lsat_pt_23.pdf

LSAT*

PrepTest 23Test ID: LL3023

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LSAT PT 23 4/25/07 3:06 PM Page ii

Analytical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

LSAT PT 23 4/25/07 3:06 PM Page iii

Questions 15

A producer is positioning exactly seven music piecesF,G, H, J, K, L, and Mone after another on a musicrecording, not necessarily in that order. Each piece will fillexactly one of the seven sequential tracks on the recording,according to the following conditions:

F must be second.J cannot be seventh.G can come neither immediately before nor

immediately after H.H must be in some track before that of L.L must be in some track before that of M.

1. Which one of the following could be the order, fromfirst to seventh, of the pieces on the recording?

(A) F, K, G, J, H, L, M(B) G, F, H, K, L, J, M(C) G, F, H, K, L, M, J(D) K, F, G, H, J, L, M(E) K, F, L, J, H, M, G

2. If M fills some track before that of J and also beforethat of K on the recording, which one of thefollowing must be true?

(A) G is first.(B) K is seventh.(C) L is third.(D) H comes either immediately before or

immediately after F.(E) L comes either immediately before or

immediately after G.

3. Which one of the following is a complete andaccurate list of the pieces any of which could be firston the recording?

(A) G, J, K(B) G, H, J, K(C) G, H, J, L(D) G, J, K, L(E) H, J, K, L, M

4. The earliest track that M can fill is the

(A) first(B) third(C) fourth(D) fifth(E) sixth

5. If G is to come immediately before H but all theother conditions remain in effect, any of thefollowing could be true EXCEPT:

(A) J comes immediately before F.(B) K comes immediately before G.(C) J comes immediately after L.(D) J comes immediately after K.(E) K comes immediately after M.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

24 Questions

Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may beuseful to draw a rough diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely answers each question and blacken thecorresponding space on your answer sheet.

LSAT PT 23_2007 2/4/08 10:49 AM Page 2

Questions 611

Fu, Gunsel, Jackson, Kowalski, Lee, Mayer, and Ordovezaare the only applicants being considered for somepositions at a nonprofit organization. Only applicants whoare interviewed will be hired. The hiring process mustmeet the following constraints:

If Gunsel is interviewed, Jackson is interviewed.If Jackson is interviewed, Lee is interviewed.Fu is interviewed.Fu is not hired, unless Kowalski is interviewed.Kowalski is not hired, unless Mayer is interviewed.If Mayer is hired, and Lee is interviewed, Ordoveza is

hired.

6. Which one of the following could be a complete andaccurate list of the applicants that are interviewed?

(A) Fu, Gunsel(B) Fu, Jackson(C) Fu, Lee(D) Fu, Gunsel, Lee(E) Fu, Gunsel, Jackson

7. Which one of the following could be true?

(A) Lee and Mayer are the only applicantsinterviewed.

(B) Fu, Jackson, and Kowalski are the onlyapplicants interviewed.

(C) Gunsel and one other applicant are the onlyapplicants interviewed.

(D) Gunsel and two other applicants are the onlyapplicants interviewed.

(E) Gunsel and three other applicants are the onlyapplicants interviewed.

8. If Mayer is not interviewed, which one of thefollowing must be true?

(A) Kowalski is not interviewed.(B) Kowalski is interviewed but not hired.(C) Fu is not hired.(D) Fu is hired but Kowalski is not hired.(E) Fu is interviewed but Kowalski is not hired.

9. If Gunsel and five other applicants are the onlyapplicants interviewed, and if exactly threeapplicants are hired, then which one of the followingcould be an accurate list of the applicants hired?

(A) Fu, Lee, Mayer(B) Fu, Kowalski, Mayer(C) Kowalski, Lee, Ordoveza(D) Gunsel, Jackson, Mayer(E) Gunsel, Jackson, Lee

10. If every applicant that is interviewed is hired, and ifLee is hired, then each of the following applicantsmust be interviewed EXCEPT:

(A) Fu(B) Jackson(C) Kowalski(D) Mayer(E) Ordoveza

11. If Ordoveza is not interviewed, and if exactly fourapplicants are hired, then which one of the followingmust be false?

(A) Lee is hired.(B) Mayer is hired.(C) Jackson is interviewed.(D) Kowalski is interviewed.(E) Gunsel is interviewed.


1 1-3-1

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Questions 1218

Exactly six of seven researchersthree anthropologists:Franklin, Jones, and Marquez; and four linguists: Neil,Osborne, Rice, and Samuelswill be included in twothree-person teamsteam 1 and team 2. No researcherwill be included in more than one team. Each team mustinclude at least one anthropologist and at least onelinguist. The teams composition must conform to thefollowing conditions:

Neither team includes both Franklin and Samuels.Neither team includes both Neil and Rice.If a team includes Marquez, it includes neither Rice

nor Samuels.If team 1 includes Jones, team 2 includes Rice.

12. Which one of the following could be the list of theresearchers on the two teams?

(A) team 1: Franklin, Marquez, Osborneteam 2: Jones, Neil, Rice

(B) team 1: Franklin, Neil, Samuelsteam 2: Jones, Osborne, Rice

(C) team 1: Franklin, Osborne, Riceteam 2: Jones, Neil, Samuels

(D) team 1: Jones, Marquez, Neilteam 2: Osborne, Rice, Samuels

(E) team 1: Jones, Osborne, Riceteam 2: Franklin, Marquez, Neil

13. If Jones is on team 1, which one of the following is apair of researchers that must be on team 2 together?

(A) Franklin and Rice(B) Marquez and Osborne(C) Neil and Osborne(D) Osborne and Samuels(E) Rice and Samuels

14. If Neil is on team 1, which one of the following is apair of researchers that could be on team 1 togetherwith Neil?

(A) Franklin and Jones(B) Jones and Osborne(C) Jones and Rice(D) Jones and Samuels(E) Osborne and Samuels

15. If Franklin is on the same team as Marquez, whichone of the following could be true?

(A) Jones is on team 1.(B) Rice is on team 1.(C) Samuels is on team 2.(D) Both Neil and Osborne are on team 1.(E) Both Neil and Osborne are on team 2.

16. Each of the following is a pair of researchers thatcould be on team 2 together EXCEPT:

(A) Franklin and Jones(B) Franklin and Marquez(C) Franklin and Rice(D) Jones and Marquez(E) Jones and Rice

17. Which one of the following could be true?

(A) Franklin is on team 1 and Neil is on team 2.(B) Franklin is on team 2 and Jones is not on any

team.(C) Franklin is on team 2 and Marquez is on team

2.(D) Franklin is not on any team and Jones is on

team 1.(E) Jones is on team 1 and Neil is on team 2.

18. If Marquez is on team 2, which one of the followingmust also be on team 2?

(A) Franklin(B) Jones(C) Osborne(D) Rice(E) Samuels


1 -4- 11

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Questions 1924

Five candidates for mayorQ, R, S, T, and Uwill eachspeak exactly once at each of three town meetingsmeetings 1, 2, and 3. At each meeting, each candidate willspeak in one of five consecutive time slots. No twocandidates will speak in the same time slot as each other atany meeting. The order in which the candidates will speakwill meet the following conditions:

Each candidate must speak either first or second at atleast one of the meetings.

Any candidate who speaks fifth at any of themeetings must speak first at at least one of theother meetings.

No candidate can speak fourth at more than one ofthe meetings.

19. Which one of the following could be the order, fromfirst to fifth, in which the candidates speak at themeetings?

(A) meeting 1: Q, U, R, T, Smeeting 2: S, T, R, U, Qmeeting 3: T, U, Q, R, S

(B) meeting 1: R, S, Q, T, Umeeting 2: U, T, S, R, Qmeeting 3: Q, R, T, U, S

(C) meeting 1: S, Q, U, T, Rmeeting 2: U, T, Q, R, Smeeting 3: R, Q, S, T, U

(D) meeting 1: T, R, S, U, Qmeeting 2: Q, R, S, T, Umeeting 3: U, S, R, Q, T

(E) meeting 1: U, T, R, S, Qmeeting 2: Q, R, S, T, Umeeting 3: S, T, U, Q, R

20. If R speaks second at meeting 2 and first at meeting3, which one of the following is a complete andaccurate list of those time slots any one of whichcould be the time slot in which R speaks at meeting1?

(A) fourth, fifth(B) first, second, fifth(C) second, third, fifth(D) third, fourth, fifth(E) second, third, fourth, fifth

21. If the order in which the candidates speak at meeting1 is R, U, S, T, Q, and the order in which they speak atmeeting 2 is Q, R, U, S, T, which one of the followingcould be true of meeting 3?

