lorna clements: undergraduate part 1 architecture dissertation

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Can the use of aerogel in windows aid human comfort within buildings, whilst improving energy efficiency? An experimental approach into the application of an aerogel integral blind: testing energy efficiency and the ability to adapt to human comfort levels. (Word count: 8081) Lorna Clements 120290073 Newcastle University ARC2020 - Dissertation Studies and Research Methods Tutor: Carlos Calderon

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Through practical approach I explore the use of Aerogel within glazing and the effects it may have on light, heat and sound of the tested space. This is an idea that I both developed and tested through my dissertation.

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Page 1: Lorna Clements: Undergraduate Part 1 Architecture Dissertation

Can the use of aerogel in windows aid human comfort within buildings, whilst improving energy efficiency?

An experimental approach into the application of an aerogel integral blind: testing energy efficiency and the ability to adapt to human comfort levels.

(Word count: 8081)

Lorna Clements 120290073

Newcastle University ARC2020 - Dissertation Studies and Research Methods

Tutor: Carlos Calderon

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Table of Contents Abstract 3 Introduction 3 Chapter 1 3 !Aerogels: Its importance and applications 3 -Applications 5 Chapter 2 7 My own application of Aerogel: Providing control to help occupants achieve their own unique comfort level. 7 -Thermal Comfort 8 -Lighting Conditions 8 -Sound Conditions 9 Chapter 3 11 Designing and creating my prototype 11 -Process of making: An illustrated time line 15 Chapter 4 18 Experimental set up 18 -Heat Transmission 18 -Visible Transmittance 20 -Acoustic Performance 22 Chapter 5 25 Results and Discussion 25 -Heat Transmission 25 -Light Transmission 27 -Sound Transmission 28 Conclusion 30 Bibliography 32 Appendix 37 ! !

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Abstract This dissertation looks into the properties of aerogel and how this has already been widely used in energy efficient building solutions. It then goes on to explore how this may further be used to improve window standards, without compromising the view from the window. Next the design process is discussed and the process of making presented to show how the aerogel is applied within the glazing as a compact integral blind. It later goes on to explain the experimental set up that is used to test the prototype. These results are then presented as a series of graphs, with a discussion on each considering the prototype’s effectiveness to its intended application, of providing controllable comfort levels to the occupants. Introduction Throughout my dissertation I will look into the possibility of improving buildings’ energy efficiency through the use of the material aerogel. I want to do this in a way that also improves internal comfort levels, acknowledging that these levels vary for each individual so a method of control must be obtainable. In this chapter I will introduce aerogel as a material, discussing its properties and talk about some of the existing applications already utilising aerogel. Chapter 1 Aerogels: Its importance and applications Aerogel is one of the lightest transparent solids known; made by replacing the pore liquid of a gel with a gas, whilst maintaining the gel structure.1 Aerogels are open-celled and over 50% porous at a Mesoscopic-scale, it is made of a lattice of interconnected nanostructures.2 Aerogels are split into two categories, organic and inorganic. The most common though is Silica aerogels, which are made from the most abundant materials on Earth, Silicates. They are safe to the environment, as they do not emit dangerous chemicals. Due to the new developments for producing aerogels becoming less expensive, it has become more widely available and identified by WWF as a climate solver, because of its potential for sustainability.3 As energy efficiency becomes a !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 The international Sol-Gel society, Aerogels Handbook, ed. by Michel A Aegerter, E-book edn (Springer, 2011), p. 103. 2 Open Source nanotech, 'What is aerogel?', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=3> [accessed 9th October 2014] 3 Svenska Aerogel AB, 'Environmentally Friendly ', in Aerogel <http://www.aerogel.se/technology/environmentally-friendly/> [accessed 9th October 2014]

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larger factor in the building industry the research into aerogel becomes more appropriate. Samuel Kistler first discovered aerogel in 1929, but it was not until 2001 that aerogel became commercialised1. Originally, supercritical drying had been the only method available to produce aerogels. This reduces the capillary stress to zero and so preserves the nanostructure of the gel. Due to the high temperatures and pressures used in this process it was not cost efficient or energy efficient.2 A more recent method uses evaporative drying at lower pressures; advances in nanotechnology allow surface modifications to prevent shrinkage occurring. This new process is called subcritical drying and is much more energy efficient than supercritical drying.3 Originally, Silica aerogels were strong yet very brittle, research into the functionalization of aerogel has allowed their use to be wide spread, including into the building industry. Due to the large surface area offered by the structure of the lattice, aerogel is easy to modify, making its capabilities broader. Polymers are used in modification to get a stronger material. Hydroxyl surface groups can be substituted with Methyl groups to make the material hydrophobic4 and because of its large surface area this property is extremely effective and prevents the aging of the material. This makes aerogel a very versatile and useful building material. The properties I am most intrigued to work with are thermal performance, acoustic performance and day lighting. Thermally, aerogel restricts both conductive and convective energy transfer, because of the three-dimensional network of Silica. As heat conducts across it meets dead ends so its passage is restricted.5 All these dead ends leave openings of only 20 Nano-meters, preventing gaseous particles from penetrating to transfer heat across.6 This means that the heat capable of transmitting across the material is very low. The acoustic properties of Silica aerogels are closely related to their thermal insulation, sound energy is attenuated as the sound wave moves from the gas to solid particles of aerogel.7 Being made up of mostly air and glass components, aerogel has negligible absorption of visible

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Open Source Nanotech, 'The 2000′s: New Possibilities and Commercialization', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=829> [accessed 9th October 2014] 2 Open Source Nanotech, 'How is aerogel made? ', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=4> [accessed 9th October 2014] 3 Open Source Nanotech, 'Aerogel Without the Pressure', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1433> [accessed 9th October 2014] 4 Open Source Nanotech, 'Functionalization', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1918> [accessed 10th October 2014] 5 Microstructured Materials Group, 'Thermal Properties ', in SilicaAeroGels <http://energy.lbl.gov/ecs/aerogels/sa-thermal.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] 6 LowEnergyHouse.com, 'What is Aerogel Insulation?', in Low Energy House <http://www.lowenergyhouse.com/aerogel-insulation.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] 7 Berkeley lab, 'From the Lab to the Marketplace', in Aerogel Research at LBL <http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/aerogel-insulation.html> [accessed 11th October 2014]!

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light. Two types of scattering occur causing the material to become translucent; the first is due to micro size imperfections on the surface causing a fuzzy view, the second from the Nano-porous network that will cause Rayleigh scattering of light giving a bluish hue to the lighting1. This translucency causes the direct light to distribute more evenly as it passes through the aerogel, giving a more consistent and less intense light internally. With the recent developments of aerogel and the previously mentioned properties, aerogel has become a much more widely used building material. Applications Aerogel has been used in many day lighting systems, such as in libraries due to its diffuse light transmitting properties. Through the day when the library is in use, the extensive aerogel external wall systems allow plentiful light to enter. This is diffused controlling the light and eliminating glare, making reading less strenuous on visitor’s eyes.2 Aerogel has also been used in individual windows and sky light units. These systems provide a greater quality of light than that provided through a transparent window. The aerogel day lighting systems boast super insulating properties restricting heat transmission. Similarly these thermal properties have been used in small-scale applications. An example of this is the aerogel Thermablok strips that are used to prevent cold bridging across buildings’ joints. These are simply stuck into place and can improve the R-value by up to 40%, making them an effective way of saving energy.3 Aerogel’s thermal properties have also been used to create a high performance insulating plaster. By combining aerogel particles with plaster, a solution to improve the energy efficiency of existing buildings is created. This works effectively as the aerogel fills the space between the plaster particles, admitting less area for air to transfer heat across. The insulating plaster has further advantages, mould and mildew attacks are prevented because of aerogel’s water vapour permeability; also fire safety is boosted, as aerogel is non-flammable.4

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Microstructured Materials Group, 'Optical Properties', in SilicaAeroGels <http://energy.lbl.gov/ecs/aerogels/sa-optical.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] 2 Kalwall Corporation, 'High-Performance Translucent Daylighting - Wall Systems ', in Kalwall <http://kalwall.com/walls.htm> [accessed 28th December 2014] 3 Thermablok Incorporation, 'Thermablok® Aerogel Insulation', in Thermablok <http://www.thermablok.com> [accessed 28th December 2014] 4 Fixit AG, 'Learn about Aerogel high-performance insulating plaster', in Fixit <http://www.fixit.ch/aerogel/?w=start&lng=en> [accessed 28th December 2014]

