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Page 1: Lumbini: present status and future challenges; 2006
Page 2: Lumbini: present status and future challenges; 2006

Acknowledgement Authors Angela Atzori Cristoph Cueppers Him Lal Ghimire Ruprama Rai Rajendra Suwal and Ukesh Bhuju Kai Weise Technical and Text Editors: Melissa Jenkins

Elke Selter Photo Credits: Christoph Cueppers, Ruprama Rai, Rajendra Suwal, Kai Weise Published in 2006 by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Kathmandu Office KAT-CKT-2005/03 Printed by Office Support Service Center Chhapakhana P. Ltd., Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal For more information please contact: UNESCO Kathmandu Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 14391 Kathmandu Nepal E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +977-1-5554-396/769 Fax: +977-1-5554-450 http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

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L U M B I N IPRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

With Contributions from: Ruprama Rai

Kai WeiseChristoph Cuepers

Angela AtzoriRajendra Suwal & Ukesh Bhuju

Him Lal Ghimire

Edited by Melissa Jenkins and Elke Selter

for the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu

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PREFACE

Lumbini is the birthplace of Lord Buddha and its religious value has been attracting pilgrims since the very early ages. The archaeological remains, which were excavated throughout the last century and which are now conserved at the site, provide testimony of these pilgrimages since the 3rd century BC. It is for these reasons, that Lumbini was inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1997.

In spite of all the efforts made since 1997 by local authorities and like-minded international partners, several issues have arisen in Lumbini in terms of the protection of this site of outstanding universal value. The challenges are not simply related to the archaeological value or site management; they go beyond such direct concerns. It has become apparent that a comprehensive approach to the development of the site is required, encompassing the wider environmental, socio-cultural and economic aspects. In addition the site is a living example of a multi-disciplinary dialogue between cultures (civilizations) and religions, and as such constitutes a valuable record of human development. A World Heritage Site does not stand in isolation from its surrounding context, and its proper conservation is enhanced through a holistic approach to the area in which it is located.

With this vision, the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu started a project in 2005 to assess the present status of Lumbini. The issues addressed by the project, such as environment, tourism, archaeological and religious values, management, and Master Plan implementation, have the ultimate objective to favor an integrated developmental strategy for the site. This publication, “Lumbini: Present Status and Future Challenges”, constitutes the outcome of the project. It is my hope that it can provide the local authorities and the relevant stakeholders with valuable suggestions and recommendations for the conservation of the Lumbini World Heritage Site, and that it will be instrumental in supporting efforts to improve its development in a holistic manner.

I would like to thank the authors of this publication: Cristoph Cueppers, Him Lal Ghimire, Ruprama Rai, Rajendra Suwal and Kai Weise, for their valuable contribution to the identification of recommendations for the sustainable development of the site, as well as Angela Atzori, the Italian UN Fellow. My gratitude also goes to Melissa Jenkins and Elke Selter for editing and compiling this publication. I would further like to express my sincere appreciation to the Lumbini Development Trust and the Department of Archaeology/HMGN, for their continuous and active cooperation to the UNESCO project team. Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to express on behalf of UNESCO our special gratitude to the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Kathmandu, for its generous contribution to this project.

I hope that the international community and the local authorities can continue working together, towards the ultimate objective of preserving Lumbini, heritage of all humankind.

Koto KannoUNESCO Representative to Nepal

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface Koto Kanno 3

Introduction 7

Lumbini: Present Status and Future Challenges Ruprama Rai 9

Lumbini: Master Plan and Management 17Lumbini: The Master Plan and Its Implementation Ruprama Rai 19Lumbini: Management Kai Weise 47

Lumbini: Four Perspectives 61Lumbini: Present Status of the Site in Religious Terms Christoph Cuepers 63Lumbini: An Archaeological Perspective Angela Atzori 71Lumbini: An Environmental analysis Rajendra Suwal and Ukhesh Bhulu 89Lumbini: A Touristic Overview Him Lal Ghimire 101

Annexes 113Annex 1: Lumbini World Heritage Nomination 115Annex 2: Ancient Monument Preservation Acti 1956 - First Amendment 1988 119Annex 3: Lumbini Development Trust Act 1985 - Amended 2003 127Annex 4: Declaration of the Second World Buddhist Summit 131Annex 5: Annex to the Letter Dated 29 September 2005 from the Permanent Representative of

Nepal to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General 133Annex 6: Ongoing Improvements as per Mr Govinda Chitrakar, Member Secretary, Lumbini

Development Trust 135Annex 7: The Archaeological Remains at Lumbini 137Annex 8: Stages of the Maya Devi Temple Remains 145Annex 9: SWOT Analysis of Lumbini Garden 147Annex 10: Plant Species Recommended for Plantation 149

Bibliography 153

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INTRODUCTION

Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 in recognition of its universal religious and archaeological significance. In recent years, several conservation issues have caused the international community concern. In particular, the 2002 construction of the Maya Devi Temple raised the concerns of the World Heritage Committee. In this light, UNESCO, with the financial support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), has carried out an assessment study of Lumbini (April - November 2005). The objectives of the study were to review and analyse the present status of the site, and to identify recommendations for its sustainable development.

In order to promote a holistic approach to the development of the World Heritage Site, the study considered a variety of factors. The main focus was on the World Heritage Site, i.e. the Sacred Garden area, but it is not possible to consider the World Heritage Site without taking into consideration its larger context. Therefore, wherever appropriate the study was extended to the Master Plan area, and even to the surrounding area, where the local communities are settled. First of all the level of implementation of the 1978 Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan was studied, and current management issues were identified. Further, the study analysed the site from four different angles, each with their own approach and interests, but still very much interdependent: Lumbini as a religious, archaeological, natural and touristic site. The study was prepared by technical experts according to a common framework.

The outcomes of this research were discussed in a workshop “Lumbini: Present Status and Future Perspectives”, which was held in Kathmandu from 10 to 11 November 2005. Participants included the Lumbini Development Trust, Department of Archaeology/HMGN, UNESCO, and other local experts concerned with the site.

The present publication is the result of the study on Lumbini, and of the discussions held during the workshop. It aims to reflect the process in its entirety, and will first identify the main thematic issues affecting the development of Lumbini, then lead the reader through each assessment of the present status of the site. The former paper aims to provide a general overview of the main issues raised in the papers and during the workshop, and represents the core part of this publication. By identifying the current challenges in Lumbini, which need to be addressed before any further development is planned; we hope to provide local authorities with a conceptual platform for the future development of the site.

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LUMBINI PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGESRuprama Rai

LUMBINI

Lumbini, situated in Rupandehi District in the south-western plains of Nepal is the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, as proven by inscription on the Ashoka

Fig 1. Boddhi Tree in the Sacred Garden

pillar (fig 2. Ashoka pillar) and the marker stone (fig 3. Marker Stone) and . The archaeological remains, particularly in and around the sacred garden, provide important evidence on Lumbini as a site of pilgrimage for over two thousand years.

After falling into neglect for several centuries, the rediscovery of the Ashoka pillar in 1896 led to numerous archaeological studies and excavations in the area. The international interest reached its height with the visit of UN Secretary General U Thant in 1967, leading to

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the establishment of the International Committee for the development of Lumbini. In 1972, this Committee requested Prof. Kenzo Tange to prepare the Master Plan for the development of Lumbini. The final Master Plan was approved by the His Majesty’s Government of Nepal and the United Nations in 1978.

As per the Master Plan, an area of 5 by 5 miles (divided up using a one-mile square grid) is foreseen as the Lumbini Development Area, with the sacred gardens in the center. A central axis, comprising of a canal flanked on either side by wide walkways connects the sacred garden with the two grids to the north that contain the monastic enclaves of the Cultural Centre and the Lumbini Village which are further surrounded by forests. This area of three square miles has been procured by the government and is under development. The proposed buffer zone comprising of the grids flanking this central axis and the remaining grids earmarked as an agricultural zone have not implemented. (fig 4. Master Plan)

The significance of Lumbini focuses around the Sacred Gardens that include the Maya Devi temple (fig 5-6. Maya Devi Temple) and related archaeological remains. In 1996, an excavation project revealed the marker stone indicating the exact birthplace of Lord Buddha. This gave further recognition to the outstanding universal value (OUV) of Lumbini and subsequently the site was inscribed on the UNESCO List of World Heritage in 1997 (Refer Annex 1). As per the criteria for inscription, the OUV of Lumbini comprises of two main attributes: the religious importance and the archaeological remains.

As the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, the sacred area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of

Fig 2. Ashoka Pillar

Fig 4. Lumbini Master Plan

Fig 3. Marker Stone

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the world’s great religions and its remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist pilgrimage centers from a very early period. In term of the categories of cultural property set out in article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, Lumbini is a site. (Nomination Document, Lumbini, Nepal, No. 666 rev)

These values, however, do not stand alone and are linked to other issues such as environmental planning, pilgrimage tourism, development of the Master Plan and the socio-economic status of the surrounding community. In order to protect and develop Lumbini, it is necessary to take into account the various perspectives

Fig 5. Maya Devi Temple

Fig 6. Maya Devi Image as exposed in the Maya Devi Temple

in a broader context. The added significance of Lumbini as a World Heritage Site requires prioritization to be given to the preservation of the outstanding universal value of the site. This paper aims at identifiying the main issues in Lumbini – as explained more in detail in the other papers - and at indicating their common concerns and challenges, which should be taken as the ground for the future preservation and development of the site.

PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

Lumbini has been a place of pilgrimage for over 2000 years and since the 19th century the site’s archaeological value has been recognized. It is in the light of these characteristics that the Lumbini Master Plan was conceived to develop the site. However, the Master Plan does not take into account the specific requirements of a World Heritage Site as it was conceived circa 19 years before Lumbini became a World Heritage Site. Therefore, the Master Plan remains strongly as an architectural plan based on Buddhist ideas and principles, and lacks the necessary guidance for the conservation of the archaeological remains.

Since the inscription of Lumbini on the World Heritage list, the World Heritage Committee has requested the state party, in this case the Department of Archaeology and the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT), to prepare a Management Plan with respect to all existing issues

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and challenges. At present, the development activities are still carried out in a fragmented manner and lack a long term and comprehensive vision. Such activities have had an adverse effect on the significance of the site, resulting in uncertainty and conflicts between values. There is a need to define the role and hierarchy of linkages among various issues and challenges on the site, arising from the inherent values of Lumbini since the ancient times.

UNESCO listed the site as World Heritage because of the value of the archaeological remains as testimony to the site’s significance as the birthplace of Lord Buddha and as an important pilgrimage place. According to the 2005 “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention”, the objective of proper conservation of a World Heritage Site is to preserve and enhance its OUV, authenticity and integrity.

There is no denying the fact that Lumbini has an enormous potential as a cultural and religious site, which makes it worthy of an effort towards an increased sustainable development of its OUV. It is clear that the religious and archaeological values of the site are strongly linked and that a proper development of the site, will need to take into account both aspects.

Fig 7. Archaeological Remains at Lumbini

Fig 8. Religious and Archaeological Values of Lumbini

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Additionally, the enhancement of the site’s main values should imply taking into account other issues, such as tourism, environment and socio-economic development of the area.

At present, the core area in Lumbini has been thoroughly excavated. However, most of these excavations were executed in an improper and unscientific manner and may have affected the true interpretation of the site. Additionally, further research needs to be done both within the World Heritage Site’s core zone and in the buffer area. But, when considering further archaeological research and preservation of the archaeological remains, one needs to take into account the importance of Lumbini as a living religious site. This means that the enhancement of the archaeological site must also consider the wishes of the pilgrims.

On the other hand, the construction of new Maya Devi Temple has provoked criticism at both national and international levels, including by the World Heritage Committee. The new temple, built in response to the demands of the worshippers, has been criticized because of its unfavourable impact on the physical integrity and the integral perception of the archaeological site. The temple due to its size and location distracts the visitors from full view of the archaeological remains of the site. Lumbini, being recognized as the birthplace of Lord Buddha, is an important site for visitors and pilgrims from all over the world. According to the Mahaparinirvanasutra, Lumbini is one of the four sites that pilgrims should visit to circumambulate and venerate the chaityas. A proper code of conduct is required for the Lumbini area, which respects the five Buddhist vows and promotes religious activities and programmes to enhance the religious values of the site. Therefore, it is necessary for the Sacred Garden to be developed as a protected area, for its archaeological importance as well as for its spiritual values.

Both of the values recognised by the World Heritage Committee are very much inter-connected. Kenzo Tange’s original Master Plan properly interprets Lumbini as a religious destination, enhancing the deep spiritual and philosophical meaning of the site. From a religious point of view, the early constructions at the site are the result of religious activities, which have now become the archaeological remains. According to Kenzo Tange, “Its form that of a circle enclosing squares is a mystical universal symbol of purity and simplicity. Architecturally, no built structures are to be added to the garden except the essential forms like

office, meditation cells, utility blocks and restoration of Mayadevi Temple. However, in the present condition, it is difficult to evaluate the site strictly in terms of religious or spiritual values, due to partial completion of the Master Plan. It clearly inferred from daily problems faced by the pilgrims attending the sacred garden for meditation purposes being disturbed by the uncontrolled flow of tourists and lack of proper meditation cells as proposed in the master plan.

Another issue in connection with this religious significance gives rise to the highly contentious issue about the Lumbini’s value being linked primarily to existing religious practices, or to individual spiritual growth. There is growing concern over whether the archaeological remains (now being objects of worship by Buddhist devotees), should be accessible to all visitors and pilgrims, or if they should be protected according to scientific standards which would restrict the human activities in their vicinity.

The historical importance of Lumbini, as found written in the ancient scriptures, is closely linked to the fact that Lumbini was renowned as a beautiful pleasure garden in the 7th and 6th centuries BC and Buddha was born in a grove of sal trees. Therefore it is appropriate to develop forests, grasslands and wetlands to reflect nature as it is represented in Buddhism and the natural habitats of the Terai. This environmental development could enhance both the spiritual value and the attractiveness of the larger area for pilgrims and tourists, thus resulting in an improved socio-economic status of the communities.

Lumbini has several opportunities for environmental tourism and until now, this aspect has been under promoted, limiting the experience of Lumbini to the religious sites. Lumbini could become a place of learning for students, conservationists, researchers and the general public with the proper development of conservation infrastructure such as a nature trail, bird-hides, enclosures and floating islands.

In this light, the recent decision of the His Majesty’s Government of Nepal to transform the existing airport into an international hub does not sound positive for the environmental perspective. Such a development would seriously threaten the tranquillity and solitude of the area and according to the environmental report the Lumbini locality should be declared as no fly zone.

Several environmental issues such as plantations, infrastructure, water, waste management, and wildlife have been dealt with properly in the Master Plan. However, due to the lack of a timely and proper

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implementation, Lumbini today is facing several environmental problems. There is an urgent need to implement landscaping works such as the paving of roads with environmentally friendly materials and the provision of vegetation cover for open spaces and avenue plantation along the roads as proposed in the master plan. Another emphasis should be towards the proper implementation of a garbage- and waste-management system for the whole area as proposed in the master plan.

It is also important to make sure that the environmental recommendations do not conflict with the archaeological needs. For example trees can be the worst enemies of archaeological remains. Therefore, although very much linked to the religious enhancement of the site, a one-sided development of this environmentally significant recommendation, without proper consideration of archaeological aspect, would threaten the site instead of enhancing its potential.

Whilst fully recognizing the religious and archaeological values of the site, it is also clear that the long-term conservation of Lumbini and the sustainability of the development, can only be achieved

when taking into consideration the economic aspects and the empowerment of the communities living in its immediate surroundings. Therefore, appropriate development of tourism in the region, aiming at not disturbing the pilgrims and at fully involving the community, will be of major importance.

The Nepal Tourism Master Plan, formulated in 1972, recommended developing Lumbini as an international pilgrimage destination and as one of the key sightseeing destinations for tourists in Nepal. The plan also gave directions for the preparation of Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan and for the overall development of Lumbini. However, the Nepal Tourism Master Plan remarked that one of Lumbini’s limitations is its remoteness and isolation.

The development of extra religious activities could attract increasing numbers of visitors, both tourists and pilgrims, and convince them to stay longer at Lumbini. The existing hotels and infrastructure facilities are adequate to cater for the current tourism flow, but due to lack of public awareness and effective marketing strategies, they are not as effective as they should be in providing quality services.

There are also some controversial proposals for tourism promotion in Lumbini such as the upgrading Fig 9. Community living around Lumbini

Fig 10. Need for socio-econmic enhancement of local communities

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of the airport in Bhairahawa to an international airport and the construction of a sports stadium in the vicinity of Master Plan area. These kind of proposals have unfavourable impact on the fragile ecology and the sanctity of the site.

There is the need to implement promotional activities like collaborative marketing programs and awareness campaigns, to reduce the discrepancy of tourism flow in high and low season. The programs should work towards ‘bottom up’ community participatory approaches to propose an appropriate model of development in Lumbini. This includes empowerment of local people with education and training programs to provide quality services to visitors.

MASTER PLAN AND MANAGEMENT

The Master Plan was prepared more than two decades before the inscription of Lumbini on the World Heritage List. Therefore, it lacks the guidance to protect the tangible and intangible features that signify the historic and spiritual significance, constituting the OUV of the site.

In order to ensure the World Heritage Status, the State Party is required to protect the values for which the site was listed. The conservation and development strategies for this area should take these values into consideration, along with the need to review the Master Plan and, if appropriate, to amend it, taking into account a better understanding of the significance of the site.

Though the Lumbini Development Project was started almost 30 years ago, the progression of works has not been satisfactory. Increasing delays in implementation of the Master Plan have created more problems than visualized during the inception of the project. There are also problems arising from haphazard development works along the peripheral road outside the Project Area, which are threatening the sanctity and historical values of the site.

The original concept of the Master Plan will be appreciated only once the Lumbini Center and Central Link have been implemented. To date, no work on the North and South Wings of the Lumbini Center has been started and the canal has only been partially excavated. The delay in various major infrastructure works has effected the sequence of the development processes. Some of the completed works vary from the original master plan.

The LDT needs more financial resources to meet the immediate completion of the works. It is also felt that the Master Plan is too ambitious for Nepal. According to the assessment LDT does not have sufficient funds for implementing the remaining components. In a study conducted by LDT in 1995, revision and simplification of the Master Plan was recommended, however without compromising its essence. The study proposed that the design be simplified and the cost estimate be revised to make it cost effective and within the capacity of LDT to implement.

At present, proper phase wise implementation of Lumbini Master Plan, where the development activities are monitored by the DOA, Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation and UNESCO, is the only clear solution. It is also suggested that these coordinate with the other organisations and government bodies involved in the area. The emphasis should be towards implemenation of the works in a time bound manner with certain flexibility to accommodate changes in economy, social and religious contexts.

Similarly, proposals for international campaigns and mobilization of international ambassadors should be worked upon. The LDT should be empowered legally, technically and financially to work towards the full realization of the Master Plan. Also, the project should be based on sustainable economy, through mobilization of available resources and technology. This should also address improving existing linkages for channeling the development works and controlling haphazard growth in the restricted areas.

The Master Plan considers related issues and their linkages within the project area and its vicinity. Furthermore, the regional linkages to the Buddhist sites around Lumbini (already administered by the Lumbini Development Trust), within Nepal and in Northern India are also mentioned in the original Master Plan. In this regard, the Master Plan not only tries to develop the area as an important pilgrimage destination, but also in respect to history, nature, archaeology, tourism and culture.

The Sacred Garden of Lumbini, one of the holiest Buddhist places in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, does not stand in isolation. The socio-economic status of the surrounding communities is very low. Most local inhabitants are indifferent or ignorant of the concept of the Master Plan and of Lumbini as a World Heritage Site. It is therefore essential to develop the linkages between World Heritage Site and their surrounding communities.

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Limiting the economic benefits to the project area will contribute to the isolation of the Lumbini World Heritage Site from its surrounding context. It is essential that ample opportunities are provided to the surrounding local communities. The vision for the development of Lumbini should go beyond Buddhist philosophy to incorporate sustainable regional development. The linkages to the surrounding areas, buffer zones or agricultural zones or rural areas of adjoining VDCs, should be focused on. Thereby, the development of Lumbini needs to be integrated into a district level plan to coordinate the activities of all concerned authorities.

The requested Management Plan for the World Heritage Site could be seen as an additional layer to the Master Plan, specifically aimed at the World Heritage area and its buffer zone. The complexity of a Management Plan requires understanding of various issues with a broader perspective through coordination among the relevant authorities and stakeholders. This includes strengthening the role of LDT and its closer association with related ministries, line agencies, local authorities, INGOs, NGOs and the religious communities.

At present, LDT coordinates its activities with other concerned authorities. However, this coordination is not oriented towards any particular long term vision for the conservation and presentation of the World Heritage Site. The current staff of LDT does not have a specific expertise in heritage conservation and management.

The Management Plan should address issues which convey the sense of the ‘sacredness’ of the site; guidelines for impact assessment of infrastructure and landscaping works on the archaeological remains; measures to rectify the negative impact of the new Maya Devi temple on the heritage values of the World Heritage Site and an effective monitoring system for the conditions within the Maya Devi Temple.

The main purpose of a Management Plan is to organize the work of the management authority of the site and provide long term orientation for the conservation of the property based on the OUV of the World Heritage Site, as recognized by the World Heritage Committee. The Management Plan should be reviewed periodically and if necessary, amended. Also, it would be beneficial if external assistance is provided to elaborate the management plan based on current international concepts and methodologies for the management and conservation of World Heritage sites. Thereby, the LDT will be able to establish its own permanent expertise in heritage management and conservation in future.

CONCLUSION

The value of Lumbini has been recognized both at a national and an international level and it leaves no doubt that the proper development and conservation of the area is a big challenge.

Being a site of unique value, there are many different angles from which the site is being approached, generally all with their own ideas and priorities, but all very much interdependent. Lumbini is widely recognized for its religious and linked archaeological values, concentrated in and around the Sacred Garden. In order to enhance these, however, it is necessary to deal with tourism, environment and socio-economic development of a much larger area, including the needs of the surrounding communities.

A first step for the development of Lumbini was set through the preparation of the Master Plan in 1978, and almost three decades later, it may be necessary to revise the plan in order to adapt it to the requirements of the World Heritage Status of the Sacred Garden, as well as to be more realistic from an economic point of view.

The current need is, therefore, further to work on the linkages, as already outlined in the Master Plan, and to clarify specific managment issues incorporating the methodologies for the conservation of a World Heritage Site.

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LUMBINI:Master Plan and Management

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LUMBINI: THE MASTER PLAN AND ITS IMPLEMENTATIONRuprama Rai

1. INTRODUCTION Lumbini, the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautam, is situated in the Rupandehi District in the southwestern plains of Nepal. In the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., Lumbini was renowned as a pleasure garden and its beauty was compared to the Chittalata (mind captivating) grove of Indra’s paradise in heaven. At the time of his Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagara, Buddha recommended that all his faithful followers and devotees should visit his birthplace. Therefore, Lumbini has held a special significance as an important destination for pilgrimage and spiritual renewal worldwide.

The discovery of the Ashoka pillar by General Khadga Shamsher Rana and Dr. A. Führer in 1896 confirmed that Buddha was born in Lumbini. In 1956 King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva visited Lumbini and donated one million rupees to build infrastructure such as access roads and visitor facilities. A decade later, the then UN Secretary-General U Thant visited Lumbini and called upon the international community to develop Lumbini.

As a result, an International Committee for the Development of Lumbini was formed under the auspices of the United Nations in 1970. In the same year, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal instituted the Lumbini Development Committee to co-ordinate the activities at national level. In 1985 the Committee became the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT).

In 1972, Prof. Kenzo Tange was given the responsibility to prepare the Master Plan. The basic orientation and the functional layouts of the project were defined in the “Final Outline Design for Lumbini” compiled by Kenzo Tange & Urtec. The Master Plan was approved by HMG/Nepal and the United Nations in 1978, and envisaged the development of 1 mile x 1 mile rectangle, designating three major components from north to south: the New Lumbini Village, the Monastic Enclave and the Sacred Garden. The Master Plan also called for a zone of 25 square miles as a protective area, buffer zone and agriculture zone.

2. BASIC CONCEPT

The Master Plan, prepared by the architect Prof. Kenzo Tange of Japan, was initially intended to be integrated in the Regional Development Plan of the Gandaki-Lumbini area. The development aimed to provide facilities for visitors to Lumbini and to

Ruprama Rai has been practicing as an architect since 2002 and worked in various places in Nepal including Pokhara and Lukla. At present she is working with PAHAR Nepal, where she has been involved in projects related to the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. Since July 2005 she has been working closely together with the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu on the programme for the protection of the Lumbini World Heritage Site.

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support complementary activities such as monk’s residencies, research, international meetings and teaching.

The Final Master Plan proposed in 1978 is focused on 7.7 sq. km. centering on the Garden and the Asoka Pillar, with an additional area of 64.5 sq. km to be developed in its support. The Lumbini Development Area is 5 by 5 miles, while the central 1x3 mile strip is divided into three 1x1 mile areas. The 1x3 mile strips on both sides of the central strip were designated Restricted Areas. It was proposed that the concerned authorities should adopt zoning regulations for the additional 16 square mile area to act as a buffer zone that will assure the preservation of the agricultural environment. This area would be developed for agricultural purposes, and would provide food for local people and for visitors, thus helping to raise the standard of life for inhabitants.

The central 1x3 mile strip is divided into three components and each of the components has special significance as the Religious-Cultural-Tourism center. The design is oriented north-south, with Lumbini Village and Cultural Centre to the north and the focus of the design- The Sacred Garden- to the south. On either side of the axis are the monastic enclaves, which are surrounded by a green forest. The entire development is tied together by a central link comprising of a walkway and a canal. The Central Link is the major axis of the project, which establishes the solitude and sanctity of the Sacred Garden and offers pilgrims time and space to prepare as they approach the Sacred Garden.

According to Prof. Kenzo Tange, the overall intent is to reinforce the symbolic entity of the Lumbini Garden in its simplicity and clarity, as found in the layout of the Monastic Areas and the Sacred Garden.

Moreover, the geometric interpretation of the Master Plan is based on religious symbolism. This symbolism in the Master Plan is an interpretation of both the philosophy of Buddhism and the requirements of the site. The Master Plan mainly consists of circles, squares and lines which are laid out with definite order, proportions and relationships to each other (fig. 1), as described below:

CIRCLE. The most predominant and basic form used in the Master Plan, representing the six aspects of Buddhism.SQUARE. Used along with the circle, representing the five aspects of Mahayana of Buddhism.LINE. The main axis of the Master Plan, joining the center of the Sacred Pond, where Maya Devi took her bath, to the exact spot where the Lord Buddha was born.

The basis of the Master Plan and its development is related to the following three places associated with the event of the Birth of Lord Buddha:-The Sacred Pond where Maya Devi took bath. -The Tree whose branch she held while giving birth. -The exact spot where the Buddha was born.

Prof. Kenzo Tange made every effort to emphasize the values of Lumbini through the Master Plan. This is evident from the components of the Master Plan which have been carefully laid out in direct relation to Buddhism. Thereby, anyone can imbibe the philosophy of Buddhism while taking a tour of the site. The main philosophy behind the hierarchy of activities and components, as conceived by Tange, is summarized below.

The Lumbini Centre functions as an entrance complex to the ultimate destination, the Sacred Garden, birthplace of Lord Buddha. It consists

Fig 1. Essence of the Master Plan

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of facilities such as hotels, schools, a hospital and administrative services, which represent worldly life. Therefore, this first component symbolizes the worldly life or impurity state of mind of the visitors. The second component is composed of the Cultural Center and the Monastic Zone, which symbolize the understanding of knowledge. The visitors seek knowledge through library and research centers available in the Cultural Center. Further on, the Monastic zone gives an insight into the life of the religious people. Therefore, the visitor gets physically and psychologically prepared to imbibe the religious values of the site. Before progressing towards the holiest place, the Sacred Garden, one passes through the Meditation Centers on either side of the entrance to the Sacred Garden. These Meditation Centers symbolize the spirituality or purification of the mind before entering the final destination. The Sacred Garden symbolizes the enlightenment, while the circular path from south to north symbolizes the path to nirvana or the attainment of final truth. Besides the practical reasons like environmental cooling and pleasing aesthetic, the circular water body around the Sacred Garden symbolizes the fluid inside the mother’s womb. The river, which passes through the Master Plan area, symbolizes the umbilical cord, which connects a baby to the mother.

However, there have been some activities, which have violated the basic essence of the Master Plan. For instance:- Peace Stupa in the Lumbini Center. It is built entirely against the Master Plan and violates its spiritual and technical aspects.- Monastic Zone. Some of the monasteries have been constructed against the height and axial relations as mentioned in the Master Plan.- Boundary Wall. Physically it is an eyesore and philosophically, a barrier to the flow of vibrations as per original Master Plan.- Main Entrance. At present, the main entry point leads directly to the Sacred Garden, which is totally against the sanctity and purity of the site.

3. COMPONENTS OF THE MASTER PLAN AND THEIR PRESENT STATUS

The three main components in the Master Plan are based on religious, cultural, geographical and functional significance:- Sacred Garden - Monastic Enclave - New Lumbini Village and Cultural Centre

The Sacred Garden is the focal point of the Lumbini Garden area. It consists of archeological remains, a series of manmade lakes and a circular rampart that surrounds them. The complex is surrounded by a newly planted forest. It has the shape of a circle enclosing squares and represents the mystical universal symbol of purity and simplicity. Architecturally, no built structures are to be added to the garden except essential forms like offices, meditation cells, utility blocks and a restored Mayadevi Temple.

The Monastic Enclave is situated in the forest area which lies outside the Central Link. It is composed of square plots, which are allocated to different countries for the construction of monasteries. Therefore, different architectural styles of monasteries coexist and symbolize religious harmony. There are two sects of monastic enclaves to represent Mahayana and Hinayana schools of Buddhism. The Monastic Enclave is unified by the careful integration of landscape elements such as plazas, entrance court, canals, boundary walls and circulation networks. The by-laws maintain a strict adherence to seclusion and spiritual aspects of monastic life to support the religious activities, thereby enhancing the spiritual values of the site.

The New Lumbini Village and the Cultural Centre are situated in the northern segment of the entire site. This complex is the center for tourism and administration facilities of Lumbini. It is also the main entrance to the Master Plan area and the departure point for pilgrimages to the Ashoka Pillar.

3.1. Sacred Garden3.1.1. Description as per Master PlanAccording to Tange, the basic principle of design for the Sacred Garden is to create a quiet, natural environment by prohibiting the construction of new structures and by eliminating and relocating the existing structures, with the exception of the Ashokan Pillar. The Sacred Garden should be composed of the Sacred Area, the Tank Area and the Forest Area.

The Master Plan proposed to provide a very minimum of service facilities in the Sacred Garden Area for the pilgrims and tourists. The archaeological office and the utility block were to be constructed at eastern portion of the levee embankment.

In the design of the garden, two elements are incorporated: the unearthed ancient urban structure and a system grid for archaeological survey. The system for archaeological surveys consists of parallel

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roads running on 80m grid in either north-south or east-west directions. Each unit of an 80x80m lot is defined by the roads and forms a basic field unit for archaeological surveying. These roads will be utilized as service roads. The surface of the road is covered by topsoil with loose gravel. Potentional areas for archaeological discovery are widely dispersed in the whole area and the construction of roads or levees should take this into account. When an unexpected discovery occurs in critical areas, the layout can be modified without altering the basic system. The modification may include the use of over bridge over significant archaeological remains. The use of bricks is strictly forbidden in the Sacred Areas.

The physical design of the sacred area is also conditioned by the technical need for water management. The dominant natural features of the site are the rivers: Harhawa, Ghoraha and Telar, which flow through it. They are mostly dry between October and May. During the rainy season, they flood the surrounding regions. As an integral component of the archaeological preservation plan, a circular levee link is to be built around the excavation area to protect it from flooding. In order to conserve the natural aspect of Telar Nadi, which is itself a historical monument, a south east segment of the levee link would be modified to keep its natural shape.

An excavated pond area lies inside the levee link with low water level to facilitate drainage from the excavation area. The level of the levee link is set at 101.5m and the water level is at 97.00m (3m below the base level of the Ashoka Pillar). The water in the

Sacred Pond is fed by the link pond through a pipe. The water level of the link pond is 99m. The four quadrants of the tank are also interconnected. The gate structure at the southern corner maintains the water level at 97m during the dry and rainy seasons. On the top of the levee link is a 4m wide circuit road with edges lined with curb stones. Both sides of the circuit road are graded and they are surfaced with grass to provide a continuous foliage cover over the levee and to protect it from water erosion.