(A) Q speaks first.(B) R speaks third.(C) S speaks first.(D) T speaks second.(E) U speaks fifth.

22. If R speaks first at meetings 1 and 2, and S speaksfirst at meeting 3, which one of the following must betrue?

(A) R speaks second at meeting 3.(B) R speaks fourth at meeting 3.(C) S speaks second at at least one of the meetings.(D) S speaks fifth at exactly one of the meetings.(E) S speaks fifth at exactly two of the meetings.

23. It could be true that at all three meetings T speaks

(A) first(B) second(C) in some time slot after the time slot in which R

speaks(D) in some time slot after the time slots in which

S and U speak(E) in some time slot before the time slots in

which R and U speak

24. If S, T, and U speak second at meetings 1, 2, and 3,respectively, which one of the following must be true?

(A) The fifth speaker at at least one of themeetings is either Q or R.

(B) Either Q speaks first at exactly two of themeetings or else R does so.

(C) Neither S nor T speaks fifth at any of themeetings.

(D) Q speaks third at one of the meetings, and Rspeaks third at another of the meetings.

(E) Q speaks fourth at one of the meetings, and Rspeaks fourth at another of the meetings.

1 1-5-1

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

LSAT PT 23 4/25/07 3:06 PM Page 5

2 -6- 2

1. Anita: Since 1960 the spotted owl population hasdeclined alarmingly. Timber companies thathave been clearing the old-growth forests wherethe spotted owl lives are responsible for this.

Jean: No, the spotted owls decline is due not to thetimber companies but to a rival species. Forthe past three decades, the more prolific barredowl has been moving steadily into the spottedowls habitat and replacing the spotted owl.

Jean does which one of the following in her responseto Anita?

(A) denies the truth of Anitas premise that timbercompanies have been clearing old-growthforests

(B) challenges Anitas assumption that the declinein the population of the spotted owl poses athreat to the species continued survival

(C) proposes an alternative explanation for thedecline in the spotted owl population

(D) argues that Anitas conclusion is not validbecause she has failed to consider the spottedowl population over a long enough timeperiod

(E) suggests that Anita overlooked the possibilitythat spotted owls are able to live in foreststhat are not old-growth forests

Questions 23

Veterinarian: A disease of purebred racehorses that iscaused by a genetic defect prevents afflicted horsesfrom racing and can cause paralysis and death. Somehorse breeders conclude that because the disease canhave such serious consequences, horses with thisdefect should not be bred. But they are wrongbecause, in most cases, the severity of the disease canbe controlled by diet and medication, and the defectalso produces horses of extreme beauty that are ingreat demand in the horse show industry.

2. The point of the veterinarians response to the horsebreeders is most accurately expressed by which oneof the following?

(A) Racehorses that have the genetic defect neednot be prevented from racing.

(B) There should not be an absolute ban on breedingracehorses that have the genetic defect.

(C) Racehorses that are severely afflicted with thedisease have not been provided with theproper diet.

(D) The best way to produce racehorses of extremebeauty is to breed horses that have the geneticdefect.

(E) There should be no prohibition againstbreeding racehorses that have any disease thatcan be controlled by diet and exercise.

3. The veterinarians argument employs which one ofthe following techniques?

(A) calling into question the motives of the horsebreeders cited

(B) demonstrating that the horse breedersconclusion is inconsistent with evidenceadvanced to support it

(C) providing evidence that contradicts the horsebreeders evidence

(D) disputing the accuracy of evidence on whichthe horse breeders argument depends

(E) introducing considerations that lead to aconclusion different from that of the horsebreeders argument


22SECTION II

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

LSAT PT 23_2007 10/30/07 4:32 PM Page 6

2-7-24. Political scientist: The concept of freedom is

hopelessly vague. Any definition of freedomwill either exclude some acts that intuitivelyqualify as free, or admit some acts thatintuitively fall outside the concept. Thenotions of justice, fairness, and equality areequally indeterminate. This is why politicalorganization should be disavowed as futile.

The reasoning in the argument is questionablebecause the argument

(A) generalizes from an unrepresentative sample toevery political idea

(B) makes the unsupported claim that the conceptof freedom is hopelessly vague

(C) ignores the fact that some people view freedomas indispensable

(D) fails to show any specific link between thevagueness of concepts such as freedom andthe rejection of political organization

(E) is mounted by someone who has a vestedinterest in the rejection of politicalorganization

5. A recently passed law requires all places of publicaccommodation to eliminate discrimination againstpersons with disabilities by removing all physicalbarriers to accessibility. Private schools, therefore, arelegally obligated to make their campuses physicallyaccessible to persons with disabilities.

The conclusion above follows logically if which oneof the following is assumed?

(A) No private school can legally deny admissionto a person with a disability.

(B) Private schools have historically been resistantto changes in government policy ondiscrimination.

(C) Private schools, like public schools are placesof public accommodation.

(D) Private schools have enough funds to maketheir campuses barrier-free.

(E) Private property is often considered to bepublic space by groups that have historicallybeen subjects of discrimination.

6. Prehistoric chimpanzee species used tools similar tothose used by prehistoric humans; prehistoric toolsrecently found in East Africa are of a type used byboth species. The area where the tools were found,however, is a savanna, and whereas there wereprehistoric humans who lived in savanna habitats,prehistoric chimpanzees lived only in forests.Therefore, the tools must have been used by humansrather than by chimpanzees.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the argument depends?

(A) Prehistoric humans did not carry their toolswith them when they traveled from one placeto another.

(B) Since the evolution of the first primates, EastAfrica has been predominantly savanna.

(C) Prehistoric humans never ventured into areasof the forest that were inhabited byprehistoric chimpanzees.

(D) The area where the tools were found was not aforest at the time the tools were in use.

(E) The prehistoric ancestors of modernchimpanzees were not capable of using toolsmore sophisticated than those found recentlyin East Africa.

7. Computers perform actions that are closer tothinking than anything nonhuman animals do. Butcomputers do not have volitional powers, althoughsome nonhuman animals do.

Which one of the following is most stronglysupported by the information above?

(A) Having volitional powers need not involvethinking.

(B) Things that are not animals do not havevolitional powers.

(C) Computers possess none of the attributes ofliving things.

(D) It is necessary to have volitional powers inorder to think.

(E) Computers will never be able to think ashuman beings do.


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2 -8- 28. The caterpillar of the monarch butterfly feeds on

milkweed plants, whose toxins make the adultmonarch poisonous to many predators. The viceroybutterfly, whose caterpillars do not feed on milkweedplants, is very similar in appearance to the monarch.Therefore, it can be concluded that the viceroy is soseldom preyed on because of its visual resemblanceto the monarch.

Which one of the following, if it were discovered tobe true, would most seriously undermine theargument?

(A) Some predators do not have a toxic reaction toinsects that feed on milkweed plants.

(B) Being toxic to predators will not protectindividual butterflies unless most members ofthe species to which such butterflies belongare similarly toxic.

(C) Some of the predators of the monarchbutterfly also prey on viceroys.

(D) The viceroy butterfly is toxic to mostpredators.

(E) Toxicity to predators is the principal means ofprotection for only a few butterfly species.

9. Every action has consequences, and among theconsequences of any action are other actions. Andknowing whether an action is good requires knowingwhether its consequences are good, but we cannotknow the future, so good actions are impossible.


(A) Some actions have only other actions asconsequences.

(B) We can know that past actions were good.(C) To know that an action is good requires

knowing that refraining from performing it isbad.

(D) Only actions can be the consequences of otheractions.

(E) For an action to be good we must be able toknow that it is good.

10. All bridges built from 1950 to 1960 are in seriousneed of rehabilitation. Some bridges constructed inthis period, however, were built according to faultyengineering design. That is the bad news. The goodnews is that at least some bridges in serious need ofrehabilitation are not suspension bridges, since nosuspension bridges are among the bridges that werebuilt according to faulty engineering design.

If the statements above are true, then, on the basis ofthose statements, which one of the following mustalso be true?

(A) Some suspension bridges are not in seriousneed of rehabilitation.

(B) Some suspension bridges are in serious need ofrehabilitation.

(C) Some bridges that were built according tofaulty engineering design are in serious needof rehabilitation.

(D) Some bridges built from 1950 to 1960 are notin serious need of rehabilitation.