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Modifications have made it possible for tensile structures to incorporate aerogel in fabric roofing systems. These structures are lightweight so can be used over long spans, whilst still being energy efficient. These structures provide thermal insulation and allow even illumination from daylight across the space.1 The properties of aerogel imply its use in many systems to improve energy efficiency. Being classed as a climate solver because of its potential for sustainability2, the use of aerogel seems to offer a viable solution to a more sustainable future. In the next chapter I will explore my own application of aerogel and how this application can be used in building to improve human comfort.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Cabot corporation, 'Tensile Roofing', in Cabot <http://www.cabotcorp.com/solutions/applications/construction/tensile-roofing> [accessed 28th December 2014]!2 Svenska Aerogel AB, 'Environmentally Friendly', in Aerogel <http://www.aerogel.se/technology/environmentally-friendly/> [accessed 28th December 2014]

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Chapter 2 My own application of Aerogel: Providing control to help occupants achieve their own unique comfort level. In this chapter I talk about the aspects of comfort that I will be concentrating on through my application of aerogel. I will explore why it is necessary to have control over each of these aspects, these being thermal, lighting and acoustic transmission. For each of these properties I will consider my application of aerogel in terms of energy efficiency and the requirement for control in both domestic and commercial buildings. Comfort is defined as physical ease or wellbeing1, however the conditions with which this is met will be different for each individual. Therefore, I think it is necessary for occupants within buildings to have a mechanism to control the internal conditions, meaning they can gain their own unique comfort levels. The wellbeing of an individual is proven to benefit from natural light, as shown by Beauchemin and Hayes’s 1996 studies, their results show the correspondence of severely depressed patients having shorter stays in hospital when on the sunnier side of the wing.2 A further contributor to wellbeing is contact with the daily outdoor patterns.3 Through the use of a window these factors of comfort become available to control. Hence to allow occupants the ability to adjust the building to meet their own comfort levels, it is feasible to consider the use of a window. The desire for windows to allow natural light and views of the outdoors has to be carefully balanced with the requirement of privacy.4 Privacy is considered differently in commercial and residential buildings; in a commercial building there are often large windows that allow one a view inside, this is especially true at night when the building is lit up internally or through the day as a means of advertisement. The opposite applies in domestic buildings, smaller windows are applied, as the home is a more intimate space, people may require privacy at different times through the day, predominantly at night-time. Through the application of aerogel I will now address three areas of comfort, these being thermal, lighting and noise conditions. In doing this I also want to consider

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Collins, English Dictionary, 5th edn (Glasgow: HarperCollins , 1996), p. 96. 2 J.A Veitch and Galasiu, 'The Physiological and Psychological Effects of Windows, Daylight, and View at Home: Review and Research Agenda' (unpublished thesis, National Research Council Canada, Institute for Reasearch in Construction, 2012), p. 29. 3 Ibid, p. 46. 4 Ibid!

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how the privacy of the occupier is affected and how the control of these aspects can be essential to their comfort as well. Thermal Comfort Windows are the weakest point of a building in terms of heat transmission; the building regulations show that there is a higher allowance of heat loss through windows than any other component 1 . It is possible to improve the window standards through use of aerogels due to their high U-values. This would improve the energy efficiency of the window, restraining the building’s energy consumption, as less energy would be lost to the outside. Conversely, I think that a lower U-value window may also have advantages, if this is not permanent. Through my application I will exploit this, by allowing the occupant the control over the heat transmission through the window. The occupant will be able to heighten heat transmission across the window to eliminate unwanted heat, which may cause overheating in the summer. Counter to this, in winter they will be able to lower the heat transmission across the window to store and retain heat energy. In both domestic and commercial buildings an ability to control the thermal conditions is a requirement, as lack of control can lead to incidences of stress or job dissatisfaction2. At the moment, control is mainly provided through heating and cooling systems, particularly in commercial buildings where air-conditioning is custom. My method of control aims to save energy rather than consume it. Lighting Conditions A window is foremost to provide daylight; this has health benefits to the occupants as well as being a more energy efficient method of illumination. With a variety of buildings and activities comes the need for a range in lighting levels. Generally the more detailed the task the greater amount of light that is required.3 However, when

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 H M Government, Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document L1A: Conservation of fuel and power in new dwellings (London: 2013), p. 23. 2 UK Government, 'Human factors: Lighting, thermal comfort, working space, noise and vibration', in Health and Safety executive <http://www.hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/topics/lighting.htm> [accessed 27th December 2014] 3 Ibid

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a window provides higher lighting transmittance it has been found to cause higher perceptions of glare and discomfort.1 As window sizes increase to accommodate more daylight the need to control glare and the quality of light entering does too. Through the application of aerogel, a translucent material that diffuses light which passes through it, I feel it is possible to eliminate glare and gain a more consistent lighting across a room. Being translucent, aerogel will take away a view though, so its application must not be a constant; as according to Stamp’s permeability theory a person feels less enclosed within a room that allows a greater view to the outside space, thus outweighing the effects of more light or even a larger room.2 Furthermore, through daylight illumination of a building the need for artificial lighting becomes negligible in the daytime. This is great for energy efficiency; meaning less electrical energy is used in lighting. Moreover, without the added heat that is produced via an electrical light the risk of overheating is reduced too. Domestically, a multitude of lighting conditions may be required as the activities undergone are many. This makes it very important that if an occupant wanted to light their home with daylight, they can control the quality and amount of light entering. In commercial buildings the activities undertaken are easier to predict. However, it is still true that each worker may prefer different lighting conditions, with the ability to control this increasing job satisfaction3. Additionally, as the external lighting conditions cannot be predicted and are constantly changing, I would like to provide a method to control this in a way that can produce more constant light levels internally throughout the day, to reduce discomfort. This would be capable of permitting higher lighting transmittances when required. Sound Conditions Noise can be defined as a sound that is disturbing or unwanted.4 There is a need for the acoustic standards in windows to be improved, as windows are generally

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 J.A Veitch and Galasiu, 'The Physiological and Psychological Effects of Windows, Daylight, and View at Home: Review and Research Agenda' (unpublished thesis, National Research Council Canada, Institute for Reasearch in Construction, 2012), p. 11-12.!2 Arthur E. Stamps, 'Effects of Permeability on Perceived Enclosure and Spaciousness' (Online, Institute of Environmental Quality San Francisco, Environment and Behavior), p. 872. 3 UK Government, 'Human factors: Lighting, thermal comfort, working space, noise and vibration', in Health and Safety executive <http://www.hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/topics/lighting.htm> [accessed 27th December 2014] 4 Collins, English Dictionary, 5th edn (Glasgow: HarperCollins , 1996), p. 339.

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poor acoustic barriers1. Noise causes disturbance to building occupants and with growing traffic and construction rates, specifically in urban areas, the noise annoyance increases. Prolonged exposure even to relatively low levels of noise can cause stress to people2, so it seems important to improve acoustic insulation when refining human comfort in buildings. Sound transmits across a medium in two ways: airborne transmission and flanking transmission. I am concerned with reducing airborne sound passing across windows. This happens when the sound waves in the air cause a medium to vibrate, allowing the sound to travel across to the other side of the medium.3 Aerogel is well suited in this application because its Nanostructure causes attenuation, reducing sound transmission. So it can be expected that when used in a window, aerogel can improve the acoustic insulation standards. Another factor that is equally as significant is the sound that will leave the building. Within domestic and commercial buildings acoustic insulation can provide privacy to the occupants and in the case of industrial buildings stop unwanted sound escaping to surrounding areas and buildings. However, a high level of acoustic insulation is not always favoured, for example in domestic buildings families may find it a comfort to hear their children in the garden, because of this it seems practical to permit individual control to the occupants. Aerogel has been used in a wide range of building materials in both day lighting systems and as insulation. These systems all lack a view to the external environment, denying the occupant one of the fundamental uses of a window. Furthermore, replacing windows with highly insulating aerogel solutions increases the risk of overheating in the summer months, as no thermal hole is present for unwanted heat to escape. I intend to utilise the benefits of aerogel to improve window standards as discussed above, without neglecting the need for a view. I would like to also offer flexibility with these standard values to suit the occupants’ own individual needs. Aerogel will enable me to provide adequate comfort levels in privacy, heat, light and sound due to its exceptional properties. In the next chapter I will look into how the window standards can be adaptable through the design of my prototype.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Build Australia , 'Window acoustics and noise control', in Build <http://www.build.com.au/window-acoustics-and-noise-control> [accessed 5th January 2015] 2 UK Government, 'Human factors: Lighting, thermal comfort, working space, noise and vibration', in Health and Safety executive <http://www.hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/topics/lighting.htm> [accessed 27th December 2014]!3 Powerscape, 'Impact and Airboure Sound ', in Gypsum Solutions <http://www.gypsumsolutions.com.au/uploaded/files/client_added/powerscape_impact_and_airborne_sound_overview%5B1%5D(1).pdf> [accessed 27th December 2014]

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Chapter 3 Designing and creating my prototype As discussed in Chapter 1, Aerogel: Its importance and applications, aerogel is widely used in day-lighting systems, due to its translucency and ability to maintain thermal comfort. This is further explored by Mark Dowson who looks into the use of aerogel as a solution to thermal performance in existing windows 1. I was interested to look further into this because the panel in his design could be added or removed as required. This proved interesting, as my intention was to create a window with variable properties, particularly of light and thermal. This means occupants could have control over the window standards, altering them to suit their own personal comfort needs.

