"london's water supply"

"LONDON'S WATER SUPPLY"Author(s): Henry BerrySource: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 92, No. 4661 (MARCH 17th, 1944), pp. 186-198Published by: Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and CommerceStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41362852 .

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1 86 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS Mar. 1 7, 1 944

Cantor Lectures Mondays, at 1.45 p.m.

March 20 and 27. - "Dehydration of Foodstuffs." By Franklin Kidd, m.a., d.sc., Superintendent, Low Temperature Research Station, Cambridge.

Status of Dried Foods before 1939. Progress during the present War. Retention of Palatability. Nutritive Value. Definition of Storage Conditions. Detailed Considera- tion of Various Dried Foods, their manu- facture, quality, and storage properties. Meat. Fish. Eggs. Soups. Milk. Potato. Green Vegetables. Other Vegetables. Fruit.

April 24 (ist of a series of two Lectures). - " The Future of Civil Aviation." By* Sir A. H. Roy Fedden, F.R.Ae.s.

N.B.- It is hoped to continue to provide Sandwich Luncheons from 1 to 1.30 p.m., at a charge of is. 6 d. per head. In order to avoid waste through over-estimating the number of those requiring lunch , and also to prevent dis- appointment , Fellows are asked to inform the Housekeeper of their requirements before noon of the day preceding the meeting.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY

SEVENTH ORDINAR Y MEETING Wednesday, January 19TH, 1944

The Right Hon. Viscount Falmouth, Comp.i.e.e., M.i.MECH.E., in the Chair The Chairman : It is a very great privilege

to me to be present at this meeting of the Royal Society of Arts. The subject of our lecture this afternoon is one of the most important matters which could be discussed, and I am glad to see, from this large gathering, that this is fully appreciated.

The problem of the water supply of all great cities is one which has existed ever since people began to congregate together in large numbers and, indeed, throughout the history of the world this question has been the limiting factor in respect of the size of cities. Many of the principal ruins of antiquity consist of the remains of aqueducts and are to be found on the sites of the great cities in the Mediterranean Basin. Some of these struc- tures are a wonderful tribute to the ancient engineers and they remind us of the important part water supply played in those times in the very existence of cities.

As it was two, three or four thousand years

ago, so it is to-day, and has been, right through the ages down to January, 1944. The same problem has always confronted man- kind : the supply of pure water to great cities.

Mr. Berry is going to tell us about London's water supply - the greatest city in the world. I think we can say that the Metropolitan Water Board is responsible for the supply of water to a greater population than any other undertaking ; for that reason alone it is of interest to us all. It is very disturbing sometimes to realise how little the average Lon- doner knows about his water supply. John Citizen goes to the tap and expects to get an ample supply of pure water day and night. But he does not give another thought to it except when he has to pay the water rate ! He does not think of the enormous problem of collècting that water, storing it, pumping it and distributing it to a very large number of small consumers. Nor does he think how that water supply has helped to save London from the great dangers through which we have been passing during the last four years. The work of the technical staff of the Metro- politan Water Board during the blitz period has been of the highest order ; it has enabled London to have a supply of pure water through one of the most difficult periods London has ever experienced.

Mr. Berry is well qualified indeed to give an account of London's water supply. As you probably know, he is Chairman of the Metro- politan Water Board, he is an engineer and he has been closely associated with the work of the Board for a number of years.

The following paper was then read : - " LONDON'S WATER SUPPLY "

By Henry Berry, , M.I.MECH.E., A. I. STRUCT. Е., Chairman , Metropolitan Water Board.

Consideration of the subject of water supply by the Royal Society of Arts is no new thing. I find that on January 30th, 1878, His Royal Highness, the then Prince of Wales, addressed a letter to the Chairman of the Society setting out the need for an enquiry into the water supply of the country.

Arising out of this, the Royal Society of Arts invited various people and authorities to submit papers and to take part in a congress on water supply held on Tuesday and Wednesday, May 21st and 22nd, 1878. This afternoon, therefore, we are following a very distinguished precedent, although the congress of May, 1878, dealt with the subject o£ a national water supply, whereas our subject to-day is that of the water supply of London.



Mar» 17, 1944 London's water supply 187

As with all great cities, water supply was a determining factor in the very beginnings of London, and has been a vital factor in its continuance. The very name " London " is derived from the Celtic words " Llyn Dun," the fort on the lake or the lagoon, the lagoon being formed by the low lying lands of what are now Lambeth, Southwark, Bermondsey,

Fig. i.

and Rotherhithe. The time at my disposal to-day does not allow me to trace the growth of London's water supply through the ages, fascinating though such a subject is, but reference can be made to three lectures I gave to the Metropolitan Water Board on February 19th and 26th, and March 5th, 1943, in which lectures I traced the Coming of the Companies, the Transitional Period during last Century, and the Early Days of the Board.