3.1.2. Present Status of the Sacred GardenProper and timely implementation of the Master Plan is necessary together with maintenance works of the garden with special concern to landscape details and water bodies. At present (fig. 2-3), the work is going steadily with the primary priority being given to the development of Sacred Garden. The major works in the Sacred Garden include landscaping works like protection works, afforestation and exposition of the archaeological remains. The relocation of the Mahendra Pillar and the dismantling of other structures in the vicinity of the site are planned for the near future, and should be completed in 10-20 years.

It is also very important to control the water level of underground and flood water to protect and maintain the beauty of the Sacred Garden. The circular levee and outer circular canal works have been completed. Almost all earthworks required for the protection of the Sacred Garden are complete, but expensive works such as retaining wall of the the tank inside the garden and gate structures are still to be done.

S.N LIST OF ITEMS REMARKS1 MAYA DEVI TEMPLE Completed 2 ASHOKA PILLAR Need of Restoration works3 MAHENDRA PILLAR To be relocated to the Lumbini Center 4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL OFFICE Not started5 CIRCULAR LEVEE/ CIRCULAR POND Partial Completion6 CIRCULAR ROAD WITH CIRCULAR DRAIN Partial Completion7 GATE VALVE ( 2 no.s) Partial Completion8 EXCAVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES Delayed5 MEDITATION CELLS & WALKWAYS Not started7 DISMANTLING OF OTHER STRUCTURES Not started8 AFFORESTATION OF CIRCULAR LEVEE Substantial Completion9 DEVELOPMENT OF SACRED GARDEN Substantial Completion9a TURFING Will be completed by this year9b ACCESS ROWS & DRAINAGE Partial Completion9c PONDS

NORTH EAST, NORTH WEST Substantial CompletionSOUTH EAST, SOUTH WEST Partial Completion

10 ROADS10a ACCESS ROADS TO ASHOK PILLAR FROM 4 SIDES- 8 m wide Not started10b PEDESTRIAN ROAD – 4 m wide Not started

Fig. 2: Present status of the Sacred Garden

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S.N LIST OF ITEMS REMARKS1 MAYA DEVI TEMPLE Completed 2 ASHOKA PILLAR Need of Restoration works3 MAHENDRA PILLAR To be relocated to the Lumbini Center 4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL OFFICE Not started5 CIRCULAR LEVEE/ CIRCULAR POND Partial Completion6 CIRCULAR ROAD WITH CIRCULAR DRAIN Partial Completion7 GATE VALVE ( 2 no.s) Partial Completion8 EXCAVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES Delayed5 MEDITATION CELLS & WALKWAYS Not started7 DISMANTLING OF OTHER STRUCTURES Not started8 AFFORESTATION OF CIRCULAR LEVEE Substantial Completion9 DEVELOPMENT OF SACRED GARDEN Substantial Completion9a TURFING Will be completed by this year9b ACCESS ROWS & DRAINAGE Partial Completion9c PONDS

NORTH EAST, NORTH WEST Substantial CompletionSOUTH EAST, SOUTH WEST Partial Completion

10 ROADS10a ACCESS ROADS TO ASHOK PILLAR FROM 4 SIDES- 8 m wide Not started10b PEDESTRIAN ROAD – 4 m wide Not started

Some earthworks in the sacred tank and landscaping in the garden are planned for the near future. List of partially completed works inside the Sacred Garden:- Earth cutting and Retaining walls - Outermost ring of trapezoidal drain channel- Service roads from east and west of periphery roads- Pedestrian path in the garden area

Fig 3. Sacred Garden

- Gate structures to control the water level - Afforestation around levee and turfing

Besides the satisfactory progress in the development of the Master Plan, the main current problems is that the service road of the Sacred Garden is being used as the main entrance. This is visually disturbing for, and destroys the sanctity and purity of the Sacred Garden. The vehicles that access this way destroy the harmony and essence of the site. Also, new structures like the temporary souvenir shops and restaurants should be planned in better way, in order to fit within the original planning concept.

3.2. New Lumbini Village and Cultural Center3.2.1. Description as per Master PlanAccording to the Master Plan, the New Lumbini Village and the Cultural Centre should be the main entry points to the site (fig. 4). The focal point is on the intersection of the Bhairawa Taulihawa Highway and the north-south axis originating from the Ashoka Pillar. It is the monumental building element of the Master Plan. The functions allocated in these buildings are administrative, cultural and practical (ie accommodation for pilgrims and tourists). The whole complex is sub-divided according to purpose, as per Original Master Plan:A. New Lumbini CentreB. Cultural Centre

Fig 4. New Lumbini Village and Cultural Center

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C. Pilgrim‘s Accommodation Zone D. High SchoolThese zones are supplemented by the following support facilities:E. Roads and Landscaping

A. New Lumbini CenterThe Lumbini Centre is located at the intersection of the Bhairawa-Taulihawa road, which is expected to be the principal approach route to Lumbini. It will function mainly for the services of the whole complex of the Master Plan. The Center consists of Administrative Facilities in the north and Tourist Facilities in the south:- North Wing: administrative center, medical center, tourist information center;- South Wing: security, post and telephone, banks, bus & taxi services, shops, restaurant.

A 16m wide canal lies along the central axis of the complex which forms a water supply network for the central link. The water depth is 65cm and the base is finished with un-reinforced concrete to improve water retention capacity. On both sides of the canal are 8m wide sidewalks with brick pavement. Along the side walk, a colonnade encloses the space of the central area. The colonnade is built in reinforced brick masonry construction on 4x4m structural module. The colonnade in the north is connected with that in the south by an overbridge spanning the Bhairawa highway. The overbridge should be built in precast concrete. The outer edges of the colonnade are landscaped by a linear earth mound approximately 4m high and 8m wide.

B. Cultural Center The Cultural Centre is situated in the south of the Lumbini Center. The approach to the center is by pedestrian path along the colonnade. It is also directly accessible from the highway to its main entrance area, thus enabling it to be utilized independently from the Lumbini Center. This area is dedicated to world peace and is composed of three major buildings, which are intended to add to the cultural diversity of the activities at Lumbini:1. Lumbini Museum2. Auditorium 3. Library & Research Institution complexThe Lumbini Museum will house relics from the life of Lord Buddha gathered from all over the world. It will also include displays depicting the findings of the archaeological work done in the Sacred Garden and the history of Lumbini. The museum is made up of a central exhibition hall, surrounded by four

mezzanine spaces and the ground floor space. The two mezzanine spaces on the west side and ground floor are for administration, workshop and laboratory for archaeological research. All remaining spaces are for the use of the public.

The Auditorium is envisaged as a multi-purpose hall to be used for national and international congresses. It includes balconies for press and observers, as well as a special balcony with annex facilities. The technical facilities of the Auditorium are located in the upper back wall of the hall, which includes booths for interpreters. The hall carries through the uniquely stylized architectural motif of the Lumbini Project on its four walls and acoustic considerations have been taken into account in the brickwork design.

The third element of Cultural Centre is the Library & Research Institution complex. This will be a facility dedicated to the study of Buddhism and world peace, operating along the lines of advanced research institutions affiliated with many of the world’s foremost universities. Renowned scholars will be invited to Lumbini to study and work with other researchers. The structure of the entire complex is similar to that of the Lumbini Center, a brick masonry construction on structural module. Given the need to accommodate larger spaces, the module is set on the double gird of 4 m and 8 m.

C. Pilgrim’s Accommodation ZoneThis zone provides accommodation to all types of tourists: high, middle or low income. Hence, everyone can visit and imbibe the values of Lumbini, irrespective of their socio-economic status.

Pilgrim’s accommodation are planned on both sides of the northern pond. In the east is the accommodation zone for high class tourists. The facilities planned in this zone are similar to luxury resorts. The site, 80x160m, is provided with direct vehicular access from the Asian Highway, while the pedestrian access is from the northern pond area.

The Western accommodation zone is for middle class tourist and low-cost pilgrimage lodging. Its lot size is 160x160m and it provides essential utilities such as drinking water, telephone and electricity services. These basic facilities are planned to provide a reasonably priced and comfortable stay for middle income tourists and pilgrims. The lot adjacent to this is utilized as a camping area for low cost lodging. Two units of camping ground will be constructed in the accommodation zone. The existing mango grove

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and the Harhawa River north of the site has been chosen as a desirable natural feature around which a camping ground and picnic area are developed. In each unit, facilities like bathrooms and an amphitheatre, along with parking lots and rental shops, have been provided. In addition, the camping ground provides facilities like brick benches, fire places, etc.

D. High SchoolThe High School is planned in the area between the branch from the Asian Highway and the eastern perimeter road. The site is selected for its accessibility from the surrounding communities and also for its relatively high altitude, away from possible inundation area. The school will accommodate classes from 4 to 10 standards for 800 students. A hostel and head master’s quarter are also included in the complex. This school also plans teaching of Buddhism for the local people. It has been designed to reflect the conventional character through the use of exposed brickwork. The main aim of the design is to provide adequate ventilation in the classrooms and working area. Load bearing walls reinforced and buttressed wherever necessary is planned so as to reduce load transmission to interiors and also the use of large overhangs have

been contemplated. The theme has been to develop a plan that tends to easy stage wise expansion and at the same time giving each stage a complete look.

E. Roads and Landscaping WorksThe complex is directly accessible from the Bhairawa-Taulihwa highway and each facility is served by a network of service roads and parking. There are vehicular roads (asphalt and gravel) and pedestrian paths (brick paved) providing access to each zone. Major landscaping elements consist of engineering elements, such as levee links along the Harhawa Nadi and boundary works along the roads as well as of architecturally treated mound works along the colonnades and pond areas. These landscaping elements, designed in close integration with nature, break the monotony of built up spaces.

3.2.2. Components and their present statusAt present, not much progress has been made in implementing the works for this zone. Besides the buildings, major works in infrastructures such as roads, central canal and its subsidiary elements need to be constructed. These works have been delayed due to lack of financial resources and monumental character of the components, they cost more than the usual buildings. There have been some recent additions made to the original Master Plan, as listed

Fig 5. New aditions to the Lumbini Center

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below (fig. 5):- Peace Stupa (Nipponjan Myohoji) - Staff Colony- Crane and Bird Sanctuary

Completed in 2001, the Lumbini Peace Pagoda was constructed by Nipponjan Myohoji Temple of Japan (fig 6). This institute has constructed 73 stupas around the world and this is the highest one, with a diameter of 59 meter and the height of 41.5 meter. It is located behind the water tower aligned centrally to the central canal to the north of the Lumbini Center.

The staff colony was proposed for the personnel working with Lumbini Development Project, who are required to supervise and monitor the ongoing implementation of various components as envisaged in the Master Plan. The staff colony has been categorized into four grades, which could accommodate up to 200 staffs. It is located in the north east part of New Lumbini Village and under construction.

The Crane and Bird Sanctuary was established by the International Crane Foundation, in association with the World Conservation Union (IUCN) for the conservation and restoration of wetland biodiversity (fig. 7). Cranes are closely related to Lord Buddha as mentioned in Buddhist texts. It is planned in Lumbini Garden and artificial dykes, swamps are constructed to facilitate the conservation of birds and crane.

These recent additions have taken into consideration possible changes to the Master Plan. For instance, the Peace Stupa is aligned centrally to the axis of the Master Plan, without any direct connection to the Central Link. There is a new proposal for the central

Fig 8. Lumbini International Research Institute

canal and walkways linking Peace Stupa to Lumbini Center. Similarly, there are new routes proposed in the Birds and Crane Conservation Zone to facilitate access for bird watchers.

The original concept of Master Plan is retained only after the proper development of Lumbini Center and Central Link. Till date, no works on the North and South Wings have started due to lack of resources. It is necessary that these structures, which are purely commercial and service-oriented, are built in time. Thereby, all activities, which are at present located in the Sacred Garden and are detrimental to sanctity and solitude of the garden, could be shifted. Also, the present main access to the site from the service road of the Sacred Garden should be stopped and resumed from the Lumbini Center as planned originally.

The components of the Cultural Center are designed as one entity with monumental character. Lumbini International Research Institute (fig. 8) is the dominating complex of the Cultural Center. The Reiyukai, Japan provided funding for the construction of this complex under an agreement with LDT. It

Fig 6. Lumbini Peace Pagoda

Fig 7. Crane Bird Sanctuary

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consists of functions like lecture rooms, library and study rooms for different language sections. This ever growing library has good collection of Buddhist texts, manuscripts, journals, research reports, etc in several languages and also publishes important manuscripts on Buddhism. This also provides lodging facility for serious researchers within a moderate payment.

Lumbini Museum, built with the financial assistance from Government of India, houses the relics of Buddha from all over the world since the ancient times. However, one of the components Auditorium hall (Peace Hall) remains to be built. The present emphasis should be made towards making the completed structures functional in order to motivate further development activities.

Of the three types of pilgrim accommodation, two types are functional while one is under construction. High standard pilgrim accommodation - Lumbini Hokke Hotel - and Low standard pilgrim accommodation - Government of Sri Lanka - are completed, of these only the Lumbini Hokke Hotel is functioning while the low standard accomodation is not operating. LDT is trying to start operation of this accommodation unit. Meanwhile, the construction works of the middle income pilgrim accommodation - Mikasa Hotel - have been stopped. Almost 70% of the works has been completed while the remaining works are pending due to a lack of initiative from the funding agency. Once completed, this unit, larger in

LIST OF ITEMS REMARKS1 NEW LUMBINI CENTER1.1 NORTH WING Not startedi Administrative Center Not startedii Medical Center Not startediii Tourist Information Centery Not startediv North Pond Not started1.2 SOUTH WINGi Security Not startedii Post & Telephone Not startediii Banks Not startediv Bus & Taxi Services Not startedv Shops Not startedvi Restaurants Not startedvii South Pond Not started2 CULTURAL CENTERi Lumbini Museum (Government of India) Complete & Functioningii Auditorium Not startediii Library & Research Institution complex Complete & Functioning3 PILGRIM ACCOMMODATION ZONEi Mikasa Hotel (100 bed Hotel) Partial completionii Government of Srilanka(pilgrim accomodation) Not Functioning Properlyiii Lumbini Hokke Hotel Complete & Functioningiv Camping Ground Not started4 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLEX Partial completion5 ROADS & LANDSCAPING Partial completion6 CRANE & BIRD SANCTUARYi International Crane Foundation, USA International Crane Sanctuaryii IUCN World Conservation Union Conservation & Restoration of Wetland & Biodiversity 7 Peace Stupa (Nipponjan Myohoji, Japan) Completed

Fig 9. Present status of the Lumbini Cultural Center

scale and in close proximity of the Crane and Bird Sanctuary, could provide attractive accommodation options for tourists in Lumbini.

The camping grounds have not yet been established. Similarly, for the school only the foundation works have been completed. The remaining work is planned for the near future, depending on the availability of funds. Major works are to be done (fig. 9): only basic earthworks for the central canal with plantations of trees on each side have been completed. The trees have grown to mature height but no further work has been done to incorporate the remaining landscaping elements. Major portions of the plan like pedestrian path, north and south pond, brick plazas around the pond, canals, pedestrian path on both sides of the canal, colonnade construction, remain to be executed. Additionally, some of the completed asphalt roads need better maintenance, and the current gravel roads require an asphalt finish.

3.3. Monastic Zone3.3.1. Description as per Master PlanThe Monastic Zone (fig. 10) consists of two monastic enclaves, one in the west for Mahayana and the other in the east for Hinayana schools of Buddhism. There are 42 plots at the site, which have provision of future extension of upto 104 plots. Each unit that constitutes a Monastic Enclave is a square lot and is one of three types: Type A: 160x160m - Type B: 120x120m - Type C: 80x80m.

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Each cluster is separated from the Central Link by a 160m buffer zone. The approach to each cluster will be marked by twin pavilions situated in the Lumbini Squares. Buildings of various styles co-exist, reflecting the traditional style of the nation or of the religious tradition that builds it.

A certain level of control will be exercised over the construction activities so as not to compromise the overall concept of the Master Plan: - Within a 20m zone from the axis of the main pedestrian path, the Monastic Plaza & the Entrance Courts, construction of structures is prohibited to preserve the landscape effect of public domain;- Height of the buildings is limited to 3 storeys (not exceeding than the average height of the surrounding trees).

Beside the by-laws, landscaping will be co-ordinated to unify the various styles. A Monastic Plaza, made up of circular or semi-circular steps, will be created in the centre of each Monastic Zone and will serve as a central gathering point and will have a symbolic sculpture placed in its centre. In order to maintain the visual consistency, each Monastic Enclave will be enclosed by a 2.25m high brick wall. Inside the brick

Fig 10. Present status of the Monastic Zone

wall, a hedge of identical height is planned to create a buffer from the public area. It will also provide a natural landscape effect inside the enclave.

A. Monastic PlazaIn the centre of each Monastic Area, a circular or a semi-circular open space with a stepped platform is to be provided: Monastic Plazas. These will symbolize the domain of each Monastic Area and the core of public activities in the area. All pedestrian paths emerge from the plaza to the Monastic Enclave entrance court. The Monastic Plaza is surrounded by a water tank and water flows through the canal to the monastic periphery tank. It then flows back to the central canal through the pipe so that there is no stagnant water in the tank or the canal.

B. Entrance CourtAlong the main pedestrian path, a system of courts forms an atrium space for each Monastic Enclave. These Entrance Courts are also rest areas for pedestrians. There are ten entrance courts, each one connected with the entrances of three or four monasteries and equiped with brick benches, hedges and rows of Sal trees. The Sal trees, traditionally associated with the Lumbini Garden, will visually

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identify the location of Entrance Court from the Pedestrian path. The responsibility of construction and maintenance of these courts should be given to the respective monasteries.

C. Canal and pedestrian path The construction of this canal system is similar to the central canal of the Central Link area, except that it is less deep (0.5m ) then the 1m deep Central Canal. The water in the canal is fed through an opening in the central canal. The pedestrian path and the landscape are the same as for the central canal. This system is the main thoroughfare of the monastic zones.

D. Fence WallAll the monasteries will have a boundary wall. There are two types: main - plain or decorative - and secondary walls. The decorative walls will have flower beds provided on the exposed faces of the entrance courts and the monastic plazas. Plain walls will be built on the other sides of the monasteries. Hedges will be planted along the inside walls.

E. Circulation NetworksThe circulation network in the Monastic Zone consists of main and secondary networks of pedestrian paths and of the vehicular service network.

E.1. Main pedestrian pathThe main pedestrian path, main distribution link to each Monastic Enclave, is an 8m wide walk way with brick paving. Each main pedestrian path originates from the Monastic Plaza and leads to the Entrance Courts. Both sides of the path are defined by a 2.25 m brick wall and the axis of movement is visually felt by the symbolic pavilion in the Monastic Plaza. E.2. Secondary pedestrian pathThe secondary pedestrian path is a 4m wide walkway with brick paving. It provides the circulation networks between monasteries. E.3. Service roadVehicular traffic and services to the Monastic Area are provided by perimeter road on the edge of the Sacred Garden site and brought into the Monastic Area by a 6m wide road with asphalt paving over a gravel sub-base. The service road is connected to each service yard so that every Monastic Enclave is directly accessible. The service yard can also be utilized as parking space.

3.3.2. Present status of the Monastic ZoneAt present, the Mahayana West consists of 29

plots, of which 21 plots are allocated, while the Theravada East consists of 13 plots, of which 9 plots are allocated. Out of 30 allocated plots, only 10 monasteries have been completed while 12 plots are undergoing construction. The works have not been started in the remaining 12 plots. There are 4 plots which have been allocated, but the agreements have not yet been signed. The monastic zones have achieved some architectural styles of their own but until now they have failed to adhere with the desired population density mentioned in the Master Plan.

The by-laws clearly rule the layout, the height of buildings, the design for boundary walls and the open spaces to unify the various components of monastic zone. But, some monasteries have been constructed against the inherent harmony and essence of the original Master Plan. For instance, the height of the building should not exceed than that of the surrounding trees although some of the monasteries are built 3 stories high and plan to go higher. Similarly, many monasteries have not followed the design of the boundary wall and of the layout of the spaces, as mentioned in the master plan.

As mentioned in the Monastic by-laws: “Normally, only a single plot shall be made available to a single Party. The Trust shall, upon taking into account factors such as the demand, objective and requirement of the concerned party, decide as to what type of plot shall be provided to the applicant”. In spite of this, more than one plot has been allocated to some countries, and there is no clear demarcation between monasteries and their adjacent open spaces. Hence, some monasteries have occupied the green area outside their plot. “The trust shall initiate to gradually make available the following physical facilities from the Trust to each plot subject to resources and means of His Majesty’s Government -arrangement of drinking water, electricity line, telephone line, sewerage and road”. At present the LDT has not been able to carry out the major works of infrastructure and landscape. The landscaping works and site development works are lagging far behind in comparison to the increased construction activities in the Monastic Zone. This has resulted in unsequential development where magnificent monasteries are built by respective countries without proper provision of infrastructure, open spaces and parking as planned in the Master Plan.

“The responsibility of the operation, maintenance and cleaning of building and land situated in each plot shall be of tile lessee. The concerned lessee shall

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construct and maintain the parking and greenery area allotted in the Monastery area”. However, LDT has been ineffective in monitoring building activities of the monasteries and to mobilize funds for the general development of the site in timely and proper manner as per Master Plan.

“Construction works shall be commenced within six months of getting permission pursuant sub rule (3) and construction works shall be completed within three years from commencement of the construction works”. However, some monasteries have delayed their construction works for more than 3 years, while others have been abandoned or stopped for a long time. Therefore LDT has not been able to monitor

S.N. LIST OF ITEMS COMPLETION REMARKS1 WEST MONASTIC ZONE1.1 TYPE A- 160m X 160mi WA-1 Completed Buddhist Association of Chinaii WA-2 Under Construction Sokyo Organisation, Japaniii WA-3 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodh Society1.2 TYPE B- 120m X 120mi WB-1 Not started Ka-Nying Shedrup Ling Monasteryii WB-2 Under Construction Phat Quoc tu, Vietnamiii WB-3 Under Construction Dharmodaya Sabha, Nepaliv WB-4 Completed TaraFoundation Duesseldorf, Germanyv WB-5 Storehouse completed Yong Do Society, South Koreavi WB-6 Under Construction W. Linh Son Buddhist, France1.3 TYPE C- 80m X 80mi WC-1 Not started ZarongTgupten Mendol Dogna Choling, Nepalii WC-2 Boundary wall Const. Karma Kagyud Dachverband, Germanyiii WC-3 Agreement not signed Royal Government of Bhutaniv WC-4 Agreement not signed Republic of Mongoliav WC-5 Not started Karma Lekshey Ling Institutevi WC-6 Remainingvii WC-7 Remainingviii WC-8 Agreement not signed Royal Government of Bhutanix WC-9 Under Construction Gaden International, Austriax WC-10 Completed Manang Sewa Samiti, Nepalxi WC-11 Remaining Gedan Internationalxii WC-12 Remainingxiii WC-13 Remainingxiv WC-14 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Societyxv WC-15 Remainingxvi WC-16 Completed Drigung Kagyud Meditation Center, Ladakxvii WC-17 Remainingxviii WC-18 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Societyxix WC-19 Agreement not signed Kuching Buddhist Society (Malasia)xx WC-20 Remaining1.4 West Plaza Not started2 EAST MONASTIC ZONE2.2 TYPE B- 120m X 120mi EB-1 Remainingii EB-2 Completed Government of Thailandiii EB-3 Completed Government of Myanmar2.3 TYPE C- 80m X 80mi EC-1 Under construction Government of Sri Lankaii EC-2 Under construction Government of Sri Lankaiii EC-3 Remainingiv EC-4 Remainingv EC-5 Remainingvi EC-6 Completed International Bhikschuni Sangh, Nepalvii EC-7 Completed Government of Thailandviii EC-8 Completed Maha Bodhi Society of India, Calcuttaix EC-9 Under construction Buddha Dharmakar Sabha West Bengal, Indiax EC-10 Completed Government of Myanmar2.4 East Plaza Not started3 CIRCULATION NETWORKS3.1 Main Pedestrian Path Partial Completion3.2 Secondary Pedestrian Path Partial Completion3.3 Service Roads Partial Completion

the proper implementation of the by-laws in many aspects of the works from initial to final completion stages. Following is an outline of completed monasteries of each zone (fig. 11):

A. East Monastic Zone- Government of Thailand (EB-2 & EC-7) (fig. 15). It consists of a temple, residence units and buildings for religious purposes. The complex is designed in Thai style, but the design of its boundary wall does not adhere to the Master Plan.- Government of Myanmar (EB-3 & EC-10) (fig. 12). The complex is built in Burmese architectural style but its design of boundary wall does not adhere to the Master Plan.

Fig 11. Comprehensive table of the present status of the Monastic Zone

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S.N. LIST OF ITEMS COMPLETION REMARKS1 WEST MONASTIC ZONE1.1 TYPE A- 160m X 160mi WA-1 Completed Buddhist Association of Chinaii WA-2 Under Construction Sokyo Organisation, Japaniii WA-3 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodh Society1.2 TYPE B- 120m X 120mi WB-1 Not started Ka-Nying Shedrup Ling Monasteryii WB-2 Under Construction Phat Quoc tu, Vietnamiii WB-3 Under Construction Dharmodaya Sabha, Nepaliv WB-4 Completed TaraFoundation Duesseldorf, Germanyv WB-5 Storehouse completed Yong Do Society, South Koreavi WB-6 Under Construction W. Linh Son Buddhist, France1.3 TYPE C- 80m X 80mi WC-1 Not started ZarongTgupten Mendol Dogna Choling, Nepalii WC-2 Boundary wall Const. Karma Kagyud Dachverband, Germanyiii WC-3 Agreement not signed Royal Government of Bhutaniv WC-4 Agreement not signed Republic of Mongoliav WC-5 Not started Karma Lekshey Ling Institutevi WC-6 Remainingvii WC-7 Remainingviii WC-8 Agreement not signed Royal Government of Bhutanix WC-9 Under Construction Gaden International, Austriax WC-10 Completed Manang Sewa Samiti, Nepalxi WC-11 Remaining Gedan Internationalxii WC-12 Remainingxiii WC-13 Remainingxiv WC-14 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Societyxv WC-15 Remainingxvi WC-16 Completed Drigung Kagyud Meditation Center, Ladakxvii WC-17 Remainingxviii WC-18 Under Construction Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Societyxix WC-19 Agreement not signed Kuching Buddhist Society (Malasia)xx WC-20 Remaining1.4 West Plaza Not started2 EAST MONASTIC ZONE2.2 TYPE B- 120m X 120mi EB-1 Remainingii EB-2 Completed Government of Thailandiii EB-3 Completed Government of Myanmar2.3 TYPE C- 80m X 80mi EC-1 Under construction Government of Sri Lankaii EC-2 Under construction Government of Sri Lankaiii EC-3 Remainingiv EC-4 Remainingv EC-5 Remainingvi EC-6 Completed International Bhikschuni Sangh, Nepalvii EC-7 Completed Government of Thailandviii EC-8 Completed Maha Bodhi Society of India, Calcuttaix EC-9 Under construction Buddha Dharmakar Sabha West Bengal, Indiax EC-10 Completed Government of Myanmar2.4 East Plaza Not started3 CIRCULATION NETWORKS3.1 Main Pedestrian Path Partial Completion3.2 Secondary Pedestrian Path Partial Completion3.3 Service Roads Partial Completion

- Government of Sri Lanka (EC-1 & EC-2) (fig. 13). It is built over two plots and construction is on-going though delayed by the lack of funding by its Government. Built in Sri Lankan architectural style, it consists of a monastery and a temple. No boundary wall is made.- International Bhikschuni Sangh, Nepal (EC-6). It consists of a monastery and a temple. Its styles do not exhibit any Nepali architectural character and design of its boundary wall does not adhere to the Master Plan.

- Maha Bodhi Society of India, Calcutta (EC-8). It consists of a temple and a hall, and it is not built in any typical architectural character. Its boundary wall does not adhere to the Master Plan.- Buddha Dharmakar Sabha West Bengal, India (EC-9): under construction.

B. West monastic zone- Buddhist Association of China (WA-1) (fig. 14). Built in Chinese architectural style, its large building volume and its boundary wall are not as per the

Fig 12. Government of Myanmar

Fig 14. Buddhist Association of China

Fig 15. Government of Thailand

Fig 13. Government of Sri Lanka Fig 16. Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Society

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Master Plan. It consists of a temple, a monastery and buildings for religious purposes. - Sokyo Organisation, Japan (WA-2). Built in Japanese architectural style, its construction has been stopped. No boundary wall has been made.- Korean Buddhist Mahabodhi Society (WA-3, WC-14 & WC-18 ) (fig. 16). Built in Korean architectural style, it occupies more plots that should be allocated and it is being constructed against the by-laws. It consists of a monastery and a guesthouse. The guesthouse is operating, while the monastery is half way completed.- Phat Quoc tu, Vietnam (WB-2). Built in Vietnamese architectural style, it consists of an office, a guesthouse and a temple. - Dharmodaya Sabha, Nepal (WB-3). This plot is shared by three sects of Buddhism: Mahayana, Bajrayana and Thervadar. Out of these, the Mahayana has completed its monastery and its separate boundary wall, while the construction of Bajrayana sect building is underway. Built in Buddhist architectural styles, its boundary wall does not follow the Master Plan. - Tara Foundation Duesseldorf, Germany (WB-4). Built in Buddhist architectural style, it consists of a temple, a monastery and buildings for religious purposes. Its boundary wall is not as per Master Plan.- Yong Do Society, South Korea (WB-5). Only a storehouse and staff quarters have been completed.- W.Linh Son Buddhist, France (WB-6). Built in French architectural style, it is partially completed although works have been stopped.- Karma Kagyud Dachverband, Germany (WC-2). The plot has been allocated, but the construction is yet to start. The boundary wall has been built, which is not as per master plan.- Manang Sewa Samiti, Nepal (WC-10). It is built in Buddhist architectural styles and is complete.- Drigung Kagyud Meditation Center, Ladak (WC-16). It is built in Buddhist architectural styles and completed.

3.4. Other Elements3.4.1. Description as per Master PlanThe Master Plan for Lumbini was developed based on the very basic and essential themes of Buddhism. The entire site area has been integrated within an area of 1x3 miles which is subdivided into the linear grid of 80x80m. The development mainly consists of straight lines, circles and squares of definite proportions. The landscape elements follow the same guidelines to maintain the integral harmony and to complement all other physical structures. The landscape and the

associated architecture help to balance the monotony created by the imposed guidelines and physical structures.

The Central Link constitutes a public circulation corridor connecting the Lumbini Center to the north and the Sacred Garden to the south. Its total length extends for 1,400m with a constant width of 64m. The central water body provides a cooling effect against high temperatures in Lumbini, while the greenery provides shade from the sun. Its design, with various structures and landscape elements prepares the visitors psychologically for their visit to the Sacred Garden. It consists of four major features: A 16m wide water body; a 16m wide pedestrian path on both sides of the canal, rows of trees at the edge of the pedestrian path and an 8m wide green hedge followed by forest.

A. LevelsThe upper level of the Lumbini Centre, the central link bridge, is set at 104.5m above sea level, having taken into consideration the flood level of Harhawa Nadi. The level of the northernmost edge of the link is set at 103.75m to function as a levee against the inundation of the Harhawa Nadi. The south end of the link is set at an altitude of 101.5m, which is above the inundation level and identical in level to the top of the perimeter levee of the Sacred Garden. The water level of the Central Canal is set at 101.25m below the levee level. In order to adjust the existing natural contour to the level of the Central Link, three different sections are planned for the Central Link: from the north end complex to the Lumbini Square 1, the section consists of 3 steps (101.5m, 102.25m, 103m); from the Lumbini Square 1 to the Lumbini Square 2, two levels (101.5m, 102.25m); from the Lumbini Square 2 to the South End Complex, the altitude is uniform at 101.5m. Each level is connected to the others by a system of ramps and stairways.

B. Central CanalAlong the central axis of the link is situated the Central Canal about 12m wide and 1.25m. deep. Both edges of the Canal are provided with 2m wide platforms at the level of 101.00m with 25cm water depth. These platforms are provided to secure pedestrians from the danger of fall into the Canal, while avoiding visually unfavorable parapet along the edges of the Canal.