I used Dowson’s prototype as a starter for my own design. With my own design however, I wanted to make a more compact and neat solution. This would be more suitable as panels such as Dowson uses could go missing or become damaged when being handled repeatedly. I started with the concept of an aerogel layer between the two glazed sheets. I thought about how this could be movable to offer variable conditions from the window. From this I produced four initial designs. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Mark Dowson, 'Novel Retrofit Technologies Incorporating Silica Aerogel For Lower Energy Buildings', in Brunel University Archive (BURA) <http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/7075 > [accessed 25th September 2014] (p. 90)!

Image 1- Mark Dowson’s aerogel removable panel for retrofit buildings.

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My first two designs use granular aerogel filled transparent panels, these can be moved upwards out of the visible window, into a casing within the cavity wall to give a fully transparent window. The first design presents limits due to the space required to place the window being twice as tall. In the second design I use two panels that would split horizontally. This design would present less of a problem but would prevent the use of ribbon windows. Next I looked at ways to make the whole design more compact. I considered using a roller blind within the window. This would require a wider cross-section to hold the roller blind of aerogel. With this design I would use a sheet aerogel, these are made with a dry fibre blanket with the Silica sol poured over, so this sets as one entity when placed in the supercritical dryer1. The larger cross-section of the window is problematic though, as there is more air available to transmit heat, reducing the thermal performance. In my final design I use monolith aerogel strips to create a Venetian blind. Compared with the roller blind, a monolith aerogel strip allows the cross-section of the window to be less wide; dust within the glazing will not occur as it can with the aerogel sheets when the particles come loose from the fibre. The Venetian blind when drawn mimics the roller blind in that it becomes an almost perfect layer of aerogel within the glazing. I chose to work on the Venetian blind, due to it being dust free and the most compact design. The window would be blanked out on the verticals and across the top to allow the workings to fit through in a neat and concealed way, this is shown in Image-2; the material used at the edges should be an insulator to prevent thermal bridging. It should also be kept to a minimum width to allow for the maximum

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Open Source Nanotech, 'Strong and Flexible Aerogels', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1058> [accessed 8th October 2014]

Stages of design progressing from left to right.

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amount of glazing remaining transparent, allowing views out and daylight admittance. My blind mechanisms will use magnets as shown in Image-3, due to their strength they are able to operate through the glass, maintaining the air tightness of the glazed unit.

When building my prototype Venetian aerogel integral blind, I was limited due to cost and the equipment I had access to. Initially I wanted to use monolith aerogel slats, however for the testing I sufficed by using plastic slats with an aerogel blanket (purchased at the PassiveHaus online store1) glued across it to create a resembling !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Passivhaus store, 'Spacetherm Blanket', in The Passivhaus Store <http://www.phstore.co.uk/index.php?route=product/product_grouped&product_id=568> [accessed 26th September 2014]

Image 2- Prototype, showing the area for the workings across the top and the vertical sections

Image 3 - Magnets workings of blind

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effect to the monolith strips. To prevent excess dust being created inside the unit from the aerogel blanket, I sprayed the slats with hair spray; this will help the window to avoid becoming dirty from inside where it cannot be easily cleaned. The new U-value of the aerogel slat I used has not been tested. Another limitation I encountered was being unable to use Argon gas within the unit, as I had to seal the second sheet of glass to the unit using Silicone sealer by hand, with no access to equipment to allow me to inject Argon gas. I successfully formed an airtight seal to stop convective heat transfer and condensation forming within the unit for the testing period.

Image 4 – Prototype glazing set in test unit

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I started by cutting the top layer of glazing off the window I was to put the prototype in and washed off the remaining silicone sealant.

I cut plastic slats and aerogel strips from the thermal blanket. I stuck these together using PVA glue and hair-sprayed these to stop dust forming once inside the window. !

I stitched two sets of strings to hang the blinds from and made a weighted bottom rail to allow them to hang taut. This included a magnet that would be used in opening and closing the blinds.

I threaded the strings through the vanes up to the half way level, the remaining string would act as the cord to alter the blinds position. I drilled four holes in the head rail to hold the blinds. !

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I used rounded edges to prevent the cords snagging on the drilled holes and then threaded the head rail on to the blind. !

Using silicone sealer and a two part epoxy glue (Araldite), I firmly stuck the head rail into position, making sure the window was clean before I laid the blind slats within. !

Next I added the side panels using polystyrene as insulation. I tied loops in the cords that the magnets could sit in and also used a white tape to keep this secure and padded. !

I carefully lay the blinds between the two side panels, and altered the cords so they were not tangled before I lay the top glazing back over. !

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After lining up the glazing I used Silicone sealer to give an airtight seal right around the glazed unit. !

This shows the joint of the glazing and the window with the blind first drawn and then raised. Last is the box that I will fix the window into, enabling me to test the windows standards. !

The unit was sealed with silicone sealer and then insulated internally with polystyrene. This does not reach the front most part of the box, instead leaving space for the window to sit up against it. Four circular rubber pieces are used to provide support to the window. The cut out at the rear of the unit will be filled in with a clear viewing window for the case of the experiments. Lastly I sealed the window into the box, I used plenty of Silicone sealer to ensure no gaps were left, restricting air movement. !

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Chapter 4 Experimental Set up In this chapter I will discuss the parameters I will be measuring and the experimental set ups I am using, describing the process I use to obtain reliable results. For each parameter I will take a controlled reading to use as a base and a second reading to measure the variable, that being the addition of the integral aerogel blind. These two values can be compared to see how effective my prototype is in the areas I am measuring. The control set up and experimental set up will be identical, the variable being the addition or subtraction of the integral aerogel blind. This enables fair results, indicating if the aerogel blind is successful in its application. In order to be successful my aerogel prototype blind has to perform as an extension to the window ratings displayed when purchasing a window, to show the standard of energy efficiency. This is becoming more important as we strive for lower Carbon Dioxide emissions, in doing so we need to improve our building’s performance, particularly the need to conserve the energy we are putting into them. Windows, being the weakest link in the building, seem the significant area to improve. In observing an increase in energy efficiency from the control to experimental set up, it will be clear whether it is possible to control the internal comfort levels. In my prototype I will concentrate on improving and test the following parameters, heat, light and sound. Heat Transmission Heat transmission is the percentage of heat that is lost internally to the external environment. This is important due to how my blind works, at night-time the blind will be closed; aerogel is a super-insulator with remarkable thermal properties due to the Knudsen effect with thermal conductivities achievable lower than that of still air (0.025 W/(mK))1. Closing the blind maintains the heat within the home or building, without the use of heating. Opposing this, opening the blind allows the heat to escape. With this in mind, an integral aerogel blind gives the occupier optimal control over heat transfer, !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 A Berge and P Johansson, 'Literature Review of High Performance Thermal Insulation' (unpublished thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2012).

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without use of heaters or air conditioning. It also gives a mechanism to control heat admittance from the solar energy, the solar heat gain coefficient. This allows winter heat gain during the heating season with the blinds up and when closed prevents overheating in the cooling season. Set up Initially I was following Marc Dowson’s1 set up in order to retrieve a U-value for my prototype window. However, due to the limitations of equipment I had access to, the heat flux values I was arriving at were unreliable. I think this was due to my thermo electric generator not being sensitive enough to heat change. A further problem was in gaining steady state conditions to take these measurements, as thermal energy performance in terms of U-values are defined as “the rate of heat loss per meter under steady state conditions for a temperature difference of one Kelvin between the inner and outer environment separated by the glazing system”2. Instead I will simply measure the heat loss across the prototype. By measuring the temperature both internally and externally across the prototype blind it is possible to work this out. I will take readings over a three-day period allowing time for more stable conditions to be established. 3 This time period spanning across a whole day will allow for variances in weather conditions, exposing any effect this may have on the window’s performance.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Mark Dowson, 'Novel Retrofit Technologies Incorporating Silica Aerogel For Lower Energy Buildings', in Brunel University Archive (BURA) <http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/7075 > [accessed 25th September 2014] (p. 89)!2 T Muneer and others, Windows in Buildings: Thermal, Acoustic, Visual and Solar Performance, ed. by D Kinghorn, 1st edn (Oxford: Architectural Press)(p. 8) 3 B Cheeseman and others, 'Developing an in-situ post construction quality control methodology to ensure better energy efficiency of buildings', in Environmental science and technology (Greece: 2007).