The major authority governing^London's water supply is the Metropolitan Water Board, which came into being as a result of the Metropolis Water Act, 1902. Prior to this Act there were eight Companies supplying water to what is now the Board's area. These were: The Chelsea Waterworks Co., East London Waterworks Co., Grand

Junction Waterworks Co., Kent Waterworks Co., New River Co., Southwark & Vauxhall Water Co., Lambeth Waterworks Co., and West Middlesex Waterworks Co.

The Board is composed of 66 members, 14 of whom are appointed by the London County Council ; one each by the County Councils of Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, Hert- fordshire and Essex ; two each by the Corporation of the City of London, the Council of the City of Westminster, and the




Council of the County Borough of West Ham ; one each by the remaining 27 Metro- politan Boroughs ; one each by the Councils of the County Borough of East Ham and the Borough Councils of Leyton and Waltham- stow, the Thames Conservancy, the Lee Conservancy ; and there are several groups of municipal authorities outside the County of London, each group returning one member to the Board. The term of office is three years, and the present Board is the thirteenth, being appointed in May, 1943, and holding office until the end of May, 1946.

I have the honour to be Chairman of the Board, the sixth in line of succession, but unfortunately only one of my predecessors is living, this being Col. Sir William Prescott, Bt., C.B.E., D.L., M.INST.C.E., M.I.MECH.E., who rendered distinguished service during his Chairmanship of twelve years* duration, and is still a member of the Board.

The area supplied by the Board extends from Ware, in Hertfordshire, in the north, to the borders of Sevenoaks in the south, and from Southfleet in the east to Sunbury in the west. It is a most irregular area, and one for which there is no logical reason other than it was the area supplied by the eight former water companies. In it there is an en- clave - Richmond- - which receives the best part of its water in bulk from the Board, but is its own distributor. Other authorities supplying the Greater London area are : South- West Suburban Water Co., Rickmansworth & Uxbridge Valley Water Co., Uxbridge Urban District Council, Colne Valley Water Co., Barnet District Gas & Water Co., South Essex Waterworks Co., Croydon Corporation, East Surrey Water Co., Sutton District Water Co., Epsom & Ewell Corporation, West Surrey Water Co., and Richmond Corpora- tion. The order for these is taken by starting from the west and progressing clockwise.

For war purposes, the Water Authorities in the London Civil Defence Region, that is, those just mentioned, are working together on a Committee known as " The War Emergency Water Committee of the London Civil Defence Region," of which I have the honour to be Chairman.

The work of this Committee deals with all matters of common interest. Intercommuni- cation of a higher order than previously has been established between the various com- ponent authorities enabling water to be diverted from one authority to another. Combined action has been taken in the direction of emergency plant which can be

used anywhere in the Region, and combined action has also been taken with regard to other matters as well. Tribute is paid to the help so readily given to the Board by the other Undertakings in the Region during the London blitz. After the first two meetings, during which the Committee was finding its feet, the proceedings have been marked by cordial co-operation, and it is hoped that the same spirit will prevail after the war. As Chairman of the Committee I would like to pay my tribute to every one of my colleagues who are operating this essential bit of real administrative common sense. It is a pity that the emergency caused by the war was required to produce it.

It may well be that in the consideration of the future water make-up of the country in general and of the London area in particular, attention will be given by the powers-that-be to the re-casting of the number of water supply authorities both in the countiy and in the London area.

For the purposes of this Paper I propose to regard the words " London's Water Supply " as relating to the area that is known as " Water London," which is the one supplied by the Metropolitan Water Board.

What is the problem confronting those who are responsible for London's water supply ? It is that of supplying a population which in pre-war days amounted to approximately 7 J millions with an average supply which again in pre-war days amounted to 300 million gallons. In order to get some comprehension of the figures involved, one can observe that the population in the Board's area of 540 square miles is greater than that of the whole of the continent of Australia, greater than the population of Sweden, nearly twice the population of Denmark, and approximately i£ times the population of the whole of Scotland. Other things may fail, but the water supply to these millions living and working at the very heart of the British Empire must not be allowed to fail.

Whence then comes the water ? From three main sources : (i) the Thames ; (ii) the Lee ; and (iii) wells in the Lee Valley, the Southern district, and Metro- politan Kent. The proportions are approximately two- thirds from the Thames, one- sixth from the Lee, and one-sixth from wells. The water obtained from all these sources has a common factor in that every drop of it must be pumped to its destination, whether that destination be the low-lying lands of Southwark and Bermondsey, or the heights



Mar. 17, 1944 London's water supply 189

of Hampstead and Highgate to the north, or the Crystal Palace and Shooters Hill to the south. Even where the lands are low-lying and adjacent to the Thames itself, pumping is still the order of the day, for all the Board's intakes are well up above the tideway and therefore are miles distant from these low- lying lands. Far different is the situation with the water supplies of Glasgow, Liverpool or Manchester, for these are essentially gravitational supplies. At the same time, I cannot help confessing to a feeling of relief that long aqueducts have not been super- imposed on the many other troubles that afflict the Metropolitan Water Board.

