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DOLOR SET AMET

LOREM IPSUM

CHAPTER 7∏

THE GREAT WAR

World War I, the Great War, the War to End All Wars...so many names, and so much destruction. In this chapter, see why World War I was the most disastrous war the world had ever seen (until World War II).

IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL...

• Read about the American approach to World War I at its inception.

• Learn about the causes of World War I.

CHAPTER 7, SECTION 1∏

America’s isolationist approach towards Europe continued until 1914 when we got involved with foreign powers about the war. Up until this point, our main foreign involvement was in Latin America. But as time went on, Wilson’s policies abroad changed with it. Missionary diplomacy was the term that most historians use to describe Wilson’s approach to the war. It was an internationalist idea where Wilson believed the U.S. had a strong role to play in the world with an emphasis on morality.

President Wilson viewed the world through a good vs. evil lens. He believed certain countries and leaders were inherently good and some were just plain awful. The United States, in his eyes, was the best in the world because it could do the most good. Our responsibility was to spread democracy and morality to those who needed it. If we were to be more internationalist (involved in foreign affairs), it was because it was the right thing to do, not to further our agenda, wealth, etc...

Another approach to foreign policy that I previously mentioned came from the mind of Teddy Roosevelt. His attitude toward foreign policy was to “speak softly, and carry a big stick.” Roosevelt wanted to emphasize American force and strength around the world. He believed that nations acted out of self-interest, and that his policy was more realistic, not idealistic (like Wilson’s). T.R. believed that the U.S. needed to do things that were necessary for our survival and security because that’s what every other nation was doing.

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Missionary Diplomacy & the Outbreak of WWI

Roosevelt and Wilson virtually have the same ideas; they both believed that America should be involved in the world, but had a different approach as to how/why we should do things.

So what do all of this have to do with World War I? As you read on, you might wonder why Woodrow Wilson didn’t involve the U.S. in the war sooner (something that Teddy Roosevelt probably would have done). In order to understand his diplomatic, non-aggressive approach, you need to understand how he viewed the

world. Wilson had a strong religious background, and saw the world (as I said) in a good vs. evil way. This strongly affected his foreign policy ideas because he acted out of morality, not what was in the best interest of the United States.

World War I began in the late summer of 1914. The one event that triggered its beginning was the political assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in June of 1914. But wars on this scale don’t just begin because one thing happens. In reality, there were five other causes that initiated the war:

1. Entangling Alliances--Throughout Europe, numerous countries made defense agreements that eventually pulled them into battle against each other. In other words, if one country was attacked, then all the other ones allied with them were forced to go to war as well. Alliances prior to the war included:

• Russia and Serbia

• Germany and Austria-Hungary

• France and Russia

• Britain, France, and Belgium

• Japan and Britain

Take a look at how countries were pulled into war against each other. This next portion is pulled from About.com contributor Martin Kelly and his analysis of Mutual Defense Alliances:

“Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France

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Archduke Franz Ferdinand

was then drawn in against Germany and Austria- Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies.”

Crazy, right?

2. Militarism--As technology improved into the 20th century, countries around the world engaged in an arms race. This means that nations increased their militaries by amassing weapons, troops/soldiers, and improving navies.

3. Imperialism--As we learned in previous chapters, imperialism is a nation’s conquest of other territories around the world. Prior to the beginning of WWI, European countries fought incessantly over countries in Africa and Asia for their natural resources and raw materials. The need to compete for these countries led to tensions that would escalate to World War I.

4. Nationalism--The definition of nationalism is pride in one’s own country. Each country in the world wanted to assert its dominance and power over others.

5. No Way to Keep the Peace--The world had no international peace-keeping organization. The World Court in The Hague (Netherlands) had no

real power to enforce its rulings. Consequently, war seemed to be the only way to settle disputes between nations.

After Ferdinand’s death, there were “official” war alliances that formed in Europe. The basic two camps that fought against each other were the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Allied Powers (France, Russia, England). By the middle of August, these two alliances were fighting against each other. The U.S. was not involved yet, but we were watching things in Europe very closely.

When war broke out in August, Wilson initially said that he wanted America to remain neutral. He explained to Americans that this war didn’t matter to us, and that if we did get involved, it would only cause troubles for the United States. A lot of our population was also comprised of immigrants, and if the U.S. sided with one alliance, it could create divisions and civil strife at home.

By the end of 1914/early 1915, however, the public and the government was leaning towards the Allied side. There were numerous things happening that caused this change, and in the next section, you’ll read why.