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I will use two different instruments, a thermocouple and a thermometer to take simultaneous measurements of the internal and external environment. After this an average can be used in the calculation of percentage of heat lost to the external environment. Limitations Due to cost I am unable to access a data logger meaning that I will have to manually take readings, this means I will not have a constant chart of values and consequently it will be more difficult to realise stable conditions. Dowson takes readings in situ, within an actual office building; my sealed unit will mimic this, however, thermal insulation and air tightness has not been tested on the unit alone. This means the prototype window is not the only component to admit the recorded heat within the unit. However, by having a control test the recorded values will still be comparable. Visible Transmittance Windows provide free natural lighting within buildings, however, if in excess this will cause glare and visual discomfort. Aerogel’s optical properties cause it to diffuse light passing through, this translucency can aid visual comfort as needed when combined with a window as an operating blind. I will measure as a percentage the amount of visible light transmitted 1 through the window in order to see the effectiveness of the aerogel blind at diffusing the light. I have adapted an experiment undertaken by Boccia, Chella and Zazzini in which they test the effectiveness of their ventilated illuminating wall (VIW) in its lighting performances of internal spaces. The ventilated illuminating wall uses reflective surfaces, horizontal light collectors and vertical polycarbonate to bring light through to create a soft and evenly distributed illumination.2 Aerogel mimics these optical characteristics as it causes light to diffuse. Figure 1 shows how the ventilated illuminating walls internal and external illuminances are alike.3

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Efficient Windows Collaborative, 'Measuring Performance: Visible Transmittance', in Efficient Windows Collaborative <http://www.efficientwindows.org/vt.php> [accessed 23rd September 2014] 2 O Boccia, F Chella and P Zazzini, 'Natural light from a wall in buildings: Experimental analysis of the ventilated illuminating wall performances', Solar Energy, 108 (2014), pp. 179-180. 3 Ibid, p. 183.!

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Set up My prototype window is set up as a south facing window with minimal shade provided from the surroundings. The mini digital lux meter is set 200mm behind the prototype glazing at a height of 450mm inside the unit, the unit is lifted to a height of 695mm from the ground. External readings are taken on the roof of the unit. I will take readings internally and externally over a twelve hour time period allowing the sun to rise and set throughout my measurements. By repeating the same method without the blind, I will get controlled results that can be used as a base to measure the effectiveness of my blind in relation to light.

FIG1. Boccia, Chella and Zazzini's VIW shows a similar trend internally and externally with relation to light, creating awareness to time passing internally.

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Limitations I do not have access to a number of lux meters or a data logger, all readings will be done manually and the single lux meter will be moved from the internal to external space. This means any readings taken are not done simultaneously, allowing for slight variations in the lighting conditions. The lux meter I am using ranges from 0-100,000 Lux with a sampling rate of 0.4 seconds and an accuracy of 5% reading value. Using a significantly smaller space to test my own prototype, I will gain results similar only to those closest to the window in the ventilated illuminating wall recordings. However, due to the similar characteristics of diffusion of light we can assume illuminance levels would fall deeper into a room, as seen in Figure 1 for the ventilated illuminating wall. 1 Acoustic Performance Windows are a sound transmission medium and play a role in attenuating unwanted noise. As noise annoyance increases, the need for improvements in windows’ acoustic standards does too.2 Therefore it is important that acoustic properties of windows advance and values are available to customers describing these. Set up The prototype glazing is fitted into a sealed unit plywood box with polystyrene acting as acoustic insulation. The sound source is placed at a distance of 1m directly in front of the prototype unit. The single sound level meter will then be moved from inside the sealed unit to a marked position adjacent to it, this allows for the base level noise to be displayed against the control and experimental windows results, giving an indication of the effectiveness of each. The sound source I will be using is white noise available at audio check3; this will be played from my iPhone loud speaker for a consistent artificial sound source. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 O Boccia, F Chella and P Zazzini, 'Natural light from a wall in buildings: Experimental analysis of the ventilated illuminating wall performances', Solar Energy, 108 (2014), p. 185. 2 T Muneer and others, Windows in Buildings: Thermal, Acoustic, Visual and Solar Performance, ed. by D Kinghorn, 1st edn (Oxford: Architectural Press), I, p. 184-85. 3 AudioCheck, 'High Quality White Noise', in AudioCheck <http://www.audiocheck.net/testtones_whitenoise.php> [accessed 23rd September 2014]!

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With reference to ISO-140 I decided that the loudspeaker method of measuring acoustic performance1 was most suited due to the negligible traffic noise where I would be conducting my experiment. This is also more accurate as the same artificial sound energy is presented in all of the tests. The experiments will be taken inside my house to minimise any external noise. I will take measurements of airborne sound inside the unit with and without the prototype blind. For each test I will first take readings outside of the unit with the sound source only, this will act as a base reading for background noise. The percentage of sound transmission can be used to judge how effective my blind is as an acoustic barrier. Limitations ISO-140 specifies that five microphones be used as a minimum2; due to lack of access I was only able to use one sound level meter. This digital sound level meter

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 ISO-International Organisation for Standardisation, 'Online Browsing Platform', in ISO-Online Browsing Platform <https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search> [accessed 22nd September 2014] 2 Dr. Umberto Berardi, 'The Position of the Instruments for the Sound Insulation Measurement of Building Façades: from ISO 140-5 to ISO 16283-3', in Academia.edu <https://www.academia.edu/2631872/The_Position_of_the_Instruments_for_the_Sound_Insulation_Measurement_of_Building_Facades_from_ISO_140-5_to_ISO_16283-3> [accessed 23rd September 2014] p. 71

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is capable of measuring the sound pressure level1 between 30-130dB, responding to 31.5Hz-8.5kHz. This has an accuracy of +/-1.5dB taking measurements 2 times/s. The use of only one microphone will not give the accuracy required by the ISO-140 tests. A sound level meter gives global sound characteristics. I did not have access to a pre-amplifier and spectrum analyser, which would indicate a breakdown of frequency bands susceptible to transmission giving a more detailed signal reading.2 This would have given me the opportunity after testing to indicate more specifically which areas need improving within the prototype window. Also the sealed unit that my prototype window is not sufficiently acoustically insulated to prevent all sound energy transfer across its walls. The effect of this is that all sound levels measured are not solely entering through the integral blind, by keeping the sealed unit a constant for both with and without the blind the measured values are still comparable. This also means that the positioning of the loud speaker at an angle of 45 degrees would be impractical, as it will encourage sound transmission through the unit rather than the window being assessed. In the next chapter I will present the results I have recorded on carrying out these experiments. The control and experimental recorded results will be presented alongside each other to allow easy comparisons, along with a discussion on the success of each in their intended application. Chapter 5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Bernard Grehant, Acoustics in Buildings , 2nd edn (London: Thomas Telford Publishing, 1996), I, p. 121. 2 Bernard Grehant, Acoustics in Buildings , 2nd edn (London: Thomas Telford Publishing, 1996), I, p. 121.!

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Results and Discussion In this chapter I will present and discuss the results I gathered during my experiments on my prototype integral aerogel blind. As mentioned in the first chapter, aerogel’s exceptional properties suggest window standards should improve when used in conjunction with aerogel. I monitored three parameters to see how effective aerogel was in my prototyped integral blind; these were heat, light and sound transmission. Heat Transmission It is important that the heat transmission is improved across windows in a discrete and variable way, as the window is visible both inside and outside of the building. This affects our privacy and we tend to have a method to cover windows at night. This method can be used improve thermal properties in a way that allows the occupant control over the internal conditions.

The graph shows aerogel to have improved the window’s thermal properties, the trend lines showing 10% less heat lost across the window with the aerogel integral blind. As the monitored window property values remain a constant through their trend line across the test period, the graph indicates the success of the integral aerogel blind compared to the control window.

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The prototype blind is successful in its ability to allow control over the window’s thermal properties, as a greater percentage of heat was lost without the blind than with the blind. This difference of values permits an occupant to raise the blind to let out excess heat from within or gain solar energy from outside, to suit their own unique comfort levels. Measuring these values outside meant that the conditions were constantly altering. I used a three day time period to allow a steady state to be reached1, this can be more clearly distinguished in the experimental window with the prototyped blind as the graph line stabilises. Both windows were measured on separate days and this will have affected the reliability of my results, as the same stabilisation cannot be seen in the control window. This may be because the thermal properties of the window allow more heat passage, meaning conditions internally were constantly changing, however this may also be a result of the weather itself being much more inconsistent on the day I measured the control window. To counter this I show both heat losses as a percentage of heat lost to the external environment so both are on an identical scale. The trend line shows a slow increase in heat loss over the test period, this incline being slightly more so in the control window. As a steady state was not reached, this parameter would need further testing over a longer span of time so a true heat loss value can be gathered. Alternatively, the use of a testing chamber and the guarded hot plate2 method would also present more valid results to judge the prototypes effectiveness. In both windows around half the energy was lost to the external environment, this meant that with external temperatures of 20 degrees, internally the temperature would be 10 degrees, unless a heat source was added. The consistent 10% difference, 45% with the integral blind and 55% in the control window suggest the benefits of the integral blind to be worth further research, as used in properly manufactured products would have greater improvements on window performance. Light Transmission !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 B Cheeseman and others, 'Developing an in-situ post construction quality control methodology to ensure better energy efficiency of buildings', in Environmental science and technology (Greece: 2007). 2 'Determination Of Thermal Conductivity', in TPM <http://tpm.fsv.cvut.cz/student/documents/files/BUM1/Chapter16.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014]

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A successful window will provide a view allowing occupants a visual rest and make them happier by allowing them visual contact to outside. This has to be carefully balanced with their privacy though.1 A blind allows for these needs to be catered to as the occupant feels necessary. With my prototype blind I hope balancing glare and daylight admittance can be resolved suitably to the occupant’s own desire.