In theory the problem of water supply is a very simple one. It is to get water from some source and supply it to the consumer's

Fig. 2.

tap. If this were all - as^indeed it was in the early days of the Companies - life would be a much easier thing. In the minds of some people it still is all, as witness a good lady who, some years ago, came to the revenue hall at the Board's headquarters, and address- ing the cashier waiting at the receipt of custom, said : " Water is the gift of God and by what right does the Metropolitan Water Board dare to charge for it ? " The cashier, undoubtedly a sad loss to the diplomatic service, gave the soft answer which it is hoped turned away wrath : "You are perfectly right, Madam," quoth he, " water is the gift of God, but He uses the Metropolitan Water Board to bring it to your tap."

Raw water from the Thames or Lee is by no means in a condition fit for drinking, at least by 20th century Londoners, whatever may have been the views of Elizabethan and Jacobean Londoners, for it appears that these drank in faith, nothing doubting, and, taken by and large, survived.

Thames water, therefore, is pumped to one or other of the Board's storage reservoirs situated in the Thames Valley. En passant , I would observe that the remarks I make on Thames water also apply to that from the Lee. National security does not allow me to mention the exact location of these reservoirs, but it can be mentioned that the total storage capacity of all the Board's reservoirs of this type was 19,650 million gallons. But for the war three other reservoirs would by now have been constructed. The total storage capacity when these are completed will be approximately 32,000 million gallons.

On a pre-war basis of supply this would be equivalent to 106 days' reserve without taking in more from the Thames or Lee, but although proposals like the County of London Plan

and the Greater London Plan áre on hand with possible dissipation of population, it is gravely to be doubted whether the demand on the Board's supply will diminish. Every new house or flat replacing an old house or tenement will undoubtedly mean an increase in water demands.

It is difficult to prophesy in the foregoing direction, for I have in mind that a certain Royal Commission, in the closing days of last century, forecast that the population of the Board's area by the year 1940 would be twelve millions and the demand 421 million gallons per day. The pre-war population was, as already indicated, 7. J millions, but on more than one occasion in a hot summer the demand rose to over four hundred million gallons per day and, indeed, on one day topped the peak figure of 415 million gallons. The Board is alive to the possibilities not only of an increased demand per head, but also of an increased population due to social security measures.



190 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS Mar. I7, I944

While storage is essential for " ironing out " the peak points in demand and the trough points of the curve of supply, nevertheless it has other virtues. The very fact of storage tends to purify.

An interesting experiment was tried by the late Sir Alexander Houston, the Board's first Director of Water Examination, in which he put cholera microbes into water with a

Fig. 3.

strength of{ thirteen millions per cubic centimetre. After storage for one week they were reduced to twenty per cubic centimetre, and after three weeks all were dead. In like way a similar experiment was tried with typhoid bacilli to the extent of eight millions per cubic centimetre. After one week's storage the number was three thousand pei cubic centimetre, after two weeks thirty per cubic centimetre, while in four weeks all had disappeared. It is not always possible to store for four weeks, and

in consequence, filtration and other measures are necessary. Generally, after filtration it is found that 98 per cent, of the remaining bacilli have been removed.

Slow sand filtration was introduced into London by James Simpson, Engineer to the Chelsea and Lambeth Water Companies, and to-day is very little different in principle from what it was when he introduced the filter bed

in 1828. The average size of a filter bed remains much about the same as in Simpson's day - approximately one acre. Filtration was made compulsory by Act of Parliament in 1852.

The process of sand filtration is simple. The area of the filter bed has already been mentioned ; the depth is 10 to 12 feet ; the walls and floor are of concrete. The floor is covered with asphalte to form a seal and the sides vary from being almost vertical to having a slope of one in four. On top of the




asphalte, rows of bricks are laid about four and a-half inches apart, the channel being laid to the end from which filtered water is taken. Across these bricks rows of other bricks are laid with a narrow space between through which the water can flow down to the filter bed floor. Covering the second layer of bricks nine inches of coarse gravel is laid, followed by nine inches of fine gravel. The next layer is formed by twelve inches of finely sifted gravel (called hoggin) on top of which is the final layer of three feet (sometimes two feet six inches) of fine sand. The usual depth of water to be filtered is approximately two feet six inches above the top level of the sand.

It is essential that when water is turned on to a filter bed the flow should be of an easy nature so that the surface of the sand shall not be unduly disturbed. Any who have examined filter beds, either in work or just after the water has been drained off, will agree that the desired end is achieved in a really wonderful manner. Special ends are provided to the pipes supplying unfiltered water, and care is taken not to disturb the pipes in order to ensure a gentle flow.