(E) Some bridges that were built according tofaulty engineering design are not bridgesother than suspension bridges.

11. A severe blow to the head can cause one to loseconsciousness; from this some people infer thatconsciousness is a product of the brain and cannotsurvive bodily death. But a radio that becomesdamaged may suddenly cease to broadcast theprogram it had been receiving, and we do notconclude from this that the program itself has ceasedto exist. Similarly, more substantial evidence wouldbe needed to conclude that consciousness does notsurvive bodily death.

Which one of the following most accurately describesthe role played in the argument by the example of thedamaged radio?

(A) It is cited as evidence that consciousness doesin fact survive bodily death.

(B) It is cited as a counterexample to a widelyaccepted belief about the nature ofconsciousness.

(C) It is cited as a case analogous to loss ofconsciousness in which people do not drawthe same sort of conclusion that some peopledraw about consciousness.

(D) It is cited as the primary piece of evidence forthe conclusion that the relationship ofconsciousness to the brain is analogous to thatof a radio program to the radio that receives it.

(E) It is cited as an example of a case in whichsomething consisting purely of energydepends on the existence of somethingmaterial to provide evidence of its existence.


22

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2-9-212. Political theorist: The vast majority of countries

that have a single political party have corruptnational governments, but some countrieswith a plurality of parties also have corruptnational governments. What all countries withcorrupt national governments have incommon, however, is the weakness of localgovernments.

If all of the political theorists statements are true,which one of the following must also be true?

(A) Every country with weak local government hasa single political party.

(B) Some countries with weak local governmentshave a plurality of political parties.

(C) Some countries with weak local governmentsdo not have corrupt national governments.

(D) The majority of countries with weak localgovernments have a single political party.

(E) Fewer multiparty countries than single-partycountries have weak local governments.

13. Committee member: We should not vote to put atthe top of the militarys chain of command anindividual whose history of excessive drinkingis such that that person would be barred fromcommanding a missile wing, a bombersquadron, or a contingent of fighter jets.Leadership must be established from the topdown.

The committee members argument conforms mostclosely to which one of the following principles?

(A) No one who would be barred from importantjobs in an organization should lead thatorganization.

(B) Whoever leads an organization must haveserved at every level in the organization.

(C) Whoever leads an organization must bequalified to hold each important job in theorganization.

(D) No one who drinks excessively should hold aleadership position anywhere along themilitarys chain of command.

(E) No one who cannot command a missile wingshould be at the top of the militarys chain ofcommand.

Questions 1415

Kim: In northern Europe during the eighteenth century achange of attitude occurred that found expressionboth in the adoption of less solemn and elaboratedeath rites by the population at large and in a moreoptimistic view of the human condition asarticulated by philosophers. This change can beexplained as the result of a dramatic increase in lifeexpectancy that occurred in northern Europe early inthe eighteenth century.

Lee: Your explanation seems unlikely, because it couldnot be correct unless the people of the time wereaware that their life expectancy had increased.

14. Which one of the following, if true, provides thestrongest defense of Kims explanation against Leescriticism?

(A) An increase in life expectancy in a populationoften gives rise to economic changes that, inturn, directly influence peoples attitudes.

(B) Present-day psychologists have noted thatpeoples attitudes toward life can change inresponse to information about their lifeexpectancy.

(C) Philosophers in northern Europe during theeighteenth century made many conjecturesthat did not affect the ideas of the populationat large.

(D) The concept of life expectancy is based onstatistical theories that had not beendeveloped in the eighteenth century.

(E) Before the eighteenth century the attitudes ofnorthern Europeans were more likely to bedetermined by religious teaching than bydemographic phenomena.

15. Which one of the following most accurately describesLees criticism of Kims explanation?

(A) It refers to sources of additional data thatcannot easily be reconciled with the facts Kimcites.

(B) It offers an alternative explanation that isequally supported by the evidence Kim cites.

(C) It cites an analogous case in which Kimsexplanation clearly cannot hold.

(D) It suggests that Kims explanation depends ona questionable assumption.

(E) It points out that Kims explanation is basedon two hypotheses that contradict each other.


22

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2 -10- 216. Some health officials are concerned about the current

sustained increase in reported deaths from alcohol-related conditions, attributing this increase to a risein alcoholism. What these health officials areoverlooking, however, is that attitudes towardalcoholism have changed radically. Alcoholism is nowwidely viewed as a disease, whereas in the past it wasconsidered a moral failing. It is therefore likely thatmore deaths are being reported as alcohol-relatedbecause physicians are more likely to identify thesedeaths as alcohol-related.

Which one of the following, if true, provides themost support for the argument?

(A) The frequent use of alcohol by young people isbeing reported as occurring at increasinglyearly ages.

(B) In some places and times, susceptibility to anykind of disease has been viewed as a moralfailing.

(C) More physicians now than in the past aretrained to recognize the physical effects ofalcoholism.

(D) Even though alcoholism is considered to be adisease, most doctors recommendpsychological counseling and support groupsas the best treatment.

(E) Many health officials are not physicians.

17. Studies show that the most creative engineers gettheir best and most useful ideas only after doodlingand jotting down what turn out to be outlandishideas. Now that many engineers do their work withcomputers instead of on paper, however, doodling isbecoming much less common, and some experts fearthat the result will be fewer creative and usefulengineering ideas. These experts argue that thisundesirable consequence would be avoided ifcomputer programs for engineering work includedsimulated notepads that would allow engineers tosuspend their serious work on the computer, typeup outlandish ideas, and then quickly return to theiroriginal work.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the experts reasoning depends?

(A) Most creative engineers who work with paperand pencil spend about as much timedoodling as they spend on what they considerserious work.

(B) Simulated notepads would not be used byengineers for any purpose other than typingup outlandish ideas.

(C) No engineers who work with computers keeppaper and pencils near their computers inorder to doodle and jot down ideas.

(D) The physical act of working on paper is notessential in providing engineers with thebenefits that can be gained by doodling.

(E) Most of the outlandish ideas engineers jotdown while doodling are later incorporatedinto projects that have practical applications.

18. Columnist: The advent of television helps to explainwhy the growth in homicide rates in urbanareas began significantly earlier than thegrowth in homicide rates in rural areas.Television sets became popular in urbanhouseholds about five years earlier than inrural households. Urban homicide rates beganincreasing in 1958, about four years earlierthan a similar increase in rural homicide ratesbegan.

Which one of the following, if true, most supportsthe columnists argument?

(A) In places where the number of violenttelevision programs is low, the homicide ratesare also low.

(B) The portrayal of violence on television is acause, not an effect, of the violence in society.

(C) There were no violent television programsduring the early years of television.

(D) The earlier one is exposed to violence ontelevision, the more profound the effect.

(E) Increasing ones amount of leisure timeincreases ones inclination to act violently.

19. Even in ancient times, specialized farms (farms thatgrow a single type of crop or livestock) existed onlywhere there were large commercial markets for farmproducts, and such markets presuppose urbanpopulations. Therefore the extensive ruins in thearchaeological site at Kadshim are probably theremains of a largely uninhabited ceremonialstructure rather than of a densely populated city,since the land in the region of Kadshim could neverhave supported any farms except mixed farms, whichgrow a variety of crops and livestock.

Which one of the following is an error of reasoningin the argument?

(A) taking the fact that something is true of onesample of a class of things as evidence thatthe same is true of the entire class of things

(B) taking the nonexistence of something asevidence that a necessary precondition forthat thing also did not exist

(C) interpreting an ambiguous claim in one way inone part of the argument and in another wayin another part of the argument

(D) supposing that because two things usuallyoccur in conjunction with one another, one ofthem must be the cause of the other

(E) drawing a conclusion that is simply arestatement of one of the premises on whichthe argument is based


22

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2-11-220. It has recently been found that job prospects for

college graduates have never been better. The trend islikely to continue over the next decade. A recentsurvey found that most employers simply did notknow that the number of students graduating woulddrop by 25 percent over the past ten years, and hadnot anticipated or planned for this trend. Mostemployers were not aware that, although the supplyof graduates currently meets demand, this situationcould change. The same survey revealed that thenumber of undergraduates choosing to studysubjects in high demand, like mathematics andengineering, has dropped substantially. This trend islikely to continue over the next decade.

Which one of the following can properly beconcluded from the passage above?

(A) Soon, more graduates are likely to becompeting for fewer jobs.

(B) Soon, there is likely to be a shortage ofgraduates to fill certain vacancies.

(C) Employers are aware of changing trends insubjects studied by undergraduates.