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• Understand how the public and government began to lean toward the Allies during WWI.


Many times during WWI, it was hard to decide which side the Americans would be on. The war was all about geo-political (worldwide) power, and which power would become dominant in Europe. But the U.S. quickly decided that when (or if at this point) we got involved in the war, we’d be on the Allied side for these reasons:

1. Our cultural connections with Great Britain. We were a part of the English empire at one point, and we had a “bond” with them that pulled us toward them and the Allies.

2. Economic forces. We conducted trade with the British. We also did business with Germany, but not nearly as much as England. Economically, it was in America’s best interest for the Allies to win the war. Plus, both France and Great Britain were indebted to us, and if we wanted our money back, we needed an Allied victory.

3. Early in the war, the American public decided that Germany was the bad guy. The Germans used the u-boat (early form of a submarine) to sneak up on Allied forces and attack boats with torpedoes. At this time, their conduct violated conduct of war. A ship would get blasted and many people died immediately. The American public saw this as dishonorable, and wanted to join forces with their opponents.

To compound matters with the u-boats, the Germans announced in early 1915 that they would use the u-boat to attack enemy and civilian vessels. Both Americans

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Public Support for the Allies

and President Wilson were bothered by their declaration. The German rationale for doing this was to take out British and French civilian ships that were disguised as military vessels (a lot of times, the British and French disguised their military ships as civilian boats to carry war materials). They didn’t care if the ship was in fact a civilian boat; they wanted unrestricted u-boat warfare.

The U.S. saw many of their citizens in danger. If a ship were mistaken and sunk, Americans could die. Many folks from the

United States traveled on British luxury liners. So in the spring of 1915, Wilson came out and condemned the use of the u-boat. Wilson claimed that if we lost any citizens, he would hold the German government accountable. We would not let our citizens and property be lost by the use of the u-boat because their strategy was immoral.

For a while, nothing happened. But in May 1915, the Lusitania (a British luxury ship) was sunk by a German u-boat off the coast of Ireland. The Lusitania transported

U.S. citizens from Europe to America...and it also had contraband/war materials. It sunk rather quickly because the torpedo hit the hull where the contraband was, and created an explosion. Roughly 1,200 people were killed, 128 of them being American citizens.

The sinking of the Lusitania created war fever in the U.S. during the summer of 1915 in America. But for a variety of reasons, Wilson did not want us to be involved in the war. Instead of going to Congress for a war declaration, he demanded that Germany apologize to us and the victims’ families, and that they pay reparations to America. Wilson also demanded that the Germans renounce unrestricted warfare and leave civilian vessels alone.

The Germans initially refused Wilson’s requests, but in March of 1916 they capitulated. They issued the Sussex Pledge, promising only to go after naval ships with their u-boats. They also issued an apology and gave reparations (money) to the victims’ families in the U.S. For a while, this quieted the talk of war and we were able to get around the Lusitania tragedy. But with American citizens, this was the last straw in terms of the good-guy/bad-guy conversation. We determined it was most definitely the Germans, and if we did enter the war, we’d be on the Allied side.

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R.M.S. Lusitania


• Read about the Election of 1916

• Comprehend the events leading up to American involvement in the war.


In the fall of 1916, we were still a neutral country in the war. But a lot of our financial support was given to the Allies. Part of the reason why Wilson did not take us into WWI in 1915 was because of the political consequences he could suffer. Historians also believe he didn’t go to war in 1915 was because it was a corrupt war, and that he didn’t want Americans to die.

By 1916, the Republican Party was reunited, and the political atmosphere had drastically changed. Wilson’s reelection was not going to be easy. He would run against Charles Evans Hughes (left). Hughes was a progressive governor from New York, and was a pretty significant

political figure in this time period. As the campaign heated up, the most important issue became WWI. The public’s idea was that Wilson was experienced, and that he had kept us out of the war thus far. With this stance of neutrality still being popular (and Wilson’s experience), Americans put Wilson back in office, but only by a narrow margin. He won the popular vote by a 3% margin (49-46), and took the Electoral College with a 277-254 victory.

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Road to War

Wilson used his position (as a war bystander) to attract both camps in Europe to try and begin peace communications in late 1916. At this point, both sides combined had lost millions of men and did not want to settle the war; they just wanted to win. Wilson tried diplomacy but it didn’t work. Therefore, he outlined what he wanted to be known as the post-war world in January 1917. His plan was called Fourteen Points. In what was essentially his State of the Union Speech, he literally outlined 14 objectives. Wilson’s goal was for a new world order to emerge from WWI; he didn’t want the world to look the same as it did before it started. Wilson wanted a world where another war like this couldn’t occur again.

