the as cast sample and the heat
treated sample. In the as cast sample, we can see the proeutectic (Al) grains that formed first upon
cooling, and the eutectic (Al) and (Si) between the proeutectic (Al) grains. The eutectic constituents form
a semi-lamellar structure. This is because the sample was allowed to cool faster than equilibrium
conditions. Under equilibrium conditions the sample would have been given sufficient time and energy to
diffuse into a well defined lamellar structure. A356 aluminum should exhibit approximately equal amounts
of proeutectic (Al) and the eutectic constituents, as determined from the Al-Si phase diagram, however
because the sample was not equilibrium cooled, there is a larger amount of proeutectic (Al). The sample
was not given enough time at a high enough temperature to allow the silicon to fully diffuse. We can see
that silicon was precipitated out of the proeutectuc (Al) due to the reducing solubility of silicon in
aluminum with a reduction in temperature. This is exhibited as darker splotches within the light grey (Al)
grains. These silicon precipitates do not strengthen the part. We can see an unidentified silicon
compound that formed as a separate phase. There is not much information available on this compound
from the sources referenced. A method of composition analysis such as Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
(EDS) would give info into its composition; however this method requires equipment outside the scope of
this project.
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We can see significant changes in the microstructure in the heat treated sample, the most noticeable
being the spherodization of the (Si) solid solution. The solutionizing step of the heat treatment process
gives the sample enough thermal energy to allow the (Si) to diffuse into spheroids which are a lower
energy state, and thus preferred by the alloy. We can see that the spheroids are much larger than the
lamellae, as several lamellae combine to form one spheroid. The precipitation strengthening Mg2Si
precipitates are not visible in optical light microscopy, so we must verify their presence with an alternate
metallurgical method. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) could be utilized to see the effect of the
strain fields produced in the sample by the precipitates; however a TEM was unavailable to this project.
The presence of the precipitates can be verified from hardness testing data.
Hardness Testing
In order to observe the effect of the heat treatment on the mechanical properties, namely hardness and
strength, hardness tests were performed on the as cast and heat treated samples taken from the sprue.
Samples were prepared with parallel faces In accordance with ASTM hardness testing procedurestandards. These samples were not mounted, as the mounting medium would interfere with the hardness
data. Five individual Rockwell hardness tests were performed on each sample; the data was averaged
and is contained in Table IV. The two samples required different scales, as the large difference in
hardness measurements between the two samples is too great to be measured on the same Rockwell
scale. For comparison, the Rockwell hardness data has been converted to the Brinell scale, better
representing the disparity in the data.
Table IV: Averaged hardness data with standard deviations. Rockwell hardness data was converted to
Brinell hardness for easier comparison
As Cast (HRE Scale) Aged T6 (HRB Scale)
Measured Average 55.8 62.38
5.12 3.19
Brinell conversion (500kg) ~ 52 HB ~98 HB
~denotes approximate ( 2 HB)
The standard deviation of the Rockwell data has been included; the max standard deviation is roughly 5%
of the average, indicating that the testing technique produced consistent data. We can compare the
hardness data to data from CES EduPack2
to determine if the T6 condition was satisfied. CES gives an
approximate upper limit for the A356 T6 Hardness range at 107 HV. The Hardness data for the heat
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treated sample can be converted to approximately 111 HV 5 HV which gives an error of approximately
4%. With such a small error, we can determine that the sample reached T6 condition. There are several
possible reasons for the % error in the data. The hardness measurements were converted to Brinell and
Vickers scales using a conversion chart, this provides only an approximation. CES provides a range of
approximations, comparing two approximations will give some error. Also the calibration of the hardness
tester (accuracy) is unknown.
The drastic increase in hardness verified the presence of Mg2Si precipitates. The increase in hardness
indicates in increase in strength. Since strength cannot be measured using the testing methods available
for this project, we can observe an increase in strength from the increase in hardness, as the two
properties are related. Hardness and strength are both a measure of the resistance to dislocation
movement through a sample. An increase in hardness indicates an increased resistance to dislocation
movement, which will also increase strength by approximately the same percentage.
Fabrication and Assembly for Fiber Optics and Lens Components
The fiber optic cables used in the LMS were fabricated from individual 3M components. The fiber is
200m and was installed into the furcation tubing, using epoxy to secure the fiber in the t ubing. The SMA
fittings were also secured using epoxy. After the epoxy set for several days, the protruding fiber was
cleaved off at the surface. The ends were then polished and inspected. An acceptable fiber was produced
to transmit the amount of light required for the system.