(D) Soon, fewer graduates are likely to becompeting for fewer available jobs.

(E) Employers who are well-informed about futuretrends have anticipated and planned forthem.

21. The cities of Oldtown and Spoonville are the same inarea and size of population. Since certain healthproblems that are caused by crowded livingconditions are widespread in Oldtown, suchproblems must be as widespread in Spoonville.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable tocriticism on the grounds that the argument

(A) presupposes without warrant that the healthproblems that are widespread in anyparticular city cannot be caused by the livingconditions in that city

(B) fails to distinguish between the size of the totalpopulation of a city and the size of thegeographic region covered by that city

(C) fails to indicate whether average lifeexpectancy is lowered as a result of living incrowded conditions

(D) fails to distinguish between those healthproblems that are easily treatable and thosethat are not

(E) fails to take into account that having identicaloverall population density is consistent withgreat disparity in living conditions

22. Shortly after the Persian Gulf War, investigatorsreported that the area, which had been subjected tohundreds of smoky oil fires and deliberate oil spillswhen regular oil production slowed down during thewar, displayed less oil contamination than they hadwitnessed in prewar surveys of the same area. Theyalso reported that the levels of polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs)used as a marker ofcombustion products spewed from oil wells ignitedduring the warwere also relatively low, comparableto those recorded in the temperate oil-producingareas of the Baltic Sea.

Which one of the following, if true, does most toresolve the apparent discrepancy in the informationabove?

(A) Oil contaminants have greater environmentaleffects in temperate regions than in desertregions.

(B) Oil contamination and PAH pollutiondissipate more rapidly in temperate regionsthan in desert regions.

(C) Oil contamination and PAH pollutiondissipate more rapidly in desert regions thanin temperate regions.

(D) Peacetime oil production and transport in thePersian Gulf result in high levels of PAHs andmassive oil dumping.

(E) The Persian Gulf War ended before the oil firesand spills caused as much damage asoriginally expected.


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2 -12- 223. An independent audit found no indication of tax

avoidance on the part of the firm in the firmsaccounts; therefore, no such problem exists.

The questionable reasoning in the argument above ismost closely paralleled by that in which one of thefollowing?

(A) The plan for the introduction of the newproject has been unmodified so far; therefore,it will not be modified in the future.

(B) The overall budget for the projects has beenexceeded by a large amount; therefore, at leastone of the projects has exceeded its budget bya large amount.

(C) A compilation of the best student essays of theyear includes no essays on current events;therefore, students have become apathetictoward current events.

(D) A survey of schools in the district found noschool without a need for building repair;therefore, the education provided to studentsin the district is substandard.

(E) An examination of the index of the bookfound no listing for the most prominent criticof the theory the book advocates; therefore,the book fails to refer to that critic.

24. One of the great difficulties in establishing animalrights based merely on the fact that animals areliving things concerns scope. If one construes theterm living things broadly, one is bound to bestowrights on organisms that are not animals (e.g.,plants). But if this term is construed narrowly, one isapt to refuse rights to organisms that, at leastbiologically, are considered members of the animalkingdom.

If the statements above are true, which one of thefollowing can be most reasonably inferred fromthem?

(A) Not all animals should be given rights.(B) One cannot bestow rights on animals without

also bestowing rights on at least some plants.(C) The problem of delineating the boundary of

the set of living things interferes with everyattempt to establish animal rights.

(D) Successful attempts to establish rights for allanimals are likely either to establish rights forsome plants or not to depend solely on theobservation that animals are living things.

(E) The fact that animals are living things isirrelevant to the question of whether animalsshould or should not be accorded rights,because plants are living things too.


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2-13-225. Economist: No economic system that is centrally

planned can efficiently allocate resources, andefficient allocation of resources is a necessarycondition for achieving a national debt of lessthan 5 percent of Gross Domestic Product(GDP). It follows that any nation with acentrally planned economy has a national debtthat is at least 5 percent of GDP.

The pattern of reasoning exhibited by theeconomists argument is most similar to thatexhibited by which one of the following?

(A) Not all mammals are without wings, becausebats are mammals and bats have wings.

(B) All of the rural districts are free of major airpollution problems because such problemsoccur only where there is a largeconcentration of automobiles, and there areno such places in the rural districts.

(C) All of the ungulates are herbivores, and mostherbivores would not attack a human being.It follows that any animal that would attack ahuman being is unlikely to be an ungulate.

(D) All rock stars who are famous have their ownrecord companies, and all rock stars withtheir own record companies receive companyprofits over and above their regular royalties.This implies that receiving large regularroyalties is a necessary condition of being afamous rock star.

(E) Every mutual fund manager knows someonewho trades on inside information, and no onewho trades on inside information is unknownto every mutual fund manager. One mustconclude that no mutual fund manager isunknown to everyone who trades on insideinformation.

26. Editorialist: Additional restrictions should be placedon drivers licenses of teenagers becauseteenagers lack basic driving skills. Even thoughdrivers of age nineteen and younger make uponly 7 percent of registered drivers, they areresponsible for over 14 percent of trafficfatalities.

Each of the following, if true, weakens the argumentthat teenagers lack basic driving skills EXCEPT:

(A) Teenagers tend to drive older and less stablecars than other drivers.

(B) Teenagers and their passengers are less likely touse seat belts and shoulder straps than others.

(C) Teenagers drive, on average, over twice as fareach year as other drivers.

(D) Teenagers cause car accidents that are moreserious than those caused by others.

(E) Teenagers are likely to drive with morepassengers than the average driver.

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33 -14-

1. Question withheld from scoring. 2. Owners of deeply indebted and chronicallyunprofitable small businesses sometimes try toconvince others to invest money in their companies.Since the money thus acquired will inevitably beused to pay off debts, rather than to expandoperations, this money will not stimulate salesgrowth in such companies. Thus, most people arereluctant to make these investments. Surprisingly,however, such investments often earn handsomereturns in the very first year they are made.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toexplain the surprising results of such investments?

(A) Investors usually choose to reinvest theirreturns on such investments.

(B) Expanding production in such companieswould usually require more funds than wouldpaying off debts.

(C) Paying off debts, by saving a company themoney it would otherwise owe in interest,decreases the companys overall expenses andthereby increases its profits.

(D) Banks are reluctant to lend money to anycompany that is already heavily in debt andchronically unprofitable.

(E) If the sales of a company do not grow, there isusually little need to devote a large share ofcompany resources to expanding production.

3. After purchasing a pot-bellied pig at the pet store inSpringfield, Amy was informed by a Springfield cityofficial that she would not be allowed to keep the pigas a pet, since city codes classify pigs as livestock, andindividuals may not keep livestock in Springfield.

The city officials argument depends on assumingwhich one of the following?

(A) Amy lives in Springfield.(B) Pigs are not classified as pets in Springfield.(C) Any animal not classified as livestock may be

kept in Springfield.(D Dogs and cats are not classified as livestock in

Springfield.(E) It is legal for pet stores to sell pigs in

Springfield.


33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

25 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

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3-15-34. Historian: The central claim of the end-of-history

theory is that history has reached its final stageof development. According to its adherents,democratic ideals have triumphed over theirrivals, and history is effectively at anideological end. But, this view fails to considerthat it is impossible to stand outside all ofhistory to judge whether history is really at anend.

Which one of the following can be most reasonablyinferred from the historians statement?

(A) We can never know whether the end-of-historytheory is true.

(B) Advocates of the end-of-history theory havetoo ideological an understanding of history.

(C) If we were at the end of history, we wouldautomatically know whether the end-of-history theory is true.

(D) It is impossible for the end-of-history theoryto be true.

(E) Ideological developments are the essentialelements of history.

5. John: As I was driving to work this morning, I wasstopped by a police officer and ticketed forspeeding. Since there were many other carsaround me that were going as fast as I was, thepolice officer clearly treated me unfairly.

Mary: You were not treated unfairly, since the policeofficer was obviously unable to stop all thedrivers who were speeding. Everyone who wasspeeding at that time and place had an equalchance of being stopped.

Which one of the following principles, if established,would most help to justify Marys position?

(A) If all of those who violate a traffic law on aparticular occasion are equally likely to bepenalized for violating it, then the law is fairlyapplied to whoever among them is thenpenalized.

(B) The penalties attached to traffic laws should beapplied not as punishments for breaking thelaw, but rather as deterrents to unsafe driving.

(C) The penalties attached to traffic laws should beimposed on all people who violate those laws,and only those people.