The base of Canal is finished with thin layer of

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concrete to maintain the water retention capacity of the Canal. The surface of the pedestrian paths and the platforms are to be paved with bric. Between the pedestrian paths and the forest area outside the link will be an 8m strip of grassland marking the border of both zones. The pedestrian path is sloped towards the forest to drain out the rainwater into the forest so that the canal water does not become dirty.

As a part of the pedestrian path, ‘Kadamba’ trees spaced at 16m apart on either side provide an impression of a wide confined lane and shade to pedestrians during summer. The pedestrian paths are also facilitated on either side of the central canal by a cluster of four soil-brick benches at every 80 m center to center enclosing a rectangular open space for pedestrians to rest. Similarly, the dustbins, water fountains and light posts are arranged between ‘Kadamba’ trees.

The canal that runs along the middle of the Central Link will be provided with boats for transportation for the aged and handicapped visitors. Small local boats will be utilized. Boat stations and mooring posts with a large water surface for anchorage will be provided along the link. At the boat stations at the entrance of Lumbini Square 1 and 2, twin bridges will be connect both sides of the canal.

The boats are considered a moving landscaping element within the Central Link, which will be further enhanced by the continuous movement of people. The entire length of the Central Link is to be broken into three sections of equal lengths by Boat Station 1, Lumbini Square 1, Lumbini Square 2 and Boat Station 4 (from north to south). Each of the squares is to be centered around a symbolic sculpture.

C. PlantingBoth edges of the Central Link are defined by the forest area. To sustain the vista from the central link, such species known for their flowers will be planted. They may include: Saracca indica, Cassis fistula, Delonix regia, Accasia javonica, Shorea robusta. In front of the forest edge, rows of tall trees are to be planted on 16m module to form street-side trees. In accordance with the recommendation by HMGN-Forest Department, the Anthocephalus cadamba, usually refereed to as cadam is chosen because of its landscape effects, growth speed and availability.

D. NodesAt both ends of the Central Link and at two of the locations subdividing the link into three parts, there

are four nodal points of the link: from north, the north end complex, the lumbini center 1, the lumbini center 2 and the south end complex. The approach to the north end complex is by way of the Lumbini Center- Central Link bridge spanned over the Harhawa Nadi, while the connection to the south end complex is through the Central Link-Sacred Garden bridge.

E. North End and South End Complexes These two complexes form the gate to the Central Link and in each a pair of pavilions symbolizes the gateway. They are provided with boat stations and mooring posts with a large water surface for anchoring. The symbolic pavilion type 1 serves as an entrance to the north and south pond, whereas the symbolic pavilion type 2 serves as an entrance to the Central Link. The pavilions are provided with water fountain, toilets and benches. In total there are 8 symbolic pavilions of type 1 and 4 of type 2.

F. Meditation CentersThere are two Meditation Centers on each side of the Central Link. One is for the Himayana sect, the other is for the Mahayana sect. Each meditation area is a 40x40m grass covered square defined on all edges by forest trees. The recurring motif of the square and circle and unit module system as per the Master Plan has been adhered to. This motif has been reflected in the plan of the building and also in the structural system, especially in the assembly hall and meditation cells. The purpose of planning a single storey building with load bearing walls is to maintain a low profile to match with the overall intent of tranquillity. Simplicity in design, based on a convenient and uniform grid, has been followed.

G. Lumbini Squares 1 & 2 The Lumbini Squares 1 and 2 are the gateways to the Monastic Areas. Each is marked by a pair of symbolic pavilions, which are equipped with water fountains. The boat station for each square is marked by twin bridges which connect the two sides of the canal. The squares themselves are large paved surfaces for public gatherings. To ensure a good view, the edge of the Square is stepped up in a gentle slope. At the focal point of each square there is space for a large symbolic sculpture, along the lines of the Mahendra Pillar, to be placed.

3.4.2. Present status of the other elementsNone of the above-mentioned works have been started except from a few basic works (fig. 17). The Central Canal, the main linkage that physically and psychologically unifies the Master Plan, has been

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partially excavated. It is of utmost importance that development works start on the Central Canal for the full realization of the Master Plan (fig. 18).

The trees planted along the Central Link have grown to mature heights, but they seems lost due to the lack of proper development of the rest of the landscape. The original purpose of water in the central canal, as means of transportation by boat, can only be fulfilled after the construction of the water tower. However, the LDT has no immediate planning for this construction. The existing water bodies are now supplied through

S.N. LIST OF ITEMS REMARKS1 PEDESTRIAN PATH1.1 Main Pedestrian Path- 8m wide Partial Completion1.2 Secondary Pedestrian Path- 4 m wide Not started1.3 Pedestrian Path- 2 m wide Not started2 METALLIC ROADS2.1 Link Road to Asian Highway- 15Y40toX15Y60 Partial Completion2.2 Periphery Road Partial Completion2.3 Road network in Lumbini Center & Cultural Center Partial Completion3 SERVICE ROADS3.1 Service Roads- 6 m wide Partial Completion3.2 Circular Levee Road – 4 m wide Partial Completion4 PARKING LOTS Not started

a temporary supply system. None of the lined works such as the north and south ponds, plazas and central canal have been carried out completely.

The Master plan has envisaged public spaces and plazas to accommodate visitors during functions and gatherings in Lumbini. However, necessary facilities such as toilets, drinking water facilities, resting places and appropriate landscape elements are not yet established. Extensive plantations have been carried out in the Project area including the forest areas. However, lots of plantation works need to be done to suit specific needs and purposes. The roads, pedestrian walkways and plazas need to be planted with trees and vegetation of suitable heights, with respect to varied widths and aesthetic purposes of the roads and pavements. Hence, at present there is no continuity in physical structures and landscape elements from the Lumbini Center to the Sacred Garden as proposed by the Master Plan.

The land for the Meditation Center in the Master Plan is allocated to two countries. One, belonging to the Nepal Vipasana Center, occupies an 80x80m plot, and is now under construction. The other plot belongs to the Government of Myanmar, occupies an

Fig 19. Present status of roads and parking spaces

S.N. LIST OF ITEMS REMARKS1 CENTRAL LINK1.1 Central Canal Partial Completion1.2 Grassland Mark Not started1.3 Plantation Partial Completion1.4 Boat Stations No. 1, 2, 3, 4 Not started1.5 Benches & Dustbins Not started1.6 Lumbini Squares 1&2 Not started1.7 Twin Bridge at Lumbini Squares 1 & 2 Not started1.8 Public Utility1, 2, 3, 4 Not started2 SYMBOLIC PAVILIONS 2.1 Symbolic Pavilion Type 1i Lumbini Squares 1&2 Not startedii North & South ends of the colonnades around the North & South Pond Not started2.2 Symbolic Pavilion Type 2- 4 no.s Not startedi North & South end complexes of Central Link Not started3 MEDITATION CENTERS3.1 Panditrama Meditation Center, Myanmar Completed3.2 Nepal Vipassana Center Under construction- 50% completed 4 Staff Colony Completed, few blocks remaining

Fig 17. Present status of other elements

Fig 18. Central Canal

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80x200m plot and is completed. Both are functioning well as meditation centers.

3.5. Infrastructure3.5.1. Description as per Master PlanA. RoadsThe Master Plan envisages construction of two basic categories of roads with their sub-divisions depending on their utility and locations (fig. 19):A1. Metallic Roads. Metallic Roads consist of paved roads with asphalt surfacing. The total length of the metallic roads is 18,680m. However, the Project Profile prepared by the LDT indicates that the total length of the metallic roads is 20.8km. Altogether there are 3 types of metallic roads: - Link road to the Asian Highway. This road has been designed as a 10m wide black top road with 1.5m of green space on either side. Following the green space on either side of the road is a 2m wide pedestrian path. There is also provision for lamp posts in between the trees planted along the green space on both sides of the road;- Periphery road. The periphery road is designed in the form of an embankment around the boundary of the project from flooding. The road is designed to serve as the diversion road to the public because of the discontinuation of the existing old road through the project. It is planned as 10m wide with beams on either side of the road and will have lamp posts and trees all along its length;- Roads in the Lumbini Center and Cultural Center. The road network in and around the Lumbini Centre and the Cultural Centre is planned in the form of an embankment with parking facilities. This road is of 8m wide as the metallic portion and has a 2m wide pedestrian path on both sides.

A2. Service Roads. Apart from highways and main roads, the Lumbini Master Plan contains provision for the construction of service roads, which will join all components of the Master Plan. Vehicular traffic and service to the Monastic Area is by way of a perimeter road on the edge of the Sacred Garden site.

The service road is connected to each service yard, providing access to each Monastic Enclave. The service roads are designed in the form of embankments finished with gravel and lined with concrete curbstone to define edges of the road. The service road network is provided at the Lumbini Centre, at the East and West Monastic Zones and at the Sacred Garden. These roads are designed as double lanes for main and single lanes for feeder roads. The double lane roads are planned to be 10m wide. The single lane

road will be 6m wide. Vehicular traffic and services to the Monastic area are by way of perimeter roads on the edge of the Sacred Garden site and are brought into the Monastic Area by 6m wide road.

B. Parking lotsThe Master Plan envisages the construction of Parking spaces at various locations:- Lumbini and Cultural Center: Altogether 10 parking lots are envisaged in the Master Plan. Out of these 10 locations, 8 are meant for cars and light vehicles and 2 are meant for buses. The individual parking capacity of each car park is 44 vehicles and the parking capacity of each bus park is 6 buses. In addition to the above, parking lots are also provided for the tourist accommodation (Hokke Hotel), high school and central plaza;- Monastic Zone: of the 19 parking places, 16 have a capacity for 17 vehicles and 3 have a capacity of 34 vehicles; - Sacred Garden: a parking lot is also provided in the Sacred Garden area. The capacity is 5 vehicles.

C. Pedestrian walkwaysThe Master Plan envisages construction of four categories of pedestrian paths. All the planned paths consist of flat brick soiling, cement concrete cushion and are finished with brick on an edge laid in straight bond. The pedestrian path that links the Lumbini Center and the Sacred Garden is planned to be constructed on both sides of the Central Canal. Similarly, the paths linking Lumbini Squares with the Monastic Plazas are to be 8m wide. The main pedestrian path within the Monastic Plaza is to be 8m wide. Each Monastic Enclave is surrounded by 4m wide walkways. The pedestrian paths within the Sacred Garden are to be in natural ground.

At present, only partial works have been done for the roads proposed in the Master Plan. Some of the completed peripheral asphalt roads need rehabilitation while for parts of the service and vehicular roads only the gravel work has been completed. Except for the levee surrounding the Sacred Garden, none of the walkways envisaged by the master plan have been constructed. The walkway on both banks of the central canal is supposed to be brick paved. However, at present only the gravel surface is provided. Inside the monument zone, only basic earthworks have been done to demarcate pedestrian networks. The walkways inside the Sacred Garden are partially completed and there are no formal parking lots constructed inside the Master Plan area. There used to be parking arrangement for vehicles at the east and

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south west of the Sacred Garden, however, this is no longer allowed. One of the parking lots inside the Lumbini Center is under construction.

D. Flood controlThere are four (Harhawa, Ghoraha, Telar and Nadia) rivulets/drains flowing inside the project area. The Harhawa river bisects the whole area and affects all the construction works of Lumbini Center, the Monastic Enclave and the Central Link. The Ghoraha river bisects the Sacred Garden. These rivers flowing in the project area have too small cross sections to carry high flood discharge during the rainy season. Thus, a vast land is often flooded especially in the southern parts, where the existing Lumbini Garden is located. The Master Plan has envisaged channelization, widening and protection of all the four rivers. The drainage plan envisages to protect the Monastic Zone, Tourist Accommodation Zone, Sacred Area and the major structures.

D1. River Diversion and ImprovementThe diversion and improvement of the existing rivers has been planned after taking into consideration the flood frequency analysis and are further based on the meteorological and hydrological data, and on watershed parameters. The Harahawa River develops a typical flood plain of 120-200m in width, 1-2m below the surrounding ground along the river course. This natural flood plain provides an adequate flow section to drain the flood discharges. Therefore, no river improvement is intended except in the portions where the structures are to be located. Design flood magnitude at different return periods by various methods has been derived to improve the river channel at different locations and to divert it at four other locations for a steady flow. The straightening of the river shortens the length and consequently creates a higher gradient of the natural winding channel. The gradient has been designed to improve the river flow.

D2. Inundation Control for the Sacred GardenThe southern part of the Project Area, where the existing Lumbini Garden is located, is inundated several times a year due to the flooding of the Telar river. As the Telar river does not have sufficient channel capacity, the excess water overflows the banks and consequently inundation occurs. Therefore, the design provides for excavation of the slope of the bed and for the widening of the channels. The water surface elevations are estimated at 101m and 99m respectively under the expected maximum and the annual inundation conditions. Therefore, the Garden

is planned to be surrounded by a levee ring with a crest elevation of 101.5m. The acreage inside the levee ring is about 58ha, consisting of the sacred area (33ha) and the pond area (25ha). In order to keep the level of water in the pond low enough to prevent the archaeological relics from inundation, two drainage gate structures should be constructed at the southern corner. Each structure consists of a steel gate, 1.5m high, 2m wide so that they can spill out the excess water caused by the daily maximum rainfall of 402mm per day. In addition, the Ghoraha river has been diverted to the outside of the levee ring around the Sacred Garden by being connected to a drainage channel which in turn is connected to the Telar river near the Southern boundary of the Project Area.

D3. Levee EmbankmentThe levee embankment has been designed from the watershed pattern and river flow system to protect the East and West Monastic Zone, Lumbini Center and Cultural Center. The East and West Monastic Zones have been designed as raised platforms at an elevation of 100.7m. The levee embankment is also planned to protect the Lumbini Center and Cultural Center.

In addition to the measures mentioned above, the following plans can be considered to eliminate inundation completely from the project area:- Diversion of the flood discharge of the Harhawa river to the Telar River along the western boundary of project area. - Diversion of the drainage basin of the Telar river to the Koilahawa river.

These plans will be quite effective for reducing the flood discharge. However, they are so costly that more investigations and studies will be required. At present, although the river improvement works inside the project area have already been completed, the flood problem remains. It is, therefore, essential that river improvement works outside the project area are undertaken. The proposed diversion of a part of the flood water of the Telar river to the Koilahawa river has been evaluated. However, this projecthas been delayed due to problems created by land acquisition and lack of support from the local people. The following works for river improvement have been partially completed:- Channelization and cross section enlargement of Harhawa river at four locations with 60% completion of earthwork;- Diversion of Ghoraha river outside the Circular Levee in the Sacred Garden area and channelization of small Nadia drain;

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1 RIVER DIVERSION & IMPROVEMENT1.1 Channelization & cross section enlargement of Harahawa River at four locations 60-70% completion earthworks1.2 Diversion of Ghorawa River outside the Circular Levee in the Sacred Garden Area Partial Completion1.3 Channelization of small Nadia drain Partial Completion1.4 Section enlargement of Telar river at some place Partial Completion1.5 Other River Protection works Not started1.6 Western primary drainage canal Partial Completion1.7 Eastern primary drainage including Nadia nala and other drainage Partial Completion2 LEVEE EMBANKMENT2.1 Monastic Zone Not started2.2 Lumbini Center & Cultural Center Not started

E WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM Not started

F SEWER SYSTEM & TREATMENT PLANT Not started

G ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM Not started

H TELECOMMUNICATIONNot started-temporary mart system alive

I WATER TOWERi Overhead Tank Not startedii Water Supply Network Not startediii Reservoir Not started

Fig 20. Present status of flood control

Fig 21. Present status of water supply, sewer system, telecommunication and water tower

- Section enlargement of Telar in some places is being carried out.

The Sacred Garden is surrounded by a circular levee with a designed crest elevation about 95.5m. The drainage canal outside the levee ring is substantially completed, providing protection to the inner levee ring. The following works for inundation control for the Sacred Garden have yet to be carried out:- Improvement of outflowing drain culverts and gated structures are recommended for proper drainage plan of the Sacred Garden;- Protection works and earthworks are recommended after carrying out a diversion of Ghoraha river;- Protection and river improvement works are recommended after carrying out channelization and enlargement of the Harhawa river.

The structures proposed in the Master Plan for flood controls are adequate. However, problems seems to arise from a lack of proper implementation of the works identified by the Master Plan (fig. 20).

E. Water supply systemsThe main source of water supply is from deep boring, which is to be controlled by the centrally controlled water supply system. There are three deep boring wells planned. One is at the sacred garden near the Ashoka Pillar, from where the water is to be collected and distributed to the users inside the sacred garden. The other two borings are drilled in the northern part of the Master Plan. Water supplied from these two deep wells will be stored in an underground tank, which will be pumped up to the elevated tower for distribution to individual users inside the Lumbini Village and Monastic Enclave. All distribution lines are planned to be laid mainly along the walkways and pedestrian paths. The pipelines will be laid along the parapet wall of the Central Link Bridge to maintain the residual head of 15m water column.

Untill today, no progress has been made except the boring works (fig. 21). The completed Monasteries

have already started digging their own wells for drinking water supply. This activity will affect the central water supply system and the water required for the canal will not be available. LDT should work towards implementation of central water supply system to prevent such individual deep boring.

F. Sewer systems & treatment plantThe Master Plan proposed the provision of sewer networking in the whole project area to collect night soil and kitchen wastes. The system also consists of a provision made to treat the collected wastes and for which a sewer treatment plant is proposed downstream from the Telar River for safe guarding the environment.

At present, all the existing units in the project area have their own septic tanks to trap the night soil and the kitchen waste of individual units is disposed directly in open air.

G. Electric power supply systemElectric power is supplied to the project area from a receiving station within the project area connected to three phase three wires in either 50Hz or 60Hz. The electric power supply in the project area is divided into three components:- Laying of main electric lines- Construction of sub-stations- Erection and fixing of external illuminations

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The main electrical line is planned to be distributed through the main receiving sub-station near the Lumbini Center. All the low tension distribution electrical cable lines will be laid up to the boundary of each of the components. The load for each of the component has been computed in accordance with the standard norms. Apart from the main receiving sub-stations, construction and installation of thirteen distribution sub-station for low tension distribution electric power are planned. The construction of the sub-station is to facilitate the different clusters of the Master Plan for smooth and continuous supply of power. The Master Plan provides for illumination of the main road, parking lots, central canal and other places of importance. The position and distance of all the external illuminations have been fixed according to the requirements of lux power at different locations.

To date only a temporary electrification system has been established in the project area with the supply from the national grid, and the construction of the sub-station has been completed.

H. TelecommunicationsThe telecommunication service is planned to function within the project area and will be linked with the national network for external communication. The telephone demand has been forecast according to the different facilities envisaged in the Master Plan, taking into account the growth potentials of tourists flow. 1000 telephone lines are planned to be distributed within the project area. At present, only temporary telecommunication services have been arranged.

I. Water towerThe Master Plan has made provision for the construction of the Water Tower. The water lifted from the deep tube wells will be supplied to the reservoir from where the water will be pumped to the elevated water tower. The drinking water requirements of each component of the Master Plan will be supplied through the tower by gravity drop. The chemical treatment plant is housed inside the Water Tower Complex.

At present, water is supplied from a temporary water supply network to a limited area of project from the existing tube well located adjacent to the Asoka Pillar.

4. IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT

4.1. Implementation Period, 1970-85 The United Nations and the His Majesty’s Government

of Nepal undertook a study of the Lumbini Development Project in 1967. UNDP contributed nearly 1 million US dollars for the preparation of the Master Plan for the development of Lumbini, including numerous engineering and archaeological studies. The renowned Japanese Architect-Planner Prof. Kenzo Tange and Urtec were requested to prepare the Master Plan with an estimate cost of US$ 6.5 million.

In 1972, Prof. Kenzo Tange and Urtec submitted the “Final Outline Design for Lumbini” which is a compilation of basic orientation and the functional layout of the project. In 1972, Nippon Koei, sponsored by the Japan EXPO foundation submitted the necessary technical data of the site for the implementation of the project. The United Nations in response to a request from the Government of Nepal, made an engagement with Kenzo Tange and Urtec for Phase II of the Master Plan for the development of Lumbini in 1975.

With the completion of Master Plan in 1978, the development of Lumbini was started after the final approval by the His Majesty’s Government/ Nepal (HMG/N) and the UN. The International Committee for the development of Lumbini, New York, USA and Lumbini Development Committee (LDC) Nepal were actively involved during the initial development stage. UNDP contributed US$747000 for preparation of the Master Plan. Expo Japan donated US$ 40,000 for soil testing and other allied works. The Government of Nepal invested US$ 100,000 for the survey and preparation of maps.

In the first phase, a 3x1 square mile plot of land equal to about 774 hectares was acquired by evacuation of seven villages and a local market. The affected people were given adequate compensation and provided with other facilities. Soon afterwards, the afforestation program was started to give Lumbini a natural setting. Around 620 000 saplings of different varieties were planted to make the complex green with lush sal and other trees.In this stage, the emphasis was made toward formulation of development programmes on the basis of development priorities and phasing, complying with the following criteria:1. Conservation and maintenance of the archaeological site and findings.2. Protection of the archaeological site against flood.3. Indispensable and minimum facilities & infrastructures for the function of the Lumbini Garden.

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LUMBINI CENTER

• Tourist Information Center 100%• Administration Center 50%• Tourist Accommodation 50%• Pilgrim Accommodation 65%• Medical Center 35%• High School 100%• Retails & Service Facilities 35%

CULTURAL CENTER• Museum 35%• Auditorium 100%

CENTRAL LINK• Central Canal 100%• Pedestrian Space 65%• Service Facilities 50%

SACRED GARDEN

• Circular shaped levee link 100%• Major pedestrian path 100%• Protection banking of Sacred Area 100%

MONASTIC AREA

• West Monastic Plaza 100%• East Monastic Plaza 100%• Main Access with branch canal 100%• West Monastic Lots 30%• East Monastic Lots 30%

INFRASTRUCTURES

• Bhairahawa-Lumbini road 100%• Peripheral road 100%• Major service roads 100%• West Monastic Lots 30%• Utilities

COMPONENTS COST (US $ million)

1 Landscaping & Site Works 16.72 Infrastructure & Utilities Networks 7.4 3 Lumbini Center buildings 17.3

4 Museum, Auditorium, Library & Research Institution 12.0

5 Pilgrim and Middle Class Accommodation, High School etc 1.6TOTAL 55.0

Fig 23. Cost estimate as proposed in 1978-1985

Fig 22. Implementation of Master Plan up to 1980

4. Enhancement of the tourist attraction.5. Appropriate share of the immediate investment in the total investment.6. Compatiable introduction of private investment with the Lumbini Garden.7. The priorities and phasing required by the Lumbini Development Committee.

Based on the development priorities of the above, all the works were proposed for completion in three phases as given below.

First Phase (up to 1980)First Phase functions as the immediate development action up to 1980, with high priority given to the Lumbini Center, Central Link, Sacred Garden, Monastic Area and relevant infrastructures (fig. 22).

Second Phase (1980-1985)The Second Phase includes all later development works: this includes the 80% of the Monastic Area as an independent development. The development of the Sacred Garden was depending on the progress of the archaeological excavations.

Third Phase (After 1985)- Extension in Lumbini Center and Cultural Center;- Completion Monastic Areas and Sacred Garden;- Planting in the Entire Site;

According to the priorities and phasing as mentioned in the Master Plan, it was scheduled that all the major construction works would be completed by the year 1985. The total cost estimate was US$ 55 million (fig. 23).

The First Phase was expected to be completed by 1985 at a cost of US$ 17 million. In 1983, the HMG/Nepal had incurred an expenditure of US$ 7 million; in addition to more than US$ 4 million set aside for the completion of the remaining Infrastructure works. However, only 10% of the total work was completed:- Siddharthanagar Airport- Approach road to Lumbini from Bhairahawa- Archaeological Excavations and Restorations- Partial Completion of Periphery Road- Completion of Basic Works on Infrastructure- Road, Electricity, Telecommunication, Sewage - Library (Reiyukai, Japan) – completed in 1989- Museum (Government of India) - completed in 1989- Pilgrim Accommodtion (low class tourists- Govt. of Sri Lanka) - completed in 1986

Because of a lack of resources due to the reduced interests of the international donor organizations, and the poor management of the development of Lumbini., major building construction and landscaping works remain to be done. Hence, the Master Plan was not fully realized and the delay in project execution has resulted in a huge cost overrun, which will impede achievement of its goals in the future.

4.2. Implementation Period, 1986-2000In 1986, a revision of the construction program was proposed and prepared by the LDT. This revision recommended the construction of the development works of the Master Plan to be completed within 1991/92 at the cost of US$ 55.197 million. During

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COMPONENTS1980 (million US Dollars)

1999 (Million US Dollars)

1 Central Link 1.613 1.9852 Roadsa Metalled Roads 2.8 3.42b Service Roads 0.701 0.863 Landscapinga Lumbini Center & Cultural

Center 1.006 1.236b Monastic Zones- East & West 3.400 4.176c Sacred Garden 1.613 1.9834 Flood Control 0.426 0.5245 Water Supply 1.000 1.2296 Sewerage Disposal 1.200 1.4757 Electric Power Supply 2.406 2.9508 Telephone System 0.710 0.873

TOTAL 16.875 20.711

the years 1989-1991, there was not much progress in development works of Lumbini due to changing political situation in Nepal. By 1995, only 10% of the work was finished and there was no Planning Proposal for completion of the remaining works.

In 1995, the LDT appointed a national technical team to review the development work in Lumbini and submitted a report to suggest speedy progress. The team made the recommendation that there were components in the Master Plan which, if modified, would be more appropriate. According to their suggestion, many components of the Master Plan should be revised and simplified without disturbing the basic essence of the Master Plan:1. As per the Master Plan, the buildings in Lumbini and Cultural Center should be of Monumental character. Buildings built in Monumental character in the Cultural Center justify their functions and they cost almost three times the conventional type of buildings. However, buildings in the Lumbini Center are more functional in type, like the Information Center, Curio Shops, Restaurants, etc. The technical team suggested that a conventional character of the Lumbini Center would reduce the costs considerably. Thereby, the small realistic packages of the remaining buildings in the Lumbini Center could be prepared to attract small donors, instead of waiting for huge funding agencies.2. As per the Master Plan, the Central Link is a very important component and its cost estimate is very high at US$ 2.50 million. It is necessary to implement works phase wise and allocate budget accordingly, along with revision of the design components and cost estimate of the Central Link.3. As per the Master Plan, the cost estimate of the infrastructure works is US$ 11.6 million. The cost reduction is necessary through proper phasing and simplification of design for proper implementation of these essential services.4. As per the Master Plan, the total estimated cost of the Landscaping in the East and West Monastic Enclaves is US$ 5.65 million. If completed at the estimated cost, the annual cost of maintenance will far exceed the annual rent from the land of the monasteries. Hence, the design should be modified to reduce both construction and maintenance costs.

Based on the above study, it was recommended that the Master Plan should be revised for early implementation of the works. For this, a Task Force of technical personnel was formed to facilitate a further detailed study. The Task Force consisted of three technical personnel from among those who

already had enough knowledge about Lumbini Development Project. The Terms of Reference for this Task Force were as follows:1. Review the Master Plan2. Identification of the components which cannot be implemented within the budget of LDT and donors and proposal of solutions for the said components.3. Preparation of practical requirements of the project4. Construction of revenue generating projects5. Work Program of archaeological excavation and restoration6. Preparation of detailed bylaws for Monastic Enclave7. Short and long term trogramme for development of surrounding Buddhist Areas of Lumbini

The team included the Cost Estimate of Land Development Works of the Various Components (fig. 24), as Estimated Cost in 1981 and then in the present stage, 1999, the year when the team prepared the Analysis Report. It is clearly evident that the present cost has increased by about 4.2 to 4.5 times.

According to the table, the total cost estimate arrived at was US$ 20.711 million in 1999, which was far higher than the annual budget of Lumbini Development Trust Office. This was only US$ 0.15 million and more than 80% of it was spent on regular administrative expenses. The team made the recommendation that works should be categorized in order of their urgency and priority:

1. Protection Works: this covers flood protection works around Sacred Garden area, such as construction of circular levee around sacred garden, lowering of the water table by constructing a sacred tank and improvement of the cross section and level of Telar river. The other protection works required

Fig 24. Land development works of Lumbini Development Project

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for the Monastic Zones also come under this priority along with surface drainage works of the whole Master Plan area.2. Essential Services: this includes the provision of water supply and a sewerage system in the project area as the first priority. Another measure is the temporary supply of electrical services through overhead wires and a phase wise execution of the Road Works. Both the Central Link in the Lumbini Center and buildings in the Lumbini Center should be completed to realize the Master Plan on site. The construction of buildings in the Lumbini Center should be done in different manner to reduce the cost.3. Landscaping: the landscape protection works such as the retaining wall for the sacred tank, gate structures and the improvement of River Telar should be the first priority. The Landscape works of the Central Link, Cultural Center and Lumbini Center should be the Second priority, followed by the beautification works of the Monastic Enclave.According to the study, the LDT does not have adequate funds for the implementation of the remaining components, while on the other hand the estimated costs are too high as they are made with assumption that funds will not be a problem. In the present situation, financial mobilization has been the greatest problem. It is necessary to realize that the design should be simplified and the cost estimate should be revised so that project is more cost effective and within the capacity of LDT.

Accordingly, the methods of the Construction Programme and Work Schedule should be revised. The methods of Minimum and Maximum Programme should be fixed first and they should be implemented in phases. The first phase of the Minimum Programme should consist of parts of the components essential for the activities as per the Master Plan. The second phase of the Minimum Programme is, therefore, the extension work of this portion of the essential components of the land development, which have been executed in the first phase. The Maximum Programme should comprise of beautification works, which are usually costly and not essential for daily activities of the major areas of the Master Plan.

The team recommended that the LDT make a programme to implement the First Phase of the Minimum Programme through its own annual budget and shall complete within a fixed target year of 5 to 15 years, as per expected fund mobilization. The remaining works- Second Phase of the Minimum

Programme and all the works in the Maximum Programme would be implemented through donations from different Buddhist organizations and friendly countries. The team strongly recommended that works that are not as per the original master plan, should not be entertained even if donations are made. However, the proposal was documented only and there was no real progress made on the site as per the recommendation.

In 1998 the World Buddhist Summit held in Lumbini also addressed the issue and suggested that the existing Master Plan should be reviewed in consultation with the international community and others concerned, in order to complete the works as soon as possible. Accordingly, a task force team was formed by UNDP to propose the terms of reference for the review mission, which would review the Master Plan prepared by Prof. Kenzo Tange under the leadership of Dr. Ananda W.P. Guruge in 1999.

Many distinguished national and international experts prepared review papers on different aspects of the Master Plan. According to the report prepared by the architect/planner Shankar M. Pradhan (Pradhan 1999), much remains to be done to implement the Master Plan. The identified unfinished items include 19 components, half of which are infrastructural, and the rest include structural works.

The study recommended prioritization and phasing of the development activities for the implementation period 2001-2010 (fig. 25). According to the recommendations, the remaining 19 project components should be categorized as Priority I (1, 2 and 3 year projects), Priority II (4, 5 and 6 year projects), Priority III (7, 8 and 9 year projects) and Priority IV (subsequent year projects).

The report emphasized that priority should be given to make them functional in order to motivate further development activities. Another priority should be to focus on the follow-up of the archaeological work, according to the criteria of the World Heritage Convention. LDT considered this an appreciable work by UNDP for the development of Lumbini. Yet there was no improvement of work progress on the site, despite all the proposals and evaluations being made for its development.