Some of the goals in this speech (the 14 points) were:

• Getting rid of colonialism (imperialism). This was also known as self-determination, meaning that countries would become independent of others, and they would be able to make decisions for themselves.

• Peace without a victor--This means that there shouldn’t be a winner who would exploit and take advantage of the loser.

• Desire to create an international peacekeeping organization (something like the U.N today).

All of these ideas were very liberal and idealistic (progressive in nature). After Wilson gave this speech (February 1917), Germany announced that they would have

unrestricted submarine warfare again, going back on the Sussex Pledge. Germany knew this would antagonize us, and eventually bring America into the war. By this point, though, they didn’t care. They believed they could win the war with this strategy before the U.S. became involved. To respond, Wilson broke off all diplomatic ties with Germany. This was a dramatic step for the government to take because it created a lot of tension between the U.S. and Germany.

The one step that finally got us formally involved in the war in late February/early March of 1917 was the Zimmermann Telegram. The Germans sent a message to Mexico stating that if they entered the war with the Central Powers and attacked the U.S., they would be given the southwestern part of the country. Unfortunately for the Germans, the British intercepted this message and immediately turned it over to the Americans.

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The Zimmermann Telegram as it was sent from Washington to Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt (who was in Mexico).

Obviously, Wilson couldn’t ignore this message. In April 1917, Congress declared war with the Allied Powers, and sent troops over to Europe.

It’s interesting to note the way Wilson actually requested this war declaration from Congress. He gave a speech saying that America would not go to war for their own interests, but in a way that would “make the world safe for democracy.” Again, this was Wilson showing his moralistic approach to foreign policy. If you recall earlier in the chapter, I explained how he felt about war; it should have been a last resort. Because he hated war so much, he had to give a moralistic approach in order to rationalize sending U.S. troops over to Europe to die.

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• Understand how WWI was intensely patriotic in the United States.

• Read how the U.S. regulated the economy during wartime.


By the time America enters the war in April 1917, it had be going on for three years. World War I is arguably the most intensely patriotic war in our history.

There was an intentional effort to create nationalism, patriotism, and wide-spread support for the war. The public and government did not like any dissent among those who were against the war because it was a “great crusade for democracy.” In order to ready ourselves for at home, the government had to organize the economy in a way to support the war.

During WWI, there were agencies formed to regulate the economy so that everything around the nation could work in perfect harmony. Agencies were created to oversee agriculture, labor unions, and other industries. One agency that helped with agriculture was the Food Administration. Headed

by Herbert Hoover (left), the Food Administration ensured that the agricultural sector of the country produced enough food, and that society used the food as efficiently as possible for themselves and for the troops overseas. During this period there would be days of the week dedicated to food preservation (i.e. Wheatless Mondays, Meatless Tuesdays). This wasn’t necessarily a federal law, but

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Beginning of American Involvement

it was more or less a way for Americans to be involved in the war. People were also encouraged to plant gardens and to can their own food.

As a way to rally public support for the war, the government created the Committee on Public Information. This organization, led by George Creel (left), designed a propaganda campaign to rally Americans and show them that the war was right. They also wanted to convince Americans that the German government was evil. Often, this committee would publish

pamphlets and hire lecturers to talk to Americans about how evil the German government and people were. Many German-Americans came under pressure, even losing their jobs in some places. There were even public school boards at this time that outlawed teaching German as a foreign language.

Of all the regulation during WWI, the Sedition Act (1918) probably represented the highest point of public control by the government. This law stated that it was a federal crime to speak or write anything that was disloyal or abusive about the government, its officials, or the military during the war.

Freedom of press and speech (you know, that whole 1st amendment thing) was curtailed during this period. The government’s purpose was to create an atmosphere of patriotism in America during the war. But this law was a definite overreach and was really risky. People could be legally prosecuted if they spoke out negatively against the government. And to make matters worse, people were shamed by their peers and American society. Basically, if you spoke out negatively, you were ostracized from society. (*Interesting Note--the legal term for someone who avoided the draft or did not do their part to help with the war was a “slacker.”)