From the graph you can see a considerable difference in the amount of light transmitted through the control and experimental window. We can predict that glare could be successfully prevented due to the 30% drop in light transmission when using the prototype blind as compared to the control. A notable comparison I made is the consistency of light transmitted through both windows. The control window shows far less stable lighting properties, rising from 40% to 80% transmission, compared with the steady 24% transmission of the prototyped window. This difference in properties can be explained by the way light naturally diffuses through aerogel2, meaning the effect of changing light levels outside have a less direct affect on the internal lighting conditions. Though the aerogel blind would be successful in calming light levels, only on bright days would a light transmission of 24% be acceptable, a problem would occur on

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Steven V Szokolay, Introduction to Architectural Science The basis of Sustainable Design, Introduction to Architectural Science, 2nd edn (Oxford: Architectural Press, 2011), I, p. 57.!2 Cabot, 'Novel translucent solution for outstanding natural light diffusion, thermal insulation and acoustic properties', in Scobalit AG <http://www.scobalit.ch/pdf/produktinformation/nanogel_Dok_en.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014]

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Light Transmission Across Experimental Window

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duller days when a greater deal of daylight is required but only an insignificant amount is able to enter through the blind. However, as the control window is presenting a lower than average light transmittance value of 55%, we can assume the light transmission of the prototype to increase when used in a more transparent window. A larger window would also increase the percentage of light that is able to enter the unit, as there is more area for the light to pass through. It would be important to test various sizes of the prototype to see how the size increase affects the light transmission. Nevertheless, I still think that the use of the blind would be advantageous due to it offering a steadily lit atmosphere. This would be especially useful in an office where glare on computer screens and changing lighting conditions is a problem that can harm workers’ eyes. The use of the aerogel integral blind would allow for more comfortable working conditions. Sound Transmission Acoustic properties are of greater concern in urban areas as the noise pollution is excessive, due to transportation and machinery, leading to more noise problems within buildings.1 Therefore, it would be useful to have a way of dampening this noise, especially at the busier times when noise levels are at their highest. When comparing the sound level in both windows to the sound source alone in the graph below, a considerable decrease in sound level can be seen. The sound source unaccompanied progresses at a steady rate. Whilst within the unit both tests show attenuation of sound as it passes through the window to the microphone. The control window effectively acoustically insulates till the sound source level reaches 5, outside this is at 45 decibels but remains 38 decibels internally just over the background level. With the prototype blind the background sound level is maintained till the sound source reaches level 7 at 50 decibels. After this point both the control and experimental window become increasingly less effective in acoustic insulation as the sound level increases, this is truer for the control window. This suggests that with louder sounds the performance of the control window would be significantly poorer than that of the experimental window.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Rebecca Kerwin, 'NATIONAL CONVERSATION ON THE FUTURE OF OUR COMMUNITIES', in Smart Growth <http://www.smartgrowth.org/nationalconversation/papers/Kerwin_Urban_Noise_Pollution.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014]

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At the highest sound level the prototype integral aerogel blind shows a decrease of almost 20 decibels. In cities levels of 50 decibels are habitual due to traffic, during construction works this may raise up to 90 decibels.1 I think this indicates the usefulness of the integral blind, as at the lower levels the control window was still successful in the sound attenuation, but at the higher levels the aerogel blind was more competent in reducing the sound to an acceptable level. As mentioned in the limitations of this experiment, the sealed unit I used to take these readings in was not sufficiently acoustically insulated. It was made from plywood and used polystyrene as acoustic insulation. This meant a significant amount of sound energy would transmit through the unit itself in addition to the window. Both windows may be found to have higher constraints to sound energy, if measured in an appropriately acoustically insulated unit this could mean the windows are more effective at attenuating sound than first perceived through my results. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 City of Irwindale, Irwindale Materials Recovery Facility and Transfer Station , 'Noise', in Baldwin Park <http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baldwinpark.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D782&ei=h6udVOSbOsjvavWJgUg&usg=AFQjCNFFeDX6AaZpKO2VRHfON48b4BSbHQ&sig2=AwkNhAH27sIHVhzXu2zPoQ> [accessed 26 December 2014]

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Conclusion Through this dissertation I have explored the properties and existing uses of aerogel. Through research I then came up with my own application for the use of aerogel. This was intended to allow the occupant control over the windows’ thermal, lighting and acoustic properties in an attempt to improve human comfort within a building. At the same time this would have the capability of improving the energy efficiency of the window as well. Through the testing of my own prototype I have found positive results in the three parameters measured, as all the experiments of the prototype performed superior to the control tests. It would appear therefore that the prototype blind was successful in its application. However, in both the heat and the lighting tests I would have predicted the results to be more positive. I think this can be explained due to the limitations I discussed in Chapter 3, Designing and creating my prototype. These include the compromise on the aerogel material; I used an aerogel blanket glued on to plastic strips, to keep the aerogel rigid, creating a similar type of blind slat as the monolithic aerogel strips. These extra layers plus the use of glue caused the blind to have a far lower transparency than would have been possible through the monolithic strips. This had a negative effect on the lighting transmission, by lowering the transmission to 30%. The other reason I would consider the results to be lower than I expected is largely due to the process of making the prototype, without certain apparatus I was unable to inject the Argon gas between the glazed sheets. This limitation would not have affected the comparison of tests, as it remained a constant throughout, but this would have negatively impacted the results in the thermal transmission experiment. I feel that the results I have gathered are insufficient to comment that my prototype will make windows more energy efficient. On the other hand, I do feel it was successful in its duty of providing occupant control over the window standards; this will have an effect on the internal conditions, allowing occupants to reach their own comfort levels through use of this prototype. This is seen to be true in all the areas I experimented on, as in each test, the control and prototype results yield significant variations in their recorded values. Although the aerogel integral blind I created does allow the occupant to control the window standards, the level of control may differ to the results I have gained. Moreover, the energy efficiency of my prototype blind cannot be commented upon due to the results I gained being insufficient for this to be judged accurately. However, through further testing and refined manufacture, I feel that this application of aerogel could successfully work in improving energy efficiency; whilst also allowing effective control of the windows’ thermal, lighting and acoustic transmission values to provide individual comfort to occupants within a building.

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Bibliography Websites AudioCheck, 'High Quality White Noise', in AudioCheck <http://www.audiocheck.net/testtones_whitenoise.php> [accessed 23rd September 2014] Dr. Umberto Berardi, 'The Position of the Instruments for the Sound Insulation Measurement of Building Façades: from ISO 140-5 to ISO 16283-3', in Academia.edu <https://www.academia.edu/2631872/The_Position_of_the_Instruments_for_the_Sound_Insulation_Measurement_of_Building_Facades_from_ISO_140-5_to_ISO_16283-3> [accessed 23rd September 2014] Berkeley Lab, 'Aerogel Research at LBL', in Science Articles Archive <http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/aerogel-insulation.html> [accessed 2nd October 2014] Berkeley lab, 'From the Lab to the Marketplace', in Aerogel Research at LBL <http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/aerogel-insulation.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] Build Australia , 'Window acoustics and noise control', in Build <http://www.build.com.au/window-acoustics-and-noise-control> [accessed 5th January 2015] Cabot, 'Novel translucent solution for outstanding natural light diffusion, thermal insulation and acoustic properties', in Scobalit AG <http://www.scobalit.ch/pdf/produktinformation/nanogel_Dok_en.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014] Cabot corporation, 'Tensile Roofing', in Cabot <http://www.cabotcorp.com/solutions/applications/construction/tensile-roofing> [accessed 28th December 2014] City of Irwindale, Irwindale Materials Recovery Facility and Transfer Station, 'Noise', in Baldwin Park <http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baldwinpark.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D782&ei=h6udVOSbOsjvavWJgUg&usg=AFQjCNFFeDX6AaZpKO2VRHfON48b4BSbHQ&sig2=AwkNhAH27sIHVhzXu2zPoQ> [accessed 26th December 2014] 'Determination Of Thermal Conductivity', in TPM <http://tpm.fsv.cvut.cz/student/documents/files/BUM1/Chapter16.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014]