(D) It is fairer not to enforce a traffic law at allthan it is to enforce it in some, but not all, ofthe cases to which it applies.

(E) Fairness in the application of a traffic law isensured not by all violators having an equalchance of being penalized for their violationof the law, but rather by penalizing all knownviolators to the same extent.

6. A purse containing 32 ancient gold coins that hadbeen minted in Morocco was discovered in the ruins ofan ancient Jordanian city some 4,000 kilometers to theeast of Morocco. In its time the Jordanian city was animportant trading center along the trade route linkingChina and Europe, and it was also a popular stopoverfor pilgrims on the route between Morocco andMecca. The purse of a trader in the city wouldprobably have contained a more diverse set of coins.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following hypotheses?

(A) Moroccan coins were more valuable in theancient city than were Jordanian coins.

(B) Most gold coins available during the timewhen the ancient city thrived were minted inMorocco.

(C) The purse with the gold coins had beenbrought to the ancient city by a pilgrim onthe route between Morocco and Mecca.

(D) Gold coins were the only medium of exchangeused in the ancient city.

(E) Pilgrims and traders in the ancient city wereunlikely to have interacted with one another.

7. Studies indicate that the rate at which waterpollution is increasing is leveling off: the amount ofwater pollution caused this year is almost identical tothe amount caused last year. If this trend continues,the water pollution problem will no longer be gettingmore serious.

The reasoning is questionable because it ignores thepossibility that

(A) some types of water pollution have nonoticeable effect on organisms that use thewater

(B) the types of water pollution caused this yearare less dangerous than those caused last year

(C) the leveling-off trend of water pollution willnot continue

(D) air and soil pollution are becoming moreserious

(E) the effects of water pollution are cumulative


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33 -16-8. One researcher writes, Human beings are innately

aggressive. As evidence, the researcher cites theprevalence of warfare in history, and then discountsany current disinclination to fight: The mostpeaceable peoples of today were often ravagers ofyesteryear and will probably fight again in thefuture. But if some peoples are peaceable now, thenaggression itself cannot be coded in our genes, onlythe potential for it. If innate only means possible, oreven likely in certain environments, then everythingwe do is innate and the word has no meaning.

Which one of the following most accurately describesthe technique used in the passage to weaken theargument for the claim that aggressiveness is innateto human beings?

(A) The accuracy of the historical data cited in theargument for innate aggressiveness is calledinto question.

(B) The force of the concept of innateness used inthe argument for innate aggressiveness iscalled into question.

(C) An attempt is made to undermine theargument for innate aggressiveness byarguing that there are no genetically basedtraits.

(D) An attempt is made to undermine theargument for innate aggressiveness bysuggesting that it appeals to emotionalconsiderations rather than to reason.

(E) An attempt is made to undermine theargument for innate aggressiveness byarguing that all peoples are peaceable.

Questions 910

If a person chooses to walk rather than drive, there isone less vehicle emitting pollution into the air than therewould be otherwise. Therefore if people would walkwhenever it is feasible for them to do so, then pollutionwill be greatly reduced.

9. Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the argument depends?

(A) Cutting down on pollution can be achieved ina variety of ways.

(B) Taking public transportation rather thandriving is not always feasible.

(C) Walking is the only feasible alternative todriving that results in a reduction inpollution.

(D) There are people who never drive but whooften walk.

(E) People sometimes drive when it is feasible towalk instead.

10. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensthe argument?

(A) If automobile passengers who never drive walkinstead of ride, there will not be fewervehicles on the road as a result.

(B) Nonmoving running vehicles, on average, emithalf as much pollution per second as movingvehicles, but the greater congestion is, themore nonmoving running vehicles there are.

(C) Since different vehicles can pollute at differentrates, it is possible for one driver who walksto make a greater contribution to pollutionprevention than another driver who walks.

(D) On average, buses pollute more than cars do,but buses usually carry more passengers thancars do.

(E) Those who previously rode as passengers in avehicle whose driver decides to walk insteadof drive might themselves decide to drive.


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3-17-311. Editorial: The most vocal proponents of the

proposed law are not permanent residents ofthis island but rather a few of the wealthiestsummer residents, who leave when thevacation months have passed. These peoplewill benefit from passage of this law while nothaving to deal with the problems associatedwith its adoption. Therefore, anyone whosupports the proposed law is serving only theinterests of a few outsiders at the cost ofcreating problems for the islands permanentresidents.


(A) The average income of the islands summerresidents is greater than the average incomeof its permanent residents.

(B) The problems associated with this lawoutweigh any benefits it might provide theislands permanent residents.

(C) Most of the islands summer residents wouldbenefit from passage of this law.

(D) Most of the islands summer residents supportpassage of this law.

(E) Most of the islands permanent residentsoppose passage of this law.

12. Vitamin XYZ has long been a favorite among healthfood enthusiasts. In a recent large study, those whotook large amounts of vitamin XYZ daily for twoyears showed on average a 40 percent lower risk ofheart disease than did members of a control group.Researchers corrected for differences in relevanthealth habits such as diet.

Which one of the following inferences is mostsupported by the passage?

(A) Taking large amounts of vitamins is probablyworth risking the side effects.

(B) Those who take large doses of vitamin XYZdaily for the next two years will exhibit onaverage an increase in the likelihood ofavoiding heart disease.

(C) Li, who has taken large amounts of vitaminXYZ daily for the past two years, has a 40percent lower risk of heart disease than shedid two years ago.

(D) Taking large amounts of vitamin XYZ dailyover the course of ones adult life should berecommended to most adults.

(E) Health food enthusiasts are probably correct inbelieving that large daily doses of multiplevitamins promote good health.

13. In 1988, a significant percentage of seals in the BalticSea died from viral diseases; off the coast of Scotland,however, the death rate due to viral diseases wasapproximately half what it was for the Baltic seals.The Baltic seals had significantly higher levels ofpollutants in their blood than did the Scottish seals.Since pollutants are known to impair marinemammals ability to fight off viral infection, it is likelythat the higher death rate among the Baltic seals wasdue to the higher levels of pollutants in their blood.

Which one of the following, if true, provides themost additional support for the argument?

(A) The large majority of Scottish seals that diedwere either old or unhealthy animals.

(B) The strain of virus that killed Scottish sealsoverwhelms impaired immune systems muchmore quickly than it does healthy immunesystems.

(C) There were slight fluctuations in the levels ofpollutants found in the blood of Baltic seals.

(D) The kinds of pollutants found in the Baltic Seaare significantly different from those thathave been detected in the waters off the coastof Scotland.

(E) Among marine mammals other than seals, thedeath rate due to viral diseases in 1988 washigher in the Baltic Sea than it was off theScottish coast.

14. If the proposed tax reduction package is adopted thisyear, the library will be forced to discontinue its dailystory hours for children. But if the daily story hoursare discontinued, many parents will be greatlyinconvenienced. So the proposed tax reductionpackage will not be adopted this year.

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows thearguments conclusion to be properly drawn?

(A) Any tax reduction package that will not forcethe library to discontinue daily story hourswill be adopted this year.

(B) Every tax reduction package that would forcethe library to discontinue daily story hourswould greatly inconvenience parents.

(C) No tax reduction package that would greatlyinconvenience parents would fail to force thelibrary to discontinue daily story hours.

(D) No tax reduction package that would greatlyinconvenience parents will be adopted this year.

(E) Any tax reduction package that will not greatlyinconvenience parents will be adopted this year.


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33 -18-15. Funding opponent: Some people favor city funding

for the spaying and neutering of pets at theowners request. They claim that the decreasein the number of stray animals to contendwith will offset the cost of the funding. Thesepeople fail to realize that over 80 percent of petowners already pay to spay or neuter theiranimals, so there will not be a significantdecrease in the number of stray animals in thecity if this funding is provided.

Each of the following, if true strengthens theargument of the funding opponent EXCEPT:

(A) Very few of the stray animals in the city areoffspring of pets.

(B) Many pet owners would have their animalsspayed or neutered sooner if funding wereprovided by the city.

(C) The only way the number of stray animals candecrease is if existing strays are spayed orneutered.

(D) Most pet owners who do not have their petsspayed or neutered believe that spaying andneutering are morally wrong.

(E) The majority of pets that are not spayed orneutered are used for breeding purposes, andare not likely to produce stray animals.

16. Research indicates that college professors generallywere raised in economically advantaged households.For it was discovered that, overall, college professorsgrew up in communities with average householdincomes that were higher than the average householdincome for the nation as a whole.