An important demographic change that happened during WWI was the idea of blacks immigrating from the South to the North (many still lived there after the Civil War). There are several waves of migration where blacks moved North, but in this one, there were about a half-million that came. They took jobs from those who were fighting (Detroit, for example, went from 5,000 to 45,000 blacks in the city). This was a good sign for African-Americans; they could move and be accepted into a different society and earn a living doing something other than agricultural work (as they were in the South).

***I’ve placed some pictures of propaganda posters on the following pages. Click the picture to see it in a full screen view. These posters were published by the U.S. government to promote nationalism and support for the war.

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• Learn how the WWI was fought in Europe.

• Read about new weapons used in WWI.


The tactical fighting in Europe during World War I was completely different than any other type of warfare we had seen before. If you remember a long time ago, soldiers fought in lines and had very specific battle formations that they used. But this is no longer the case. The tactic of choice during WWI was trench warfare. Trenches were long ditches

surrounded by barbed wire to protect troops. When you fight in trenches, you’re basically sitting in a hole waiting for your enemy to “go over the top” so you can attack them. It took awhile, however, for troops to go over the top. When that happened, the resulting consequence was a stalemate where neither side made any marked progress.

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Fighting in Europe

Watch this clip to get a brief history of trench war-fare.

Trench Warfare

Because of new technology (which we’ll look at later) and this strategy, trench warfare resulted in an enormous loss of life and little territorial gains. The only technique to defeat the trench strategy was to soften up the enemy by bombarding them with artillery fire. Then, you’d send the soldiers over the top to try and take enemy lines.

Going over the top was insanely dangerous. Soldiers had to enter an area called no man’s land, which was the land mass between the trenches. At times, no man’s land could be over a half-mile wide. Imagine running across a piece of land, rigged with mines and barbed wire, with the enemy shooting at you. Not something I’d look forward to. And then, in order for the trench to be taken, soldiers engaged in brutal hand-to-hand combat fought with bayonets, knives, and swords.

As you might imagine, trench warfare was horrific. The only other aspect that could trump the danger of fighting in the trenches would have to be the living conditions. There were no bathrooms, running water, electricity, or any luxury that we take for granted in our homes. Trenches were riddled with lice, rats, disease, and decaying bodies. Soldiers were cramped like sardines, and when it rained, trenches flooded. Bodies were left to rot because the prospect of machine gun fire kept the soldiers in the trenches. A common health problem that soldiers suffered from was a disease called trench foot. After it rained, soldiers feet would be exposed to water for days (if not weeks) at a time. When

that happened, flesh began just to literally fall of your bones because it couldn’t dry.

New advancements in technology made WWI more deadly and dangerous than any war before it. The machine gun, a newer invention, increased the danger of going over the top of the trenches. Grenades (although used previous to WWI) became popular. If you had a good enough arm, you could potentially throw these explosive devices into an enemy trench. Interestingly, some American soldiers were taught how to throw these by folks who had played baseball in the states.

Poison gas was another weapon used by both sides. Three types of gas were used: bromacetone (blinded people), chlorine (choked people), and mustard (burned/blistered people). This weapon, however, had limited value during the war. Shortly after it being used, countries developed gas masks to prevent bodily harm. Another factor that affected the use of gas mask was actually the weather. If the winds changed direction, the gas you imposed upon your enemies could literally blow back in your face.

World War I would also be the first war where we actually used airplanes. Today, we value aerial scouting of the enemy. In fact, if you pay any attention to the news, you’ve probably heard of the U.S. using drones to attack our enemies or using stealth fighters to gain valuable information.

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When we talk about World War I, you could say that it was a war of firsts in a variety of ways. For many people, experiencing something for the first time brings back fond memories. However, I’m almost certain that the soldiers who endured these horrific events wished to forget everything they saw.

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Australian light horseman using a periscope rifle, Gallipoli 1915

Trench Warfare in WWI


• Learn about events in Europe.

• Read about the Bolshevik Revolution.


Even though the U.S. entered the war late, our involvement was decisive. We tipped the balance of the military towards the Allies and basically saved their cause. It’s very hard to say if they would have won the war without the United States, but we certainly didn’t hurt them by deciding to fight. There were two things that America did to change the course of the war. In late 1917/early 1918, our navy was crucial in taking out the German u-boats. It was very hard to keep the Allied supply line alive because of the Germans sinking ships. But now with the U.S. Navy, the Allies could funnel supplies and troops into Europe more effectively. The second thing we helped with was our troop presence. World War I was renown for trench warfare, and it was physically and emotionally taxing to be in the trenches for so long. Upon American arrival, it’s safe to say that the morale of European troops was boosted.