During 1985-2000, the following components of the Lumbini Development Project were completed:- High Class Accommodation (Hokke Hotel, Japan), Completed in 1990

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PROJECT COMPONENTS US $1000

1 Roada. Service Road 1 249b. Metalled Road (Internal) 4 975c. Ring Road (Periphery 8 mile) 7 819

2 Water Supply System with tower and reservoir

3 Sewage System 9874 Sacred Garden (Access road and drainage

system) 2 0655 Electrical Power System 2 8856 Telecommunication System 4 3607 Lumbini Village (8 blocks) 1 1608 Camping Grounds, Central Plaza, related

structures 12 725

9 Colonnade, foot bridge, bridge between Lumbini Centre 105Landscaping of Monastic Zone (canal pond, road & path) 1, 598

10 Lumbini Village (N & S ponds, canal and path) 7 887

11 Symbolic Pavilion (Type 1)12 Auditorium (U Thant World Peace) 1 48713 Archaeological Office 2 905

14 Fencing Works, 8 ft. height in periphery (8 mile) 126

225TOTAL 52 558

Fig 27. Cost estimate for Lumbini Garden (1997-2002). (Source: Lumbini Development Trust, Feb. 1997)

- Lumbini International Research Institute (Reiyukai, Japan), Completed in 1996- Accomodation for Research Scholars (Reiyukai, Japan), Completed in 1998- Peace Pagoda, Nipponjan Myohji (Fuji Guruji), Completed in 1999- Panditaram Meditation Center, Myanmar , Completed in 1995- Crane Sanctuary in Lumbini Center - Monasteries, Completed in this phase:

Government of Myanmar Mahabodhi Society, Calcutta International Viskchhuni Sangh, NepalBuddhist Association of China, ChinaTara Foundation Duesseldrof, GermanyDrigung Kagyud Meditation Center, Ladakh

The Lumbini Development Trust submitted the cost estimates to HMGN-National Planning Commission for inclusion in the Ninth Plan in February 1997 (fig. 26), when the conversion rate was US$ 1.00 = NRs. 57.00. The total cost for the five year phase was US$ 56.8 million, of which 92.6% was allocated for Lumbini Garden (fig. 27). The priority activities proposed by LDT for the Ninth Plan have a regional perspective.

The Proposed Activities for Lumbini Garden include 14 components, half of which are infrastructural (road, water, sewerage, drainage, electricity, telecommunication and fencing). Structural works include the Lumbini Centre, the central plaza, the footbridge, landscaping, the symbolic pavilion, the U Thant auditorium and the archaeological office. The seven sites of Kapilvastu district have 9 project components. These are also mostly infrastructural works including land acquisition. Archaeological excavation and conservation is a minor component.

Given the socio-economic conditions of Nepal, it is clear that Nepal’s Ninth Plan will not be able to provide LDT’s expectation of US$ 56.8 million for the priority projects. Unless outside donors respond with financial support, the proposed projects will remain mere aspirations, as in the past. According to Dr. Harka Gurung (Gurung 1998) the fulfillment of this plan should consider some practical measures:

Description Estimated Cost (US dollar)

Estimated Cost(Nepali Rupees)

1 Pond, Sewerage, Road & Archaeological building works inside Sacred Garden 4,885,000/- 360,757,250/-

2 River Training 764,000/- 56,421,400/-3 3.a. Gravel Roads 1,249,000/- 92,238,650/-

3.b. Black metalled Roads 4,975,000/- 367,403,750/-4 Camping Ground, Central Plaza & other works 105,000/- 7,754,250/-5 Collonade & Foot Bridge 1,598,000/- 118,012,300/-6 New Lumbini Square North 6,184,000/- 456,688,400/-7 New Lumbini Square South 6,541,000/- 483,052,850/-8 Lumbini Center- North & South Pond & Landscaping works in Canal 1,802,000/- 133,077,700/-9 Symbolic Pavilion Type 1 497,000/- 36,703,450/-

Symbolic Pavilion Type 2 99,000/- 7,311,150/-10 Archaeological Building 126,000/- 9,305,100/-11 Central Canal 288,800/- 213,278,800/-12 High School 894,000/- 66,021,900/-13 Telecommunication Center 1,160,000/- 85,666,000/-14 Electricity Supply 4,360,000/- 321,986,000/-15 Water Tank & Reservoir 471,000/- 34,783,350/-16 Water Supply System 516,000/- 38,106,600/-17 Sewerage System 2,065,000/- 152,500,250/-18 U Thant Building 2,905,000/- 214,534,250/-19 Boundary Wall 1,125,253/89- 83,099,999/77-

TOTAL 48,695,053/89 3,788,080,649/77

PROJECTS

PRIO

RIT

Y I

PRIO

RIT

Y II

PRIO

RIT

Y II

I

PRIO

RIT

Y IV

A INFRASTRUCTURE1 Roads • 2 Pedestrian Path • 3 Water Supply Main Layout • 4 Pumping Station • 5 Overhead Tank • 6 Drainage Main Channel • 7 Sewerage • 8 Street Lighting • 9 Lumbini Centeri Block 1 & 2 • ii Block 3 & 4 • iii Block 5 & 6 • iv Block 7 & 8 • 10 High School Complex • 11 Hospital • 12 Camping Ground 1 • 13 Camping Ground 2 • 14 Pedestrian Path • • • 15 Boat Station • • • • 16 Lumbini Square • • 17 Visitors’ Facilities • • 18 Symbolic Pavilion • 19 Archaeological Office •

Fig 25. Prioritization and Phasing of the development activities for the Implementation Period of 2001-2010

Site (District) US$ (million)

1 Lumbini Garden (Rupendehi) 52.62 Devadaha (Rupendehi) 0.63 Ramagram (Nawal-Parasi) 0.3

4 Araurakot, Tilaurakot, Gotihawa, Kudan, Niglihawa, Sagarhawa, Sisaniya 3.3TOTAL 56.8

Fig 26. Lumbini development 1997-2002: cost estimates (Source: Lumbini Development Trust)

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Description Estimated Cost (US dollar)

Estimated Cost(Nepali Rupees)

1 Pond, Sewerage, Road & Archaeological building works inside Sacred Garden 4,885,000/- 360,757,250/-

2 River Training 764,000/- 56,421,400/-3 3.a. Gravel Roads 1,249,000/- 92,238,650/-

3.b. Black metalled Roads 4,975,000/- 367,403,750/-4 Camping Ground, Central Plaza & other works 105,000/- 7,754,250/-5 Collonade & Foot Bridge 1,598,000/- 118,012,300/-6 New Lumbini Square North 6,184,000/- 456,688,400/-7 New Lumbini Square South 6,541,000/- 483,052,850/-8 Lumbini Center- North & South Pond & Landscaping works in Canal 1,802,000/- 133,077,700/-9 Symbolic Pavilion Type 1 497,000/- 36,703,450/-

Symbolic Pavilion Type 2 99,000/- 7,311,150/-10 Archaeological Building 126,000/- 9,305,100/-11 Central Canal 288,800/- 213,278,800/-12 High School 894,000/- 66,021,900/-13 Telecommunication Center 1,160,000/- 85,666,000/-14 Electricity Supply 4,360,000/- 321,986,000/-15 Water Tank & Reservoir 471,000/- 34,783,350/-16 Water Supply System 516,000/- 38,106,600/-17 Sewerage System 2,065,000/- 152,500,250/-18 U Thant Building 2,905,000/- 214,534,250/-19 Boundary Wall 1,125,253/89- 83,099,999/77-

TOTAL 48,695,053/89 3,788,080,649/77Fig 28. Remaining works and their cost estimate (Source: Lumbini Development Trust)

1. Review the Master Plan and modify if necessary;

2. Division of development activities into three phases: Short term (immediate) targeted for 2000; Medium term (intermediate) for 2000-2005; Long term (ultimate) to fully realize the Master Plan.

According to Dr. Gurung, the project is able to slowly gaining momentum despite the fact that the progress of works is slow. It is worthwhile to mention that some of the prominent building structures have been completed. Thus, the management should start taking initiative to mobilize them for further development activities. Another priority is the follow up of the archaeological works according to the criteria developed by the World Heritage Convention. Dr. Gurung emphasized that there are two preconditions to realize the development of Lumbini as planned. The first concerns commitment and the second cooperation. There is need for a strong commitment on the part of the host government to develop Lumbini. This includes both the financial resources and the need for making LDT as an autonomous institution. The frequent change in LDT management since 1992 has greatly hampered the functioning of this institution. The mission of LDT is of international dimension and its management must have continuity to enable wider contacts. The second precondition is to mobilize wider cooperation, which refers to the need for reviving the UN based International Committee for the Development of Lumbini.

4.3. Implementation Period, 2000 onwardsLDT achieving steady progress in the implementation of the Master Plan. However, the tasks that remain are immense and larger resources are needed. The LDT needs both technical and financial empowerment to work towards the full realization of the Master Plan. The current objective is focused on completing the works in the Sacred Garden and on river training works within the target of 25 years. Following is the list of works, completed and pending of the components of Master Plan (fig. 28).

Completed WorksRestoration of Mayadevi Temple-Completed: 2003Link Road- Friendship BridgeMetalled RoadPending WorksMiddle-class Accommodation (Mikasa Hotel, Japan) Nepal Vipasana Meditation Center, NepalHigh School ComplexCentral Canal with 3 Boat StationsRiver Diversion and Levee Embankment at Harhawa RiverService RoadsSacred Garden – Access roads and Drainage systemBoundary Wall to the East Periphery Road

Works not yet startedElectrical Power Supply SystemTelecommunication System

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Water Tower & ReservoirWater Supply SystemSewerage SystemThe U Thant World PeaceCamping GroundsCentral Plazas and Related StructuresColonnade and Foot BridgesLumbini Squares 1 & 2Landscaping works – Monastic Zones & Lumbini CenterSymbolic Pavilion Type 1 & 2Archaeological OfficeElimination of Structures inside the Lumbini Garden

Based on the progress of the implementation of the Master Plan, the LDT has made a revised cost estimate for the remaining works (fig. 29) and has prioritized the works within the context of their current objective. It is hoped that with increasing financial support from the government in the recent years, the progress will be faster than realized in the past. Despite the financial and management issues since the early implementation phase over the 30 years, the Master Plan is slowly getting into shape and the works so far completed have been able to generate the interest, locally and globally.

The LDT is geared towards initiation of other activities to fulfill the Master Plan within the target period:- Increase participation of international assistance for development of Lumbini;- Establish a World Buddhist University;- Programs for World Buddhist Summit;- Importance of International Airport at Lumbini- Revision of Lumbini Development Trust Act;

Fortunately, the LDT has been able to gain support and cooperation from wider sectors, local and international, to achieve its objectives. International organisations such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Japanese Buddhist Federation (JBF), world Fellowship of Buddhists (WFB), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Embassies and NGOs have been

actively involved from as early as the 1960s. Meanwhile local organisations have also shown their concern and contributed towards the development of Lumbini. According to LDT, following agencies have been involved:- ADB is providing financial assistance of 3.4 million US dollar for the completion by 2009 of: central link, access roads, pedestrian paths, water supply and distribution system, parking, chain link fencing;- JBIC has proposed to provide financial assistance for the following works: infrastructure improvement works for Sunauli Border, construction and improvement of Bhairawa-Lumbini roads, construction and rehabilitation works of roads linking Lumbini to other related significant places of Buddha, well equipped parking places, public awareness and income generating training programs in surrounding villages; - UNDP, DFID and SNV/Nepal provide financial assistance for Awareness training, skills training, roads, small electrical programs in 7,000 houses in surrounding villages (Aama, Bhagwanpur, Lumbini Adarsha, Tenahuwa, Ekla, Khudabagar, Madhuwani); - The Government of Thailand has proposed financial assistance for the completion of the Lumbini Master Plan.

5. CONCLUSIONS: CURRENT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Though the Lumbini Development Project was started almost 30 years ago, the increasing delays in the implementation of the Master Plan have created more problems than originally visualized and much there remains to be done despite the significant achievements made.

The major infrastructure works have not started due to lack of adequate technical and financial support, giving rise to unsequential development processes. Also, there is an urgent need for maintenance units to be established in order to ensure the regular repair and maintenance of the completed works.

The development of the Sacred Garden progresses steadily with priority being given to landscaping, protection works, afforestation and exposition of the archaeological remains. The relocation of Mahendra Pillar and the dismantling of other structures in the vicinity of the site are planned within 10-20 years.

For the Lumbini Cultural Center not a lot of elemets have been implemented. Besides the buildings, major

PROGRAMS Estimated Cost

1Pond, Drainage, Roads & Archaeological Building works, Gridding inside the Sacred Garden

360,757,250/-

2 River Works 56,421,400/-3 Boundary Wall approx. 11.4 km 83,099,999/774 Central Canal 213,278,800/-

Fig 29. First priority works and cost estimate as per Master Plan (Source: Lumbini Development Trust)

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infrastructural works such as roads, central canal and its subsidiary elements need to be done. These are of monument character, which causes higher costs and the delays are mainly linked to the lack of adequate financial resources.

The constructions in the Monastic Zone have achieved some architectural identity of their own, but have failed to adhere to the desired population density as mentioned in the Master Plan. The landscaping and site development works are lagging far behind in comparison to the increased construction activities in the Monastic Zone. This has resulted in unsequential development where magnificent monasteries are built without proper provision of basic infrastructure and services.

All associated structures and landscaping works are still to be carried out. Open spaces, plazas and water bodies need to be planted with appropriate trees and vegetation. Therefore, at present, there is no continuity in physical structures and landscape elements from Lumbini Center to Sacred Garden as proposed in the Master Plan.

The International Committee for the Development of Lumbini, which has played a significant role in international fund raising activities in the 1970’s and 1980’s has been ineffective in the past decade, thus aggravating the resource crisis. At the same time, the grant provided by the government does not fulfill LDT’s requirements. To implement the Master Plan the LDT needs bigger financial resources to meet the requirements of the project, which go beyond the socio-economic capacity of the country.

By the present way of implementing the Master Plan, problems arise from haphazard development works along the peripheral road outside the Project Area. The construction of market centers, hotels, temples, mosques, churches, small industries, residential complexes and other recent additions in the surroundings are threatening the spiritual and historical values of the site. The LDT has not been able to deal with issues regarding the zoning and pattern of ownership of the surrounding areas. Therefore, a mechanism shoukd be established to facilitate the relation between LDT and local VDCs. The LDT should be empowered legally to deal with the issues in the surrounding territory.

Therefore, LDT should now realize its greater role in monitoring the development activities as per the Master Plan. It is now time to realize that the project

should be based on sustainable economy, through mobilization of available resources and technology. It requires timely intervention of appropriate technical, social and economic analysis for the sustainable development of the project. Its implementation plan should be formulated with the consideration of a financing modality and the modern institutional setup to operate and manage the cultural entity within the context of the country.

Additionally, there should be a definite and clear vision for the development of Lumbini. The LDT management should have strong leadership and a clear management structure to co-ordinate the works and allocate the resources. Appropriate models for local development programs, with an integrated approach to meet all concerns should be proposed. These programs should address the existing socio-economic factors and involve community participation. Similarly, proposals for international campaigns and mobilization of international ambassadors should be worked on. The Master Plan should be implemented in a realistic manner, through prioritization or phase-wise implementation of the works, whereby the development activities should be monitored by HMGN-Department of Archaeology, Ministries and UNESCO.

Finally, the current challenges require judicious planning for timely and proper implementation of the works, through identification and evaluation of certain related issues:- Co-ordination of administration and management levels;- Legal empowerment of LDT;- Formulation of financial modality for successful completion of the Master Plan;- Technical support along with financial assistance;- Co-ordination among national and international organizations.

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Kai Weise works in Kathmandu as an urban planner and architect. He is also the founder and chairperson of PAHAR Nepal, Planners’ Aliance for the Himalayan and Allied Regions. He has been working for several years as a consultant for the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu, where he has been involved in the programmes related to the World Heritage Sites, notably the development of an Integrated Management Plan for the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site.

LUMBINI: MANAGEMENTKai Weise

1. INTRODUCTION

The Lumbini World Heritage Site is located within a visionary development Master Plan prepared by Kenzo Tange in 1978. The Site, as inscribed in 1997, is spatially limited to an area of 130 by 150 meters around the main archaeological remains that testify the location of the birthplace of Lord Buddha. The surrounding buffer zone, which is contained within a levee, has an area of approximately a quarter of a square kilometre. This area is known as the Sacred Garden of Lumbini.

The administration of the site is being carried out by the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT), which was established by means of the Lumbini Development Trust Act 1985 to implement the Lumbini Development Plan. However, the principle authority for the archaeological site, as per the Ancient Monument Preservation Act 1956, is the Department of Archaeology.

By inscribing part of the Lumbini Development Area on the List of World Heritage, a new set of parameters need to be accounted for. The focus needed to be adjusted from developing an important religious site

to accommodate the conservation of a heritage site of outstanding universal value. The site was inscribed “As the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, the sacred area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of the world’s great religions, and its remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist pilgrimage centres from a very early period.”

The preparation of a comprehensive Management Plan which specifically addresses this World Heritage property would need to be given high priority by the State Party.

Fig 1. Sacred Garden of Lumbini - World Heritage Site and Buffer

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2. EXISTING MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS

2.1 Legal FrameworkThe State Party (His Majesty’s Government of Nepal) ratified the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1978. Lumbini was inscribed on the list of World Heritage in 1997 and therefore the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) and the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (revision 2005) are applicable for the site.

For the conservation and preservation of tangible heritage properties, the principle national level legislation is the Ancient Monument Preservation Act 1956 - fifth amendment 1988 (refer annex 2)

For the administration of the area demarcated under the Lumbini World Heritage Site, the principle legislation is the Lumbini Development Trust Act 1985 - amendment 2003 (refer annex 3). The LDT has further prepared “The Lumbini Monastic Zone By-Laws 2058” (2002) and internal by-laws in respect to staff, finance, administration and the Council.

The development of Lumbini and its surrounding area has been formulated in the Master Plan prepared by Kenzo Tange, which was approved in 1978. The Master Plan is still the basis for all development works being carried out within the main Master Plan area of 1 mile by 3 miles. The Master Plan, which was initially proposed to be implemented by 1985, is still under implementation (refer to detailed study on the Master Plan and its implementation prepared by Ms Ruprama Rai).

Various declarations and conceptual plans have been formulated over the past two decades. An Action Plan based on the 14 points of the latest World Buddhist Summit Declaration (refer annex 4) is apparently being approved by the Cabinet as an Action Plan for the development of the Site. The most recent document is the “Outcome document of the Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the member States of the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini, New York, 16 September 2005” (refer annex 5)

The basic administration at the District and Village Development Committee level are defined by the Local Self-Governance Act 1999. Additional associated acts are: for Physical Planning & Administration (Town Development Act 1988, Local

Administration Act 1971, Village Development Act 1991) and for Land (Land (Survey & Measurement) Act 1961, Land Revenue Act 1977, Land Acquisition Act 1977). Further relevant acts for relevant sectors are; for Environment (Environmental Protection Act 1997), for Forestry (Forest Protection Acts 1961 & 1967, Forest Act 1993) and for Tourism (Tourism Act 1978, Tourism Board Act).

2.2 The Lumbini Development Trust Act 2042 (1985)(Complete translated version of the Act: Annex 3)The principle authority for the administration of Lumbini is the LDT which was established in 1985, superseding the previously established Lumbini Development Committee.

Preamble: “Whereas it is expedient to provide for the Lumbini Development Trust in order to present before the people of the world the commitment of His Majesty’s Government to project the goal and ideal of development of Lumbini more effectively and operate the Lumbini Development Plan in a more coordinated and smooth manner.” (official translation LDTA 2042)“A Trust named as the Lumbini Development Trust shall be established for the development of Lumbini. This Trust shall be a non-profit making institution. The Trust shall be an autonomous and corporate body with perpetual succession.” (official translation LDTA 2042)

The Lumbini Development Trust was established to manage and implement the “Lumbini Development Plan” within the “Lumbini Development Area”.

The “Lumbini Development Plan” is not defined in the Act.

“Lumbini Development Area” means and includes

Fig 2. Lumbini Area

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the places Tilaurakot (ancient Kapilvastu), Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Sagarhawa, Sisiniyakot, Araurakot, Kudan (Kapilvastu), Devadaha (Rupandehi), Ramgrarn (Nawalparasi), which are directly or indirectly related with the life of the Lord Buddha and his birth place, Lumbini and it shall include other areas as specified by His Majesty’s Government by a notification in the Nepal Gazette. But, while specifying places in such manner, the places which are directly or indirectly related to the life of the Lord Buddha can alone be specified. (official translation LDTA 2042)

The objectives of the trust as stated in article 6 focuses on arranging necessary assistance, setting up an appropriate internal organization and monitoring to accomplish the proper implementation of the Plan. The Act formalizes the composition of the Lumbini Development Council, the Executive Committee and the Plan Implementation Committee.

2.3 Institutional FrameworkIn 1956 HM King Mahendra visited Lumbini. The same year the Ancient Monument Preservation Act was prepared giving the Department of Archaeology the authority to “preserve ancient monuments, control the trade in archaeological objects, excavate ancient monuments sites and acquire and preserve ancient monuments and archaeological, historical or artistic objects”.

However a separate institution for the administration of Lumbini was only established after former UN Secretary General U Thant visited in 1967. In 1970 the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini was set up. This committee comprised of the following member states: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand. At the national level, the Lumbini Development Committee was formed.

The International Committee for the Development of Lumbini initiated the preparation of the development Master Plan which was conceptualized by Prof. Kenzo Tange. The basic orientation and the functional layout of the project were defined in the “Final Outline Design for Lumbini” in 1972. Expropriation of the land was carried out during the 1970s. Meanwhile Prof. Kenzo Tange continued work on the Master Plan which was approved in 1978. Implementation of the Master Plan commenced in 1978 and was initially scheduled to be completed by 1985. Progress was,

however, slower than anticipated.

In 1985 the Lumbini Development Trust Act was formulated and passed. The LDT was thereby created and the Lumbini Development Committee was dissolved. The LDT was given the legal mandate to manage the Lumbini Development Area and implement the Lumbini Development Plan.

After over a decade of inactivity, efforts are being made to revive the International Committee. During the UN General Assembly, a meeting of Foreign Ministers of member countries of the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini was held on 16 September 2005 at United Nations Headquarters, and it was agreed to reactivate the International Committee “to take stock of the development of Lumbini” (refer annex 5)

2.4 The Lumbini Development TrustPATRON: The Patron of the LDT is His Majesty the King.

LUMBIN DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL: The Lumbini Development Council is comprised of 51 members that are nominated by the government. The Council meets at least twice a year and decides on the annual program and the annual budget. The draft texts of the annual program and budget are prepared by the LDT (Executive Board) and presented by the Trust at the Council’s periodic meeting. The Council then discusses the draft texts and makes final decisions concerning the program and the budget.

LUMBINI DEVELOPMENT TRUST EXCECUTIVE COMMITTEE: the LDT Executive Board is comprised of 7 members (the Act mentions 9 members, however the number has been reduced). The members are nominated by the government. The Executive Committee functions as the Executive Board, which establishes the draft programs and budgets for the Council’s discussion and approval and follows up on the implementation of the annual program and expenditures, as per the budget. The LDT Executive Committee is supposed to meet 6 times a year.

CHAIRMAN: The Chairman of the LDT is the Minister responsible for Culture (presently the Minister for Culture, Tourism & Civil Aviation).

VICE-CHAIRMAN: The Vice-Chairman is nominated by the government, and is in charge of making decisions related to the Annual Program and Budget for activities related to expenditures above NRS. 500,000.00.

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TREASURER: The Treasurer is nominated by the government, and is in charge of administering the budget of the LDT.

MEMBER SECRETARY: The Member Secretary is in charge of executing and implementing the Annual Program and Budget approved by the Council and for activities related to expenditures that are below NRS. 500,000.00.

PROJECT MANAGER: The Project Manager is nominated by the board (LDT Executive Committee) and may be a staff member.

DIVISIONS AND SECTIONS:Archaeology Division: This division is comprised of the Division Head (Chief Archaeologist), 2 Assistant archaeologists and a Photographer. The division deals with issues related to the conservation and preservation of archaeological sites within Lumbini.

Planning, Construction & Forests Gardens Division: The Planning, Construction & Forests Gardens Division is comprised of the Division Head (presently vacant), an Architect, a Civil Engineer and 2 Assistant

Engineers. The Engineering & Planning Section deals with issues related to the implementation of Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan and the gardening and botanical issues in the World Heritage Site and the Master Plan area. (It has been proposed to split the Architectural/Engineering and the Gardening functions into separate sections).

Administration and Management Division: The Administration and Management Division is comprised of the Division Head, 7 Professionals in Information (1 officer, 4 tourist guides and 2 information assistants), 35 Professionals in Security (security guards and assistants) and 6 assistants. The Administration Section deals with issues related to security, administration and public information related to the site. (It has been proposed that the administrative and public relations functions be split into separate sections in order to give more emphasis on public information).

Financial Administration And Procurement Division: The Financial Administration and Procurement Division is comprised of the Division Head, 2 Assistants (one position is presently vacant). The

Fig 3. Structure of the Lumbini Development Trust

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Accounts Section deals with issues relating to the LDT accounts, with a separate section responsible for revenue collection. (It has been proposed that the Procurement and Store Section be split into separate sections).

Liaison Office: The Liaison Office is located in Kathmandu (presently within the Tourism Board building at Bhrikuti Mandap).

2.5 Economic FrameworkAs provided by the Act, the objective of the LDT is to “obtain” funds and other forms of assistance from national and international sources to implement “the Plan”. The Lumbini Development Trust Act Para 6: Objectives of the Trust: Subject to the policy approved by His Majesty’s Government the objectives of the Trust shall be as follows.1. To obtain or arrange for obtaining contribution

of cash, in-kind, or any other type of assistance for the plan from any sector within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal.

2. To collect or arrange for collecting contribution for the plan from within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal.

3. To establish direct contacts with individuals or institutions within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal for the purpose of obtaining assistance or collecting contributions for the Plan.

4. To make available funds for the plans approved after analyzing work plans.

5. To depute a member or any other person to inspect whether or not funds allocated for specific programs as approved by the Board of Trustees have been properly utilized.

Various projects in the Monastic Zone are being carried out by the member states and international religious communities. However, the financing of LDT relies on governmental funds. The amount is on average approximately forty million rupees. The amount allocated annually by the government is based on a proposal submitted by the LDT of expected expenses for the following year.

The LDT has various other sources of income. According to the Monastic By-Laws, the LDT should additionally be getting incomes from the Monasteries, and specifically through:a. Land charge: Annual payments to the LDT by

the lessee of each plot of the Monastic Zoneb. Service charge: Payments made to the LDT for

monitoring the construction works within the plots of the Monastic Zone.

3. A COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR LUMBINI

3.1 Who Manages What in Lumbini?The Lumbini Development Trust by endorsement of an act has been given the mandate to manage the Lumbini Development Area. The Lumbini Development Area comprises of the Lumbini Master Plan Area, and places which are directly or indirectly related with the life of the Lord Buddha such as Tilaurakot (ancient Kapilvastu), Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Sagarhawa, Sisiniyakot, Araurakot, Kudan (Kapilvastu), Devadaha (Rupandehi), Ramgrarn (Nawalparasi), and other areas as specified by His Majesty’s Government by a notification in the Nepal Gazette.

The LDT, though an autonomous and corporate body, is very closely linked to the highest government posts giving it powers beyond its legal status. If channelled appropriately, the powers of the LDT would allow for unhindered implementation of the Lumbini Development Plan.

There are however several complications that need to be clarified in respect to the various layers of management (or governance), and in respect to the focus of the Development Plan. The Ancient Monument Preservation Act is still the principle act for the conservation of the archaeological sites, which gives the authority and responsibility to the Department of Archaeology. The Local Self Governance Act on the other hand gives the local governing bodies certain authority that might contradict the Lumbini Development Trust Act.

The LDT’s mandate is to implement the Lumbini Development Plan, which focuses on the Master Plan prepared by Prof. Kenzo Tange. However the linkages to the surrounding areas, be it the buffer zones and the agricultural zones (referred to in the Master Plan) or the rural areas of the adjoining VDCs, have not been focussed on. The inscription of a certain part of the Master Plan area on the List of World Heritage has also not been responded to.

The development of Lumbini needs to be integrated into a district level plan to coordinate the activities of all concerned authorities. This would also allow Lumbini to achieve its status as a place of sanctity, protected from inappropriate development within the further surroundings. The Master Plan for the development of Lumbini needs to be reviewed in respect to the area inscribed on the List of World Heritage to focus on the conservation of the Outstanding Universal Value of the site.

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3.2 Lumbini as a World Heritage SiteLumbini was inscribed on the UNESCO List of World Heritage in 1997 on the basis of criteria (iii) and (vi). (iii) bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared;(vi) be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria);

Fig 4. Excavated remains of the Vihara (monastery) of the 3rd C. BC to 5th C. AD (Nov. 2005)

Fig 5. The Ashoka pillar from the 3rd C. BC (Dec. 2005)

The justification given for inscription is: “As the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, the sacred area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of the world’s great religions, and its remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist pilgrimage centres from a very early period.” This clearly shows that the inscription was based on two decisive factors, Lumbini having religious importance as being the birthplace of Lord Buddha whereby becoming a Buddhist pilgrimage centre and this being confirmed by the archaeological remains.

Fig 3. Monks at the Convention of the Sakyapa Buddhist Order of Ma-hayana Buddhism (Dec. 2005)

Fig 6. Lotus Flowers at Lumbini (Aug. 2005)

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The sacred gardens, as stated by Mr. Basanta Bidari (Chief Archaeologist, LDT), must be considered a spiritual realm. A clear definition of what this might imply for the management of the site must be elaborated on.

The area designated as the World Heritage Site and the buffer zone must be considered - in respect to management - a separate entity from the Master Plan area. The World Heritage Site must follow the procedures set down in the “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention” (revision 2005). The Outstanding Universal Value of the site, as identified by the criteria for inscription, must be preserved. A clear understanding of conservation in respect to the site needs to be developed. The issues in this area are clearly related to the preservation of the archaeological remains and the religious significance as a pilgrimage site.

3.3 Management Layers and Linkages The management of Lumbini can be visualized in three layers; the local community area (the VDCs) governed by the local government, the Master Plan area which is administered by the LDT and the World Heritage Site which is the responsibility of the “State Party”.

Fig 7. Religions and Archaeological values of Lumbini

Fig 8. Thai Monk worshipping (Dec. 2005)

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Though the boundaries of the Master Plan and the World Heritage Site are clearly defined, buffer zones and linkages between the administrative layers do not allow for full segregation of the zones. According to the Master Plan prepared by Prof. Kenzo Tange’s, the main Master Plan area was 1x3 miles,

with 1x3 mile Restricted Zones on either side. A 5x5 mile Agricultural Zone was proposed, keeping the Sacred Gardens in the centre. The Restricted Zone and the Agricultural Zone have not been implemented.

The management of the site requires the integration of the surrounding areas into the planning, and this is especially the case with the highway access from Bhairahawa and the airport. The impact of the airport and uncontrolled development along the highway is already having an impact on the sanctity of the sacred gardens and the monastic zone of the Master Plan area. Further, the regional linkages need to be considered, especially the Buddhist sites around Lumbini (already administered by the LDT), within Nepal and in Northern India.

Fig 12. Management Layers in Lumbini

Fig 11. Master Plan Area and Surrounding VDCs Fig 13. Regional Linkages

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Fig 14. Master Plan Area - 5 by 5 1 mile grids

Fig 15. Situation of Airport and Bhairahawa in regard to Master Plan Area

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3.4 IssuesThe existing situation is reflected in a series of issues that link the three layers together and need to be addressed by the Management Plan. Most issues that arise within the Master Plan area will have linkages to the issues of the surrounding areas. This is especially so when we consider environmental issues, infrastructure, services and drainage issues and tourism issues. The development of the surrounding areas will have a major effect on the sanctity of the World Heritage Site. The diagram figure 16 gives a general overview of the issues and how they link up across the boundaries of the World Heritage Site, the Master Plan area and the Local Community Area. The Management Plan will need to address all pertinent issues. The detailed identification of the issues will allow the management plan to be formulated in the most effective manner.

3.5 The World Heritage Committee DecisionsThe need for a Comprehensive Management Plan has been identified a number of times by the World Heritage Committee:

Lumbini, The Birthplace of the Lord Buddha (Nepal) (C666)

Decision 28 COM 15B.66 The World Heritage Committee, 2. Urges the State Party to review, in collaboration

with UNESCO and the Advisory Bodies, the existing management protocols and elaborate a revised comprehensive conservation and management plan which ensures the long-term safeguarding of the authenticity and integrity of the property;

4. Requests the State Party to determine, in collaboration with UNESCO and the Advisory Bodies, the best measures to reverse the negative impact of the structure affecting the World Heritage value of the property and the appropriate management mechanisms to prevent such situations in the future;

5. Requests the World Heritage Centre to investigate the procedure which allowed the authorization of the construction of such a building without the knowledge of the World Heritage Committee;

Decision 29 COM 7B.0The World Heritage Committee,5. Also requests the State Party to take urgent

action, possibly through assistance from the World Heritage Fund, towards the elaboration of a comprehensive Management Plan for the

Fig 16. Diagram - issues

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property, built around its Outstanding Universal Value and in line with the principles set out in the recently revised Operational Guidelines (paragraphs 96-119);

In respect to Lumbini being a World Heritage Site, the State Party must respond to the decisions of the World Heritage Committee. At its last two sessions, the Committee requested the State Party review and elaborate a comprehensive Management Plan. These decisions were taken because system of management and its communication process had led to the construction of the structure known as the “Maya Devi Temple”.