The usual rate of slow sand filtration is about two gallons per hour per square foot of surface, which means that the total hourly rate of filtration for a normal filter bed is about 87,000 gallons. For the first two or three days after starting a new bed, or a newly cleaned bed, filtration is by no means good, but after this a gelatinous film forms on the top sand surface. It is this film which is really the finest filtering medium.

After a sand filter has been in use for four to five weeks, the gelatinous film becomes choked with impurities, and the rate of filtration is severely slowed down. The filter bed is then put out of commission, and about half-an-inch of the top sand is scraped off for cleaning. This layer of sand, which includes the gelatinous film, smells like decaying seaweed, and the smell is a sure indication that the filter has done its work. The sand is cleaned by water under pressure, is relaid on its bed, and the filter can be put in commission again.

The foregoing description is of slow sand filtration, and in former days, when the demand was by no means as great as to-day, slow sand filters amply filled the bill. With the increase in demand, two alternatives had to be faced. The first of these was to continue with slow sand filtration and to multiply the number of filters considerably. This

would have meant taking many acres of land. The alternative was to use what is known as primary or rapid filtration. By this means water is rápidly filtered, the worst of the impurities being removed, and final filtration is performed by the slow sand filters at two to two and a-half times the ordinary rate. The rate of filtration by primary filters is 120 gallons per sq. ft. surface or 60 times that of slow sand filtration.

The cleaning of primary filters is performed mechanically by means of compressed air and water, again at a much higher rate than is possible with the usual methods for cleaning slow sand filters, the relative rates being 20 minutes per bed and five to six days.

Until water examination really became a science, that is to say, from the early days of this century, filtration - in those days by the slow sand method - was considered to be quite sufficient to ensure water purity. With the constant demand for higher and yet higher standards from both chemical and bacteriological standpoints, it was slowly but surely borne in on the Board that filtration alone would not give the requisite standard of purity. Another factor, therefore, had to be introduced, a factor that would ensure purity from both standpoints. The agènt most generally used in this country for the purpose is chlorine, and it is this agent, albeit used in higher quantities than is usual in thè piping times of peace, that was one of the factors that enabled London during the hectic times of the " blitz " to escape withoút a typhoid epidemic. Experiences of continental cities under similar conditions have been unhappy, but up to the present the Board justly prides itself on the fact that there has not been a single case of typhoid due to enemy action in its area. It is using every endeavour to see that this proud boast is maintained to the end. Herein is a fulfilment in modern guise of an ancient prophesy. In Holy Writ we read of the sword being beaten into the ploughshare and the spear into the pruning-hook ; in other words, instruments of destruction being con- verted in the ideal state into instruments for the preservation and prolongation of human life. During the 1914-1918 war the weapon used in the first gas attack at Ypres - so disastrous to many Canadian fellow citizens of the British Commonwealth - was chlorine. This same gas is used to safeguard the health and life of the teeming millions of London citizens.

Chlorination was originally used on water derived from river sources, water from wells



1 92 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS Mar. 1 7, 1944

sunk in the deep chalk or green sand being then of the necessary purity without treatment by chlorine. Indeed, the Rivers Pollution Commission of 1869 stated, in reference to water supplied by the Kent Company : " The supply of such water, either softened or unsoftened, to the Metropolis generally would be a pricèless boon, and would at once confer upon it absolute immunity from the epidemics of cholera."

With building development taking place in Metropolitan Kent, in the Southern district, and in the Lee Valley, the gathering grounds feeding thè wells in these districts tended to become less pure than heretofore, and the decision was made progressively over a period of years that well-derived water should be chlorinated in addition. At the present day

Fig. 4.

all the Board's water whether river-derived or well-derived is chlorinated.

While tribute is paid to the services rendered by chlorine as a purifying agent, it is a very moot point as to whether it will continue to have a virtual monopoly for there are other " Richmonds " in the field, notably ozone. This purifying agent, which is a triatomic allotrophic form of oxygen with a loosely-held third atom in the molecule, is used in a number of continental cities with very good results. Up to the present it has not had a wide use in this country although it is gaining in favour as a purifying agent for swimming bath water. Without being a prophet, or the son of a prophet, for prophesy, as stated earlier, is notoriously a risky business, I would not be surprised if, as part of the post-war make-up, much more consideration was given by the Board and other water authorities to the use of ozone as a purifying

agent. There is this much to be said, chlorinated river water has a somewhat flat appearance. Similar water ozonised has the live, sparkling appearance of well water. If such an appearance can be obtained, coupled with equal safeguards for purity, it may well be that public demand will become the determining factor in the choice between the two sterilizing agents.