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because theargument

(A) inappropriately assumes a correlation betweenhousehold income and economic advantage

(B) fails to note there are some communities withhigh average household incomes in which nocollege professors grew up

(C) presumes without justification that collegeprofessors generally were raised inhouseholds with incomes that are average orabove average for their communities

(D) does not take into account the fact that collegeprofessors generally have lower salaries thantheir counterparts in the private sector

(E) fails to take into account the fact that manycollege professors live in rural communities,which generally have low average householdincomes

17. Magazine article: Punishment for crimes is justifiedif it actually deters people from committingthem. But a great deal of carefully assembledand analyzed empirical data show clearly thatpunishment is not a deterrent. So punishmentis never justified.

The reasoning in the magazine articles argument isflawed because the argument

(A) depends on data that there is reason to suspectmay be biased

(B) mistakenly allows the key term punishmentto shift in meaning

(C) mistakes being sufficient to justify punishmentfor being required to justify it

(D) ignores the problem of mistakenly punishingthe innocent

(E) attempts to be more precise than its subjectmatter properly allows

18. If the recording now playing on the jazz program isreally Louis Armstrong recorded in concert in1989, as the announcer said, then Louis Armstrongwas playing some of the best jazz of his career yearsafter his death. Since the trumpeter was definitelyLouis Armstrong, somehow the announcer must havegotten the date of the recording wrong.

The pattern of reasoning in the argument above ismost similar to that in which one of the followingarguments?

(A) The museum is reported as having acquired apainting by Malvina Hoffman, an artist whodied in 1966. But Hoffman was a sculptor,not a painter, so the report must be wrongabout the acquisition being a painting.

(B) This painting titled La Toilette is BertheMorisots La Toilette only if a painting can bein two museums at the same time. Sincenothing can be in two places at once, thispainting must some how have been mistitled.

(C) Only if a twentieth-century Mexican artistpainted in Japan during the seventeenthcentury can this work both be by FridaKahlo as labeled and the seventeenth-centuryJapanese landscape it appears to be. Since it iswhat it appears to be, the label is wrong.

(D) Unless Kthe Kollwitz was both a sculptor anda printmaker, the volunteer museum guide iswrong in his attribution of this sculpture.Since what Kollwitz is known for is her prints,the guide must be wrong.

(E) If this painting is a portrait done in acrylic, itcannot be by Elisabeth Vige-Lebrun, sinceacrylic paint was developed only after herdeath. Thus, since it is definitely a portrait,the paint must not be acrylic.


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3-19-319. When a stone is trimmed by a mason and exposed to

the elements, a coating of clay and other minerals,called rock varnish, gradually accumulates on thefreshly trimmed surface. Organic matter trappedbeneath the varnish on stones of an Andeanmonument was found to be over 1,000 years old.Since the organic matter must have grown on thestone shortly after it was trimmed, it follows that themonument was built long before the arrival ofEuropeans in the Americas in 1492.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) Rock varnish itself contains some organicmatter.

(B) The reuse of ancient trimmed stones wascommon in the Andes both before and after1492.

(C) The Andean monument bears a strikingresemblance to monuments found in ancientsites in western Asia.

(D) The earliest written reference to the Andeanmonument dates from 1778.

(E) Rock varnish forms very slowly, if at all, ontrimmed stones that are stored in a dry,sheltered place.

20. Legal rules are expressed in general terms. Theyconcern classifications of persons and actions andthey prescribe legal consequences for persons andactions falling into the relevant categories. Theapplication of a rule to a particular case, therefore,involves a decision on whether the facts of that casefall within the categories mentioned in the rule. Thisdecision establishes the legal effect of what happenedrather than any matter of fact.

The passage provides the most support for which oneof the following?

(A) Legal rules, like matters of fact, are concernedwith classifications of things such as actions.

(B) Matters of fact, like legal rules, can sometimesbe expressed in general terms.

(C) Making legal decisions does not involvematters of fact.

(D) The application of a rule to a particular caseneed not be left to a judge.

(E) Whether the facts of a case fall into a relevantcategory is not itself a matter of fact.

Questions 2122

Helen: It was wrong of my brother Mark to tell ourmother that the reason he had missed her birthdayparty the evening before was that he had been in atraffic accident and that by the time he was releasedfrom the hospital emergency room the party waslong over. Saying something that is false can never beother than morally wrong, and there had been nosuch accidentMark had simply forgotten all aboutthe party.

21. The main conclusion drawn in Helens argument isthat

(A) Mark did not tell his mother the truth(B) the real reason Mark missed his mothers

birthday party was that he had forgotten allabout it

(C) it is wrong to attempt to avoid blame for onesfailure to do something by claiming that onewas prevented from doing that thing byevents outside ones control

(D) it was wrong of Mark to tell his mother that hehad missed her birthday party as a result ofhaving been in a traffic accident

(E) it is always wrong not to tell the truth

22. The justification Helen offers for her judgment ofMarks behavior is most vulnerable to criticism onthe grounds that the justification

(A) ignores an important moral distinctionbetween saying something that is false andfailing to say something that one knows to betrue

(B) confuses having identified one cause of a giveneffect with having eliminated the possibilityof there being any other causes of that effect

(C) judges behavior that is outside an individualscontrol according to moral standards that canproperly be applied only to behavior that iswithin such control

(D) relies on an illegitimate appeal to pity toobscure the fact that the conclusion does notlogically follow from the premises advanced

(E) attempts to justify a judgment about aparticular case by citing a general principlethat stands in far greater need of supportthan does the particular judgment


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33 -20-23. Candidate: The government spends $500 million

more each year promoting highway safety thanit spends combating cigarette smoking. Buteach year many more people die fromsmoking-related diseases than die in highwayaccidents. So the government would save livesby shifting funds from highway safetyprograms to antismoking programs.

The flawed reasoning in which one of the followingarguments most closely parallels the flawedreasoning in the candidates argument?

(A) The government enforces the speed limit onfreeways much more closely than on tollways.But many more people die each year in autoaccidents on freeways than die in autoaccidents on tollway. So the governmentwould save lives by shifting funds fromenforcement of speed limits on freeways toenforcement of speed limits on tollway.

(B) A certain professional musician spends severaltimes as many hours practicing guitar as shespends practicing saxophone. But she is hiredmuch more often to play saxophone than toplay guitar, so she would increase her numberof playing engagements by spending less timepracticing guitar and more time practicingsaxophone.

(C) Automobiles burn more gas per minute onhighways than on residential streets. But theyget fewer miles per gallon on residentialstreets. Therefore, gas would be saved bydriving less on residential streets and more onhighways.

(D) The local swim team spends many more hourspracticing the backstroke than it spendspracticing the breaststroke. But the teams laptimes for the breaststroke are much betterthan its times for the backstroke, so the teamwould win more swim meets if it spent lesstime practicing the backstroke and more timepracticing the breaststroke.

(E) Banks have a higher profit margin on loansthat have a high interest rate than on loansthat have a low interest rate. But borrowersare willing to borrow larger sums at low ratesthan at high rates. Therefore, banks would bemore profitable if they gave more loans at lowrates and fewer loans at high rates.

24. A persons failure to keep a promise is wrong only if,first, doing so harms the one to whom the promise ismade and, second, all of those who discover thefailure to keep the promise lose confidence in thepersons ability to keep promises.

Which one of the following judgments most closelyconforms to the principle above?

(A) Ann kept her promise to repay Felicia themoney she owed her. Further, this convincedeveryone who knew Ann that she istrustworthy. Thus, Anns keeping her promisewas not wrong.

(B) Jonathan took an oath of secrecy concerningthe corporations technical secrets, but he soldthem to a competitor. His action was wrongeven though the corporation intended that heleak these secrets to its competitors.

(C) George promised to repay Reiko the money heowed her. However, George was unable tokeep his promise to Reiko and as a result,Reiko suffered a serious financial loss. Thus,Georges failure to keep his promise waswrong.

(D) Because he lost his job, Carlo was unable torepay the money he promised to Miriam.However, Miriam did not need this moneynor did she lose confidence in Carlos abilityto keep promises. So, Carlos failure to keephis promise to Miriam was not wrong.

(E) Elizabeth promised to return the book sheborrowed from Steven within a week, but shewas unable to do so because she becameacutely ill. Not knowing this, Steven lostconfidence in her ability to keep a promise.So, Elizabeths failure to return the book toSteven was wrong.