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Mark Dowson, 'Novel Retrofit Technologies Incorporating Silica Aerogel For Lower Energy Buildings', in Brunel University Archive (BURA) <http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/7075 > [accessed 25th September 2014] Efficient Windows Collaborative, 'Measuring Performance: Visible Transmittance', in Efficient Windows Collaborative <http://www.efficientwindows.org/vt.php> [accessed 23rd September 2014] Fixit AG, 'Learn about Aerogel high-performance insulating plaster', in Fixit <http://www.fixit.ch/aerogel/?w=start&lng=en> [accessed 28th December 2014] HyperPhysics, 'Thermal Conductivity', in Hyper Physics <http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/thrcn.html> [accessed 26th September 2014] 'Instrumentation and Thermometers', in Brannans <http://www.brannanshop.co.uk> [accessed 26th September 2014] ISO-International Organisation for Standardisation, 'Online Browsing Platform', in ISO-Online Browsing Platform <https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search> [accessed 22nd September 2014] Kalwall Corporation, 'High-Performance Translucent Daylighting - Wall Systems ', in Kalwall <http://kalwall.com/walls.htm> [accessed 28th December 2014] Rebecca Kerwin, 'NATIONAL CONVERSATION ON THE FUTURE OF OUR COMMUNITIES', in Smart Growth <http://www.smartgrowth.org/nationalconversation/papers/Kerwin_Urban_Noise_Pollution.pdf> [accessed 26th December 2014] LowEnergyHouse.com, 'What is Aerogel Insulation?', in Low Energy House <http://www.lowenergyhouse.com/aerogel-insulation.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich , 'The Fundamentals of Thermoelectrics', in Nano Physik <http://www.nano.physik.uni-muenchen.de/education/praktika/f1_thermoelectrics.pdf > [accessed 25th September 2014] MPA, 'End of Life Recycling', in The Concrete Centre <http://www.concretecentre.com/sustainability/end_of_life_recycling.aspx> [accessed 19th December 2014] Microstructured Materials Group, 'Thermal Properties ', in SilicaAeroGels <http://energy.lbl.gov/ecs/aerogels/sa-thermal.html> [accessed 11th October 2014] Microstructured Materials Group, 'Optical Properties', in SilicaAeroGels <http://energy.lbl.gov/ecs/aerogels/sa-optical.html> [accessed 11th October 2014]

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Open Source Nanotech, 'Aerogel Without the Pressure', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1433> [accessed 9th October 2014] Open Source Nanotech, 'Functionalization', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1918> [accessed 10th October 2014] Open Source Nanotech, 'How is aerogel made? ', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=4> [accessed 9th October 2014] Open Source Nanotech, 'Strong and Flexible Aerogels', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=1058> [accessed 8th October 2014] Open Source Nanotech, 'The 2000′s: New Possibilities and Commercialization', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=829> [accessed 9th October 2014] Open Source nanotech, 'What is aerogel?', in Aerogel.org <http://www.aerogel.org/?p=3> [accessed 9th October 2014] Passivhaus store, 'Spacetherm Blanket', in The Passivhaus Store <http://www.phstore.co.uk/index.php?route=product/product_grouped&product_id=568> [accessed 26th September 2014] Dr. Ir. Stéphane Pigeon, 'Unique Noise Generators matched to your own Hearing Curve', in myNoise <http://mynoise.net/noiseMachines.php> [accessed 23rd September 2014] Powerscape, 'Impact and Airboure Sound ', in Gypsum Solutions <http://www.gypsumsolutions.com.au/uploaded/files/client_added/powerscape_impact_and_airborne_sound_overview%5B1%5D(1).pdf> [accessed 27th December 2014] Sunrom Technologies, 'Thermoelectric Cooler Peltier TEC1-12706', in Sunrom Technologies <http://www.sunrom.com/p/thermoelectric-cooler-peltier-tec1-12706> [accessed 26th September 2014] Sunrom Technologies, 'Thermoelectric Cooler Peltier TEC1-12706', in Sunrom Technologies <http://www.sunrom.com/p/thermoelectric-cooler-peltier-tec1-12706> [accessed 25th September 2014] Sustainable Sources , 'Construction Waste Recycling ', in Construction Waste <http://constructionwaste.sustainablesources.com > [accessed 19th December 2014] Svenska Aerogel AB, 'Environmentally Friendly ', in Aerogel <http://www.aerogel.se/technology/environmentally-friendly/> [accessed 9th October 2014]

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Svenska Aerogel AB, 'Environmentally Friendly', in Aerogel <http://www.aerogel.se/technology/environmentally-friendly/> [accessed 28th December 2014] Thermablok Incorporation, 'Thermablok® Aerogel Insulation', in Thermablok <http://www.thermablok.com> [accessed 28th December 2014] UK Government, 'Human factors: Lighting, thermal comfort, working space, noise and vibration', in Health and Safety executive <http://www.hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/topics/lighting.htm> [accessed 27th December 2014] University of Virginia Physics Show, 'Thermal Conductivity', in Phun Physics <http://phun.physics.virginia.edu/topics/thermal.html> [accessed 26th September 2014] Books Adrian Bejan, Heat Transfer (Singapore: John Wiley & Sons , 1993). Collins, English Dictionary, 5th edn (Glasgow: HarperCollins , 1996). Bernard Grehant, Acoustics in Buildings , 2nd edn (London: Thomas Telford Publishing, 1996), I. H M Government, Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document L1A: Conservation of fuel and power in new dwellings (London: 2013). T Muneer and others, Windows in Buildings: Thermal, Acoustic, Visual and Solar Performance, ed. by D Kinghorn, 1st edn (Oxford: Architectural Press), I. The international Sol-Gel society, Aerogels Handbook, ed. by Michel A Aegerter, E-book edn (Springer, 2011). Steven V Szokolay, Introduction to Architectural Science The basis of Sustainable Design, Introduction to Architectural Science, 2nd edn (Oxford: Architectural Press, 2011), I. Reports A Berge and P Johansson, 'Literature Review of High Performance Thermal Insulation' (unpublished thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2012).

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Arthur E. Stamps, 'Effects of Permeability on Perceived Enclosure and Spaciousness' (Online, Institute of Environmental Quality San Francisco, Environment and Behavior). J.A Veitch and Galasiu, 'The Physiological and Psychological Effects of Windows, Daylight, and View at Home: Review and Research Agenda' (Online, National Research Council Canada, Institute for Reasearch in Construction, 2012). Articles in Journals O Boccia, F Chella and P Zazzini, 'Natural light from a wall in buildings: Experimental analysis of the ventilated illuminating wall performances', Solar Energy, 108 (2014), 178-88.,Paul Hyett Brian Edwards, Rough Guide to Sustainability, 2nd edn (London: RIBA Companies, 2002). T. Haruyama, 'Performance of Peltier elements as a cryogenic heat flux sensor at temperatures down to 60 K', Cryogenics, 41 (2001). Conference Proceedings B Cheeseman and others, 'Developing an in-situ post construction quality control methodology to ensure better energy efficiency of buildings', in Environmental science and technology (Greece: 2007). !!

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Appendix

Experiment  Data

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Heat Transfer Across Prototype Blind

Temp In Unit Temp Out Unit Temp In Unit Temp Out Unit Percentage Drop Percentage Drop Average Percentage of Mili-VoltsThermometer Thermometer Thermocouple Thermocouple Thermometer Thermocouple Percentage Drop Heat Lost TEG Module Time

18.7 10.5 20.2 12.4 43.85 38.61 41.23 58.77 2.7 14-00 16/11/1418.4 10.3 19.8 12.3 44.02 37.88 40.95 59.05 2.8 14-3017.9 9.5 19.3 11.4 46.93 40.93 43.93 56.07 2.9 15-0017.4 9.2 18.9 10.7 47.13 43.39 45.26 54.74 2.9 15-3016.9 8.9 18.2 10.1 47.34 44.51 45.925 54.075 2.9 16-0016.4 8.4 17.8 9.9 48.78 44.38 46.58 53.42 3 16-30