It is axiomatic that after filtration and sterilization water shall not see the light of day again until it appears at the consumer's tap. This does not necessarily mean that there is direct connection between the pumping station and the consumer's tap. Indeed, such a general arrangement would be faulty, for it would mean that if pumping ceased for any reason whatever then there

would be interruption to the supply. It is, therefore, necessary that something shall inter- vene between the pumping station and the consumer, and this something is provided by storage reservoirs which are completely en- closed. These range in size from the largest, which has an area of 14^ acres and a total capacity of 56 million gallons with a maximum depth of water of 34 ft., down to compara- tively small ones with a capacity of roughly one million gallons.

Up to now I have referred to the sources of London's water and the means of storage and purification. To give passage from the pumping stations to the storage reservoirs, from the storage reservoirs to the service reservoirs, and from the service reservoirs to the consumer's tap, many miles of mains of various sizes are required, these being approximately 8,275 miles in length. The mains range from 54 in. down to 3 in. and




»ó d £




4 in. From these mains communication pipes to consumers' premises are run. Prior to ist April, 1933, all communication pipes were the responsibility of the consumer, and in some cases real hardship was suffered by consumers when these communication pipes burst. Under Sections 3 to 12 of the Metro- politan Water Board Act, 1932, the responsibility for these communication pipes was transferred from the consumer to the Board, subject always to the first cost of installation being borne by the consumer. This transfer of responsibility for upkeep from the consumer to the Board conferred a very real benefit on the millions of consumers in Water London.

A Paper on London's water supply read at the present time would be incomplete without some reference to war-time experiences. As with the rest of the Paper, questions of national security forbid too explicit and too complete references, but certain things are allowed to be mentioned. For instance, my friend, the Right Hon. Herbert Morrison, m.p. , Secretary of State for the Home Department and Minister of Home Security, was able to state when he visited the Board on October 22nd, 1943, that up to the end of October, i94°> 3>oo° mains of all sizes had been smashed, due to enemy action, and he congratulated the Board on the restoration of all those mains shortly after the end of that month. This by no means tells the whole story concerning mains broken by enemy action - in fact, it does not represent one half the story - and at one period two passages from one of Tennyson's poems came very vividly to my mind. These were : " Break, break, break," and " О that I could utter the thoughts that arise in me."

In the time prior to the war the Board had not been idle. Due preparation had been made for enormous stocks of mains to be laid in, so enormous that I told the Board's Stores Officer that had he acted in a similar way in peace-time I would have felt com- pelled to recommend his dismissal. Under the circumstances I had nothi/ig but praise for his action.

Emergency pumping plant of a mobile type, including boilers, engines, pumps, generators and motors had been acquired, although in this direction I am happy to say that only one of the Board's main stations was shut down, that, incidentally, due to an alleged D.A. bomb. Here the emergency plant was started up in a very few hours after the shut-down.

Mobile chlorinators were obtained and were used for the sterilisation of mains after repair. This course was emphatically necessary owing to the fact that at times the contents of sewage conduits mingled with the contents of the Board's mains. As a precaution against results from such an occurrence the dose of chlorine was doubled from its pre-war strength with a triumphant result that, in spite of typhoid epidemics that swept some continental cities after their water supplies had beein smashed, not a single case of water-borne disease occurred in London due to enemy action.

Some hundreds of water tanks were acquired, and on one occasion over three hundred and fifty 5oo-gallon mobile tanks were being used to supplement the supply in one pöpulous London district.

While all the Board's staff worked well, tribute should be paid to the turncocks who, braving the enemy " blitz," went out and shut the valves on damaged mains, thereby limiting the waste of water and the possible sources of contamination.

While the emergency water sei vice of the Fire Brigade has been developed, thanks to the lessons taught by the war, mention should be made that in the early days all that admirable service had to rely on was the water supplied through the Board's mains or what was left of those mains. In spite of all the trouble, during more than one 24-hour period water was supplied for fire fighting purposes alone equal to double the daily supply for all purposes of more than one front-rank provincial city.

As one who never did believe in being a purely nominal Chairman, but who shared in the dangers, difficulties and worries with his staff, I can bear testimony to the debt that London in its hours of agony owes to my loyal and devoted colleagues from the highest to the lowest in rank.

It is also possible to indicate something of the measures taken should the Board's general system be put out of action. Refer- ence has already been made to the scheme for supply by tank waggon. A yet further line of defence is the arrangement made whereby certain private wells can be used by the Board in emergency. Measures are complete whereby this line of defence can be put into operation practically immediately the need arises. Nor is this the final line of defence, for mobile filtration plant has been obtained for dealing with water from other sources - streams, ponds, rivers - and not only[has been



Маг. 17, 1944 London's water supply 195

obtained, but has been tested, the tests convincing even the most sceptical members of certain public health committees. It may well be that these things will never be required, and I would much rather that the time, trouble and money should have been expended in preparation and then they should never be needed than that an emergency should arise and catch the Board halting on one foot.