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3-21-325. The end of an action is the intended outcome of the

action and not a mere by-product of the action, andthe ends value is thus the only reason for the action.So while it is true that not every ends value willjustify any means, and even, perhaps, that there is noend whose value will justify every means, it is clearthat nothing will justify a means except an endsvalue.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main conclusion of the argument?

(A) The value of some ends may justify any means.(B) One can always justify a given action by appeal

to the value of its intended outcome.(C) One can justify an action only by appeal to the

value of its intended outcome.(D) Only the value of the by-products of an action

can justify that action.(E) Nothing can justify the intended outcome of

an action except the value of that actionsactual outcomes.

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44 -22-

It has recently been discovered that manyattributions of paintings to the seventeenth-centuryDutch artist Rembrandt may be false. The contestedpaintings are not minor works, whose removal from theRembrandt corpus would leave it relatively unaffected:they are at its very center. In her recent book, SvetlanaAlpers uses these cases of disputed attribution as apoint of departure for her provocative discussion of theradical distinctiveness of Rembrandts approach topainting.

Alpers argues that Rembrandt exercised anunprecedentedly firm control over his art, his students,and the distribution of his works. Despite GarySchwartzs brilliant documentation of Rembrandtscomplicated relations with a wide circle of patrons,Alpers takes the view that Rembrandt refused to submitto the prevailing patronage system. He preferred, sheclaims, to sell his works on the open market and to playthe entrepreneur. At a time when Dutch artists wereorganizing into professional brotherhoods andacademies, Rembrandt stood apart. In fact, Alpersportrait of Rembrandt shows virtually every aspect ofhis art pervaded by economic motives. Indeed, socomplete was Rembrandts involvement with themarket, she argues, that he even presented himself as acommodity, viewing his studios products asextensions of himself, sent out into the world to earnmoney. Alpers asserts that Rembrandts enterprise isfound not just in his paintings, but in his refusal to limithis enterprise to those paintings he actually painted. Hemarketed Rembrandt.

Although there may be some truth in the view thatRembrandt was an entrepreneur who made someaesthetic decisions on the basis of what he knew themarket wanted, Alpers emphasis on economic factorssacrifices discussion of the aesthetic qualities that makeRembrandts work unique. For example, Alpers assertsthat Rembrandt deliberately left his works unfinishedso as to get more money for their revision andcompletion. She implies that Rembrandt actuallywished the Council of Amsterdam to refuse the greatClaudius Civilis, which they had commissioned fortheir new town hall, and she argues that he must havecalculated that he would be able to get more money byretouching [the] painting. Certainly the picture ispainted with very broad strokes but there is noevidence that it was deliberately left unfinished. Thefact is that the look of a work like Claudius Civilismust also be understood as the consequence ofRembrandts powerful and profound meditations onpainting itself. Alpers makes no mention of the

pictorial dialectic that can be discerned between, say,the lessons Rembrandt absorbed from the Haarlemschool of painters and the styles of his native Leiden.The trouble is that while Rembrandts artisticenterprise may indeed not be reducible to the works hehimself painted, it is not reducible to marketingpractices either.

1. Which one of the following best summarizes themain conclusion of the author of the passage?

(A) Rembrandt differed from other artists of histime both in his aesthetic techniques and inhis desire to meet the demands of themarketplace.

(B) The aesthetic qualities of Rembrandts workcannot be understood without considerationof how economic motives pervaded decisionshe made about his art.

(C) Rembrandt was one of the first artists todevelop the notion of a work of art as acommodity that could be sold in an openmarketplace.

(D) Rembrandts artistic achievement cannot beunderstood solely in terms of decisions hemade on the basis of what would sell in themarketplace.

(E) Rembrandt was an entrepreneur whose artisticenterprise was not limited to the paintings heactually painted himself.

2. According to the passage, Alpers and Schwartzdisagree about which one of the following?

(A) the degree of control Rembrandt exercisedover the production of his art

(B) the role that Rembrandt played in organizingprofessional brotherhoods and academies

(C) the kinds of relationships Rembrandt had withhis students

(D) the degree of Rembrandts involvement in thepatronage system

(E) the role of the patronage system inseventeenth-century Holland


44 44SECTION IV

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or impliedin the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you areto choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

(5)

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4-23-43. In the third paragraph, the author of the passage

discusses aesthetic influences on Rembrandts workmost probably in order to

(A) suggest that many critics have neglected tostudy the influence of the Haarlem school ofpainters on Rembrandts work

(B) suggest that Claudius Civilis is similar in styleto many paintings from the seventeenthcentury

(C) suggest that Rembrandts style was not affectedby the aesthetic influences that Alpers pointsout

(D) argue that Rembrandts style can best beunderstood as a result of the influences of hisnative Leiden

(E) indicted that Alpers has not taken into accountsome important aspects of Rembrandts work

4. Which one of the following, if true, would providethe most support for Alpers argument aboutClaudius Civilis?

(A) Rembrandt was constantly revising his printsand paintings because he was never fullysatisfied with stylistic aspects of his earlierdrafts.

(B) The works of many seventeenth-century Dutchartists were painted with broad strokes andhad an unfinished look.

(C) Many of Rembrandts contemporarieseschewed the patronage system and sold theirworks on the open market.

(D) Artists were frequently able to raise the priceof a painting if the buyer wanted the workrevised in some way.

(E) Rembrandt did not allow his students to workon paintings that were commissioned bypublic officials.

5. It can be inferred that the author of the passage andAlpers would be most likely to agree on which one ofthe following?

(A) Rembrandt made certain aesthetic decisionson the basis of what he understood about thedemands of the marketplace.

(B) The Rembrandt corpus will not be affected ifattributions of paintings to Rembrandt arefound to be false.

(C) Stylistic aspects of Rembrandts painting canbe better explained in economic terms than inhistorical or aesthetic terms.

(D) Certain aesthetic aspects of Rembrandts artare the result of his experimentation withdifferent painting techniques.

(E) Most of Rembrandts best-known works werepainted by his students, but were sold underRembrandts name.


44 44

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44 -24-Medievalists usually distinguished medieval public

law from private law: the former was concerned withgovernment and military affairs and the latter with thefamily, social status, and land transactions.Examination of medieval womens lives shows thisdistinction to be overly simplistic. Although medievalwomen were legally excluded from roles thuscategorized as public, such as soldier, justice, jurymember, or professional administrative official,womens control of landusually considered a privateor domestic phenomenonhad important politicalimplications in the feudal system of thirteenth-centuryEngland. Since land equaled wealth and wealth equaledpower, certain women exercised influence bycontrolling land. Unlike unmarried women (who werelegally subject to their guardians) or married women(who had no legal identity separate from theirhusbands), women who were widows had autonomywith respect to acquiring or disposing of certainproperty, suing in court, incurring liability for theirown debts, and making wills.

Although feudal lands were normally transferredthrough primogeniture (the eldest son inheriting all),when no sons survived, the surviving daughtersinherited equal shares under what was known aspartible inheritance. In addition to controlling any suchland inherited from her parents and any bridal dowryproperty a woman brought to the marriage from herown familya widow was entitled to use of one-thirdof her late husbands lands. Called dower inEngland, this grant had greater legal importance undercommon law than did the bridal dowry; no marriagewas legal unless the groom endowed the bride with thisproperty at the wedding ceremony. In 1215 MagnaCarta guaranteed a widows right to claim her dowerwithout paying a fine; this document also strengthenedwidows ability to control land by prohibiting forcedremarriage. After 1272 women could also benefit fromjointure: the groom could agree to hold part or all ofhis lands jointly with the bride, so that if one spousedied, the other received these lands.

Since many widows had inheritances as well asdowers, widows were frequently the financial heads ofthe family; even though legal theory assumed themaintenance of the principle of primogeniture, theamount of land the widow controlled could exceed thatof her son or of other male heirs. Anyone who heldfeudal land exercised authority over the peopleattached to the landknights, rental tenants, andpeasantsand had to hire estate administrators,oversee accounts, receive rents, protect tenants fromoutside encroachment, punish tenants for not payingrents, appoint priests to local parishes, and act asguardians of tenants children and executors of theirwills. Many married women fulfilled these duties asdeputies for husbands away at court or at war, butwidows could act on their own behalf. Widows legalindependence is suggested by their frequent appearancein thirteenth-century English legal records. Moreover,the scope of their sway is indicated by the fact that

some controlled not merely single estates, but multiplecounties.

6. Which one of the following best expresses the mainidea of the passage?

(A) The traditional view of medieval women aslegally excluded from many public offices failsto consider thirteenth-century women inEngland who were exempted from suchrestrictions because of their wealth and socialstatus.

