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Copyright © 2009 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All rights reserved.
Understanding Economics5th edition
by Mark Lovewell
Chapter 1The Economic Problem
Copyright © 2009 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives After this chapter, you will be able to:
1. comprehend the economic problem – the problem of having unlimited wants, but limited resources – that underlies the definition of economics
2. explain how economists specify economic choice3. summarize the production choices an entire
economy faces, as demonstrated by the production possibilities model
4. identify the three basic economic questions and how various economic systems answer them
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How Economists Think Economists assume that people customarily
engage in rational behaviour.People are assumed to make choices by logically
weighing the personal benefits and costs of available actions. They then select the most attractive option.
Economists deal with the economic problem.Economic agents must continually make choices.Their wants are unlimited.They face a limited supply of economic resources.
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Economic Resources Economic resources include:
natural resources, or nature’s contribution to production
capital resources, or the processed materials, equipment, and buildings used in production
human resources, which include both labour and entrepreneurship
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Economic Models Economic models:
simplify economic realityshow how dependent variables are affected by
independent variablesinclude inverse and/or direct relationshipsincorporate a variety of assumptions such as
ceteris paribusare classified as part of either positive
economics or normative economics
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Economic Choice Economists assume that economic decision-
makers maximize their own utility.Decision-makers must keep in mind the
opportunity cost of each alternative.Opportunity cost is defined as the utility of the
best forgone alternative.
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The Production Possibilities Model The production possibilities model is based
on three assumptions:an economy makes only two productsresources and technology are fixedall resources are employed to their fullest
capacity
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The Production Possibilities Curve (a)
The production possibilities curve shows a range of possible output combinations for an economy.It highlights the scarcity of resources.It has a concave shape, which reflects the law of
increasing opportunity costs.
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The Production Possibilities Curve (b) Figure 1.1, page 9
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Production Possibilities Schedule
Hamburgers Computers point on graph
Production Possibilities Curve
0 1 2 3
1000
600
b
c
1000 0 a
900 1 b
600 2 c
0 3 d Computers
Ham
bur
gers
e
f
inefficient
unattainable
d
900
a
The Law of Increasing CostsFigure 1.2, page 11
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Production Possibilities Schedule
Hamburgers Opportunity Computers point Cost of on graph Computers
Production Possibilities Curve
0 1 2 3
1000
6001000 0
a 100
900 1 b
300
600 2 c
600
0 3 d Computers
Ham
bur
gers
As the quantityof computers
rises, so does theiropportunity cost.
a
b900
c
d
Shifts in Production Possibilities Figure 1.2, page 11
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Production Possibilities Curve
0 3
1000
Computers
Ham
bur
gers
With morecomputers, the curve shifts out
in the nextperiod.
The Basic Economic Questions There are three basic questions any society
must answer:what to producehow to producefor whom to produce
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Economic Systems There are three systems to choose from:
Traditional economies focus on non-economic concerns and have tight social constraints.
Market economies are consumer-centered and innovative but create inequality and instability.
Command economies equalize incomes but often have a lack of freedom.
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The Range of Economic Systems (a)
Most countries have mixed economies.Modern mixed economies include both private
and public sectors.Traditional mixed economies combine
traditional sectors with private and/or public sectors.
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The Range of Economic Systems (b)Figure 1.4, page 17
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Transition Economies China and India exhibit the conflicts and
opportunities found in rapidly changing mixed economies.
Both economies are examples of transition economies, exhibiting high rates of economic growth and rising average incomes.
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The Case of China The contemporary economic transformation of
China began in the 1970s with growth-enhancing reforms in its agricultural sector.
In the 1980s, this growth spread to other sectors, thanks to reforms allowing state-owned producers to keep some of their profits.
After 1990, private companies became common, causing a further increase in annual growth.
By the late 2000s, this growth meant that China’s economy was five times larger than in 1978.
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The Case of India Reforms during the early 1990s freed private
businesses in key sectors of India’s economy. High growth rates appeared first in services,
before being extended to manufacturing. India’s annual rates of economic growth now
average about 8% – just a little less than the 10% rates found in China’s economy.
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Economic Goals There are seven major economic goals:
economic efficiencyincome equityprice stabilityfull employmentviable balance of paymentseconomic growthenvironmental sustainability
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Climate Change Concerns over climate change illustrate the
complexities in accomplishing economic goals.
The mainstream scientific prediction is that, if unchecked, the increase in carbon emissions will cause average global temperatures to rise by between 1.5% and 6% by 2100.
So far, attempts to reduce emissions worldwide, through the Kyoto Protocol, have achieved only limited success.
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Complementary and Conflicting Economic Goals Economic goals may be complementary.
An example is the relationship between full employment and economic growth.
Economic goals may be conflicting.An example is the relationship between price
stability and full employment.
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The Founder of Modern Economics Adam Smith:
explained how the division of labour increases production
argued that self interest is transformed by the invisible hand of competition so that it creates significant economic benefits
stressed the principle of laissez faire, which means that governments should not intervene in economic activity
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Economics as an Art (a) While some economists view their subject as
a science, others view it as a discipline. These economists stress the ways in which
economic models are like artistic sketches, with the added need to include society’s political and cultural aspects.
When social surroundings change, economic models may therefore need to change as well.
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Economics as an Art (b) Building a good economic model is an art as
well as a science. By identifying the principles of rational
behaviour in various walks of life, contemporary economists are extending creative models into areas that could not have been guessed a few decades ago.
Examples of these applications are analyzing falling North American crime rates, the maximization of student academic achievement, and the factors that influence the longevity of marriages.
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The Past as Prologue (a)(Online Learning Center)In pre-modern times, economic ideas were
only dimly present in ways of thinking.In the ancient world, economic activity was
based on the following principles:the widespread use of slaveryan aversion to the use of markets and a
patronizing view of “trade”a lack of concern with technological innovation
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The Past as Prologue (b)(Online Learning Center)During the Middle Ages in Europe, economic
activity was based on:the system of feudalism, with relations
between peasants and nobles tied, at least in theory, by a set of mutual obligations
religiously based rules, such as the idea of the ‘just price’ and condemnation of ‘usury’
a gradually growing acceptance of markets
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The Past as Prologue (c)(Online Learning Center)After 1500, capitalism arose in Europe based
on the following factors:the undermining of feudal relations due to
plagues and wars, and a new focus on moneythe rise of exploration and tradean influx of precious metals from the Americasthe Protestant Reformation, with Martin
Luther’s emphasis on individual faith as the key to personal salvation, and John Calvin’s notion of predestination, with riches gradually being seen as a sign of God’s favour
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The Past as Prologue (d)(Online Learning Centre)The economic ideas of early capitalism were
related to a viewpoint known as mercantilism. According to its supporters:government regulations should attempt to keep
gold and silver within national borders, since a nation’s wealth was thought to be best measured in terms of treasure
tariffs and other types of protection should be used to ensure a surplus of trade
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The Past as Prologue (e)(Online Learning Centre)Mercantilist thinking was on the wane by
1750, when economists such as Adam Smith emphasized that wealth was in the form of real resources, not treasure, and that trade could be beneficial for both buyers and sellers.
Chapter 1The End
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