At this stage I might be permitted to say that - apart from patriotic reasons and my pride in being an Englishman - I would much rather be Chairman of the Metropolitan Water Board, London, with all its troubles, than my opposite number in Berlin. I say this even having regard to the dread possibilities that might still come upon our capital city.

Even the worst of things brings some good in its train and the outcome of the war has had a good effect with regard to the relations between the Metropolitan Water Board and its consumers. It may be that the interrup- tions to the service, which the Board endeavoured to keep to a minimum, have brought home to the average London water consumer the really good service that was theirs in normal times. At all events, the relations are much better, fewer complaints are received, and the response to the Board's appeals for co-operation in the direction of water economy was generous. It must not be supposed that everybody practised the same economy as was practised by the highest in the land. Indeed, it is doubtful whether the 5 in. bath ever became the general practice, although to the joy of some small boys, fewer baths were the order of the day, but, taken by and large, there was a very real response tp the Board's appeal. The aim was to lower consumption by 20 per cent, below the pre- war figure. This aim was not achieved, but some remarkably low figures of consumption were achieved. During 1943 whatever resolutions might have been made on January ist, it is clear that if these related to water economy, they were not practised to the same extent in the preceding years, and it cannot be too strongly pointed out that all the while the war lasts and longer the need for water economy is still with us. The aim of the Water Board is to supply every drop of water that is necessary, but it never has set out to supply a single drop to waste. An instance of the co-operation of the public is the response that was made to the Board's promise to supply washers to remedy leaky taps. No fewer than 315,908 washers were

supplied free for the public to fix. The saving of water that resulted from this can easily be approximated when it is remembered that with a leaky tap having 30 drips per minute the loss in gallons per day is 1*1; 60 drips per minute give a loss of 2*3 gallons per day ; 120 drips per minute 4*75 gallons per day ; and 240 drips per minute 10 gallons per day loss. These are results obtained from actual tests. Even on the slowest rate of drip mentioned there would ensue a loss ot 401*5 gallons per annum. It, would therefore appear that the water saved by the supply of these washers amounted to approximately 126 million gallons over a period of 20 months, during which the washers were issued.

The Board has taken an active part in the fuel economy campaign. As was mentioned earlier in this Paper, every drop of London's water has to be pumped, and whether the prime movers be actuated by steam, electricity, or fuel oil it means that fuel is used for every drop of water consumed. Taking a low computation of a ton and 9-half of coal per million gallons pumped, the saving in connection with the leaky tap campaign would amount to 189 tons. Quite small, it is true, but added to the other economies the Board was able to effect, it took its place in the fuel economy campaign. A special fuel efficiency officer was appointed to see that the most economical use was made of fuel, and there was active co-operation with the Government in trying out and using inferior forms of fuel, such as anthracite duff, opencast coal, etc., etc.

In closing, may I express the hope that Londoners will realise more and more that the Metropolitan Water Board is their servant and has endeavoured in the previous time of peace, as well as in war, to serve them well ? It will be the Board's endeavour progressively as time goes on, to improve the service and ever to adapt itself to the develop- ing needs of those whom it is privileged to serve .

[Since I wrote this paper a message has been received from the British Waterworks Associ- ation who have been asked by the Home Office to request me to make some reference to the question of the fouling of static water tanks. It seems that in many cases the water in these tanks has been fouled ; it then has to be drawn off and so becomes a loss. In one district alone a million and a quarter gallons of water was wasted in that way in August, 1943. I am sure that that will appeal to you, and I hope that all of you will do your utmost to prevent a recurrence of this wanton waste of water contained in static water tanks.}



iç6 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS Mať. 1 7, 1 944

DISCUSSION Mr. Gilbert Bentley : I should like to

ask whether all Britain's water comes from rainfall, and if not, where it does come from ? If the source is other than rainfall, is anything beiñg done to increase it ?

Mr. H. Berry : Yes, taken by and large it all comes from rainfall.

Mr. Gilbert Bentley : I was speaking to a dowser sometime ago who said he thought that a lot of water came from the tides.

Mr. H. Berry- : On the whole we are de- pendent upon rainfall, but it is possible that the question of the distillation of sea water may form the subject of future research.

Mr. E. J. Shea, m.r.san.i. (General Secre- tary, National Registration of Plumbers) : First of all, I should like to thank Mr. Berry for his excellent paper. For some years I have been connected with the plumb- ing trade and therefore I know something about water and about London's water supply. I have listened with great interest to Mr. Berry's account of the production of water añd I have seen most of the Metropolitan Water Board's worksi In 1938, by the cour- tesy of Col. Davidson, I took to one of the largest parts of the Board's undertaking, a party of 98 plumbers who were all qualified and who had a good knowledge of the conser- vatism and treatment of water supply ; but they had not seen any works before, and I can say that they were greatly surprised at the extent of the Board's works, the care which was taken in them, and the efficiency of everything which they saw.