The complexity of a Management Plan requires more than the scrutiny of a single procedure and would thus need to be approached taking into account a much broader perspective. The LDT, which represents the State Party and is the official “Manager” of the World Heritage Site as well as the area defined by Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan, would need to remain at the centre of the Management Plan. However, considerations need to be made towards the integration and participation of other relevant authorities and stakeholders.

3.6 Objective of the Management Plan The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (revision 2005, articles 108 - 118) elaborate on the requirement for “an appropriate management plan or other documented management system which should specify how the outstanding universal value of a property should be preserved, preferably through participatory means”.

There are no fixed formats for management systems, and they would depend on the characteristics of the property and may incorporate existing management structures. “Management systems may vary according to different cultural perspectives, the resources available and other factors. They may incorporate traditional practices, existing urban or regional planning instruments, and other planning control mechanisms, both formal and informal.” (Operational Guidelines).

However common elements of effective management systems would include:a) a thorough shared understanding of the property

by all stakeholders;b) a cycle of planning, implementation, monitoring,

evaluation and feedback;c) the involvement of partners and stakeholders;

d) the allocation of necessary resources;e) capacity-building; andf) an accountable, transparent description of how

the management system functions.

“Effective management involves a cycle of long-term and day-to-day actions to protect, conserve and present the nominated property” (Operational Guidelines). It is also recommended that risk preparedness be included in the management plan, which should incorporate training components.

The State Party is responsible for the effective management of the property; however it should undertake this responsibility in close collaboration with local authorities, partners, and stakeholders.

The Objective of the Master Plan would reflect the “desired situation” and explain in general terms the purpose of the Management Plan. The Management plan can be understood as an operational instrument to utilize available resources to protect the defined Outstanding Universal Value, while responding to the particular context of the site. In general terms, the Objective of the Management Plan for Lumbini World Heritage Site could be formulated as “to protect the OUV of the WH property as an archaeological and pilgrimage site, taking into account the 1978 Master Plan and linkages to the various national and international stakeholders”.

3.7 ApproachThe World Heritage boundaries and buffer zone are restricted to a relatively small area around the main archaeological remains and the Ashoka pillar. A comprehensive Management Plan would however require an approach which takes into account the broader context – more specifically, the management of the whole “Master Plan” area and the linkages with the surrounding community and environment.

The basic prerequisites for the preparation of the Management Plan are: 1. Commitment and involvement of the “State

Party”.2. Clear identification of the World Heritage property

and the linkages to the surrounding context.3. Understanding of the existing management

structures.

A comprehensive Management Plan is not a document, but a functioning system, which takes into account an effective means of conserving the value – the outstanding universal value – of the

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World Heritage property. “Management” refers to the required “processes” and “linkages” between the actors (stakeholders) in respect to “controlling change” of each component of the property.

The preparation of the comprehensive Management Plan would entail the improvement of the processes and linkages between the actors (stakeholders) in respect to “controlling change” of each component of the property. • Clarify responsibilities and decision making at

various levels;• Monitoring and reporting procedures;• Steam-line processes to exclude unnecessary

steps;• Set up essential linkages within existing

processes;• Integration of incentives and controls into

processes;• Risk preparedness

Additionally, the legislation which determines the authority and responsibility of the various government agencies and the LDT requires reviewing to identify duplication and ambiguity.

3.8 Related Authorities and SectorsThe LDT is an autonomous and corporate body. However with H.M. the King being the patron, the Minister responsible for culture being the Chairperson

and members of the Board being assigned by the government, the Trust has abounding authority. It is therefore paramount that the linkages to and cooperation with related ministries, line agencies, local authorities, INGOs, NGOs and the religious community are cultivated.

As per the criteria for inscription, the outstanding universal value of Lumbini is comprised of two main attributes; as an archaeological site and as a site of religious significance for pilgrimage. This would determine the primary sectors as being:1. ARACHAEOLOGY: The preservation of archaeology

remains;2. RELIGION: Providing for pilgrimage;

Secondary sectors would include the sectors that have a direct impact on the management of the primary sectors, which would include:1. ENVIRONMENT: The protection of the environment

of the site;2. TOURISM: The management of both religious and

non-religious visitors;

Further sectors that have an impact on the context surrounding the World Heritage Site would include:1. DEVELOPMENT: In respect to the Master Plan;2. ECONOMY: In respect to the surrounding

community;

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Fig 17. Authorities and Related Stakeholders

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The World Heritage Committee at its 29th Session in July 2005, requested that the State Party (HMG/N) prepare a comprehensive Management Plan for the Lumbini World Heritage property, possibly through assistance from the World Heritage Fund. The Management Plan should “ensure the long-term safeguarding of the authenticity and integrity of the property” (Decision 28 COM 15B.66) and “built around its Outstanding Universal Value and in line with the principles set out in the recently revised Operational Guidelines (paragraphs 96 – 119)”. (Decision 29 COM 7B.0) This request is a consequence of the actions that led to the controversial construction of the structure known as the Maya Devi Temple. The State Party, represented by the LDT, should take this opportunity to prepare a Management Plan, in close collaboration with the Department of Archaeology and with assistance from international experts.

The LDT was set up to implement the Lumbini Development Plan even before the inscription of Lumbini on the List of World Heritage. It is therefore necessary for the Lumbini Development Plan (as referred to in the Lumbini Development Trust Act, Annex 2) and more specifically Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan to be reviewed in respect to its validity in today’s context. It must be reiterated that the Master Plan must remain the base plan for the development of the area around Lumbini. However, efforts need to be made to directly address the need to preserve the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage property.

The Management Plan must not be considered a document, but a system of processes and linkages that leads towards a desired situation. There are no fixed formats for Management Plans and they must respond to the characteristics of the property, incorporate existing management structures and preferably include participatory processes. The primary objective of a Management Plan for a World Heritage property would be the preservation of its Outstanding Universal Value.

The prerequisites for the preparation and implementation of a Management Plan are:• COMMITMENT OF THE STATE PARTY: The

State Party, represented by the LDT, must be committed to prepare and implement a Management Plan

• DETAILED IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROPERTY

A distinction must be made between World

Heritage property, Master Plan area and linkages to surrounding areas at district level

• CLARIFICATION OF AUTHORITY AND RESPECTIVE LEGISLATION

Identification of primary legislation and authorities, related stakeholders and their respective role in managing the property

The Lumbini World Heritage Site is at risk of being placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. The State Party needs to heed this warning and show commitment to preserve the Outstanding Universal Value of Lumbini.

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LUMBINI:Four Perspectives

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LUMBINI: PRESENT STATUS OF THE SITE IN RELIGIOUS TERMSChristoph Cueppers

1. THE SETTING

“There are, O monks, four places on earth which a believing house-holder’s son or a believing householder’s daughter should commemorate as long as they live. Which are those four? Here the Venerable One has been born – here the Venerable One has attained the unsurpassable complete enlightenment – here the Venerable One has turned the three-fold, twelve-spoked wheel of the law – here the Venerable One has gone to the realm of complete nirvāna. After my death, O monks, there (people) will come to circumambulate (my) caityas, venerate (my) caityas, saying: “Here the Venerable One was born – here the Venerable One has attained the unsurpassable complete enlightenment – here the Venerable One turned the three-fold, twelve-spoked wheel of law – here the Venerable One went to the realm of complete nirvāna.” Whichever (of these people) dies there fully appeased with regard to me – they all will go to heaven with a remainder (of karmic substance).” (Dīghanikāya, 16; Mahāparinirvānasūtra)

With these words the Buddha himself designated the place of his birth, Lumbini, as a sacred place, as a place of worship and a fountain for the dissemination of spiritual life. Within the first two centuries following the Buddha’s death, pilgrimage had already become an important component in the life of the Buddhist community. For many following centuries Lumbini was visited by pilgrims and must have been the scene of a vibrant spiritual life. The archaeological remains at the site bear witness to this. Later on Lumbini fell into decline for reasons still not fully understood. With its re-discovery at the end of the 19th century the site regained the world’s attention and religious importance.

The idea of developing Lumbini in the right perspective originated during the Fourth General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists (WFB) held in Kathmandu, Nepal, in 1956 A.D. This started to take shape with the visit to Lumbini of U Thant, the then Secretary General of UN, in 1967. U Thant expressed his strong desire to help develop Lumbini as a sacred Buddhist pilgrimage centre for all the people of the world. He also held discussions with King Mahendra about the plans for development of the site, and as a result the UN made a decision to prepare a Master Plan for the development of Lumbini.

Dr. Christoph Cueppers has been the Director of the Lumbini International Research Institute (LIRI) since 1995. After com-pleting a Ph.D. in Tibetan and Buddhist Studies at University of Hamburg, Germany he became the Director of the Tibetan section of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project and Nepal Research Centre in Kathmandu.

The LIRI is an integrated part of the Cultural Centre in the Lumbini Master Plan. The Reiyukai, Japan, donated the insti-tution to Lumbini and is presently funding the institute, which provides research facilities to scholars and is developing a library collection with primary and secondary research material for religious and Buddhist studies.

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“The International Committee at the UN consisting initially of 13 and later of 15 (or 16) members was formed under the chairmanship of Nepal’s Permanent Representative to the UN to help prepare the Master Plan and to mobilize the resources. In Nepal King Mahendra constituted the Lumbini Development Committee. Initially it was chaired by the then Prince (now His Majesty the King) Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva. Later, the Committee was made a Trust under the name of Lumbini Development Trust (LDT)” (Introducing Lumbini: 5).

“The Master Plan for Lumbini Development. Initiated in 1970, the Master Plan was completed in 1978 by the renowned Japanese architect-planner Prof. Kenzo Tange. The finalization and acceptance of the Master Plan by His Majesty’s Government/Nepal (HMG/N) and the UN created a new wave of enthusiasm among the Buddhists and peace-loving people of the world for the fast development of the Lumbini complex.

The International Committee for the Development of Lumbini, New York, USA, and Lumbini Development Committee (LDC), Nepal, became vigorously active in the mobilization of resources and in achieving the goal of the Master Plan. As said earlier, an adequate amount of land was acquired from the local villagers. Soon afterwards, the afforestation programme was launched according to the Master Plan to give Lumbini the natural setting of the ancient times recorded in the literature. Further, the holy site of Lumbini was made easily accessible to the visitors” (Introducing Lumbini: 10).

The short report that follows is based on data and information obtained from three sources: a. a review of earlier studies dealing with the site;b. personal knowledge and experiences of the region

acquired during a stay of more than ten years at the site;

c. discussions with monks, nuns and other representatives of institutions represented in Lumbini Institutions.

The Sacred Garden has two facets: a religious one and an archaeological one. The early constructions at the site were the result of religious activities, and have become what are now the archaeological remains. Both aspects of the site are very much interconnected, the archaeological remains now being objects of worship by Buddhist devotees. The evaluation of a site in religious or spiritual terms is an inherently problematic undertaking. Many factors are subjective

and defy any objective measurement. Religious and spiritual values vary from person to person and are not easily expressed in rational terms. Do statistics, such as a large number of visitors or pilgrims per year, make a place more “holy” than a place with fewer visitors? The main motive of the Lumbini Master Plan (LMP) is to encourage religious faith, something that can only be intuited.

When analysing the present condition of Lumbini, one should bear the following in mind: Lumbini is situated in and surrounded by a rural area with a population of farmers and cattle-breeders who are very poor, even by Nepal’s standards. Most of this population is Hindu or Muslim. The Master Plan is for them an alien concept, one that in no way addresses their needs, either spiritually or economically. The acceptance or non-acceptance of this alien concept by the local population is an important factor that should not be underestimated. The idea of developing Lumbini originated not in Nepal, but was initiated by U Thant and an international committee at the UN. It seemed incongruous to Nepalese society, but nevertheless was highly welcomed by the royal government of Nepal. Once Nepal made a committment to implement the Master Plan, many local and foreign Buddhist communities started to construct institutions, either monasteries or one of the components of the Master Plan.

Another factor is the climate of this area. The extremely hot springs and summers, followed occasionally by a foggy and cold winter, make visits to Lumbini a seasonal affair. The main tourist season for Lumbini is from October to February each year. Apart from the occasional appearance of low-budget travellers going from India to Kathmandu or vice versa, the flow of visitors during the hot season is very low. The guesthouses and hotels are empty during this period and appear abandoned.

The historical and archaeological remains, including the Ashoka pillar with its inscription and the archaeological structures under the newly constructed Maya Devi shrine, are the focal point in Lumbini. In general terms the Sacred Garden area is the most important part of the LMP and all pilgrims, guests and other visitors make a point of visiting it. The conservation of the archaeological remains is therefore of utmost importance and the influx of pilgrims needs to be carefully controlled. The provision for special worship areas in the Sacred Garden complex, where mass gatherings cannot harm the archaeological remains, is an indispensable part of the LMP.

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2. THE PRESENT SITUATION

The implementation of the Lumbini Master Plan (LMP), which consists of two main components, is still far from complete. These components are:a. Areas leased to a particular Buddhist community

and managed by that community;b. The Sacred Garden and all other parts of the LMP

which do not fall under the previous point, such as the roads between the various monasteries and the infrastructure for the LMP as a whole. LDT is responsible for this component.

In preparation for the 2 World Buddhist Summits held in Lumbini, the Sacred Garden area received renewed attention and was consequently cleaned and decorated with small plants and flowers. One further achievement has been the construction of the Maya Devi shrine, which houses a sculpture of the nativity scene.

3. SPIRITUAL LIFE AT THE SACRED GARDEN

The Buddha was born and spent most of his lifetime in a forest, he performed ascetic practices in the forest, gained enlightenment under a bodhi tree and passed away between two sal trees. “On the whole the solitude and silence of the wilderness (forest) is most favourable to meditation” (Schmithausen 1991: 31). As nature played such a prominent role in the life of the Buddha and is conducive to spiritual development, it needs to be further protected in Lumbini.

The Sacred Garden is the focus of the entire Lumbini project, in as much as it is a memorial to the Buddha who was born there. One of the purposes of the development of this garden is to put the interesting archaeological artefacts on display for visitors. As conceived by the designer of the LMP, the approach to the Sacred Garden should be from the north along the central canal. Visitors and pilgrims should be spiritually and psychologically prepared for their visit to the Sacred Garden, but currently the path alongside the canal is rather uninteresting; dusty or muddy, and neglected. The purpose of the northern part of the LMP area, the Cultural Centre or Lumbini Village, is to supply visitors with the necessary information, devotional items and other necessities for a meaningful pilgrimage to Lumbini. At present there are vendors’ shops in the vicinity of the Sacred Garden (fig. 1), and they are not conducive to a spiritual atmosphere.

About one-third of the south end of the project area,

Monasteries and Institutions in the LMP Zone

Completed Monasteries Inside the LMP area1. Royal Nepal Buddha Vihar, vicinity of Sacred

Garden2. Tibetan Sakya monastery (Tashi Rabten Ling),

vicinity of Sacred Garden3. Panditarama Meditation Centre, western monastic zone4. Burmese monastery (Myanmar Golden Temple),

eastern monastic zone5. International Gautami Nun’s Temple, eastern

monastic zone6. Mahabodhi Society (Maha Maya Vishva Shanti

Buddha Vihar), eastern monastic zone7. Royal Thai Monastery Lumbini, eastern monastic zone8. Dubgyud Choeling monastery, western monastic zone9. Manang Samaj Stupa, western monastic zone10. Chinese monastery (Zhong Hua Buddhist

monastery), western monastic zone11. Great Lotus Stupa and Ladakh monastery, western

monastic zone12. Nipponzan Myohoji, north of the Cultural CentreOutside the LMP area13. International Buddhist Society (Free Health

Clinic), Mailawar

Monasteries under Construction1. Sri Lanka monastery, eastern monastic zone2. Korean monastery (Dae Sung Shakya), western

monastic zone3. Viet Nam Lumbini Buddha Bhumi Vihara, western

monastic zone4. Linh Son monastery, western monastic zone5. Geden Choeling, western monastic zone

Planned MonasteriesPlots have been given by the LDT to:1. Mongolia2. Bhutan3. Dachverband, German Buddhist group4. Seto Gompa, Bauddha5. Shechen Monastery (a small stupa)

Abandoned Sites1. Sokyo from Japan, western monastic zone2. Mikasa Hotel, Cultural Centre3. Sri Lanka Guest House, bad condition, Cultural Centre

Cultural Centres1. Museum, not fully functioning2. Lumbini International Research Institute and

Library, approx. 30,000 volumes

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Fig 3. Pilgrims Worshipping

Fig 4. Butterlamp container

including most of the archaeological site of the Sacred Garden, is flooded several times during the rainy season. At present, there is no clear procedure for dealing with the flood period or for controlling water flow. A survey undertaken by the writer in October 2005, just at the end of the rainy season, showed that the area around the archaeological remains was still flooded: water had collected between the remains and had not drained away properly. The same problem affects the walkway around the site. One of the main features of Buddhist worship is the circumambulation of holy sites, stupas, Buddhist monasteries, mountains, and images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Such worship is emphasized in all Mahayana schools and is of great importance to the Buddhist laity. At present the walkway leads around the pond and Maya Devi shrine and cuts across archaeological remains that are still to be excavated (fig. 2).

Another feature of Buddhist practice is to light candles and incense in front of images. At the Sacred Garden this is done in front of the Ashoka pillar (fig. 3) and, occasionally, inside the shrine. There are two unsightly metal cabinets at the site for burning butter-lamps (fig. 4). They stand in an isolated location and have it is unlikely that they have ever been used.

Fig 2. Walkway

For recitations and longer worship, an uneven platform of stone slabs to the northwest of the Ashoka pillar is used (fig. 5). Usually, for the monthly Lumbini Full Moon Prayer (a celebration organized by the Lumbini Institutions in which monks and lay persons from all present monasteries participate) matting is used to cover the slabs. The Sacred Garden lacks any hall or roofed protection against the heat, the sun’s rays and the rain, and this is not very convenient for the participants (fig. 6).

The Lumbini Full Moon Prayer is the only regular monthly gathering at the Ashoka pillar. Many of the monks, particularly those from Theravada schools, sense the need for a statue of the Buddha in the Sacred Garden. In fact, Theravada monks and followers do not worship the nativity scene, but only the Buddha. For this reason they have repeatedly requested that the concerned authorities install a statue of the Buddha somewhere close to the shrine, in the Sacred Garden.

Pilgrims, mainly those from Thailand, offer gold to the Buddha images by applying small pieces of gold leaf on the face or arms. In the absence of a Buddha

Fig 1. Vendor’s shops in vicinity of Sacred Garden

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image in the Sacred Garden, this practice is carried out inside the Maya Devi shrine: small squares of gold leaf are fixed to the archaeological remains just above the ‘Marker Stone’. From a scientific perspective the meaning of this stone slab is still not clear, but whether or not it is a “Marker Stone”, it is an object of worship for pilgrims. Occasionally one finds a group of foreign pilgrims from Asia meditating inside the Maya Devi temple. Unfortunately, they are often disturbed by the noise of other visitors, as the acoustics of the temple are not favourable for meditation. In particular, the wooden flooring echoes each step.

Finding no proper facilities at the Sacred Garden, the monks of the monasteries usually hold their ceremonies, such as initiations into monkhood and other important spiritual gatherings, in their monasteries. During these occasions the public is excluded.

To enhance the spirituality of the Sacred Garden area, many LMP initiatives remain to be properly implemented. All “worldly activities” should be restricted to the Cultural Centre of the LMP, including the LDT offices, the police station, and all shops. The

Fig 5. Meditation platform at Ashoka Pillar

Fig 6. Pilgrims listening to Buddhist Instructions

Sacred Garden should be a protected area, both for its archaeological importance and for its spiritual value. Gardening and landscaping should be done by experts, in consultation with archaeologists, in order to avoid further damage to the archaeological remains.

Restrooms and drinking water facilities should be provided at a reasonable distance from the site. They should be housed in a brick construction, as conceived by the designers of the LMP and as mentioned in the Kenzo Tange & Urtec draft of February 1981. Again in accordance with the LMP, small resting places, benches, and meditation platforms are called for, inviting pilgrims to engage in the most important aspect of Buddhist life: contemplation and meditation.

4. SPIRITUAL LIFE AT A SELECTION OF MONASTERIES

4.1. Nipponzan MyohojiFor a good example of spiritual life in a completed and fully operating LMP institution, one may refer to the Nipponzan Myohoji stupa and shrine. The religious activity of the Nipponzan Myohoji community consists of a daily prayer session from 4:30 am until 7:00 pm, with breaks of one or two hours in between. This daily prayer session is usually only attended by the shrine’s monks and lay followers, though there are occasional guests. The Nipponzan Myohoji has two yearly prayer sessions, on 3 July and 3 November. The former commemorates the anniversary of Ven. Nawatame’s death at Lumbini, and the latter the anniversary of the inauguration ceremony of the Shanti Stupa in 2001. Some of the monks also perform an annual peace march before the Buddha Jayanti festival in Lumbini.

4.2. The Royal Thai MonasteryThe Royal Thai Monastery in Lumbini currently houses 14 monks and 2 novices. As can be seen from its Thai language information brochure, the monastery has a well-established religious life, particularly for pilgrims from Thailand. Furthermore, it provides religious training to a few boys from nearby towns, such as Butwal or Bhairahawa.

4.3. The Panditarama Meditation CentreThe Panditarama Meditation Centre has completed construction of its main complex and four meditation cells, and is operating on a small scale year round. During the last seven years approximately 950 visitors from around the world have meditated at the centre. These visits have lasted anything from few days to

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income generation, education and institutional development programmes in 17 villages surrounding Lumbini. Several monasteries from the Monastic Zone were involved in the construction of a footbridge near Lankapur, which was inaugurated in February 2001. Linh Son of France regularly distributes food to the poor families from the nearby villages and in December 2000 over 250 blankets were distributed.

These LMP institutions should be encouraged to compile a religious calendar showing the activities that are open to public participation, such as the Lumbini Full Moon Prayer and the Buddha Jayanti Festival. A widely distributed calendar showing the various religious activities of Lumbini would greatly enhance the participation of locals and visitors. It would also serve to coordinate the activities of the monasteries.

5. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The design of the LMP has many spiritual facets. Kenzo Tange came from a Buddhist background and was very familiar with Buddhist concepts. The inspiration for the design of the buildings in the Cultural Centre came from Central Asian monastic buildings, Kenzo Tange having followed a long Buddhist architectural tradition. The LMP has a deep spiritual and philosophical meaning, but this will only become apparent when all components are implemented according to the original design. If adjustments to the design are deemed necessary, they should be discussed and evaluated by experts.

If we compare the Sacred Garden with a sacred place or building in the West – for example, the cathedral of Cologne – we find in both places a mixture of the mundane and spiritual. For many hours of the week the cathedral of Cologne is open to the public including tourists from many parts of the world who visit the place out of curiosity. Visitors admire the construction of the building, its stained-glass windows, and take photographs of themselves in front of the shrine. But there are hours of praying and service in the cathedral when such activities are not allowed. At present, such separation of worldly and spiritual activities does not prevail at the Sacred Garden. Frequently pilgrims who come for meditation are disturbed by more touristic, or pleasure-seeking, visitors. The area has no fixed programme of purely spiritual activities, such as sutra recitations, teaching sessions by advanced Buddhist practitioners, and Vipassana meditation sessions. All such activities

eight months. By providing facilities for uninterrupted meditation and occasional formal retreats, the centre expects that the number of meditators will slowly increase in the years to come.

4.4. Other CentresConstruction of a meditation hall has started at the Nepal Vipassana Centre, one of a group in the Vipassana organization of S.N. Goenka. These centres are popular, well organized and well attended. The Nepal Vipassana Centre has the potential to offer regular meditation retreats to scores of people. Ven. Dhammavati, founder of the International Gautami’s Nuns Temple, organized a total of five meditation retreats under different teachers between 1996 and 2001 at her nunnery. The retreats were all well attended and Ven. Dhammavati intends to organize at least one meditation retreat a year.

Thirteen of the monasteries in Lumbini already display a wide range of religious activities, such as daily chanting, occasional Dhamma talks for pilgrims, meditation courses, the celebration of annual ceremonies (vesakha, kathina etc.), bhikkhu ordinations, and provision of food and lodging to pilgrims. Approximately one hundred men have been ordained as temporary bhikkhus at the Myanmar Golden Temple. Sayadaw U Nanissara of Kusinara in conjunction with the followers of Dr. Ambedkar conducted a mass ordination in 2000. In 1979 the late Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw of Myanmar conducted the very first meditation retreat in Lumbini within living memory. Every year since 1992 Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche has chaired the annual Great Kagyud Monlam Ceremony for World Peace held in Lumbini. At Ka-Nying Shedrup Ling’s invitation, more than 1,500 monks, nuns and high lamas from various Kagyud monasteries throughout Nepal, India, Sikkim and Tibet congregate for ten days to chant 100,000 Namo Samgita prayers and 100,000 Sangcho Monlam prayers for world peace. Similar ten day Monlam pujas are conducted by Sakyapas.

Several conferences and seminars have been held in Lumbini. In February 2000 Sakyadhita convened its Sixth International Conference for Buddhist Women in Lumbini, while HMG and LDT sponsored an international Buddhist conference in February 2001. Three years ago there were two free health clinics in Lumbini and nearby Mahilawar. Now the number of free health clinics has risen to four. The International Buddhist Society, in co-operation with Himalayan Exchange and Cross Flow Nepal Trust, is running health education, safe drinking water, vaccination,

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are confined to the Monastic Zone and the individual monasteries there.

Lumbini as a whole is lacking in spiritual teachers who stay for a long period and create a spiritual programme to uplift the atmosphere, so that a visit to Lumbini and the Sacred Garden becomes a genuine spiritual experience.

In order to continue the development of Lumbini on a firmer foundation, the writer offers the following suggestions, which are based on his experience with the international institutions:1. Measures need to be taken to ensure that the five

Buddhist vows are kept in the Sacred Garden and in the monastic zone. Morality is the cornerstone of Buddhist practice, as Buddha himself has explained in a sutra: “O householder, morality is the root of success in this world and the next.” (Hallisey, C. 1995).

2. A consecration ceremony at the Sacred Garden should be held together with all the Buddhist communities of Lumbini. This ceremony should be repeated at regular intervals in order to enhance the spirituality of the site.

3. A calendar of religious or spiritual activities at the Sacred Garden and in the Monastic Zone should be compiled.

4. Protection of the environment and of the wildlife in Lumbini is necessary. We find many references in early Buddhist scriptures where Buddha emphasized the need to protect animals. In this regard, Lumbini should be a model to the world.

5. As every monastery or Buddhist institution has a code of discipline, Lumbini as a whole and the Sacred Garden in particular need a code of discipline. Buddhist experts from different communities should create such a code by seeking out a common ground.

6. Concerning the administration of the area, LDT should consist equally of local and foreign experts and this board should take all major decisions. Lumbini has become an international endeavour, and the nations that signed up to advance it should perform their designated roles.

7. If communities or countries that have undertaken to manage one of the LMP components are not able to accomplish their duty they should discharge their responsibilities. If this fails to happen the particular institution should be confiscated by the LDT and put up for auction.

8. Noise pollution and non-religious public gatherings (picnics) need to be controlled in the LMP area. Lumbini should not be regarded as a

place for casual relaxation or recreation.9. Vehicular traffic in the LMP should be properly

controlled.

All persons concerned with Lumbini should work together to find mutually agreeable solutions to the many problems arising from an undertaking like the Lumbini Master Plan. In order to fulfil the aspirations of the Buddhists of the world and of Nepal, deeper involvement by the international community is necessary. The relevant United Nations Agencies should take part to the decision-making process, fund raising and management of the LDT.

Finally, as Bhikkhu Sugandha, in his address to the international Buddhist conference at Lumbini in 2001 suggested:

“In addition to Lumbini being the fountain of peace we should also consider to develop it as the international youth centre for disseminating the message of peace and happiness. Drawing inspirations from the Buddha youth we could develop Lumbini as the training centre of peace related activities for international youth. We could develop this very Lumbini as the centre for promoting and strengthening among the younger generation’s observance and practice of the teachings of the Buddha; inculcating piety towards the Triple Gem, parents, and elders; securing unity, solidarity and brotherhood among Buddhist youth; organizing and carrying on activities in the field of social, economic, educational, recreational, cultural, ecological and religious and other humanitarian services; working for securing peace and harmony among youth, etc. This will not only fit with the historical significance of Lumbini but it will also serve the global community for present and future needs.”

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LUMBINI: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEAngela Atzori

1. INTRODUCTION

The present paper analyses Lumbini from an archaeological point of view. Its aim is to understand the present status of the site and to identify issues that need to be addressed in order to enhance its archaeological value.

The historical background of research will be analysed in order to understand the excavation methods applied, and the reliability of the available archaeological data. An analysis of the archaeological remains will clarify the historical development of the site, and identify problems affecting a comprehensive archaeological understanding of the site.

Finally, the paper will present the present status of the site. This will identify and evaluate the issues that have been addressed by the authorities, and elements that may lead to an enhanced protection of the remains, both exposed and unexcavated.

2. HISTORY OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Lumbini was re-discovered at the end of the 19th century, when the finding of the Asoka Pillar identiefied it as the birthplace of Lord Buddha. Since then a series of excavations have been undertaken. This century of activities can be divided into three phases on the basis of the reliability of methods applied in either excavation or restoration:

Angela Atzori, PhD scholar in Archaeological Sciences at the University of Padova, is a professional archaeologist special-ized in archaeological heritage management. She has taken part in several archaeological campaigns, and has worked for one year as a UN Fellow in the Culture Unit of UNESCO Office in Kathmandu, where she focused on the Lumbini World Heritage Site. She is now consultant for the UNESCO World Heritage Center for the preparation of a proposal for the development of proper managment and conservation strategies at Lumbini.

First phase: 1896 – 1961 (fig. 1). During thisperiod excavations merely unearthedarchaeological structures, and no scientific methodwas applied Restoration works were based on theprinciple of reconstructing with ancient materialsThis method contravenes internationally agreed restoration principles1, and prompts questions about the authenticity of the structures which have been conserved accordingly;

Second phase: 1962 – 1992 (fig. 2). In the secondphase the stratigraphic method was applied. Thisenhanced the scientific reliability of the collecteddata, though the documentation of the excavationworks may not have been sufficient. Restorationworks continued to use the reconstructionprinciple,thus the reliability of the results is questionable;

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2.1. First phase of research (1896 – 1961)2.1.1. Gen. K. Shumsher and Dr A. FührerThe re-discovery of Lumbini as the birthplace of the Buddha started in 1896, when an expedition headed by Gen. K. Shumsher was sent to the Terai in order to identify the long lost city of Kapilavastu in the ruins around Niglihawa. The expedition led to the discovery of a stone monolith rising about 10 feet above the ground. On 1 December 1896 Dr A. Führer, Archaeological Surveyor for the North Western Provinces and Oudh, joined the expedition. According to Führer’s report, and to the photographs available, the site of Lumbini was in a state of total abandon, and was almost completely covered by a series of mounds surrounded by scattered ruins. The excavation focused on unearthing the above-mentioned stone monolith by “digging away the accumulated debris” (Führer 1896). The result was the discovery of the Lumbini Asoka Pillar and its inscription in Brahmi script. The pillar and inscription are both dated to the Mauryan period (3rd century B.C.), more precisely to 249 B.C. This first phase of research did not follow any scientific method and relied mainly

Fig 1. Phase 1

Fig 2. Phase 2

Fig 3. Phase 3

Third phase: 1992 – present time (fig. 3). Duringthis latest phase, stratigraphic excavations continued In addition non-intrusive researchmethods, such as geophysical surveys, were carried out showing consistent progress in thearchaeological activities at Lumbini. Non-invasivetechniques were applied to restoration projects,

and reconstruction was carried out by clearlymarking the difference between original and repairs The construction of the Maya Devi Templecan be considered as the only activity that does notfit into this general development of conservationpractices.