The lens components were assembled using two Thor Labs lens holder tubes, a 0.5in plano-convex lens,
SMA fitting and three 0.5in retaining rings. The positioning for the lens was calculated, and further fine
tuned through experimentation. Because the system uses a several components that are sensitive to
positioning, it is necessary for us to conduct a light attenuation analysis on the LMS.
Attenuation Analysis
The power output of each of the three LEDs (Red, Green, and Blue) has been measured in preliminary
testing. The power values were taken using a Thor Labs optical power meter with variable wavelength
settings, allowing accurate measurements of each wavelength that is important for the LMS. The power
values were measured as output from the LEDs alone, through the lens and SMA fitting, and through the
entire system. Testing was done in this manner to isolate each component of the system, all of which may
contribute power loss to the entire system, and we must consider each component individually to
understand where the loss is coming from. Preliminary testing data in contained in Table V
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Table V Testing of red LED to isolate attenuation from the lens holder assembly
Power from
LED
Power through lens
holder assembly
Power through
entire system
Loss from lens
holder assembly
Total loss
2.875 mW 720 W 5.654 W 6.01 dB 27.06 dB
To fully understand light loss in the system, we must examine the attenuation of the fiber optic cable. In
order to accurately measure attenuation from the fiber optic cable, we used the Ocean Optics LS1 power
source. This source produces stable light that can be accurately measured. The light from the power
source was measured using the Thor Labs optical power meter at each of the wavelength specified by
the LEDs. The measurements were not taken directly from the LEDs as it is difficult to isolate light
produced by the LEDs and transmit that light accurately without using a lens setup, introducing other
sources of loss. Taking measurements from the LS1 directly, and through the fiber optic cable allowed us
to achieve more accurate measurements. The difference between the power input and output through the
fiber optic cable are the measurements of concern. The data is organized in Table VI, includingattenuation calculations in decibels (dB).
Table VI Fiber optic cable attenuation at red, green, and blue wavelengths
Wavelength (nm) LS1 Power Output Fiber Optic Power Output Attenuation (dB)
465 2.500 mW 531.7 W 6.72
525 1.865 W 381.4 W 6.89
639 949.0 W 191.9 W 6.94
We can see that with longer wavelengths, attenuation increases; however it is a relatively small amount
that will be insignificant in our testing.
Next, the output of each LED was taken through the entire system to determine the intensity of light being
transmitted to the spectrometer. From this data we can analyze if the power is high enough to get an
acceptable signal to noise ratio. The data taken is organized in Table VII, including photons per second
calculations. The spectrometer requires 8600 photons to make one count and the ideal amount of counts
is 65000, providing a high signal to noise ratio. If there are more than 65000 counts, the spectrometer
becomes oversaturated and will not provide useful data. By the numbers listed above, it will take
5.59 108
photons to get accurate measurements.
Table VII Power readings using the LEDs at manufacturer recommended settings
LED Power (through system) Power (Photons/sec)
Red 8.424 W 2.34 10
Green 529.9 nW 1.47 10
Blue 1.899 W 5.275 1012
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From the data contained in Table III, we can see that there are more than enough photons transmitted to
the spectrometer to produce the data needed to do chromaticity calculations. The integration time must
be set in the range of milliseconds to capture the data without oversaturation.
Analysis
The fiber optic cable had attenuation in the 6-7 dB range for all of the wavelengths we are measuring. In a
preliminary test of attenuation for the entire system, we found that there was a total of about 27 dB of
attenuation; about 6 dB came from the led and lens holder assembly. With about 7 dB from the fiber optic
cable, there is a loss of about 14 dB from the interface between the SMA fitting on the lens holder and the
fiber optic cable. This could be from an incorrect focal distance or lateral or angular misalignment.
Another source of attenuation is from the Plano-convex lens, which causes chromatic aberration. The
focal length is slightly different for each wavelength.
Although there are a number of sources of loss in the system, adequate power is produced for accuratemeasurement of light.
Testing Methodology
Testing the LEDs for chromaticity values will be kept consistent by following standard operating
procedure (SOP). The SOP utilized for this system in contained in the appendix. Through preliminary
testing, we found that the light intensity was drastically different between each LED. The procedure to
allow for consistent testing is outlined in the SOP. There were several sources of misalignment in the
system, sources that could be resolved with a redesign. There was an error in the design for the base
mold, necessitating extensive machining in order to have proper alignment of the lens holder assembly.
The mold was redesigned for precise alignment, however a second casting was outside the budget for
this project. The tolerances between the LED wedge and the LED inserts that were intended to stabilize
the LEDs from angular misalignment were inadequate, requiring the addition of spacers. The alignment
issues could be fixed with proper tolerancing. Following the SOP, repeatability and reproducibility data
was acquired. The repeatability data was taken by testing each LED five times in a one hour period. The
reproducibility data was taken over a five day period, with different operators assembling the system and
testing each of the three led five separate times. All of the captured data was exported into the excel data
sheet referenced in the SOP. The excel data sheet performs chromaticity calculations on the data.