In the discussion which followed that visit there was no adverse criticism, and the whole party was satisfied that the production part of tHe undertaking was perfect ^ but they were not quite so satisfied about the distribution because they found that when the water was delivered to the houses and factories anybody could come and do any kind of work with any kind of material that it was possible for them to use. This obtained at any rate up to the year 1935. Since then there has been a certain amount of inspection which guaran- tees a certain standard of materials, but there is still no guarantee as to the labour which uses those materials. It is true that so far as the Board deals with maintenance and con- struction they have given preference to qualified and registered plumbers, but we should welcome some method of insistence by the Metropolitan Water Board that qualified plumbers only should be employed.

It has been my duty durinfe the last six months to read through the regulations of some fifty of the larger water undertakings in Great Britain, and I have found that there is a great diversity of common practice. In some towns certain fittings have one specification and in others a different specification and standardisation on the highest level would be welcomed.

Mr. Berry : I can assure Mr. Shea that when the Board's regulations come up for reconsideration in the near future the points raised by him will not be overlooked.

Sir Herbert B. Cohen, bt. : May I express the hope that the Metropolitan Water Board will continue its present system of reservoirs because the system of aqueducts, although a tribute to the Romans, would not be adequate in London. Mr. Berry has told us that the system of reservoirs we have in London gives us a 106 days' reserve. I think the Board is very much to be congratulated upon that, because my experience is that the maximum period without an appreciable amount óf rain is 120 days, so that according to Mr. Berry's figures we are doing very well.

I should also like to mention that later information has shown that there is an improvement in the quality of water in an open reservoir, as against the underground reservoir, because air makes a différence. Water kept in covered tanks is not improved.

With regard to enemy action, we know how to repair pipes, but concrete tanks are very difficult.

Mr. H. Berry : That 106 days will be the storage capacity when the reservoirs are complete, but it is not the capacity just now. 106 days is, of course, getting very near to the 120 days' period without water.

The effect of storage on the life of the two types of microbes most likely to convey disease in river water was carefully tested by the late Sir Alexander Houston. It was found that at the end of four weeks' storage the microbes had all died.

Mr. Sydney J, Marlow : In view of the fact that the water position sometimes causes anxiety could not more independent wells be put down ?

Mr. H. Berry : No. Our trouble is that any private individual can sink a well on his own account and draw on the water from far and near, whereas the Metropolitan Water Board and all other Water Undertakings have




to seek Parliamentary sanction to sink such a well.

Mr. D. K. Rollit (General Secretary, Institution of British Launderers, Ltd.) : Up to the present we have been considering water from the domestic point of view ; may I ask a question about water from the point of view of trade ? There are some industries which use a great deal of water in processing, and I should like to know whether Mr. Berry can give us any indication as to the possibility of obtaining supplies of water for that purpose at a cheaper rate than at present. In some parts of the country water charges are very high and that has led to the sinking of independent wells. I am wondering whether any research has been done, and whether there is any prospect of water being cheaper.

Mr. H. Berry : The Metropolitan Water Board is a statutory undertaking and can only get its income from its consumers. In the north there are differential water rates. Water for fire-fighting purposes is supplied free of charge and the' cost can therefore be said to be borne by those consumers paying water rates. An individual having his own well supply has the advantage of the Board's supply for fire -fighting purposes without payment. In the absence of a supply from the Board such individual would doubtless be called upon to pay a much higher fire in- surance premium. In some towns a public water rate is levied on all premises, whether receiving a supply of water or not. This rate is in addition to the charges assessed for water supplied by the Undertaking con- cerned. If you think it out you will find that it is a very logical system, bearing in mind the fire protection aspect. With regard to the matter of lower water charges for industry, the present position is that the more water you use the lower the rate is per thousand gallons. I am afraid that at the present time I cannot hold out any hope of a reduction in the present charges for non-domestic purposes.

Mr. Gilbert Bentley : I am afraid that I take, exception to what Mr. Berry has said about only the Metropolitan Water Board being able to supply water in times of stress. I govern business where we have static water on tap (50,000 gallons every day) and we supplied it on at least two occasions when the Board's mains were broken.

Mr. Berry : I do not dispute that ; wells are a second line of defence. It is all very well for people to talk about static water

supplies, but mány of them are supplied from the Board's mains. At one time theťe was a little liveliness about who should pay for water used for the filling of tanks or dams for the National Fire Service, but it was eventually agreed that the Fire Brigades Department of the Home Office should pay for the first filling and all subsequent replenishments thereof, except when necessary to replace water used for extinguishing fires.

Mr. P. D. Liddiard, b.sc., a.lc. : Mr. Berry has said that thè Board is willing to supply every drop of water that is required, but not water to be wasted; millions of gallons, however, are wasted daily in industrial premises as cooling- water, and in other ways. I suggest that an examination of that problem should be made, because that water is often not contaminated and could be used again.