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on unearthing items, without trying to understand the site’s broader archaeological value.

2.1.2. P. C. MukherjiIn March 1899 P.C. Mukherji explored the site. Mukherji’s archaeological research focused on the area between the Temple and the pond and on the southern side of the Rummindei Temple. The excavation between the Temple and the pond shed light on a group of small stupas: four of them were found in a line near the temple, and five more towards the south-east (Bidari 2004). In the Rummindei Temple, a survey exploration led to the recovery of the statue of Vajra-Varahi in its antechamber and of the Nativity Sculpture2 in its main chamber, the latter having already been identified by Führer. The excavation at the Temple was pursued along its southern side, and unearthed layers of carved brick masonry arranged into seven projections per side. Analogous patterns were identified in the western and northern edges, and led to the interpretation of this phase of the temple as saptaratha shikara (Bidari 2004).

It is important to point out that Mukherji’s excavations were conducted with the single objective of unearthing the ancient structures. No stratigraphic or chronological analysis was pursued to develop a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of the site.

2.1.3. Gen. K. ShumsherGeneral Kesher Shumsher J.B. Rana conducted archaeological research at Lumbini between 1933 and 1939. The campaign mainly consisted in re-shaping the mound to expose some of the archaeological structures. K. Shumsher rebuilt the Maya Devi Temple3 upon the plinth of the saptaratha shikara. Additionally, the pond was enlarged with successive terraces and a brick veneer (Rijal 1979), and the relic stupa on the northern side of the Temple was excavated. However, the archaeological works consisted in an “unscientific leveling method that resulted in the demolition of many subsidiary monuments and caused great damage to the site” (Bidari 2004: 168, Rijal 1979). The lack of any stratigraphic or archaeological analysis of the structures and of their relation to one another, together with the lack of archaeological reports represent a deep obstacle in the present overall understanding of the site.

2.2. Second phase of research: 1962 – 19912.2.1. D. MitraIn 1962, during an archaeological campaign at

Tilaurakot and at Kudan (Kapilavastu District), the then Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey of India, Mrs Debala Mitra, conducted a short-term survey and excavation in Lumbini. The excavation pursued by Mitra consisted of a small trench perpendicular to the western side of the Pillar, and was aimed at verifying the foundations of the Pillar as described by Mukherji and by Führer4. However, her objective could not be achieved as the excavation was stopped due to security reasons. The excavation was not conducted according to stratigraphic methods, but the principle of opening a trench in order to investigate the foundations of the Pillar is an example of scientific improvement in the archaeological research at the site.

2.2.2. HMGN Department of Archaeology: B. K. RijalIn 1970/1971 the Department of Archaeology started an archaeological campaign headed by Babu Krishna Rijal. For the first time the interest shifted from the religious core to the surroundings and specifically to the area where the Police Station is located today. The objective was to locate the site of the ancient Lumbini grama5 (Lumbini Village) and to plot the potential inhabited area around the Telar River. The excavation was carried out at the Police Station mound, using a stratigraphic method. This procedure led to the identification of 10 cultural layers in the Lumbini grama, dating from VI century B.C. to at least II century A.D.

Rijal’s 1970-1971 excavations were the first to be pursued according to a stratigraphic method. Thus they represent a potentially reliable source of information for understanding the overall development of the site of Lumbini.

Between 1975 and 1983 further archaeological campaigns were conducted by the Department of Archaeology at Lumbini, again headed by Babu Krishna Rijal. During this phase the focus of the archaeologists shifted back to the religious core of Lumbini, and mainly aimed at restoring the already exposed structures. Few excavations were carried out in order to allow for conservation activities (Rijal 1979).

As for conservation works, Rijal cleaned the exposed archaeological remains at the religious core of the site. Where necessary, such as in the case of the six stupas north of the Temple (S2-S7), the two stupas flanking the Asoka Pillar (S9, S11), and the big dhamma6 stupa southeast of the Temple (S31), Rijal

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extent the excavation method applied by Mishra can be considered as scientific and reliable, since no mention of it is given in his reports. In addition the dating method adopted by the archaeologist relies on the qualitative analysis of the bricks, rather than on the stratigraphic sequence of artifacts.

Mishra restored or reconstructed all the above-mentioned excavated remains. In addition, he exposed the saptaratha shikara phase of the Maya Devi Temple and repaired and conserved the Nativity Sculpture by recovering the two missing pieces and fixing them to the other two (Mishra 1995). Unfortunately, since the archaeologist provides no detailed information in this regard, it is not clear to what extent the restoration works can be considered reliable.

2.3. Third phase of research (1992 – present time)2.3.1. Japanese Buddhist Federation and HMGN Department of ArchaeologyBetween 1992 and 1995, the Japanese Buddhist Federation, in cooperation with HMGN Department of Archaeology and with Lumbini Development Trust, conducted an archaeological campaign. The campaign was directed by the Japanese archaeologist Satoru Uesaka for JBF, Kosh P. Acharya for the DoA and of Babu K. Rijal for LDT.

The research focused on the area of the Maya Devi Temple, where the Temple itself was demolished and the archaeological deposits lying underneath were investigated. The excavation was carried out using a stratigraphic method8, and led to the identification of a series of structures dating from the 3rd century B.C.9 to contemporary times. The so-called ‘Marker Stone’, a piece of sandstone that is believed to bear the newly born Buddha’s footprint, was also discovered at this time.

The excavations were followed by the conservation of the archaeological remains. The two outer walls and the wall below the Nativity Sculpture were consolidated in situ. The damaged bricks were replaced by other ancient bricks, and were fixed with mortar prepared with lime and brick powder10. According to the reports no conjectural addition was made, except for the part of the wall bearing the Nativity Sculpture, which has nevertheless been built with clearly different technique and bricks11.

Additionally, other works have been developed for the preservation of the site:- shelter for the archaeological remains excavated between 1992 and 1995;

undertook restoration works. The restoration method applied consisted of “collecting brickbats available at the site and building new edifices” (Bidari 2004: 202), which lead to the conclusion that “most of the conserved stupas consist of similar brickbats and seem to belong to the same period, though no mention has been made of the repaired portions added” (Bidari 2004: 202). Again, it is important to point out that such methods contravene with international restoration principles, and thus the authenticity of the archaeological structures is questionable.

Between 1975 and 1983 the religious core of the site was little excavated, the main objective being the conservation process. According to Rijal’s reports, the archaeological research focused on the area north/north-west of the Temple and on the area southeast of the pond.

The eastern monastery (Monastery Group A) was the last to be excavated by Rijal, in the 1980’s. According to his report it seems that a stratigraphic excavation method was applied, which led to the identification of the monastery and of a well with artifacts and bones, both of the Kushana period (1st-2nd centuries B.C.). On one hand, Rijal’s restoration procedures probably affected the authenticity of the archaeological structures; but on the other hand, the excavation works were the very first to actually enhance the historical potential of the site. In fact, the tentative use of a stratigraphic method allows interconnection among the various monuments and layers.

2.2.3. HMGN Department of Archaeology: T. N. MishraBetween 1984 and 1986 the religious core of Lumbini was investigated by the Department of Archaeology under the supervision of Tara Nanda Mishra. In this phase, both excavations and conservation works were executed, mainly in the area south of the Maya Devi Temple, and a chronological sequence of the site was finalized (Mishra 1995, Mishra 1996). As for the excavations, Mishra investigated:the monastic area located south-east of the pond; the 19 stupas north of the monastic area7, which Bidari interprets as structures 12 to 31; the “two bases of Buddhist brick temples and a forty feet long wall (most probably a compound wall)” (Mishra 1996: 42); the basement and foundations of the Asoka Pillar.

This phase of the archaeological activity in Lumbini represents an important step towards the understanding of the southern part of the site and of the monastic area. However, it is not clear to what

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- prevention from direct access of tourists to the archaeological remains excavated between &992 and 1995;- establishment of a drainage system for the reduction of ground water level in the area excavated between 1992 and 1995.

Despite all the problems that arose, mainly in connection with the construction of the New Maya Devi Temple, the research and conservation phase which started in 1992 can be defined as the most positive and advanced since the re-discovery of the site.

2.3.2. R. ConinghamIn 2001, within the framework of Technical Cooperation financed by UNESCO, a geophysical and auger survey was carried out in Lumbini. The survey aimed to determine potential archaeological areas in the core and buffer zones of the World Heritage Site (Coningham 2001). The campaign was headed by Prof. Robin Coningham, from Bradford University, and involved archaeologists from the local authorities, particularly Mr Kosh P. Acharya and Mr Uddha V. Acharya from the Department of Archaeology, and Mr. Basanta Bidari from the Lumbini Development Trust. For the geophysical analysis earth resistance and fluxgate gradiometer were selected as investigation techniques due to their effectiveness in the identification of elements such as burnt bricks.

In the core zone, the investigations were pursued close to the northern, western and southern sides of the Maya Devi Temple, in order to identify any remains that might be affected by the proposed intrusive building and drainage works. According to Coningham’s report, the high magnetic background noise levels around the Maya Devi Temple seem to indicate demolition debris of earlier brick buildings, which might confirm the continued historical use of the site. Additionally, close to the Temple itself, one of the investigated sites provided magnetic anomalies, which might be interpreted as brick structures.

In the buffer zone the geophysical survey was conducted north of the Mustang Temple and on the mound of the Police Station. No archaeological remains were identified in the former, whereas in the latter the pattern of magnetic anomalies may indicate the presence of linear structures associated with semicircular enclosures. These might be interpreted as ephemeral structures of a smaller settlement. What is important in this case is that the non-intrusive

analysis seems to indicate the existence of some kind of site buried under the Police station, thus confirming the excavations led by Rijal in 1970/71 and the general archaeological expectations for the area.

The geophysical data was further supported by the auger survey, which was pursued by taking 47 cores along transects through the center of the Maya Devi compound and out in the surrounding fields within the circular levee. Three clusters of archaeological deposits were identified through this phase of the research:- Area of the Asokan Pillar and Maya Devi Temple:

according to Coningham, this cluster extends out of the fenced enclosure on all sides for about 180 m east to west and 240 north to south;

- Area south-east of the Maya Devi compound and north of the Lumbini Development Trust archaeological offices: according to Coningham, this deposit appears “quite separate from the Temple deposit and appears related to the brick-lined well close to the eastern access road” (Coningham 2001: 16)

- Police Station mound: distinct from the previous clusters, and clearly a natural feature with subsequent human occupation on top.

The combined results of the two surveys lead to the assumption there are at least 3 potential archaeological areas in the Sacred Garden:- Maya Devi Temple area: both the geophysical

analysis and the auger survey show that the area is still characterized by buried structures that, according to the auger survey, extends beyond the modern fenced enclosure.

- Area southeast of the Maya Devi compound, north to the Lumbini Development Trust archaeological offices: the auger survey shows that cultural deposits are present here. However, the geophysical survey north of the Mustang Temple did not provide any significant datum in this regard, which may indicate that this area has no remains.

- Police Station mound: both the geophysical and the auger surveys provide information regarding some kind of settlement in this area, which is further supported by the results of Rijal’s 1970/71 excavations.

It should be noted that the results of the above-mentioned surveys are not completely available, and that the present paper was written without access to complete graphical documentation.

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it constituted an effort towards the chronological understanding of the site. However, as noted by Bidari, such a method cannot be considered sufficient since it should be applied together with an analysis of the stratigraphic and ceramic chronotypological sequence in order to be effective. Additionally, the history of the research shows that in several cases the structures have been restored or reconstructed, and that too often, between 10th and 17th centuries A.D., pilgrims rebuilt votive stupas by reusing bricks from earlier monuments. These considerations reduce the effectiveness of the bricks chronotypology adopted by Mishra, and should encourage archaeologists to establish a comprehensive stratigraphic and ceramic chronotypology for the understanding of the site.

However, despite all these drawbacks, the bricks chronotypology is the only comprehensive dating sequence at Lumbini at present. For this reason it will be taken into consideration in this paper.

3.2. The archaeological evolution of the siteThe site of Lumbini is composed of two main archaeological areas, the former being located in the pilgrimage core and nominated as World Heritage Site in 1997, the latter underneath the Police Station mound. Additionally, the 2001 auger survey displays archaeological features southeast of the Maya Devi compound and north to the Lumbini Development Trust archaeological offices, which may well correspond to an eastern extension of the religious site beyond the fenced area.

3. THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS

3.1. The chronological sequence at the siteAt present, the only local dating sequence at Lumbini is the bricks chronotypology proposed by Mishra (Mishra 1996). Based on the bricks size, texture and type of firing Mishra identifies six cultural layers at the site, as displayed in figure 4.

Mishra dates the Pre-Asokan period in Lumbini to 4th century B.C., thus ascribing the very first settlements at the site to this century. However, the data provided by the excavations of the Village Mound (underneath the Police Station) and of the rectangular chamber north-west of the Maya Devi Temple seem to prove that the first settlement was established at least two centuries earlier, that is in 6th century B.C. In fact, in the lowest layers of the chamber both Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished Ware have been recovered, which respectively date it to 6th/7th B.C. and to 6th/1st B.C. (Bidari 2004). Finding the two together suggests that the lowest layers of the chamber could be dated to 6th century B.C. Northern Black Polished Ware artifacts have also been recovered in the lowest strata of the Village Mound, thus confirming the first settlement in Lumbini in the 6th century. The following paragraphs will consider the Pre-Asokan period as ranging between 4th and 6th centuries B.C., or from Asoka’s visit back to the foundation of the site.

Despite the pre-Asokan dating issue, the solution of a bricks chronotypology was significant since

Century Period Layer Characteristics of Bricks

Colour Texture Firing SizeIX - XIII A.D. Khasiya Malla L1 nd nd nd nd

III - VIII A.D. Gupta1 L2 red smooth good (12.5” x 8.5” x 2”)(12” x 8” x 2”)2

II - I A.D. Kushana L3 ashy nd not very good (12.5” x 8” x 2.25”)

I - II B.C. Sunga/Mitra L4 yellow nd very good (14” x 0” X 2.5”)(13.75” x 0” x 2.25”)3

III B.C. Mauryan L5 red lot of paddy husks along with fine clay

very good (15.5” x 10.5” x 2.75”)(0” x 9.5” x 3”)

IV B.C. Pre-Asokan L6 nd nd nd (17” x 18” x 5”)(17.5” x 11.25” x 3.25”)

Fig 4. Chronotypology of bricks at Lumbini according to Mishra (Mishra 1996)

1 The Gupta dynasty dates between 319 A.D. and 480 A.D. However, Mishra considers it from III to VIII century A.D., and this dating will be kept as a reference in the present paper.2 The sizes are the ones adopted by Mishra for the bricks chronotypology (Mishra 1996). Where more than one size was provided by the author, the minimum and maximum have been reported in the present article, in order to give an idea of the size range per period. 3 In several cases Mishra provides 3-dimensional measures with one of them equal to zero. It is not clear what the reason for this is.

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B.C. A.D.VII VI V IV III II I I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII

B4VMS3 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?S6 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?S4 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?MB2 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?S31 ? ? ? ? ?S30 ? ? ? ? ?APB1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?MB1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?S5 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?MA1 ? ? ? ? ?S12 ? ? ? ? ?S13 ? ? ? ? ?S14 ? ? ? ? ?S15 ? ? ? ? ?S16 ? ? ? ? ?S17 ? ? ? ? ?S18 ? ? ? ? ?S19 ? ? ? ? ?S20 ? ? ? ? ?S21 ? ? ? ? ?S22 ? ? ? ? ?S23 ? ? ? ? ?S24 ? ? ? ? ?S25 ? ? ? ? ?S26 ? ? ? ? ?S27 ? ? ? ? ?S28 ? ? ? ? ?S29 ? ? ? ? ?S1SP ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

In order to understand the evolution of Lumbini, a detailed description of the remains is provided in the form of a table (Annex 6), with a supporting map of the structures. The present paragraph will refer to the chronological sequence of the structures as displayed in figure 5. The sequence table displays the period of building and the duration of each archaeological structure at Lumbini. In black are the datings that can be considered almost reliable12. In grey are the datings which have been proposed for some structures, but which are too vague to be considered reliable. The question marks indicate phases for which no chronological information is provided. All the datings are in chronological order, the objective being to group the remains per historical period. The final aim of this sequence table is to visually understand the evolution of Lumbini.

3.2.1. Pre-Asokan periodThe earliest testimony of a settlement in Lumbini dates to VI century B.C.13. This is recorded underneath the Police Station (Village Mound) and in the religious core area, northwest of and also probably beneath the Maya Devi Temple (fig. 6).

As for the former, the 1970/71 excavations revealed a sequence of ten layers of cultural deposits. The lowest provided Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) artefacts, which date it back to the pre-Asokan period. Contemporary to the Village Mound is the lowest cultural stratum beneath the Maya Devi Temple, which was identified by Acharya during the

1992-1995 excavations. Additionally, the rectangular chamber northwest of the Maya Devi Temple, where the lowest layers provided Northern Black Polished Ware and Grey Ware artefacts, can be ascribed to the Pre-Ashokan period. In fact, the cross dating with Banjarahi (site 8 Km south-east of Lumbini), where Grey Ware was found in strata of 7th/6th century B.C. (Bidari 2004), and the general dating for the Northern Black Polished Ware (6th–1st century B.C.) allow us to ascribe the above-mentioned chamber to approximately 6th century B.C. This establishes some connection between this construction and the first settlement phase at the Lumbini Grama.

These dates interestingly match with the foundation of the capital of the Sakya Kingdom in Tilaurakot (28 Km west of Lumbini), which dates back to 7th century B.C. (Bidari 2004). Both Kapilavastu and Lumbini were located along the Uttarapatha trading route14, which would link Rajgriha to Sravasti and which was very popular in those times (Bidari 2004). The favourable position along a trading route is stressed by Bidari, who links it to the finding of two artesian wells inside the Sacred Pond, “since generally such things as wells, rest houses and platforms under a tree or at crossroads were constructed along the well travelled routes” (Bidari 2004: 215). If the Uttarapatha was well known in Buddha’s lifetime, it might be inferred that the first settlement of Lumbini was located in this strategic position due to the favourable economic context. However, the archaeological data available at present do not allow us to identify the extension

Fig 5. Chronological sequence of the archaeological structures at Lumbini (S= stupa; VM=Village Mound; M=Monastery; AP=Asokan Pillar; SP=Sacred Pond)

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Fig 7. Mauryan Period

nor the function of Lumbini within the above-mentioned trading network. Only further excavations on the Village Mound and nearby the rectangular chamber in the religious core area will provide a clear understanding of the reasons that led to the first settlement in this area.

3.2.2. Mauryan period (3rd century B.C.)The real flourishing of Lumbini dates to the Mauryan period (3rd century B.C.) (fig. 7), and can be connected to the visit of Emperor Asoka and the official acknowledgment of the site as the birthplace of Lord Buddha. While the Lumbini Village and the rectangular chamber northwest of the Maya Devi Temple are dated to the previous phase, a number of religious structures are constructed during this period.

Some of the votive stupas (S3, S4, S30), the big dhamma stupa S31 and the saririka stupa (S6) can be ascribed to this time, together with the the earliest phase of the structures underneath the Maya Devi Temple and with the Asoka Pillar, which dates to 249 B.C.

In this phase the votive stupa S30 is built as a rectangular stupa, with “two layers of projected steps in the basement” (Mishra 1996: 42). Stupa S4 displays characteristics from this period that are not visible today. In fact, it is built in the shape of a squared stupa, the record of which remains in the buried

basement. The stupa S3 is squared as well, as we can see today, and the same can be said for the saririka stupa S6, where “a portion of the lid of a gold casket of cylindrical type in association with some charred human bones and other ritual offerings” (Rijal 1979: 19) were enclosed. It is not clear what the original shape of the dhamma stupa was, or whether it should be referred to as a dhamma stupa from its initial construction. The 19 terracotta seals that have been recovered from inside the stupa bear inscriptions of the Gupta period, which implies they were included in the monument at a later time.

The Mauryan phase of the Maya Devi Temple consists of a rectangular structure oriented east to west, identified by two walls (internal and external) that include a circumbulatory path supported by transversal walls. The inside of the structure is divided into fifteen chambers (Annex 7), distributed into five rows (east-west) of three chambers (north-south) each. Chamber 2 provided a piece of sandstone, which was interpreted as the Marker Stone. In chambers 7 and 8 a large amount of charcoal was recovered in the strata beneath the foundations of the chambers themselves. Radiocarbon dating analyses ascribed it to between 4th and 1st century B.C. (2σ range) (Japan Buddhist Federation 2005).

The first establishment of a permanent monastic community in the Monastery Group B (MB2) is also dated to the 3rd century B.C., which marks the

Fig 6. Pre-Asokan Period

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Fig 7. Mauryan Period Fig 8. Sunga Period Fig 9. Kushana Period

increased religious activity at the site. The Mauryan phase of the building has dwelling rooms on the four sides of the courtyard (rooms 1-18) and a meeting hall (upatthana sala) in the centre (Mishra 1996).

3.2.3. Sunga period (2nd – 1st centuries B.C.)During the Sunga period (2nd-1st centuries B.C.) the site continues to grow, mainly to the south and east of the Maya Devi Temple (fig. 8). According to the available data (Bidari 2004), a meeting hall was built east to the Temple (B1), and a new monastery was added west of that built during the Mauryan period (MB1). No clear inference can be made about the monastery’s early phase of construction because of the damage produced by later developments. However, the construction of a monastery and a meeting hall seem to indicate the development of an active religious community. In fact, the construction of a new monastic complex seems to refer to an increasing number of monks at the site. The need for a meeting hall may indicate an increasing interaction among the local religious communities. Mishra also ascribes the renovation of the Maya Devi Temple to this period, where five chambers were arranged upon the Mauryan structure during 2nd-1st centuries B.C. The central chamber is located above the previous chamber 2 in order to display the Marker Stone. The 4 other chambers surround it on its southwestern, southeastern, northeastern an northwestern15 corners.

Besides the new buildings some of the Mauryan

structures were undoubtedly still in use, such as the votive stupas S4 and S30, the dhamma stupa S31 and the monastic complex MB2. In this phase the stupa S30 was enlarged by a thick wall that runs around the previous structure. The area encompassed by the wall is filled-in with soil, in order to create “a processional path (pradakshinapath)” (Mishra 1996: 42). According to the archaeological data, during the Sunga period a rectangular stupa in plain style with a two-step basement was added to the dhamma stupa S31 on its western side. No data is available about the evolution of the monastery MB1 during this phase.

The general overview of Lumbini during the Sunga period is partially completed by the Asokan Pillar and by the Lumbini Village, which according to the archaeological data from 1970/71 excavations, were still active in this period.

A further group of remains needs to be added in order to complete the comprehensive picture of the site during the Sunga period. It is the group of structures that were built during the Mauryan period, but for which no clear mention is given by the archaeologists concerning their chronological duration. The group includes the votive stupa S3 and the Saririka stupa S6, for which some continuity with the previous period can be inferred.

3.2.4. Kushana period (1st– 2nd centuries A.D.)In the Kushana period the monastic community

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continues to increase, and a new monastic complex (MA1) is added east of the previous ones (fig. 9). In this phase, the monastery was composed of the dwelling rooms on northern, eastern and southern sides (rooms 14, 9, 8, 5, 6, 11), the meeting hall or upatthana sala (room 17) and the main courtyard (7), with 2 brick stupas (circular and squared) and a well (Mishra 1996).

In the same period a new votive circular stupa was built north of the Maya Devi Temple (S5) beside the squared Mauryan stupa S4 that is at this time “encased within the round shape by adding clay and brick bats all around” (Rijal 1977: 31).

These new constructions added to those built in the previous periods and which were still in use during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., such as the Maya Devi Temple structures, the two monastic complexes MB1 and MB2, the stupas S30 and S31, and the Asokan Pillar. Restoration works on these structures were pursued during this time. In monastery MB1 a long covered drain starting from room 21 and running across the sala was constructed. During the Kushana phase the dwelling rooms in monastery MB2 were limited to the northern, western and southern sides of the courtyard, and a verandah was added on the eastern side, in front of rooms 10 and 12. The top of the votive stupa S30 was reconstructed again, though most of this building phase, particularly the dome and the finial, are missing today.

During the Kushana phase the size of the monastic community must have grown considerably. By this stage there were three monasteries, which indicate the increasing importance of the religious value of the site. The general development can also be connected to the Lumbini Village, southeast of the religious core. In fact, according to the available archaeological data the Village was still active in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The 1970/71 excavations ascribed a number of items to this period; two brick wells, a large number of Kushana figurines, and a circular human burial containing “some portion of the human skull, one iron sickle and a few bones of birds and animals […] in a large number of pots” with incised designs (Rijal 1979: 16).

In order to complete a comprehensive picture of Lumbini during the Kushana period, a further group of remains needs to be considered. These are the structures built during the previous periods, but which are not dated clearly. The Sunga meeting hall B1, the saririka stupa S6 and the votive stupa S3 were in use

during this phase. Additionally, the twenty votive stupas south of the Maya Devi Temple (S12-S29) have to be kept in mind since, according to Mishra, they might have been built between the Kushana and the Gupta period.

Mishra argues that during the Kushana period the height of the plinths was raised after some form of flooding affected the site. It is not clear whether this event occurred during, or at the end of, this period, but proper stratigraphic excavations might clarify the issue. Such excavations would also provide data for the dating of the above-mentioned twenty stupas south of the Maya Devi Temple.

3.2.5. Gupta period (3rd – 8th centuries A.D.)According to the archaeological data available the Gupta period seems to coincide with the beginning of the decline of Lumbini, which might be connected to the flooding episode suggested by Mishra (Mishra 1996). In fact, no new construction was started during this phase, and the site generally maintains the aspect of the Kushana period (fig. 10).

However, renovation works carried out on the structures suggest there was some continuous activity. These are: the structures of the Maya Devi Temple area the stupa S30 and S31 the two monastic complexes MB1 and MA1.

According to the archaeological data and to the dating suggested by Mishra on the basis of architectural style (Mishra 1995), the transformation of the Maya Devi Temple structures into a saptaratha shikara Temple occurred between 6th and 7th century A.D. This is proved by the widespread use of decorative bricks in the building. Another wall was added around stupa S30 during this phase in order to further enlarge it.

Renovation works carried out during this phase also include the big stupa S31 where the 19 inscribed terracotta seals were encased. The monument thus became a dhamma stupa. During the early Gupta period (III-V centuries A.D.) the monastery MA1 is also re-erected, and a tri-sala pattern is displayed (Mishra 1996). At this time the monastic complex MB1 would have beeen composed of 11 dwelling rooms and of an aposthagara sala (room for religious functions) in the centre of the courtyard. This is clearly defined by the archaeological remains.

The fact that Lumbini was still an active site during the Gupta period is additionally proved by the continuity of settlement in the Lumbini Village. A

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Buddha plaque mould discovered in the top layers of the excavation proves the existence of a settlement at this time.

It is not clear whether many of the structures that were built before the Gupta period were still in use at this time, since no clear excavation has been conducted at the site. This prevents a neat identification of the life span of each of the monuments. However, one can infer that most would still have been in use, particularly the meeting hall B1, the saririka stupa S6 and the votive stupas S3, S4, S5. It is likely that this is also the case for the monastic complex MB2, since the restoration works conducted in the other two monasteries seem to indicate that the religious community in Lumbini remained very active at this time.

In order to understand the site during the Gupta period the twenty votive stupas S12-S29 need to be considered. Mishra has generally ascribed them to the time span between 1st and 8th centuries A.D. The group of 16 stupas northeast of the Maya Devi Temple (Bidari 2004) is also dated to the late Gupta or Khasiya-Malla period. No further specific dates can be expected due to the strongly invasive restoration works pursued by Rijal in the 1970’s.

After the Gupta period no further construction is recorded in Lumbini and the site seems to go into increasing decline: only a few more votive stupas are

built by pilgrims with bricks taken from the ancient structures. After the 14th - 15th century the site seems to have been completely abandoned, and a flooding episode analogous to the one of the Kushana period may have been the cause (Bidari 2004).

4. THE CONSERVATION OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS

As previously mentioned, the restoration activities until 1992 were based on reconstruction of the archaeological remains. This allows us to divide the restoration activities at Lumbini into two phases. The first (1896 – 1992) is based on reconstruction; the second (1992 – present day) displays an increasing knowledge of international conservation principles, though the construction of the Maya Devi Temple creates problems in this regard. Some issues still need to be addressed to maintain proper procedures and practices for the conservation of the archaeological remains at Lumbini.

4.1. First phase of conservation activities (1896 – 1992)Conservation activities at Lumbini began in the first half of the 20th century, shortly after the re-discovery of the site by Führer and K. Shumsher. The first restoration works are ascribed to Kesher Shumsher who, between 1933 and 1939, reconstructed the Maya Devi Temple and enlarged the Sacred Pond with successive terraces and a brick veneer (Rijal 1979).

Fig 11. First Phase of Conservation ActivitiesFig 10. Gupta Period

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About thirty years later, further serious restoration works were undertaken by HMGN Department of Archaeology, initially coordinated by B.K. Rijal and completed by T.N.Mishra. Between 1975 and 1986 most of the structures at the site were reconstruced in their original shape and size, with ancient bricks of analogous size and texture to the originals.

Figure 11 illustrates that most of the remains we see today are the result of this restoration phase. The archaeologists provided no clear report on the restoration procedures, and no mention is given of the added portions (Bidari 2004). Such a method clearly contravenes international restoration principles identified in the ICOMOS Venice Charter. Questions about the authenticity of the archaeological structures conserved according to the above-mentioned method naturally arise.

4.2. Second phase of conservation activities (1992 – present time)After completing the 1992-1995 archaeological campaign, restoration works in the Maya Devi Temple area were undertaken by Lumbini Development Trust and by the Department of Archaeology. Some of these interventions were pursued according to the conclusive strategies agreed in the “International Technical Meeting for the Conservation, Presentation and Development of the Maya Devi Temple Remains”. The meeting was financed by UNESCO and was held in Kathmandu in April 2001. Additionally, the recommendations of Dr. Mahmud Bendakir, a UNESCO Expert who visited the site in summer and autumn 2001, were incorporated into the strategy for proper conservation of Lumbini. This led to the decision of constructing the Maya Devi Temple as we see it today at the site.

The main issues addressed henceforth focus on the Maya Devi Temple area, and can be summarized as follows:- adaptation of the archaeological area to

permanent exposure: this includes the partial filling of the chambers, the in situ consolidation of the brick structures and the setting up of a proper conservation system for the Marker Stone in chamber C2;

- restoration of the Nativity Sculpture, and its replacement in the original position;

- sheltering of the archaeological remains;- ground water level control: this includes the

creation of drainage and of water control systems;

- moss reduction on the archaeological remains.

4.2.1. Adaptation of the archaeological area to permanent exposureThe chambers were isolated internally with geotextile and were filled-in with alternate layers of pebbles, brick grits and sand. Each layer was separated from the others by geotextile. The technique was adopted upon suggestion of Dr Bendakir, and aimed to guarantee the possibility of re-opening the excavation in the future, and to assist the natural breathing of the brick walls. Furthermore, the two outer walls and the wall below the Nativity Sculpture were consolidated in situ by integrating the broken bricks with bricks of the same texture and size. Mortar prepared with lime and brick powder (1x2% ratio) was used (Bidari 2004). Other conservation measures were adopted on the southeastern wall, which having been seriously damaged by pipal tree roots, was supported with an iron net and frame. The Marker Stone was also preserved in situ by encasing it in a wood framed box with bulletproof glass on the upper surface (Bidari 2004). The box guarantees transpiration through a thin net located on its northern side. At present, the Marker Stone is affected by moss growth all over its upper surface. This may be connected to the lack of effective air circulation in the box, together with the constant humidity that affects the remains in this part of the temple. Considering the peculiar and particularly perishable nature of sandstone, the conservation needs of the Marker Stone should be studied in more detail, and a more appropriate preservation strategy should be implemented.

4.2.2. The Nativity SculptureThe Nativity Sculpture, which during the excavations had been moved from the area, was replaced to its original position16 after the construction of the new Maya Devi Temple. Prior to this HMGN-Department of Archaeology used chemical treatments in order to remove the thick soot layer that had accumulated on the relief during its exposure to burning oil lamps.