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Results and Color Analysis
The chromaticity data was compiled and analyzed in a repeatability study, Figure ##, and a reproducibility
study, Figure ##. Statistical analysis was used to verify the precision of the system. To determine if the
repeatability and reproducibility meet customer specifications, we examined the two sigma statistic. The
values listed in Figure 11 tell us that with 95% confidence that the true chromaticity coordinate is within 2
standard deviations. This is compared to customer specification and we were able to determine that the
repeatability and reproducibility for all chromaticity data was within customer specifications
Figure 11: Repeatability data (left) and reproducibility data (right)
It is important to note that the red x coordinate 2 in the repeatability study differs by an order of
magnitude from the rest of the data. This is likely due to the fact that the red LED was the first sample
tested, and the power supply may have been given insufficient time to warm up and stabilize. The red
LED also had the highest intensity, requiring a drastic reduction in operating voltage to avoid over
saturating the spectrometer. We determined that the LEDs produce different chromaticity data when
operated at different voltages, and since the RED led required a large change in operating voltage, it also
exhibits the highest error. It would be ideal to devise an alternate method of reducing the intensity of light
transmitted to the spectrometer, such as a neutral density filter. This would allow us to more accurately
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measure the chromaticity values by operating the LED at the Thor LABs specified voltage. The green
LED had a 2 x coordinate that differed from the rest of the data by an order of magnitude as well. This is
likely due to the fact that the green LED was the lowest intensity and required a modification of integration
time to capture usable data. The Green LED was also the loosest fitting of the three LEDs and could have
suffered from a small degree of lateral an angular misalignment, producing variability in the data.
The accuracy of the chromaticity data is more difficult to determine. Thor Labs did not provide
chromaticity specifications for the LEDs, so the data was compared to another group (Team Purple)###
that produced a LMS for the same Thor Labs LEDs. A two sample t-test was performed to compare the
data, the p values for comparison are contained in figure ##. The LEDs were also compared to the
chromaticity coordinates of the CRT standard(##). The chromaticity data and statistical comparison
between both groups and the CRT phosphors are charted in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Two sample t-test data between both LED groups (left) and chromaticity chart (right)
From the two sample t-test, we determined that only the red y coordinate and the blue x coordinate were
statistically similar. This indicates that either the chromaticity value of the LEDs tested by each group
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differed significantly, or that the SOP for each group differed significantly. The source of error could be
determined by testing the LEDs used by the other group in our LMS.
All chromaticity values for the Thor Labs LEDs differed significantly from the CRT phosphors, indicating
that LEDs are not a suitable replacement for CRT phosphors.
Conclusions
From the statistical analysis of the data, we were able to determine that the LMS produced chromaticity
data with precision within customer specifications. The Thor Labs LEDs tested in this system are not a
suitable substitute to match the chromaticity values of CRT phosphors.
Project Plan
To keep track of the tasks that were required in order to ensure completion of the LMS in the allotted
timeframe of 10 weeks, a work breakdown structure (WBS) Gantt chart was utilized to ensure that
sufficient progress was made. The Gantt chart is included in the appendix. This WBS was used to
estimate the time required for all tasks from inception of the project to completion. We were able to
estimate that 180 total man hours were spent on the project. This number could be reduced by allocating
fewer people to each task, as there were members of the group that were observing some of the
fabrication processes for learning experience.
Cost Analysis
With the cost of engineering labor at $100 per hour and 180 man hours spent, we estimated the total cost
of labor at $18,000. This value far exceeds the cost of materials and processing used to create the LMS.
The materials cost breakdown is shown in figure 13. The full bill of materials in included in the appendix.
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Figure 13: Cost of LMS, numbers on pie chart are in US dollars
The total materials cost was $320.67, significantly below the requirement of $500. The cost could be
significantly reduced by a redesign of the Z Cast mold. The volume of the mold was 1080 cm3
which was
above the specified volume of 900 cm3. The mold we utilized was up to two inches in thickness
surrounding the part; however it only needed to surround the features by a minimum thickness of .5 in
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References
1Strengthening by Heat Treatment Heat treatment of Aluminum Alloys, 2002 ASM Handbook,
Robert E Kennedy Library. 3 Dec 2010
2CES EduPack 2010 software, Granta Design Limited. Cambridge, UK. 3 Dec 2010.
3Abbaschian Reza Abbaschian and Robert E Reed-Hill, Physical Metallurgy Principles 4
thed.
Stamford. Congage Learning. 2009.