Mr. H. Berry : Speaking as an engineer I agree that there is plenty of room for research in the handling of cooling-water. We engineers pride ourselves on being scien- tific, but we also learn a great deal by trial and error. I agree, however, that research could usefully be instituted on the problem of the use and re-use of cooling-water.

Mr. Raikes Newbery : Since we have heard a good deal about waste of water I should like to ask whether filtered water is used for putting out fires. If so, it seems to me to be very extravagant.

Mr. H. Berry : Some of us feel the same way. I will give you an illustration of why filtered water is used for putting out fires. A certain large organisation complained to us that its water supply was fouled. That particular organisation had a dual water supply : the Board's water and an unfiltered supply of its own. What had happened was that somebody had connected up the two supplies.

It does, perhaps, seem wasteful to use filtered water for putting out fires, but' on the other hand we must defend ourselves against fools ! .If there are the two supplies of water there is no guarantee that they will not be linked up by someone. Until there is some guarantee about that I think it is just as well to be on the safe side. At the present time the Fire Service is using both raw river water and some of the Board's water ; but what will happen after the war I do not know. I do not think the Fire Service will want to be bothered with their own water supply, and I can see many dangers in having a dual scheme.



198 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS Mar. 1 7, 1 944

Mr. H. J. Scott, a.m.i.mech.e. : Mr. Berry has told us that about one-sixth of the total water supply comes from wells. I should like to know something about the output of wells ; whether their output is satisfactory or whether the wells are going down and, if so, whether it is due to industry.

Mr. H. Berry : It is a fact that a large number of wells have lowered the level of water table in London. There was one large firm which sank a well and that fact caused a number of other businesses all round to sink their own wells also. The general effect, since 1907, of the multiplication of wells has been a lowering of the water table in London.

Mr. Rollit : May I ask whether the question of wells is not being dealt with in the new Water' Undertakings Bill ? , Mr. H. Berry : All that I can say is that I believe the Ministry of Health has given the matter their consideration.

Mr. S. J. Marlow : Does all water belong to the Metropolitan Water Board ?

Mr. H. Berry : No. But it belongs to all the citizens óf London and not to just a few of them.

The Chairman : I think that we have had a most interesting paper and discussion and I should now like to propose a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Berry.

The vote of thanks was carried by acclama- tion.

The Rev. Ethflbert Goodchild, m.a., f.tel.soc. : I should like, on your behalf, to express our gratitude to the Chairman for the way in which he has conducted our meeting this afternoon.

I have been reminded that when the great Leonardo was consulted about the planning of new Italy, he replied, " Build 5,000 houses along a river bank " so that the problem of water supply should be solved.

With regard to the question of chlorination we are aware that the chlorination of water is not a pleasant thing. Those of us who have been in the habit of swimming at Hurlingham have had a great deal of our pleasure neutra- lised by the unpleasant aroma of the water. I am therefore glad to hear that a new method may supersede the old method of disinfection. Ozonation is the method by which nature keeps us alive through the cosmic rays which - from beyond the Milky Way - perpetually bombard the upper atmosphere and create Os as the primary source of 02, and as long as that agency functions we shall continue to

enjoy lectures such as the one we have heard to-day !

Mr. H. Berry : May I say how very glad both Lord Falmouth and I are to have been here to-day and to see the interest which has been taken in this subject ? It was most appropriate that Lord Falmouth should have beén our Chairman to-day because he is President of the Conjoint Conference which deals with water, gas and electricity. He has been President of that Conference for many years and I have every hope that he will be re-elected on the 26th of this month.

I hope that the growing interest in public utilities will continue because I believe that public bodies work best when they receive a certain amount of intelligent criticism.

DR. MANN JUVENILE LECTURES , 1944.

(I) HOW BIRDS LIVE AND FLY By Roland Green*, m.b.o.u., f.r.s.p.b.

Illustrated by Blackboard Sketches.

Delivered January $thy 1944. I have been interested in birds since my

childhood, and, having painted pictures of them for many years, my interest has been so intensely focussed on their size, shape, colour, appearance, habits and song that my observa- tion has become, so I am told, almost micro- scopic.

It is not, however, as an expert that I speak to you to-day, but as a bird-lover who would like others to share the pleasure that a greater knowledge of birds and their ways can bring.

Most people know the " common or garden birds " (that hackneyed phrase describes them perfectly, for they are common and are usually seen in the garden), the robin, the thrush, the tomtits and the tiny wren (Fig. 1). Few people, however, think much about birds or remember that, apart from their usefulness, they add form, colour, grace, life, melody and charm to the amenities of the English landscape.

A great deal of good work is done by birds in destroying caterpillars and grubs which are harmful to crops. The most useful are the soft-billed birds, which live entirely on insect food. The others, whose mature bills are strong enough to crack seeds, also collect large quantities of insects as food for their young.



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