4.2.3. Sheltering the archaeological remainsThe Lumbini Development Trust, upon the suggestion of Dr. Bendhakir, decided to completely shelter the remains with a new Temple. In his Mission Report the UNESCO Expert stated that “it is essential to keep the protective shelter over all of the archaeological remains of Maya Devi Temple” (Bendakir 2001). This reccomendation disagreed with the decision of the “International Technical Meeting for the Conservation, Presentation and Development of the Maya Devi Temple Remains”, which had a few months previously opted for the construction of a light pavilion to shelter only the Marker Stone and

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the Nativity Sculpture. Furthermore the provision supported the initial new Maya Devi Temple project, which had been proposed by Tribhuvan University Institute of Engineering in 1996, and which had at that time been rejected by UNESCO. Upon the results of Bendakir’s Mission, this latter project was reconsidered, and supposedly adapted to the following eight building criteria recommended by UNESCO:- non-intrusive- reversible- shelter- visibility- focus- access- worship- use of authentic materials.

It is not the objective of this paper to analyse whether such criteria were met or not, rather its focus is on the archaeological remains and on the impact the Temple had on them. In this regard, three main issues need to be addressed: the impact of the foundations of the Temple on the archaeological strata; the encasement of the remains in the perimeter wall of the Temple; and the reduction of an integral perception of the archaeological site.

Fig 12. Ground Water level at Maya Devi Temple

The foundations of the new Maya Devi Temple consist of sets of timber piles driven 8 to 10 m deep in the natural soil through a process of augering and hammering. The timber piles do not cover the whole perimeter of the construction, but concentrate in some points only, in correspondence with the main load of the building. Above the piles, steel pile caps are placed, upon which there are two levels of steel grillage. The grillage bears three steel stanchions per footing, upon which a lime concrete base is laid and the foundation wall is built.

In order to avoid a negative impact on the archaeological strata, the foundations of the Temple were constructed inside the trenches that had been previously excavated in order to ascertain the stratigraphy outside the Temple (Bidari 2004). Additionally, the piles were driven into virgin soil, thus not affecting any deeper stratum. Finally, continuous archaeological supervision was provided in order to guarantee a proper implementation of the works. On the basis of all the information collected, the foundations may not have substantially affected the archaeological strata, thus reducing the archaeological impact. However, a building site can be extremely damaging to archaeological structures,

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due to the placement of machinery, to the flow of labourers, and the invasive activities involved in a building site. Therefore, a detailed archaeological impact analysis of the potential risk should be carried out before any new construction, demolition or renovation work is planned. According to conversations with the Director-General of HMGN-Department of Archaeology, Mr. K. P. Acharya, such negative impacts were considerably reduced by appropriate preventive measures.

The construction of the Maya Devi Temple created two further issues. The first is the encasement of some of the archaeological remains with the wall of the Temple, ie the saririka stupa (S6) and stupas S9 and S11 on the west side of the temple. Despite many assurances that the walls’ loads are not affecting the structures, this kind of solution remains unsuitable. New construction so close to old remains damages the physical integrity of the stupas themselves. Additionally, this method reduces the integral perception of the archaeological site. When entering the core zone visitors cannot see the western part of the site; on the other hand, when worshipping at the Asoka Pillar, they cannot see most of the northern, southern and eastern remains. Due to its structure and size, the Temple attracts most of the attention of the visitors, thus distracting from the archaeological value of the site.

4.2.4. Ground water level controlThe ground water level control had initially been planned according to the decisions of the “International Technical Meeting for the Conservation, Presentation and Development of the Maya Devi Temple Remains”. The decisions stated “Drainage should be provided from the ‘cells’ by installing pipes in reconstituted brickwork below the visible surface. De-silting processes should be adequately considered in designing the surface drainage”. However, these decisions were agreed upon on the understanding that the remains would be uncovered.

After the construction of the Maya Devi Temple a new plan for water control was required, which would have to take into consideration the existence of a covering roof (Bidari 2004). Four pits were excavated at the four corners of the archaeological remains, at a lower height than the remains themselves. The pits are connected to a drainage system and during the rainy season a water pump drains the excess water. An additional pipe was also excavated in chamber 3 in order to keep the ground water level of chamber 2 under control, and to facilitate immediate action when

the water level rises. A drain was also constructed in order to control the water level of the Sacred Pond. According to Bidari the system reduced the ground water level, which used to be higher than the Marker Stone (98.5 m upon sea level), and which is now below this height (current ground water level: 97.5 m above sea level).

According to a survey carried out at the site by the writer in August 2005 it is clear that, despite the above-mentioned interventions, the ground water level of the area is still too high. Most of the lowest brick rows of the archaeological remains at the Maya Devi Temple are soaked with water. As can be seen in figure 12, the high level of humidity concentrates on the northern side of the Temple. Here not only the perimeter walls are wet, but also most of the brick pavements which lay at a higher altitude than the former. As the Sacred Pond is also located on the northern side of the Temple some connection between its location and the increased status of humidity of the remains can probably be inferred. The 2004 Reactive Monitoring Mission Report on Lumbini suggested the opening of the non-structural walls in order to incerase ventilation inside the building thus drying the remains. However, the problems are caused by ground water levels thus the problem can only be solved by lowering the level so that it no longer reaches the archaeological foundations. A more detailed study on the ground water level height, pattern and fluxes in the area might shed light on the issue, and help towards the identification of a more appropriate strategy for ground water reduction.

4.2.5. Moss reductionThe increasing spread of moss over remains is a frequent problem in archaeological sites. In Lumbini the spread of moss is distributed both inside and outside the Maya Devi Temple. The Lumbini Development Trust is addressing the problem by periodically scrubbing the bricks with coconut fibres. This system, though effective in the short term, could become invasive and cause the deterioration of the bricks in the long term.

A survey carried out by the writer in August 2005 displays that most of the moss inside the Temple corresponds to the doors and the area affected by the air circulation they produce. No moss was identified along the western and eastern sides of the remains, which are fenced by a continuous wall. On both the northern and southern sides, moss was recovered on the lowest rows of bricks in front of the doors and below the path towards the Marker Stone.

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Considering the general humidity of the archaeological remains inside the Temple these observations raise questions about the reasons for the concentrated spreading of moss. The behaviour of mosses, which the author has discussed with local and international experts, may shed some light on the subject. In order to grow mosses need not only water/humidity, but also sun for photosynthesis and air to facilitate the spreading of the spores. Therefore, their growth inside the Maya Devi Temple might be connected to the door openings themselves, from which light is shed, and through which spores can move. This action is facilitated by visitors, who act as spore-spreading vehicles. As mentioned above, the 2004 Reactive Monitoring Mission Report suggested that non-structural walls should be opened to favour ventilation and to reduce the level of humidity inside the Temple. However, if the above observations are correct, opening the walls might further increase in mosses’ growth unless a microclimate change transformed the situation.

A detailed study on local mosses’ behaviour, together with an analysis of the microclimate in the Temple and of possible scenarios for the changing of its parameters, might produce suitable strategies to address the moss growth on the archaeological remains inside the Temple.

4.3. Further conservation issues to be addressed at LumbiniA final mention must be given to archaeological impact assessment17 and to the status of emergency archaeology18 at Lumbini. No specific legislative provision for such activities is made by the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1956), nor in the Lumbini Development Trust Act (1985), and no mention of it is made in the internal rules of the Lumbini Development Trust. According to the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, authorisation must be obtained from HMGN Department of Archaeology prior to any construction work at the site. Once the permission is issued, works can be carried out with no further provision for the preservation of the archaeological heritage potentially lying unexcavated. According to verbal conversations with Mr Bidari, Head of the Division of Archaeology of Lumbini Development Trust, the Lumbini Development Trust archaeologists test the archaeological risk with trenches or surveys before any work is started, both within the core zone and in the buffer area. Such activity relies on Mr Bidari’s personal knowledge of the archaeological potentials of the area, and on his personal interest in preserving

the non-excavated data. Since there is currently no legislation to support such careful practices there is a risk that it might be neglected in the future. An analysis of the site’s archaeological needs and risks might identify the issues that need to be protected through by-laws aimed at protecting all the historical elements of Lumbini, both the exposed and the unexcavated.

5. CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of all the analysed aspects of Lumbini as an archaeological site, the conclusions can be divided into 2 main categories: - issues that need to be addressed in order to

develop a more detailed understanding of the archaeological evolution of the site;

- issues that need to be addressed towards the proper conservation of the remains.

5.1. Issues affecting a better archaeological understanding of LumbiniAt present the core area in Lumbini has been thoroughly excavated although not all research has been conducted according to proper stratigraphic methods of excavation. This has led to considerable uncertainty in the overall understanding of the chronological evolution of the site. In addition it has affected the interpretation of the remains and the reasons for the sites initial settlement and final abandonment. Further research, such as open-air excavations, geophysical surveys and micro morphological analyses might be appropriate in order to clarify these issues, and to provide the excavated part of the site with a comprehensive historical layout. The latter should necessarily include comprehensive stratigraphic and ceramic chronotypological sequences cross-matched with the chronotypology of the region and, where possible, with absolute datings.

Many areas at Lumbini still need to be excavated, both within the World Heritage Site’s core zone and in the buffer area. In particular the following archaeological campaigns in the core zone should be carried out:- to the south of the Maya Devi Temple in order

to ascertain the consistency of the Pre-Asokan deposits identified in the rectangular chamber B4,

- to the west of the Asoka Pillar in order to evaluate the extension of the site in this direction19;

- to the north of the Maya Devi Temple in order to ascertain the extension of the monastic complexes to the east and west of those presently exposed.

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In the buffer area, two main places need to be investigated the Village Mound under the Police Station and the area southeast of the Maya Devi compound (north of the Lumbini Development Trust archaeological offices). The former might provide relevant information regarding the chronotypological sequence at the site and the first phase of the settlement. This may lead to a broader understanding of the reasons for the first human occupation of the Lumbini area, and may additionally shed light on the causes for its abandonment.

5.2. Issues affecting a proper conservation of the archaeological remainsThe main conservation issues that need to be addressed in order to further enhance the site can be summarized as follows:

MARKER STONE CONSERVATION. The continuous growth of moss on the stone indicates that the present preservation strategy is not completely effective. In fact, the particularly perishable nature of sandstone suggests that such a process might seriously damage the stone in the long run. Therefore a detailed study of the conservation needs of this remain should be pursued in order to identify a more appropriate long term preservation strategy;

MOSS GROWTH. Though a common problem for archaeological sites, the increasing spread of moss and its periodic removal may, in the long run, damage the archaeological structures. A detailed study on local mosses’ behaviour and spreading, together with an analysis of the microclimate in the Temple and of possible changes of the internal climate parameters, might help to identify the most suitable strategies for addressing this issue;

GROUND WATER LEVEL. The ground water level is still too high for a proper conservation of the archaeological remains. Most of the lowest rows of bricks are permanently wet, at least during the rainy season, and this contributes to the spreading of mosses. A more detailed study on the ground water level, pattern and fluxes in the area might shed light on the issue, and help identify a more appropriate and intensive strategy for ground water level reduction at the site.

PRESERVATION OF POTENTIAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS. The lack of specific by-laws aimed at reducing the impact of infrastructure works on the archaeological remains at Lumbini threatens a proper preservation of all the unburied structures. The present situation

relies on procedural habits of the LDT Division of Archaeology. In the long term this cannot be considered reliable, as it is not supported by legislative provisions. An analysis of the archaeological risks faced by the site might identify the issues that need to be addressed for a comprehensive protection of all the historical elements of Lumbini. Such a study should lead to the drafting of by-laws to further protect the remains.

INTEGRITY OF PERCEPTION OF THE SITE. The Maya Devi Temple seriously affects a comprehensive perception of the archaeological site of Lumbini, since it fragments the visitors’ view. Additionally, due to its structure and size, the Temple attracts most of the visitors’ attention, distracting them from the archaeological value of the site. A detailed study might be considered to identify possible solutions to this problem, either by demolition of the Temple, or by its reduction in size and rearrangement of shape. If the demolition solution is implimented it must consider that demolition and reconstruction works can seriously harm the archaeological site and its stratigraphy. Therefore, such intervention should be kept as the very ultimate one and should only be carried out after a detailed calculation of the potential archaeological impact has been completed, and means for minimizing such impacts have been identified.

RESTORATION TECHNIQUES AND METHODS. The restoration method has been highly invasive since the beginning of archaeological works at the site and has been more concerned with reconstruction than restoration. As discussed, this method contravenes international restoration principles, and raises questions about the authenticity of the archaeological structures conserved accordingly. Recent restoration works have apparently been carried out in accordance with international standards. Training courses for local bodies responsible for such works would build on this positve trend, and improve the future conservation provisions and activities at the site.

5.3. UNESCO requirements for the conservation of a World Heritage SiteUNESCO’s requirements for the proper conservation of a World Heritage Site address the majority of issues affecting an enhanced development of the archaeological values of Lumbini. According to the 2005 “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the 1972 Convention”, the objective of proper conservation of a World Heritage Site is to preserve and enhance its Outstanding Universal Values by guaranteeing the site’s authenticity20 and integrity21.

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The property includes all elements necessary to express its Outstanding Universal Value

The lack of further excavations in the Sacred Garden (Core and Buffer zones) does not allow a complete exposure of the archaeological site, and thus a comprehensive understanding of its potentials and values.

The property is of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features which convey the property’s significance

At present, the property can be considered of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the site’s features. However:a. the Maya Devi Temple shelters only a small part of the remains out of the whole. There is no specific reason for covering those remains only, for they are burnt bricks just as the outside ones, and they are dated to almost the same periods as the outside ones;b. Recent surveys have proved that the archaeological area extends beyond the present boundaries of the World Heritage Site core area. Further excavations are therefore needed in order to expose them. Accordingly, the extension of the core area might be reconsidered.

The property suffers from adverse effects of development and/or neglect

The ground water level provokes a permanent status of humidity of the low layers of bricks, which weakens their structure, and in the long run can make them more friable and easy at crumbling.The growth of moss on the archaeological remains, both inside the Temple and outside it, constitutes a threat to the remains. To solve this problem, conservation treatments are pursued on a regular basis, by scrubbing the bricks with coconut fibres. On the long run, this might damage the bricks. The lack of an adequate and normative archaeological risk control in the Sacred Garden can lead to the loss of potential archaeological remains.

The physical fabric of the property and/or its significant features should be in good condition, and the impact of deterioration controlled

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(Form and) Design22

The maintenance of the authenticity of design in treatments for the conservation of WH Sites should respect the design intentions of the original structure. From this perspective, the conservation of the archaeological remains themselves has not changed the original design of the site and of the excavated structures, but the heavy reconstruction works which have been carried out since the re-discovery of the site question the notion of authenticity for the monuments at the siteThe construction of the Maya Devi Temple also arises some issues in this regard, for it is not clear whether it should be considered as a reconstruction of the previous Maya Devi Temple or a conservation treatment. If the former, then the authenticity of the site should be considered as at risk. In fact:-a comparative analysis of photographs of the 1939 temple and of the modern one clearly show that the two structures strictly differ as for size and design;-the modern temple has been constructed upon the foundations of structures which are previous to the Maya Devi Temple;-the design of the temple does not correspond to the historical one;-according to the Venice Charter (ICOMOS 1964), reconstruction as a means for enhancing an archaeological site should be ruled out a priori, except for anastylosis interventions.

Materials (and Substance)

The maintenance of the authenticity of the materials composing the archaeological remains has been pursued by re-using the ancient bricks for restoration works. Over the last decade repairs and additions have been distinguished from the original structures. However, since most of the restoration works have been carried out before 1992, the authenticity of the archaeological structures at Lumbini is questionable.

(Traditions) Techniques (and Management System) [Workmanship]

The maintenance of the authenticity of workmanship has been pursued through the creation of harmony between repairs and eventual new parts by using the traditional building techniques.

Location and setting

The maintenance of authenticity of location and setting aims at keeping the heritage in situ and at maintaining the relationship of the site to its surroundings. In Lumbini, the archaeological remains have been preserved in situ, and this respects one of the above-mentioned objectives. On the other hand, however, the construction of the Maya Devi Temple affects the relationship among the various components of the WH Site and dominates the original setting of the site, attracting all the attention and diverting it from the archaeological value of the site itself. Additionally, the construction of the pond and of the circular levee as per Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan have altered the original setting of the area.

Fig 13. Status of conservation of Lumbini World Heritage Site on the basis of UNESCO requirements as per Operational Guidelines

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Two values were identified at the time of Lumbini’s inscription in the World Heritage List:- Criterion iii: ‘Bear a unique or at least exceptional

testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization, which is living or which has disappeared’. In this regard, the World Heritage Committee stated that Lumbini’s “remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist Pilgrimage centres from a very early period”

- Criterion vi: ‘Be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance’. In this regard, the World Heritage Committee stated that “as the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, the Sacred Area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of the world’s great religions”

As clearly displayed in figure 13, a number of issues need to be addressed in Lumbini in order to preserve its authenticity and the integrity of its archaeological value. The issues identified in this paper correlate with the improvement of the quality of the criteria requirements, since they fall in the UNESCO categories of authenticity and integrity. Though the present status of conservation of the site cannot be considered bad, further steps are required in order to properly enhance the site. Lumbini’s enormous potential as a cultural and religious site make it worthy of an effort towards an increased sustainable development of its Outstanding Universal Values, and particularly of its archaeological features.

1 In this regard, the article 12 of the ICOMOS Venice Charter states: “Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but at the same time must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic evidence” (ICOMOS 1964).2 The Nativity Sculpture represents Maya Devi surrounded by three attendants. She is holding the branch of a tree and giving birth to Buddha. Today, the sculpture is conserved in the new Maya Devi Temple, upon the Marker Stone.3 It must be highlighted that it is this phase of the Maya Devi Temple that was demolished for the 1992-1995 archaeological campaign.4 According to Fuhrer, the Asoka Pillar would stand upon a masonry platform, and is reinforced by a squred brick railing running all around its base (Fuhrer 1896)5 The Lumbini Village is mentioned in the Asokan Pillar as beneficiary of tax exemption for its being the birthplace of Lord Buddha.6 A dhamma stupa is “built over religious books written on paper, metal, stone or wood” (Bidari 2004: 200).7 According to his report (Mishra 1996), Mishra “excavated” the 19 stupas. However, it is not clear whether they were effectively

excavated or if they were cleared out from any debris and then conserved, since Mishra does not provide any more detailed information about the excavation, except from for the Dhamma stupa south-east of the Temple (S31). 8 For the proposed stratigraphies at the site, please refer to Annex 2.9 Acharya identifies a cultural phase which would date back to the time of death of Buddha (554 a.C.), and which would thus prove that the site was already occupied during the VI century B.C. No structural remain is available for this phase, but considering the finding of the pre-Mauryan chamber north-west of the Temple in 1976/77, Acharya’s observation might be consistent.10 The mortar ratio of lime and brick powder was at 1x2% (Bidari 2004).11 According to the Venice Charter, restoration should stop where conjecture begins, and “any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must bear a contemporary stamp” (ICOMOS 1964: art. 10).12 Due to the dating problems mentioned in the previous paragraph, no dating can be considered as totally reliable at Lumbini.13 The VI century B.C. dating will need to be confirmed by more detailed stratigraphic analyses that connect the pillar to the rest of the site.14 Both Lumbini and Kapilavastu are in fact mentioned by the Sutta Nipata and by the Papancha-sudini as the most comfortable places for spending the night along this trade route (Bidari 2004).15 The north-western chamber is inferred, since no record has been found due to the damages produced by the later phases of construction.16 The original position of the sculpture means the place where it would be displayed in the previous Temple. However, it must be said that almost nothing can be considered original in the present location and setting of the sculpture.17 The archaeological impact assessment is done prior to undertake any infrastructural work, and it is carried out by matching the project details with the available archaeological data in the area and with data provided by non-invasive analyses. Its function is to evaluate the potential risk of incurring in archeological remains, and to set up measures for the control and reduction of such risk.18 Emergency archaeology is done during the execution of any infratsructural work, and includes a continuous archaeological supervision of works and excavations and the recording of all the data collected whenever any archaeological remain is found.19 It must be pointed out that no research has been conducted in this area since the re-discovery of the site.20 According to the Operational Guidelines, authenticity can be defined as the parameter that measures the truthfulness of the information sources of the site.21 According to the Operational Guidelines, integrity can be defined as the parameter that measures the wholeness and intactness of the site.22 It must be pointed out that the updated Operational Guidelines 2005 provide a more detailed set of parameters for the evaluation of authenticity. However, in the present paper the old version will be used for easy reference for the following reasons: i) the updated parameters are conceptually very similar to the previous ones; ii) the parameters set forth in the old version of the Operational Guidelines are the ones which were taken into consideration by the State Party for the preparation of the Nomination document.

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Nepal Nature dot Com combines experts in biodiversity conservation, tourism, natural resources, gender analysis, environment, de-mography, and socio-economic and political sciences.

Ukesh Raj Bhuju is a leading forester and conservation educationalist; he is a past President of Nepal Heritage Society and assisted in the establishment of IUCN Nepal and WWF Nepal Program. He has led the teams in assessing protected areas of Nepal, and in pre-paring and facilitating management plans. Rajendra Narsingh Suwal is a well-known wetland conservationist and a bird tour expert. He is the President of the Lumbini Crane Conservation Centre and a major contributor of the biodiversity profiles of Nepal.

LUMBINI: AN ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSISRajendra Suwal and Ukesh Bhuju

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Objectives of the StudyThe main objective of this study is to assess the current environmental status of the Lumbini Development Area (LDA) by reviewing the Lumbini Master Plan (LMP) and the current activities undertaken by the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT), as well as by other organisations. The assessment will identify the environmental problems at the site, and will propose hypotheses for an environmentally sustainable development of Lumbini.

The tasks were undertaken in five stages: conceptualisation, review, interaction, analysis and finalisation. At the conceptualisation stage, a series of meetings was held between the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu and Nepal Nature dot Com. At the review stage, various methods of data gathering were adopted, such as literature survey, data mining and field observations. At the interaction stage, consultative meetings were held with the key stakeholders in

Kathmandu and in the field. The data and information gathered from reviews and interactions were analysed using interactive and participatory procedures including situational, observational, and photographic analyses. A SWOT analysis was carried out in order to identify Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. The analysis aims at maximizing and promoting strengths and opportunities, and at minimising and converting weaknesses and threats into strengths and opportunities respectively (Annex 8: SWOT Analysis of Lumbini).

1.2. General Description of the Territory A general description of the study area is presented in two sections: the Lumbini Garden and the Rupandehi district. 1.2.1. The Lumbini GardenUnder the 1978 Master Plan for the development of Lumbini. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal (HMGN) acquired 7.7 km2 of land to restore and develop the Lumbini Garden as a core area along with an additional area of 64.5 km2 in the surroundings. As laid out in the plan, there are three main components of Lumbini: the Sacred Garden, the Cultural Centre/Monastic Enclaves and the New Lumbini Village. The design is oriented north south, with the Lumbini

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Village and the Cultural Centre to the north, and the Sacred Garden to the south. On either side of the axis towards its southern end are the monastic enclaves. The entire development is joined by a central link comprised of a walkway and a canal. This central link establishes the solitude and sanctity of the Sacred Garden, and offers pilgrims time and space to prepare them as they approach the Sacred Garden (Lumbini Development Trust 2004).

1.2.2. The Rupandehi districtThe district of Rupandehi, which covers an area of 1,401 km2, forms a major component of the Lumbini ecological complex. It links the central and western Terai and the inner Terai ecological regions, including the Royal Chitwan National Park in the east and the Royal Bardia National Park in the west.

Its land use pattern is composed of 23% forest, 6% grazing, 2 % water body, 5% rock and fallow land, 60% agriculture and 4% settlements. The district is divided into two geographical features, namely Siwalik and Bhavar (16%) in the north and flatland (86%) in the south. From the perspective of soil erosion hazards, 6% of the area is at medium risk; over 24% is at high and 70% at low level (DSCO Rupandehi, 2004).

In terms of population Rupandehi is the third largest district in the country. Its population is 708,419, with 117,856 households and an annual growth rate of 2.97% (DSCO Rupandehi, 2004). The main settlements in the surrounding Village Development Committees (VDCs) and the demographic details are given below (fig. 1).

VDC Ekla Khuda-bagar Lumbini Madhu-

bani Tenu-hawa

Average # persons per household (HH)

7.53 7.59 7.74 6.69 7.75

Total HH 1230 605 1092 824 1193

Total Population 9265 4593 8454 5516 9251

Male 4811 2321 4413 2846 4731

Female 4454 2272 4041 2670 4520

Telephone Y Y Y Y Y

Electricity Y Y Y Y Y

Literacy % 25.5 43.6 48.9 46.5 34.6

Fig 1. Demographic Details of VDC’s surrounding Lumbini (Source: Gautam et al. 2004)

2. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

2.1. Lumbini Development TrustUnder the 1985 Lumbini Development Trust Act, the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT) was made the legal entity for the Lumbini Development Area (LDA)1 and is responsible for the implementation of the Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan.

At an environmental level, the major work undertaken by LDT and by its predecessor, the Lumbini Development Committee, was the massive plantation for the reforestation of the area in 1970s. After the acquisition of land, which was once a paddy field, Lumbini was left barren. There remained some groves of mango, and of other trees representing the Terai habitat including: Tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce), Kapok (Bombax ceiba), Bel (Aegle marmelos), Areca nut (Areca catechu) and Sisoo (Dalbergia sissoo).

Over 370,000 saplings representing over 65 species were planted by LDT, particularly Sisoo (Dalbergia sissoo), patches of Sal trees (Shorea robusta) in the east and west monastic complexes, and avenues of Kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba) and Bottle brush (Callistemon species) along the Central Canal (Suwal 1999). At present, over 100 nursery staffs are engaged to maintain the flowerbeds, gardens, tree nurseries and plantation area (fig. 2).

2.2. Other OrganizationsThere are three major organizations that are further involved in environmental management of the Lumbini Development Area (LDA): - Lumbini Crane Conservation Centre (LCCC)- Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Project

(TRPAP) - IUCN Nepal.

Fig 2. Tree Plantations in Lumbini

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2.2.1. Lumbini Crane Conservation Centre (LCCC)At present, the Lumbini Crane Conservation Centre (LCCC) is a leading environmental organization involved in the LDA environment. Under the 50-year lease agreement between LDT and the International Crane Foundation signed in December 1994, LCCC is managing the 100 ha Lumbini Sarus Crane Sanctuary in the northern block of LDA. The major activities of LCCC are as follows2:• Annual counting of Sarus cranes (since 1988,

training of local youths, and using the roadside survey method)

• Seasonal survey of birds, vultures and storks (since 1994, training of local youths, roadside survey and sample area survey)

• Wetland creation (5 plots of 6 ha each), artesian well (size 10 cm boring at 125 m depth, discharge of 4 lt per minute), wild rice introduction (60 kg of seeds, broadcast sowing over 12 ha), tree and other species plantation (fenced plantation of 3,000 saplings of 22 species by 2005 in 4 ha)

• Watch tower construction (RCC, 8 m, 3m x 3m area, south-east corner of the Peace Stupa)

• User group formation (6 groups of average 11 persons, totalling 70 members representing 6 settlements in Lumbini, Khudabagar and Tenuhawa VDCs)

• Travellers’ sheds (5 m x 8 m) at south-west corner of the Peace Stupa

• Nature trails (1,800 m passing through grassland, forests and wetland of the LCS)

• Demonstration of wise use of wetland (fish stocking, and harvest, training in fishery, 50 local persons trained in 2004 and 2005)

• Crane conservation education camps for local youths and students (approx. 350 persons since 1996)

• Crane festivals (one day annual event in November, display of photographs, art works, art competition, wetland models, environmental friendly technology)

• Barbed wire fencing of plantation area (820 m)

2.2.2. TRPAPTRPAP is a governmental project launched in September 2001 with the technical and financial assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Department For International Development (DFID) and SNV Netherlands Development Organization. The Project was designed for transferral to the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) after phasing out, with the establishment of a Sustainable Tourism Development Unit (STDU). Since its inception in 2001, Lumbini has been one

of the six pilot sites of TRPAP. The aim is to reduce poverty and to conserve the natural and cultural heritage of Lumbini. It helps poor communities to enhance capacity for sustainable rural tourism through various supports, such as training, skills development, establishment of a village tourism development fund, improvement of infrastructure, and by building institutional mechanisms and developing policies. The program has adopted ‘bottom-up’ and community participatory approaches.

The three major environmental activities promoted by TRPAP are school tree plantations, garbage management and biogas promotion. Over 250 saplings have been planted and managed by school eco clubs as for the plantation in school compounds. The species included Ashok (Saraca indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Gulmohar (Delonix regia), and Mayur Pankhi (Thuja orientalis). In terms of garbage management, TRPAP introduced a pushcart to collect the rubbish in Ama and Madhuvani VDCs. The rubbish thus collected is transferred to an incinerator for safe disposal. Rubbish bins will be placed at the eight major road intersections to keep the surroundings free of garbage (Khudabagar, Tenuhawa, Madhuvani, Lumbini, Bhagawanpur and Ama). There is a high demand for TRPAP support of biogas installations. Technically, Rupandehi district is a highly feasible area for the technology. This intervention will eventually improve the health of the people, and save forests in the long run. Of the total 123,395 biogas plants installed in the country, the Rupandehi district alone had in 2004 3,869 plants (http://bspnepal.org.np/achievements.htm). Finally, as far as tourism planning is concerned, a district level participatory tourism development and management plan has recently been prepared by TRPAP. Among the 13 components that have been envisaged in the tourism plan, there are activities related to environmental management. They are heritage preservation in compliance with the Lumbini Master Plan, conservation of wetlands, environmental conservation and garbage management.

2.2.3. IUCNDuring the 5 year period from 1995 to 1999, IUCN Nepal launched a series of conservation activities in Lumbini, as follows:1995• A berm (earthen dyke) of 1 m height and 30 m

long was constructed at Harahawa river, just west of the Central Link bridge, in order to study the flood effects and water regime;

• A tree nursery was established at Parsa for

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plantations in wetland and grassland area. 1996• Construction of ponds near the Harhawa river;• Berm at Harhawa river replaced by a 40 meter

length, 2 meter breadth and 1.5 meter height brick, stone and concrete dam.

1997• Plantation of Sachharum munja on the banks of

Harhawa River to control bank erosion;• Over 400 saplings of native trees planted in the

LWP; • Nature trails and resting places constructed in the

LWP to facilitate the visitors;• Tissue Culture of Peepal tree (Ficus religiosa)

harvested from the earlier Maya Devi temple. 1998/99• Development of the environmental Conservation

Plan for the Gaindahawa Lake, 14 km north of Lumbini;

• Plantation of additional 800 tree saplings in the IUCN LWP;

• Construction of 387 m barbed wire fence on the concrete fence;

• Maintenance of nature trail and resting places;• Maintenance of ponds;• Construction of sluice gates in Harhawa dam to

regulate the flow of water;• Conservation awareness program, production

of educational materials, organization of essay and quiz contest, teachers training, plantation, consultative meetings and familiarization tours.

As a result of the conservation works initiated by IUCN in Lumbini, the following results have been experienced:• Seasonal wetland creation in the Harhawa river

(once the river discharge is minimal);• Feeding habitat was provided for wetland birds

during dry period;• Upstream wetland creation;• Downstream devoid of moisture due to

damming;• Local migration of fish hindered;• Improvement of bird and wildlife habitat through

native trees plantation;• Awareness raising activities on tissue culture of the

Mayadevi tree (distributed in the monasteries).

3. PRESENT ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS

3.1. Lumbini Garden 3.1.1. Fauna

With the recreation of the wetlands and of the natural habitats inside the LDA, birds and animals have been attracted to the Lumbini garden, where nesting sites have been identified. The sites are being monitored and managed by the Lumbini Crane Conservation Centre, and are located in the following areas:• Swamp areas beside the Vietnam monastery and

the Tara monastery• North of the World Peace stupa (Lumbini Crane

Sanctuary)• East of the World Peace stupa (Lumbini Crane

Sanctuary)• Circular pond in between Hokke Hotel and

Srilankan Pilgrims House

The monitoring of Sarus was initiated in 1988. There are about 100 individuals in and around 10 km radius of Lumbini garden. A high count of 88 individuals during the non-breeding season, along with 25 nesting pairs (fig. 3), was recorded in 2005.