The Bolshevik Revolution was another important event that occurred in Russia in the fall of 1917. Communism emerged, and almost immediately, the new Russian government pulled out of the war. So heading into 1918, Germany would only have to fight France and Britain, no longer having to fight the Russians on the east.

By the summer of 1917, we started sending troops over to France. American forces were commanded by General John Pershing. The major campaign that we got involved in began in the spring of the following year. Germany launched an offensive against Allied lines in an effort to end the war. They successfully pushed the line back into France and came within 50 miles of Paris. Fortunately for the Allies, the arrival of the American troops helped turn the tide.

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The End of It All

During the late summer of 1918 and through the same fall, the Germans were pushed back. The victory in the Argonne Forest was, by far, the most costly for American troops (we had 120,000 men killed or wounded). By November 1918, Germany was on its heels and had retreated all the way back to Belgium. Realizing the war was over, they surrendered on November 18, 1918 (now known as Armistice Day).

Casualty figures for World War I show just how costly it really was. The following statistics are just estimates of how many men died, and different sources will tell you various numbers. But no matter where you look, the numbers are astounding. Overall, there were roughly 8 million dead, and another 20 million who were wounded. (*Interesting Note: one out of every two Frenchmen in their 20s were killed...just shows how horrible the death rate really was)

**The following page has a graph with death tolls for the major countries involved in the war.

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0

400000

800000

1200000

1600000

2000000

U.S. G.B. France Russia GermanyAus.-Hung.

World War I Death Tolls

Major Countries Involved in WWI

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• Learn about the Paris Peace Conference and the Versailles Treaty

• Understand the resistance against the League of Nations

• Read about the Election of 1920


The small loss of life was an important diplomatic story following WWI. The British and French believed that, as the victors, they should dictate the post-war terms and treaty. More significantly, the Allied Powers said that the U.S. should not have a huge say in the peace process (because they got involved late, and their loss of life was not nearly as much).

In January-May of 1919, there was a scheduled conference where leaders of France, Britain, and the United States gathered to discuss these peace terms. Wilson had his 14 Points, and made an important decision to personally travel to Paris and lead the Americans at the peace conference. Most times, heads of state sent committees of people to handle these scenarios. But Wilson was determined that his 14 Points would be adopted, and he did not want to entrust anyone else with his plan. This decision would prove to be fateful for the President. By personally going, he created more obstacles and resistance in Europe and in the

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Paris Peace Conference & the Versailles Treaty

"The Big Four" during the Paris Peace Conference (from left to right, David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, George Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson)

U.S. He became counterproductive, and when he first arrived, his ideas were rejected.

European governments (particularly Britain and France) were not receptive to his ideas for a couple of reasons. The Allies had quite the indignant attitude towards their enemies, and were in no mood to be friendly towards Germany. The second reason America wasn’t received well was because the European allies had made secret alliances with each other during the war. Britain and France were already concocting a plan to divide up Germany. In addition, Wilson’s plan to try and end colonialism went against what Europe wanted to do.

President Wilson also faced political problems at home by traveling to Europe. At this time, we were experiencing some economic and social problems after the war. When the President left, it looked like he cared more about his 14 Points than the American people. In 1918, the people showed Wilson just how they felt. That fall, there were elections and Republicans won both houses of Congress. This signaled that the President and his party were losing strength at home. And it showed that many people believed that Wilson was turning his back against the country in a time of need.

President Wilson also alienated Congress with his choice of travel companions. When he went to France, he did not take one Republican to sit on his peace committee. He only chose House Democrats. This was a very arrogant choice because

the Senate had to ratify any treaty that would be signed. He was not using their discretion; he only used his own. The Paris Peace Conference was becoming Wilson’s conference and Wilson’s treaty, and the fact that he was not consulting Congress (especially the Senate) hurt him politically at home.

After months of negotiation and problem solving, the Allies reached an agreement and signed the Versailles Treaty in May 1919. All of Wilson’s points were rejected in the treaty. His greatest failure, peace without a victor, was also declined. Part of the treaty was the War Guilt Clause, which placed all the blame for the war on Germany. They were required to pay reparations to the tune of over $300 billion to the countries they damaged. Britain and France also wanted to suppress Germany and make them lose power for a very long time.