(B) The economic independence of women inthirteenth-century England was primarilydetermined not by their marital status, but bytheir status as heirs to their parents estates.

(C) The laws and customs of the feudal system inthirteenth-century England enabled somewomen to exercise a certain amount of powerdespite their legal exclusion from most publicroles.

(D) During the thirteenth century in England,widows gained greater autonomy and legalrights to their property than they had had inprevious centuries.

(E) Widows in thirteenth-century England wereable to acquire and dispose of lands through anumber of different legal processes.

7. With which one of the following statements aboutthe views held by the medievalists mentioned in line1 would the author of the passage most probablyagree?

(A) The medieval role of landowner was lessaffected by thirteenth-century changes in lawthan these medievalists customarily haverecognized.

(B) The realm of law labeled public by thesemedievalists ultimately had greater politicalimplications than that labeled private.

(C) The amount of wealth controlled by medievalwomen was greater than these medievalistshave recorded.

(D) The distinction made by these medievalistsbetween private law and public law fails toconsider some of the actual legal cases of theperiod.

(E) The distinction made by these medievalistsbetween private and public law fails toaddress the political importance of controlover land in the medieval era.


44 44

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4-25-48. Which one of the following most accurately expresses

the meaning of the word sway as it is used in line60 of the passage?

(A) vacillation(B) dominion(C) predisposition(D) inclination(E) mediation

9. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe function of the second paragraph of the passage?

(A) providing examples of specific historicalevents as support for the conclusion drawn inthe third paragraph

(B) narrating a sequence of events whose outcomeis discussed in the third paragraph

(C) explaining how circumstances described in thefirst paragraph could have occurred

(D) describing the effects of an event mentioned inthe first paragraph

(E) evaluating the arguments of a groupmentioned in the first paragraph

10. According to information in the passage, a widow inearly thirteenth-century England could control moreland than did her eldest son if

(A) the widow had been granted the customaryamount of dower land and the eldest soninherited the rest of the land

(B) the widow had three daughters in addition toher eldest son

(C) the principle of primogeniture had beenapplied in transferring the lands owned bythe widows late husband

(D) none of the lands held by the widows latehusband had been placed in jointure

(E) the combined amount of land the widow hadacquired from her own family and fromdower was greater than the amount inheritedby her son

11. Which one of the following is mentioned in thepassage as a reason why a married woman mighthave fulfilled certain duties associated with holdingfeudal land in thirteenth-century England?

(A) the legal statutes set forth by Magna Carta(B) the rights a woman held over her inheritance

during her marriage(C) the customary division of duties between

husbands and wives(D) the absence of the womans husband(E) the terms specified by the womans jointure

agreement

12. The phrase in England (lines 3031) does whichone of the following?

(A) It suggests that women in other countries alsoreceived grants of their husbands lands.

(B) It identifies a particular code of law affectingwomen who were surviving daughters.

(C) It demonstrates that dower had greater legalimportance in one European country than inothers.

(D) It emphasizes that women in one Europeancountry had more means of controllingproperty than did women in other Europeancountries.

(E) It traces a legal term back to the time at whichit entered the language.

13. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain a legal controversy of the past in lightof modern theory

(B) evaluate the economic and legal status of aparticular historical group

(C) resolve a scholarly debate about legal history(D) trace the historical origins of a modern

economic situation(E) provide new evidence about a historical event


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44 -26-The debate over the environmental crisis is not

new; anxiety about industrys impact on theenvironment has existed for over a century. What isnew is the extreme polarization of views. Mountingevidence of humanitys capacity to damage theenvironment irreversibly coupled with suspicions thatgovernment, industry, and even science might beimpotent to prevent environmental destruction haveprovoked accusatory polemics on the part ofenvironmentalists. In turn, these polemics have eliciteda corresponding backlash from industry. The sad effectof this polarization is that it is now even more difficultfor industry than it was a hundred years ago to respondappropriately to impact analyses that demand action.

Unlike todays adversaries, earlier ecologicalreformers shared with advocates of industrial growth aconfidence in timely corrective action. George P.Marshs pioneering conservation tract Man and Nature(1864) elicited wide acclaim without embittereddenials. Man and Nature castigated Earths despoilersfor heedless greed, declaring that humanity hasbrought the face of the Earth to a desolation almost ascomplete as that of the Moon. But no entrepreneur orindustrialist sought to refute Marshs accusation, todefend the gutting of forests or the slaughter of wildlifeas economically essential, or to dismiss his ecologicalwarnings as hysterical. To the contrary, they generallyagreed with him.

Why? Marsh and his followers took environmentalimprovement and economic progress as givens; theydisputed not the desirability of conquering nature butthe bungling way in which the conquest was carriedout. Blame was not personalized; Marsh denouncedgeneral greed rather than particular entrepreneurs, andthe media did not hound malefactors. Further,corrective measures seemed to entail no sacrifice, todemand no draconian remedies. Self-interestunderwrote most prescribed reforms. Marshs emphasison future stewardship was then a widely accepted ideal(if not practice). His ecological admonitions were inkeeping with the Enlightenment premise thathumanitys mission was to subdue and transformnature.

Not until the 1960s did a gloomier perspective gainpopular ground. Frederic Clements equilibrium modelof ecology, developed in the 1930s seemed consistentwith mounting environmental disasters. In this view,nature was most fruitful when least altered. Leftundisturbed, flora and fauna gradually attainedmaximum diversity and stability. Despoliationthwarted the culmination or shortened the duration ofthis beneficent climax; technology did not improvenature but destroyed it.

The equilibrium model became an ecologicalmystique: environmental interference was now taboo,wilderness adored. Nature as unfinished fabricperfected by human ingenuity gave way to the image ofnature debased and endangered by technology. Incontrast to the Enlightenment vision of nature,according to which rational managers construct an ever

more improved environment, twentieth-centuryreformers vision of nature calls for a reduction ofhuman interference in order to restore environmentalstability.

14. Which one of the following most accurately states themain idea of the passage?

(A) Mounting evidence of humanitys capacity todamage the environment should motivateaction to prevent further damage.

(B) The ecological mystique identified withFrederic Clements has become a religiousconviction among ecological reformers.

(C) George P. Marshs ideas about conservationand stewardship have heavily influenced thepresent debate over the environment.

(D) The views of ecologists and industrial growthadvocates concerning the environment haveonly recently become polarized.

(E) General greed, rather than particularindividuals or industries should be blamedfor the environmental crisis.


44 44

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4-27-415. The author refers to the equilibrium model of

ecology as an ecological mystique (lines 5455)most likely in order to do which one of the following?

(A) underscore the fervor with which twentieth-century reformers adhere to the equilibriummodel

(B) point out that the equilibrium model ofecology has recently been supported byempirical scientific research

(C) express appreciation for how plants andanimals attain maximum diversity andstability when left alone

(D) indicate that the ideas of twentieth-centuryecological reformers are often so theoreticalas to be difficult to understand

(E) indicate how widespread support is for theequilibrium model of ecology in the scientificcommunity

16. Which one of the following practices is most clearlyan application of Frederic Clements equilibriummodel of ecology?

(A) introducing a species into an environment towhich it is not native to help control thespread of another species that no longer hasany natural predators

(B) developing incentives for industries to takecorrective measures to protect theenvironment

(C) using scientific methods to increase thestability of plants and animals in areas wherespecies are in danger of becoming extinct

(D) using technology to develop plant and animalresources but balancing that developmentwith stringent restrictions on technology

(E) setting areas of land aside to be maintained aswilderness from which the use or extractionof natural resources is prohibited

17. The passage suggests that George P. Marsh andtodays ecological reformers would be most likely toagree with which one of the following statements?

(A) Regulating industries in order to protect theenvironment does not conflict with the self-interest of those industries.

(B) Solving the environmental crisis does notrequire drastic and costly remedies.

(C) Human despoliation of the Earth has causedwidespread environmental damage.

(D) Environmental improvement and economicprogress are equally important goals.

(E) Rather than blaming specific industries,general greed should be denounced as thecause of environmental destruction.

18. The passage is primarily concerned with which oneof the following?

(A) providing examples of possible solutions to acurrent crisis

(B) explaining how conflicting viewpoints in acurrent debate are equally valid

(C) determining which of two conflictingviewpoints in a current debate is morepersuasive

(D) outlining the background and development ofconflicting viewpoints in a current debate

(E) demonstrating weaknesses in th

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