16 8.5 17.4 9.4 46.88 45.98 46.43 53.57 3 17-0015.6 8 16.8 8.9 48.72 47.02 47.87 52.13 3 17-3015.2 7.8 16.4 8.5 48.68 48.17 48.425 51.575 3 18-0014.8 7.3 16.2 8.2 50.68 49.38 50.03 49.97 3 18-3014.6 7.4 15.9 7.9 49.32 50.31 49.815 50.185 2.9 19-0014.4 7.3 15.7 7.9 49.31 49.68 49.495 50.505 3 19-3014.3 7 15.7 7.8 51.05 50.32 50.685 49.315 3.1 20-0014.2 6.9 15.7 7.7 51.41 50.96 51.185 48.815 3.2 20-3014.1 6.8 15.6 7.7 51.77 50.64 51.205 48.795 3 21-0013.7 6.1 15.2 7 55.47 53.95 54.71 45.29 2.8 21-3013.2 6.1 14.5 7 53.79 51.72 52.755 47.245 2.8 22-0012.7 6.1 14 6.9 51.97 50.71 51.34 48.66 2.6 22-3012.6 5.9 14 7 53.17 50 51.585 48.415 2.7 23-0012.5 5.8 13.9 6.1 53.6 56.12 54.86 45.14 2.8 23-3019.5 9.5 20.5 12.5 51.28 39.02 45.15 54.85 1.4 90-00 17/11/1418.3 9.1 18.6 9.9 50.27 46.77 48.52 51.48 1.1 09-3017.4 9.4 17.7 9.4 45.98 46.89 46.435 53.565 1.2 10-00

17 9.5 17.6 9.9 44.12 43.75 43.935 56.065 1.1 10-3017.1 10.4 17.6 10-6 39.18 39.77 39.475 60.525 1.3 11-0017.3 10 18-1 10.6 42.2 41.44 41.82 58.18 1.3 11-3017.8 10.6 18.6 11.2 40.45 39.78 40.115 59.885 1.4 12-0018-1 11.4 18.9 11.6 37.02 38.62 37.82 62.18 1.5 12-3018.5 11.2 19 11-9 39.46 37.37 38.415 61.585 1.4 13-0019.7 12 20.9 13.3 35.83 36.36 36.095 63.905 1.5 13-3019.4 11.2 20.3 12 42.27 40.89 41.58 58.42 1.4 14-0018.9 11.3 19.6 12.3 40.21 37.24 38.725 61.275 1.4 14-3018.5 10.5 19.1 11.2 43.24 41.36 42.3 57.7 1.4 15-0018.3 10.2 19 10.9 44.26 42.63 43.445 56.555 1.4 15-3018-0 10.5 18.6 11 41.67 40.86 41.265 58.735 1.4 16-0017.9 10 18.4 10.6 44.13 42.39 43.26 56.74 1.5 16-3017.5 10 18 10.1 42.86 43.89 43.375 56.625 1.5 17-0017.1 9.2 17.6 9.6 46.2 45.45 45.825 54.175 1.5 17-3016.4 8.3 16.8 8.9 49.39 47.02 48.205 51.795 1.4 18-0015.9 8.2 16.4 8.7 48.43 46.95 47.69 52.31 1.5 18-3015.9 8.2 16.2 8.8 50.63 45.68 48.155 51.845 1.5 19-0015.8 7.8 16.3 8.5 46.84 47.85 47.345 52.655 1.6 19-3015.6 8.4 16 8.4 45.51 47.5 46.505 53.495 1.6 20-0015.6 8.5 16.1 8.7 42.68 45.96 44.32 55.68 1.5 20-3015.7 9 16.3 9.3 49.06 42.94 46 54 1.6 21-0015.9 8.1 16.6 8.8 47.06 46.99 47.025 52.975 1.5 21-3015.5 7.1 16.1 7.8 54.19 51.55 52.87 47.13 1.5 22-0015.2 7.1 15.7 7.6 53.29 51.59 52.44 47.56 1.5 22-3014.9 7 15.4 7.3 61.11 52.6 56.855 43.145 1.5 23-0014.8 7.7 15.3 8 47.97 47.71 47.84 52.16 1.6 23-30

15 8.1 15.6 8.2 46 47.44 46.72 53.28 1.6 24-0018.5 9.9 19.9 12.7 46.49 36.18 41.335 58.665 0.9 07-30 18/11/1417.6 9.4 18.7 11.7 46.59 37.43 42.01 57.99 1.3 08-0016.8 9.2 17.8 11.1 45.24 37.64 41.44 58.56 1.5 08-3015.7 10.6 16.6 10.1 32.48 39.16 35.82 64.18 2.3 10-0017.4 11.8 18.4 11.9 32.18 35.33 33.755 66.245 2.4 10-3019.1 13.1 20.1 14.1 31.41 29.85 30.63 69.37 2.3 11-0020.1 14.4 21.7 15.7 28.36 27.65 28.005 71.995 2.2 11-30

21 15 22.4 16.2 28.57 27.68 28.125 71.875 2.1 12-0021-9 15.2 23.6 17 32.88 27.96 30.42 69.58 1.9 12-3022.3 15.6 24 17.3 30.59 27.97 29.28 70.72 1.8 13-0021.3 14.5 24.2 17 31.93 29.75 30.84 69.16 3.2 13-3020.9 14.7 25.5 16.3 29.67 36.08 32.875 67.125 2.6 14-0020.6 13.8 24.6 15.7 33.01 36.18 34.595 65.405 2.8 14-3019.6 12.2 25 13.4 37.76 46.4 42.08 57.92 2.6 15-0019-1 11.9 24.4 13.5 37.7 44.67 41.185 58.815 8 15-3018.5 11 20.6 13.2 40.54 35.92 38.23 61.77 2.5 16-0017.5 10.4 22.5 12.5 40.57 44.44 42.505 57.495 2.6 16-3016.8 10.1 21.5 11.7 39.88 45.58 42.73 57.27 2.6 17-00

16 10 20.9 11.8 37.5 43.54 40.52 59.48 2.6 17-3015.7 10.2 20.5 11.6 35.03 43.41 39.22 60.78 2.7 18-0015.5 10.2 20.3 11 34.19 45.81 40 60 2.7 18-3015.5 9.9 20.5 11.2 36.13 45.37 40.75 59.25 2.8 19-0015.5 10 20.4 11 35.48 46.08 40.78 59.22 2.8 19-3015.5 9.9 20.4 10.7 36.13 47.53 41.83 58.17 2.8 20-0018.8 10.5 20 13.6 44.15 32 38.075 61.925 1 07-30 19/11/1415.7 9.8 18 10.4 37.58 42.22 39.9 60.1 1.5 08-3015.8 9.6 18.4 10.2 39.24 44.57 41.905 58.095 1.6 09-0016.4 10 18.8 10.8 39.02 42.55 40.785 59.215 1.8 09-3016.8 10.8 19.1 11.7 35.71 38.74 37.225 62.775 1.8 10-0017.4 11.1 19.7 11.7 36.21 40.61 38.41 61.59 1.8 10-3018.3 11.7 20.7 12.6 36.07 39.13 37.6 62.4 1.7 11-3018.4 11.9 20.9 12.7 35.33 39.23 37.28 62.72 1.5 12-0018.5 12.2 20.9 12.7 34.05 39.23 36.64 63.36 1.6 12-3018.8 12.2 21.4 13.4 35.11 37.38 36.245 63.755 17 13-0018.9 11.9 21.4 13 37.04 39.25 38.145 61.855 1.7 13-30

19 11.8 21.6 12.8 37.89 40.74 39.315 60.685 0.6 14-0016.6 11.3 19.4 11.7 31.93 39.69 35.81 64.19 2.2 14-3017.3 10.2 20 11 41.04 45 43.02 56.98 2.2 15-0017.2 9.5 19.9 10 44.77 49.75 47.26 52.74 2.1 15-3016.8 9.4 19.5 9.9 44.05 49.23 46.64 53.36 2.1 16-0016.5 9.3 19.4 10.4 43.64 46.39 45.015 54.985 2.1 16-3016.3 9.3 19.2 9.8 42.94 48.96 45.95 54.05 2 17-0016.2 9.3 19 10.1 42.59 46.84 44.715 55.285 2.1 17-3016.3 9.2 19.1 9.9 43.56 48.17 45.865 54.135 2.1 18-0016.3 9.2 19 9.7 43.56 48.95 46.255 53.745 2.2 18-3016.3 9.7 19 9.7 40.49 48.95 44.72 55.28 2.1 19-0016.3 9.5 19.2 9.7 41.72 49.48 45.6 54.4 2.1 19-3016.1 9.1 19 9.9 43.48 47.89 45.685 54.315 2 20-00

Page 38: Lorna Clements: Undergraduate Part 1 Architecture Dissertation

Light&Levels&Though&Control&Window&

LUX&Level&Inside&1& 2 3 LUX&Level&Outside&1& 2 3 Percentage&DropTime AVERAGE AVERAGE Across&Control&Window Transparency&