One victory for President Wilson in Paris (and to him, the most important) was the creation of the League of Nations. This is sort of an early example of the modern-day United Nations. Article 10 of the

League charter called for “collective security” for members in the League. This, however, was incredibly controversial. Collective security meant that any country would protect the

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territorial and political security of the other members of the League. So if one member was attacked, every other member would be forced to rally behind the attacked member and support them.

Wilson thought that world peace could essentially be solved through the League. But little did he know that it was causing the complete opposite. In fact, most historians believe that the seeds of World War II were planted in the aftermath of World War I. We’ll get to that in a moment.

As you’ve read, Wilson had many failures in the peace process, but his biggest victory was the League of Nations. When he returned home to the U.S. in the summer of 1919 with the League, he was frustrated that he didn’t come back with more. And to make matters worse, he immediately faced opposition against his 14 Points and the League of Nations. The leader of this opposition was a man by

the name of Henry Cabot Lodge (above). Lodge was the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. This was the committee that was supposed to have been taken to Paris and the one that would have ratified the Versailles Treaty (oops!). Lodge and many Republicans built up opposition against Wilson when he was in France, particularly the League. They were specifically frustrated

with Article 10. Many Americans and Republicans in Congress didn’t like Article 10 because it would be a military alliance that would obligate the U.S. to do things that were not in the best interest of the United States.

Lodge and the Republicans wanted to reword this clause and make it weaker. Wilson, though, wasn’t going to budge. So when he returned from France, he had to battle for Congressional support and public opinion. When the Senate went to vote on the treaty, there would be a period where conservatives and liberals would try to shape public opinion so that the Senators would know where the public stood on the treaty. In that same summer of 1919, there was a huge political battle in which people argued if the U.S. should get involved in the League. The other option was to see if we should join the League in a different way by changing the wording of Article 10.

By the end of the summer, Wilson was firm in his stance of not rewording Article 10 and refused to compromise. He gave speeches around the country in an attempt to convince the country to join him and his effort to make the Versailles Treaty work.

Unfortunately, his efforts failed. In late September, the President was giving a speech in Colorado. During that time, he suffered a stroke and lost function in the left side of his body. He was rushed back to Washington. Wilson slowly recovered in about three months. While he was incapacitated, he was out of the political picture.

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(*Interesting Note: his wife basically ran the country while her husband recovered from his stroke) Republicans were now given the chance to fight against the Treaty and the League. The Wilsons, however, did not want to step down from the presidency because of his ailment. They knew that the vice president had previously said that he would make changes to Article 10. After all they had been through, they couldn’t let that happen.

Finally, in November 1919, the Senate voted on the League. It failed to ratify. So, while the treaty was ratified in other countries, it was not formally approved in the U.S. But in early 1921, it was ratified without the League charter. Britain and France, along with other smaller countries, were involved with the League of Nations. But the U.S. refused to become involved. Wilson, officially, was defeated.

Historians see our lack of involvement in the League as a mistake. If we had been there and made it work, the events that led up to World War II could have been prevented (i.e. Italian and German expansion, Japanese attacking in the Pacific). It’s hard to say what would have happened if we did get involved. But we definitely know that if we joined that there could have been a chance that WWII might have been avoided.

Shortly after the final vote on the Versailles Treaty, we held another presidential election. Wilson had been in office for two terms and decided not to run. The field, as they say, was “wide open.” James M. Cox and Warren G. Harding ran as

candidates. Cox, a Democrat from Ohio, favored the League of Nations. In fact, Wilson wanted Cox to make a big deal out of the League and try to save it for him. Harding was a Republican from Ohio. He looked and acted the part of president and “looked good on paper.” Plus, he didn’t take a strong stance on the League of Nations.

In the fall of 1920, the League was a secondary issue, and America was tired of dealing with World War I. Warren Harding used a campaign slogan, and said that if he was elected president, he would use the term “return to normalcy” to try and change the country. This meant Harding would end government activism (progressivism) and return to U.S. isolationism. This stance was attractive

to the country because we had experienced a very long time of liberal progressivism and were tired of Wilson’s diplomacy and Teddy Roosevelt’s changes.

Harding ended up winning a pretty easy victory in 1920 and was also able to win the Senate as well. With

this win, there would be a 10-12 year period of Republican rule, and 1920 would mark the change of a new era of

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President Harding

conservatism. In the 1920s, we would have great material wealth and economic prosperity. We also had a pulling back of U.S. interventionism and militarism abroad. The country was now out of the World War I era, and was changing for the better.

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