07:00 1 2 2 1.66666667 3 4 4 3.666666667 61.68 38.3207:10 6 6 6 6 15 16 16 15.66666667 49.28 50.7207:20 21 25 28 24.6666667 40 49 57 48.66666667 45.09 54.9107:30 32 38 49 39.6666667 71 87 59 72.33333333 56.05 43.9507:40 67 74 80 73.6666667 145 178 180 167.6666667 54.33 45.6707:50 115 120 127 120.666667 256 262 275 264.3333333 59.38 40.6208:00 138 114 120 124 322 286 308 305.3333333 54.46 45.5410:00 316 282 250 282.666667 618 649 591 619.3333333 52.61 47.3910:10 886 773 696 785 1836 1611 1522 1656.333333 50.84 49.1610:20 302 324 340 322 641 736 588 655 48.78 51.2210:30 416 392 363 390.333333 826 716 744 762 52.12 47.8810:40 766 781 791 779.333333 1592 1598 1693 1627.666667 52.16 47.8410:50 1566 1574 1840 1660 3810 3240 3360 3470 58.96 41.0411:00 469 488 494 483.666667 1266 1108 1162 1178.666667 56.99 43.0112:00 1205 1144 1094 1147.66667 2950 2780 2270 2666.666667 52.53 47.4712:10 742 740 777 753 1674 1545 1540 1586.333333 52.83 47.1712:20 1021 1044 1107 1057.33333 1934 2300 2490 2241.333333 51.69 48.3112:30 1097 1103 1138 1112.66667 2320 2260 2330 2303.333333 34.56 65.4412:40 3480 3380 3500 3453.33333 5220 5340 5270 5276.666667 45.33 54.6712:50 2480 2530 2310 2440 4280 4820 4290 4463.333333 34.45 65.5513:00 8420 7050 8620 8030 10370 10920 15460 12250 35.25 64.75

9110 5340 3020 5823.33333 12600 9560 4820 8993.333333 30 7014:00 6030 5100 4760 5296.66667 8020 7730 6950 7566.666667 36.05 63.9514:10 4750 3960 2980 3896.66667 6980 6190 5110 6093.333333 41.67 58.3314:20 7350 10800 6000 8050 12620 19480 9300 13800 33.1 66.914:30 5660 5420 4890 5323.33333 7890 7450 8530 7956.666667 17.09 82.9114:40 8200 7170 33400 16256.6667 10400 15420 33000 19606.66667 28.41 71.5914:50 38500 11100 28000 25866.6667 47900 12300 48200 36133.33333 51.46 48.5415:00 1071 8050 5520 4880.33333 1742 16420 12000 10054 44.3 55.7

24800 21000 20200 22000 42600 42100 33800 39500 44.14 55.8616:00 1780 1640 1060 1493.33333 3230 2790 2000 2673.333333 37.66 62.3416:10 1360 1120 1360 1280 1870 1970 2320 2053.333333 41.89 58.1116:20 1530 1560 736 1275.33333 2410 2760 1414 2194.666667 43.48 56.5216:30 1120 792 736 882.666667 1670 1601 1414 1561.666667 47.85 52.1516:40 954 921 870 915 1860 1754 1650 1754.666667 45.18 54.8216:50 746 620 728 698 1320 1120 1380 1273.333333 59.67 40.3317:00 1014 1026 981 1007 2920 2240 2330 2496.666667 38.69 61.31

277 266 259 267.333333 438 454 416 436 36.51 63.4918:00 236 224 222 227.333333 400 338 336 358 48.9 51.118:10 162 166 166 164.666667 343 313 311 322.3333333 39.1 60.918:20 202 195 193 196.666667 350 327 292 323 45.22 54.7818:30 103 102 106 103.666667 199 178 191 189.3333333 47.59 52.4118:40 44 44 42 43.3333333 82 87 79 82.66666667 45 5518:50 18 19 19 18.6666667 32 35 35 34 42.81 57.1919:00 18 18 19 18.3333333 28 33 35 32 43.4 56.6

3 3 3 3 6 5 5 5.333333333 54.54545455 54.47688889

Page 39: Lorna Clements: Undergraduate Part 1 Architecture Dissertation

Light levels With Integral Aerogel Blind

LUX level Inside 1 2 3 LUX Level Outside 1 2 3 Percentage DropTime AVERAGE AVERAGE Across Prototype Blind Transparency

07:00 106 117 124 116 602 616 590 590 80.43 19.5707:10 231 237 246 170 999 1003 1063 750 77.33 22.6707:20 386 397 410 238 2380 2090 2480 1022 76.71 23.2907:30 640 598 588 398 3660 2870 3420 2317 82.82 17.1807:40 1079 1450 1600 609 6940 7950 8430 3317 81.64 18.3607:50 1079 1450 1600 1376 6940 7950 8430 7773 75.67 24.3308:00 1880 1642 2150 1891 8640 10280 10400 9773 80.65 19.35

10:00 14890 15000 15010 14967 63900 64200 63600 63900 76.58 23.4210:10 15740 15690 15650 15693 67400 66000 65200 66200 76.29 23.7110:20 15790 16170 16460 16140 67600 68500 67700 67933 79.02 20.9810:30 16800 16540 16740 16693 69500 69600 72400 70500 76.32 23.6810:40 12460 15840 14470 14257 60500 62700 54500 59233 75.93 24.0710:50 5980 6110 6380 6157 25200 26300 27500 26333 76.62 23.3811:00 4780 4470 4250 4500 20200 18900 18740 13658 67.05 32.95

12:00 9780 9010 11220 10003 34100 40100 40500 38233 73.84 26.1612:10 1840 1800 1770 1803 7930 7700 8250 7960 77.35 22.6512:20 1670 1780 1670 1673 7870 7320 7180 7457 77.56 22.4412:30 1830 1850 1890 1857 7160 6690 7190 7013 73.52 26.4812:40 1890 1860 1880 1876.666667 7590 7760 7700 7683 75.57 24.4312:50 2210 2250 1884 2115 10880 11720 11410 11337 81.34 18.6613:00 4030 4130 4200 4120 20500 19760 19900 20053 79.45 20.55

14:00 3560 3380 3200 3380 16770 17690 14370 16277 79.23 20.7714:10 3430 3540 3690 3653 16200 15930 17610 16580 77.97 22.0314:20 4910 5040 5260 5070 24700 25300 26500 25500 80.12 19.8814:30 4450 4240 4070 4253 21200 21500 18960 20553 79.31 20.6914:40 3440 3110 2850 3133 17180 14320 13200 14907 78.98 21.0214:50 2510 2560 2660 2577 11750 11960 12500 12070 78.65 21.3515:00 4230 4790 5650 5432 19800 28700 29400 27320 80.12 19.88

16:00 6130 6050 5970 6050 23100 28800 23500 25133 75.93 24.0716:10 3260 3490 3840 3510 13500 15900 29100 14730 76.17 23.8316:20 2930 2920 2820 2890 12300 13400 11800 12500 76.88 23.1216:30 2190 2070 2010 2090 7830 8070 7880 7927 73.63 26.3716:40 1610 1590 1600 1600 6400 6860 6850 6703 76.13 23.8716:50 1270 1270 1280 1273 5120 4530 4970 4873 73.88 26.1217:00 1570 1580 1630 1593 5990 6530 6490 6337 74.86 25.14

18:00 1060 1000 753 937.6666667 3670 4070 3650 3797 75.3 24.718:10 436 412 402 417 1735 1761 1768 1755 76.24 23.7618:20 232 216 204 217 989 915 883 929 76.64 23.3618:30 146 143 140 143 499 602 526 542 73.62 26.3818:40 138 137 136 137 595 534 546 558 75.45 24.5518:50 115 113 112 113 452 432 414 433 73.9 26.119:00 93 92 90 92 328 374 345 349 73.64 26.36

3933.650794 16971.61905 23.1347619

Page 40: Lorna Clements: Undergraduate Part 1 Architecture Dissertation

Sound&Decibel&Level

White&Noise&Level 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15Inside'Unit'With'Prototype'1 38 38 38.2 38.55 39.3 40.4 42.25 44.55

2 37.9 37.9 38 38.4 39.2 40.3 42.1 44.43 38.1 38.1 38.4 38.7 39.4 40.5 42.4 44.7

Average 38 38 38.2 38.55 39.3 40.4 42.25 44.55Inside'Control'Window'1' 38 38.62 38.72 39.48 40.89 43.16 46.3 50.3

2 38.18 38.4 38.95 40.28 42.81 45.9 49.99 53.083 38.29 38.62 39.06 40.28 42.7 45.79 49.66 53.41

Average 38.1566667 38.5466667 38.91 40.0133333 42.1333333 44.95 48.65 52.2633333Outside7Source'Sound'Only'1 38.4 40.5 44.7 49.55 52.5 57 61.4 63.65

2 38.3 40.3 44.6 49.4 52.5 56.9 61.3 63.63 38.5 40.7 44.8 49.7 52.5 57.1 61.5 63.8

Average 38.4 40.5 44.7 49.55 52.5 57 61.4 63.6833333