Blue bull antelopes have been colonizing the Lumbini garden since the Nineties. Within few years the number rose to around 200 in 1995. The farmers, whose crop was being depredated, might have poisoned blue bulls between 1996 and 1998. In fact, up to 70 dead individuals were recorded in the Lumbini area between the months of November and December 1997. The 1997 cold wave that hit the Terai was also a cause of the death. Under the aegis of King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, five individuals were trans-located to the Kusum Forest of Banke in 1998. Currently the number of blue bulls is around 50, and the Lumbini area has become a shelter for the antelopes, which feed on the surrounding fields.

Two pairs of Eurasian Eagle Owls regularly nest in the groves inside the garden. Similarly Gray Hornbills reside and nest inside the garden. The sick and old cattle that die inside the garden are cleaned by the endangered vulture, chiefly the White-rumped and Slender-billed.

Due to presence of garbage, the number of crows is increasing, and this constitutes a threat to other songbirds. They raid the nest and eat eggs and chicks. They also mob other birds, occasionally bigger than them, including the Eurasian Eagle Owl.

3.1.2. Flora The habitat inside the Lumbini Garden is mainly composed of grassland (58.8 %), forest plantation (40 %) and open water bodies (1.5 %). The dominant grass

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species includes Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum munja, Phragmites and Vetiver. Along the two major rivers, Harhawa and Telar, there are many water bodies (ponds) in the depressed land. The major wetland plants include Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Potemogeton (submerged), Nymphea, Trapa, Eichornia (floating species) and Scirpus, Eleochris, Zizania, Typha, Polygonum, Leersia, Ipomea, Oryza rufipogon as emergent species. Eichhornia is a problem species in the wetland of Lumbini.

3.1.3. Rivers and soil characteristicsHarhawa river: the catchment area of Harhawa River is 21 km (fig .4)2. The peak flood discharge is estimated at 160 cum/sec (in the Master Plan, the estimation of the maximum rainfall in 24 hours period is assumed to be 360 mm). The river basin is flooded several times each year and each flooding lasts 4 to 5 days. The river develops a typical floodplain of 100/120 meter in width, one to two meters below the surrounding grounds along the river course.

Telar River: the Telar flows east to the Sacred Garden. The name derives from (Tel = oil), since the water is thought to be oily in nature. This river is a landmark, mentioned by the Chinese travellers as flowing close to the birthplace of Buddha.

The type of soil is clayish, permeability is very low, sodium level is high and available phosphorus is very low. Soil is firm and the alkalinity level is high.

Year Air Temperature Relative Humidity

Mean Absolute Extreme Observed at Precipitation

Max Min Daily Max & Month Min & Month 08:45 NST 17:45 NST Max in 24h

1999 31.3 19.1 25.2 42.5/April 6/January 87 77 223/June

2000 30.04 18.5 24.5 40.1/April 4.8/January 87 75 100/JuneFig 5. Climatological Record in Rupandehi District, years 1999-2000 (Source: DDP, 2004)

3.2. Rupandehi district3.2.1. Climatological recordLumbini lies in the sub-tropical climatic zone, which experiences all four seasons. From March to May there is a brief spring, which is followed by a long summer season, with high temperatures (up to 42.5°C), low humidity, thunder showers and heat waves that originate from the heat of the land. Monsoon is the rainy season between mid June and August. The maximum downpour recorded in 1999 is 223 mm within 24 hours (fig. 5). September may remain wet because of the remaining monsoon clouds. October and November is the autumnal season, with a dry and warm climate in the daytime and cold temperatures in the night. December, January and February are the winter season with foggy mornings and cold temperatures at night, which can drop to 5°C. Occasionally, cold spells occur throughout the Terai, with a layer dense and low fog. This fog hinders the penetration of the sunlight and causes severe drops in the mean daytime temperature from 25° to 15°C. This may last for about a month and represents a threat to plants and animals and also a health hazard to human beings.

3.2.2. Ground waterDuring April 1999, the Global Resources Institute and the International Buddhist Society sampled and tested the water from nine villages in the Lumbini area, collected the relevant data for project planning, discussed water and health conditions with the people

Fig 3. Nesting Sarus Crane Fig 4. Harhawa River

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of the villages, and made preliminary field tests of the solar disinfection technologies. The survey indicated the importance and the primary role of water quality testing. In many cases the simple identification of safe sources of drinking water will encourage the use of those sources rather than the unsafe ones. In a village having 25 or 30 wells, there is some likelihood that at least a small number of these will be free of bacterial contamination. By making necessary arrangements for the common use of these wells for drinking water, considerable reduction of water borne disease can be expected. In many cases it is likely that an improvement in water quality can be obtained by increasing well sanitation. Making sure that wells are properly grouted and sealed, that they have proper pads for the drainage of wastewater, and that only clean water is used for priming, are all simple and non-expensive methods for decreasing bacterial contamination.

3.2.3. Global change factorsIn Nepal, an atmospheric warming trend has been recorded since 1977. The annual average temperature rise ranges from 0.06º to 0.12º C in the middle mountain and in the Himalayan region, and of 0.03º C in the Siwalik and Terai regions. Likewise, the major alien species that have been widely spreading in the lowland protected areas of Nepal are Mikania micrantha, Lantana camara, Eichhornia crassipes, and Eupatorium odoratum and similar.

4. HYPOTHESES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT

The Lumbini gardens were created after the acquisition of land under the 1978 Master Plan. The area soon turned into a remarkable wildlife habitat after the tree plantation and creation of wetlands. At present, the area is home to multiple species: 44 species of fish, 21 species of reptiles, 211 species of birds in six eco-groups, and 22 species of mammals.

There are several environmental issues that have been addressed in the Lumbini Master Plan area. They are associated with plantation, infrastructure, water, garbage, pollution, and wildlife. Under this study, the following issues have been identified and analysed in order to identify possible strategies for an environmentally sustainable development of the site:• Monoculture Plantation,• Plant Nurseries,• Conservation Infrastructure, • Water Bodies,• Garbage Management,

• Pollution Hazards, • Wildlife Hazards,• Poverty and Opportunity.

4.1. Monoculture Plantation 4.1.1. IssuesAfter the acquisition of land for the Lumbini Development Area, a massive plantation program was launched to convert the existing paddy field into forest. Although over 370,000 saplings of 65 different tree species were planted, nearly the 79.5% was Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo) and 7.2% Sal (Shorea robusta).

Like the other monoculture crops, Sissoo plantations in the Terai face several threats such as top-dying, leaves turning yellow, defoliation due to insect borers, oozing of black and reddish sap, termites attacks, and fungi infections.

Sissoo monoculture offers limited diversity of wildlife and birdlife. In fact, in a Sissoo forest there is low undergrowth of grass and shrubs because of the thick layers of leaf litter.

4.1.2. StrategyConsidering the fact that Buddha was born in a forest, the ambiance of Buddha’s birthplace should have a forest character. From an ecological perspective, it might be appropriate to develop the newly established forests of Lumbini so as to reflect the representative natural habitats of the Terai.

Extensive gardening and flowerbeds need a big financial investment, periodic maintenance and ample use of toxic pesticides and fertilizers. Thus, it would be ideal to manage the major part of the LDA as a semi-wilderness forest garden rather than as an artificially decorated flower garden. Ornamental gardening might be limited to the Sacred Garden area around the Maya Devi Temple.

In order to maintain shelters for the wildlife, dead and dying trees should not be removed from the semi-wilderness area. Such trees would also contribute to the food for birds, hollows for nesting birds and nutrient cycles in nature.

The local community should also be encouraged to manage the forest for their own benefit (fodder and fuels) and also for biodiversity conservation

4.1.3. ActionsThe following actions are recommended to address

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the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Practice randomised plantation to create the

impression of natural forest;2. Replace casualty plantation with indigenous,

evergreen and fruiting trees;3. Plant more fruit trees to attract residential and

migratory birds;4. Create semi-wilderness area and arboretum

in the southern end which has a more natural character;

5. Start avenue plantations inside and outside the Lumbini Sacred Garden;

6. Maintain grassland by controlling burning and harvesting;

7. Mobilize locals to form user groups for the protection and management of LDT semi-wilderness areas.

8. Create and maintain wetlands.

Fig 6. Tree Plantation and Nursery

4.2. Plant Nurseries 4.2.1. IssuesToday, Lumbini is a storehouse of different species of flowers and trees, the latter including the 65 different species that were planted. Over 100 nursery staff are engaged in maintaining the flowerbeds, gardens, tree nurseries and plantation area. There are two nurseries: the Parsa nursery is out of operation at present, whereas the operating nursery produces limited saplings and plants (fig. 6).Lumbini is being developed as a green island amidst the cultivated fields and human settlements. The plantation programs promoted by TRPAP are limited to the schools, and have so far planted only 250 trees. For long-term environmental conservation, the surrounding areas should also be brought under perennial vegetation.

4.2.2. StrategiesIn order to enhance the natural beauty of the LDA, it is essential to develop plantation programs in the

surroundings. The plantation program outside the LDA can be implemented if the local communities participate in them. The multi-purpose tree species should be freely distributed among communities in the buffer villages.

The two nurseries (forest and garden) might be managed in the following ways:1. Sacred garden nursery: to produce flower plants

for the Sacred Garden and souvenir plants for the visitors.

2. Parsa nursery: produce adequate saplings for casualty plantation and fruit bearing trees for free distribution among the buffer communities.

In both nurseries native trees saplings and flower plants might be promoted. This will enhance the conservation of local biodiversity and will avoid the threats deriving from alien species.

4.2.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Improve the current plant nurseries to bring both

of them into full operation;2. Produce fruit tree saplings at the Parsa nursery

for free distribution to the surrounding communities;

3. Produce ornamental flowers at the Sacred Garden nursery to be used as offerings and souvenirs for the visitors and for the Sacred Garden;

4. Guarantee a regular supply of plants for LDA gardens;

5. Provide fruit tree saplings to the non-buffer area people on nominal price;

6. Motivate surrounding landowners to plant evergreen trees on their fallow land.

4.3. Natural Conservation Infrastructures4.3.1. IssuesBuddhism reflects the philosophy of nature conservation. Lumbini is a learning place for many visitors including students, conservationists, researchers and the general public. Conservation infrastructures such as nature trail, bird-hide, enclosures and floating islands may allow learning from the open book of nature.

Lumbini has many opportunities for nature tourism, but so far it has been under used. The established Sarus Crane Sanctuary and the other semi-wilderness areas in Lumbini are less frequented by the visitors than they could be. At present the experience of Lumbini is mostly limited to the religious site.

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After a long journey from home, visitors’ stay in Lumbini is usually less than one day. Visitors could stay longer if nature conservation infrastructures were developed. Additionally, conservation infrastructures are essential for the management of the area.

4.3.2. StrategiesNatural conservation infrastructure can also be used for educational and recreation activities. The enclosures will be developed to produce aviaries and display live butterflies. These enclosures could also be used for the study of biology. This infrastructure could also be used fo promotel. In the long run Lumbini could be developed as an open natural park.

The enclosures and the other infrastructure could be managed by involving local groups of potential users, thus creating a tourism promotion with positive economic impact on the local communities.

4.3.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Create a two-meter wide nature trail in a serpentine

form without cutting any trees. The trail should be circular and should be half an hour to one hour walking distance in the semi-wilderness area;

2. Establish some machans (watch tower or bird hides) in the jungle and in the wetland area for watching birds and wildlife, or for meditation;

3. Establish walk-in butterfly enclosure with Terai representative species;

4. Establish walk-in aviary with colorful Terai bird species;

5. Conduct nature conservation education programs;

6. Establish open mammal enclosures with black buck, deer and blue bull antelopes;

7. Establish floating islands for turtles, amphibians and other animals.

4.4. Water Bodies4.4.1. IssuesWater is a critical factor in Lumbini. In Bhairahawa (20 km east of Lumbini) the rainy season lasts from mid-June to mid-September, with an average rainfall of 2064 mm in 1999 and 1504 mm in 2000. The area experiences a long dry period from October to May, with sporadic rainfalls in December.

The natural drainage systems are dry during most of the year. However, they flood during the monsoon season, and the discharge of the Telar and Harhawa

rivers is not adequate for the wildlife.

An encouraging factor in Lumbini is the potential for artesian wells. Already, in 2003 the Sarus Crane Sanctuary was supplied with a 125 m deep artesian well of 7 litres per minute for 24 hours.

Although flood is not a serious problem in the LDA, there are occasional threats to the terrestrial animal habitats. Additionally, the exposed surface of the earthen levees is prone to soil erosion during rainy seasons. There are symptoms of splash, sheet and rill erosions. Vegetative coverage, especially with grass as planned in the Master Plan, is essential to protect the exposed surfaces from erosion.

4.4.2. StrategiesWater management can be improved by adopting two main strategies: water tapping and water regime control. The major strategy is to tap the existing natural sources of water in the area. During the autumn (September to November), the natural drainage systems can be tapped to retain the moisture for the hottest and driest months of March to May. Artesian wells might additionally be installed as a further water source.

4.4.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Construct sluice gates at the Telar outlet near

the southern boundary. This will create water impoundment along the Tellar and Harhawa rivers, and will enhance the local micro-climatic conditions of the area. This system will also help to control the water regime in the area.

2. Install artesian wells to provide water to the wetlands and to the artificial ponds

4.5. Garbage Management4.5.1. IssuesGarbage and waste management are addressed in the Master Plan. In case of liquid waste from toilets, individual septic tanks have been constructed in the building premises. However, it has been noticed that kitchen waste produced by lodges and restaurants is openly disposed, creating an unhealthy environment in the surroundings. Hordes of local picnickers leave garbage all around the Lumbini garden. They create sound pollution and smoke pollution by burning wood. The kitchen fire could become a fire hazard.

The sewerage system proposed by the Master Plan

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may take some years to complete. In the meantime, it has been noted that the increasing number of visitors and human activities is producing more and more garbage and waste. Unused bulldozers and cranes present an unpleasant look.

4.5.2. StrategyOne of the strategies for waste and garbage management could be to make the Lumbini area a plastic free zone. Alternative and environmental friendly materials could be made available at various locations in the area, if subsidies were provided for such materials. The visitors and residents could be motivated to use environmentally friendly materials in lieu of plastic materials, and the lessons from the other religious and heritage sites such as Pashupatinath and Swoyambhu Mahachaitya could be considered in this matter.

Considering that waste management is associated with human behaviour, visitors’ awareness campaigns might be launched by mobilising students, youths and other volunteers for clean up campaigns. Incentives in the form of recognition and rewards might in this case be necessary. It will also be necessary to provide waste management components for every major event that is held in the area.

4.5.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Introduce a regular clean-up campaign, such as

the successful Tippan Tappan campaign adopted by Bhaktapur Municipality to keep the city clean. The cleaning staff members collect plastics, cans and other non-biodegradable materials in a basket and dispose them off scientifically;

2. Launch visitor awareness campaigns for minimizing waste and garbage production by using environmentally friendly materials and by disposing of waste in the designated place;

3. Support schools, youth clubs and user groups with materials and other incentives for cleaning campaigns;

4. Install incinerators and recycling/composting plants for managing waste and garbage.

5. Get rid of the unused cranes and bulldozers by selling them to scrap dealers.

4.6. Pollution Hazards 4.6.1. IssuesStagnant water such as ponds, swamps and pit gutters are major habitats for mosquitoes and other vectors

of epidemics. In these terms, the ponds and wetlands in Lumbini are prone to such threats.

The existing dirt roads and the surrounding open fields are the major sources of suspended dust particles in the air. In winter, the cold wave consisting of humid fog and dust particles block the sunlight and cause severe drops in the mean daytime temperatures from 25º C to 15º C. This phenomenon affects plant and animal life, as well as humans. In the late spring and early summer period (April and May) before the monsoon rain, the area is exposed to the western heat waves called Loo, which blows dust particles.

Besides the air pollution due to natural phenomena, Lumbini is affected by industrial air pollution provoked by substances such as carbon dioxide, smoke, cement dust and foul smells. These pollutants are produced by various industries in the surrounding area, namely Triveni distillery, Reliance paper mill, Harisiddhi brick factory, Jagadamba cement and Jagadamba synthetics. The Lumbini garden and the Rupandehi district have experienced major changes in industrial growth. Similarly, there are nearly 4,000 industries registered in the district of Rupandehi. There are 15 small and large industries around the sensitive habitats of the Sarus Crane Sanctuary.

Rupandehi district is the area where the north-south and east-west highways join. Additionally, the Lumbini area is one of the sites near which the proposed Asian highway will pass. Furthermore, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal has decided to transform the existing airport into an international one. Though potentially positive for the economy of this area, all these elements threaten the tranquility and solitude of Lumbini.

Finally, with a proposal of developing LDA as a Peace City, tourism activities are expected to grow in the Lumbini-Tilaurakot archaeological corridor. On the other hand, because of the ongoing dams and dikes in the territory, several portions of the villages surrounding LDA will be submerged during monsoon season.

4.6.2. StrategiesThe environmental strategy to address the issue of stagnant waters might be primarily the biological control of mosquito larvae. Dragon fly larvae feed on mosquito larvae and adults feed on adults. Similarly, the presence of predators like larvivorous fish species3 might reduce the growth of mosquitoes.

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Air pollution due to dust can be controlled by regulating vehicle movement in the area. Additionally, the service vehicles operated by the residential monasteries could be electrically powered. It would also be appropriate to promote non-polluting animal-driven vehicles. Furthermore, a mechanical way of minimising dust might be to pave the roads with bricks or stones that are compatible with the Lumbini area. Finally, the land surface could be covered with vegetation, and avenue plantation along the roads should be maintained.

As for the polluting industries in the surroundings, it might be necessary to shift them away from the Lumbini area. For example, the eastern part of the district may be declared as an industrial zone.Strategies to control noise pollution in the area are to regulate noisy vehicles along the roads and might include no-horn policies. Similarly, the Lumbini area might be declared as no fly zone for the low flying aircrafts.

4.6.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues:1. Promotion of native larvivorous fish species and

dragon flies to control the growth of mosquitos;2. Maintenance of avenue plantation;3. Introduction of animal-driven vehicles as

proposed by TRPAP in the village tourist circuit;4. Paving of the roads with bricks or stones that are

compatible with the Lumbini area;5. Grass turfing on the exposed soil on the banks of

ponds and river;6. In relation with the proposed World Peace City,

preparation of a plan with a vision of maintaining the natural environment of the surrounding area;

7. Introduction of traffic noise control mechanisms (‘no horn’ signs posts and a driver awareness program)

8. Declaring the Sacred Garden and the monastic area no-fly zones for the low flying aircrafts.

4.7. Wildlife Hazards4.7.1. IssuesThere are incidents of stealing eggs and chicks of Sarus Cranes in Lumbini (fig. 7). Similarly, birds have been killed by accidentally hitting the high-tension electrical lines. There are about 100 individual Sarus Cranes within a 10 km radius around the Lumbini garden. A high count of 88 individuals during the non-breeding season along with 25 nesting pairs was recorded.

There are incidents of retaliatory killings of blue bulls after they have damaged the agricultural crops.

The area is a good habitat of reptiles namely cobra, Russell’s viper, pit viper and common crait among venomous species, and python, rat snake, cat snake, keel-back among the non-venomous. Some of them, such as python, are endangered species protected under the law. The dilemma is that there are frequent incidents of snakebites in the area.

Jackals are found abundantly in the area. They pose threats to the poultry farms, and are the carriers of deadly diseases like rabies.

In the surrounding villages lives a community of Netuwa, who hunts jackals, turtles and snakes.

4.7.2. StrategiesIt is essential to launch public awareness campaigns to save the eggs of Sarus, save the blue bulls, and avoid snakebites. Unless the local people are aware of the importance of birds like Sarus and of animals like blue bulls, wildlife conservation will be fighting a loosing battle.

Fig 7. Sarus Crane

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In the case of snakebites, facilities for immediate treatment will be necessary, along with the public awareness campaigns.

A control of problematic animals like jackals and snakes is possible by giving the Netuwa their traditional rights of hunting these animals.

4.7.3. ActionsThe following actions are suggested in order to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Launch public awareness campaigns in schools

and communities in order to save the eggs of sarus, save the blue bulls, and avoid snake bites;

2. Establish facilities for immediate treatment of snake bite cases;

3. Prepare a management plan for the sustainable control of jackals and snakes in cooperation with the Netuwa communities.

4.8. Poverty and Opportunity 4.8.1. IssuesLumbini is identified as the Birthplace of Lord Buddha and has been recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage. However, this World Heritage Site does not stand isolated, and its sustainability also relies on the quality of life of the local communities. Therefore, it is essential that ample opportunities be provided to the villagers living near Lumbini. At present the positive economic impact of tourism in Lumbini neglects the local communities of the southern, western and northern areas, which are composed mostly of farmers. The communities are spread in clusters of settlements without adequate facilities of drinking water, drainage and waste management systems. Lumbini and Bhairahawa are the major areas where the local residents can find employment, and they have high expectations of economic opportunities from the Lumbini area.

4.8.2. StrategiesThe environmental conservation programs of Lumbini should employ local people on a priority basis and creating satellite stations might diversify the available opportunities. Various environment-related activities should be promoted for creating income-generating opportunities, such as non-timber forest production (NTFP), floriculture, tree nursery, fishery, duckery, handicrafts etc.

People living in the southern and western parts should also have rights and opportunities to benefit from the tourism in Lumbini.

4.8.3. ActionsThe following actions are recommended to address the above-mentioned issues and strategies:1. Mobilize local communities, user groups and

NGOs to manage the semi-wilderness area and to produce herbs and NTFP products, as an incentive to the locals;

2. Encourage NTFP plantation in the peripheral land;

3. Categorize the land area to be managed by the VDCs user groups, in order to involve the local community in the management of Lumbini’s natural resources and to provide incentives to the villagers;

4. Install two additional entrance gates for pedestrian pilgrims near Padaria. The gate should be connected to nature trails for the circumambulation of the Sacred Garden;

5. Introduce environment friendly income-generating activities such as floriculture, tree nursery, fishery, duckery and handicrafts;

6. Capture poisonous snakes for extracting venom- this is challenging but proved to be a lucrative business that provide anti venom. Netuwa people could be good snake collectors, and such an activity might support their livelihood.

5. CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of the analysis of the present status of Lumbini, and of the possible strategies for its sustainable development, the following points stand out as having particular importance:

Considering the fact that Buddha was born in a forest, the setting of Buddha’s birthplace should be as natural as possibe. From an ecological perspective, it may therefore be appropriate to develop the newly established forests, grasslands and wetlands of Lumbini in order to reflect the representative natural habitats found in the Terai. Today, Lumbini is a storehouse of diverse plant species, and it is being developed as a green island amidst the cultivated fields and human settlements. In order to enhance its natural beauty, it is essential to develop plantation programs of indigenous tree species in the surrounding areas (Annex 9: Proposed plant species for Lumbini area).

Habitat management based on some targeted birds, mammals, reptiles and fish species is required to increase the numbers of Sarus, Eurasian Eagle Owl, Gray Hornbill, White-rumped and Slender Billed Vultures, Lesser-spotted Eagle, Lesser Adjutant,

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1 According to the 1985 Lumbini Development Act, the Lumbini Development Area includes: Tilaurakot (ancient Kapilvastu) Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Sagarhawa, Sisiniyakot, Araurakot, Kudan (Kapilvastu), Devadaha (Rupandehi), Ramgrarn (Nawalparasi), which are directly or indirectly related with the life of the Lord Buddha and his birth place, Lumbini, and it shall include other areas as specified by His Majesty’s Government by a notification in Nepal Gazette.2 Source: Suwal and Joshi. 2003, and Hari Sharan Nepali ‘Kazi’ September 20053 There are 8 major species of larvivorous fish species found in Lumbini, including the following species: Esomus danricus, Oxygaster bacaila, Puntius chola, Punting sarana, Lepiocephalichtys gunius, Chhana gachua, Channa marulius, Channa striatus.

Wooly necked, Black and Open-billed Storks. Similarly Blue Bull Antelope, Black Buck and Spotted Deer will be an attraction for visitors, if kept in the open enclosure.

Buddhism reflects the philosophy of nature conservation. Lumbini has several opportunities for environmental tourism, but so far it has been underused and the experience has been mostly limited to the religious sites. Besides paying tribute to the birthplace of Buddha, Lumbini is also a place of learning for many visitors including students, conservationists, researchers and the general public. With the conservation infrastructure (nature trail, bird-hide, enclosures, floating islands) in place, learning opportunities should increse.

The natural drainage systems are dry during most of the year. Since they flood during the monsoon season, the discharge of the Telar and Harhawa rivers is not adequate for the wildlife during dry season. The most important strategy might be to tap the existing natural sources of water in the area by constructing sluice gate to maintain the water regime for the dry period.

Thousands of visitors to Lumbini generate various types of waste (biodegrable and non-degradable). Garbage and waste management are addressed in the Master Plan. In the case of liquid waste from toilets, individual septic tanks have been constructed in the building premises. However, it has been noticed that kitchen waste produced by lodges and restaurants is openly disposed of, and creates an unhealthy environment in the surroundings. One of the strategies for waste and garbage management might be to make the Lumbini area a plastic free zone, and to provide alternative and environment friendly materials at various locations in the area. Additionally, awareness campaigns might be organised in order to reduce the impact of garbage on the site. Apart from the natural phenomenon of air pollution due to suspended dust particles, Lumbini is affected by industrial pollutants such as carbon dioxide, smoke, cement dusts and foul smells. Such threats might be reduced through appropriate policies for vehicle circulation reduction and for isolating the industrial area in one part of the district.

The proposed international airport and the other infrastructures may be promising for the economic activities, but they will affect the tranquility and solitude of the environment in Lumbini.

Finally, the Sacred Garden of Lumbini is one of the

holiest Buddhist places in the world, and has been enlisted by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. However, this World Heritage Site does not stand isolated, and its sustainability relies on the quality of life of the local communities. Therefore, it is essential that ample opportunities be provided to the villagers living near Lumbini.

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Him Lal Ghimre is the Founder Principal of Rehdon College and has a wealth of research experience. His Ph.D. re-search is on “Impacts of Pilgrimage Tourism for Sustainable Tourism Development- A special focus on Lumbini” and he has been an advising the multi-donor Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme in Nepal since 2002. Prior to this he was a Research Officer in the International Migration Taskforce formed by HMG, Ministry of Population & Environment.

LUMBINI: A TOURISTIC OVERVIEWHim Lal Ghimire

1. INTRODUCTION

Lumbini is the birthplace of the Nepal’s most illustrious son: the Lord Buddha. It was there that the newly born Prince Siddartha took his seven steps and uttered an epoch-making message to the suffering humanity. Today, Lumbini can be considered a center of world peace: a first class pilgrimage destination and a symbol of international brotherhood, peace and prosperity. Lumbini is one of the most important holy sites for Buddhists, who wish to visit it at least once during their lifetime. Lumbini is also popular among non-Buddhist visitors and has the potential to attract millions of pilgrims and visitors from around the world. The importance of the site is so great that the Buddha himself advised his followers to undertake pilgrimages there: “Lumbini should be (visited and) seen by persons of devotion, a visit will create awareness and apprehension of the nature of impermanence”.

1.1. Objectives of the StudyThe basic objective of this study is to assess the status of Lumbini from a tourism perspective, and in particular it aims to:

• assess the tourist flow in Lumbini;• assess the services and facilities for the tourists

in Lumbini (hotels, restaurants, souvenir shops, transport, etc.);

• explore the institutions involved in tourism activities in Lumbini;

• identify and analyse the ways to improve tourism development in Lumbini;

• assess the promotion and marketing strategies developed by the government and by the private sector for Lumbini;

• assess the level of involvement of the local people in tourism activities in Lumbini;

• investigate the existence of an official Plan for the development of tourism in Lumbini.

1.2. MethodologyThe author made several field visits and observations around Lumbini, and interpolated the results with previously collected analogous data and with bibliographical sources. Interactions and interviews with tourists, tourism entrepreneurs and experts, and reviews of the previous studies were carried out. The study is focused on primary as well as secondary sources. Information regarding the needs, wants, expectations, travel patterns, facilities, accessibilities, significance and potential of Lumbini was gathered from various published and unpublished reports and informants. The primary information was collected

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in the field and a questionnaire was developed. Fifty five tourists and pilgrims, visiting Lumbini in August 2005, were interviewed and asked to complete the questionnaire and the researcher selected the samples. Additionally, formal and informal interviews with representatives and authorities of governmental and non-governmental tourist organizations and tourism experts - both Nepalese and foreigners - were conducted. The collected information was tabulated in frequency and percentage distribution. Analytical tools such as comparative tables, ratios, percentage trend and graphical representation were implemented.

The secondary information of a bibliographical nature was collected from publications, reports, plans and policies published by governmental and non-governmental agencies. The discussion and recommendations made in the workshop organized by UNESCO on 10-11 November 2005 are also incorporated.

1.3. Limitations of the study Whilst the survey produced a wealth of significant information, there were some limitations that should be considered when reviewing the data. As the survey was conducted in low season there were comparatively few tourists/pilgrims visiting the site, thus the opinion expressed by the respondents should not be considered definitive.

In addition, as is the case with any such survey, many of the respondents had limited time in which to conduct their visit. These participants concentrated their visits on the Maya Devi Complex thus were not qualified to answer the more general questions in the questionnaire. This also applied to larger groups visiting from India that generally only remain in Lumbini for one day. Finally, the very nature of pilgrimage as an arduous experience means that the obstacles faced by pilgrims may not be recognized as problems, whilst to the general public they may be serious considerations. This should be considered when interpreting participant’s responses to questions related to comfort, and ease of travelling in the Lumbini area.

2. TOURIST ATTRACTIONS

2.1. A review of tourism development in LumbiniLumbini developed into a pilgrimage site soon after the Parinirvana (death) of the Lord Buddha. The visit of the famous Indian Maurya Emperor Asoka,

guided by his spiritual teacher Upagupta, in 249 B.C. is considered the first pilgrimage to Lumbini. The terms “hida budhe jate” (here Lord Buddha was born) and “hida bhagavan jateti” (because Bhagwan-Lord Buddha was born here) mentioned in the Asoka Pillar inscription are thought to have been spoken by Upagupta to explain the importance of the site to the emperor. The Chinese pilgrims Tseng Tsai (4th century), Fa-Hsien (5th century AD) and Hiuen-Tsang (7th century AD) also visited Lumbini for pilgrimage purposes, and provided written records of their visits. Hiuen Tsang’s texts are the most informative since he not only travelled to Lumbini and other Buddhist sites, he also maintained a detailed description of his journey. In 1312 (saka era), Khasa King Ripu Malla from Sinja in far western Nepal paid a visit to the holy site. He engraved his name and a short inscription on the Asoka Pillar. After the visit of King Ripu Malla and until the end of the 19th century, Lumbini was almost entirely neglected.

In 1896, however, the rediscovery of the Asokan Pillar by General Khadga Shamsher Rana and by Dr. A. Fuhrer reinstated Lumbini as the official birthplace of Buddha, and its popularity as a pilgrimage centre increased. The idea of developing Lumbini as an important pilgrimage site gained momentum during the 4th General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists (WFB), held in Kathmandu in 1956 AD. The UN Secretary General U Thant went on pilgrimage to Lumbini in 1967, and he effectively promoted the development of the site. In recent years a number of significant Buddhist events have taken place in Lumbini, including two World Buddhist Summits and an International Buddhist Conference.

2.2. Attractions of LumbiniLumbini is a hub of many attractions and provides a number of religious, archaeological, historical and natural activities.

World Heritage Site: the Sacred GardenThe Sacred Garden is the focal point of Lumbini, since it includes the main archaeological monuments and the Maya Devi Temple. If the sense of peace and sanctity can be preserved and restored it could function as a magnet to attract more pilgrims and tourists. Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan gave high priority to the preservation of the Sacred Garden, which was planned as a circle enclosing a square in order to represent the mystic symbol of the universe in its purity and simplicity.

Maya Devi temple: The star attraction for pilgrims

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and tourists visiting Lumbini is the Maya Devi Temple. His Majesty King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev publicly reopened the newly constructed Maya Devi Temple on 16 May 2003. The ground floor consists of the remains of the foundations of the early Maya Devi Temple that date back to 3rd century B.C. The sancta sanctorum is the birthplace of the Lord Buddha. The upper floor consists of an open meditation platform, on which stands the dome and the gold plated shrine pinnacle.

Nativity sculpture: The image is displayed in the Maya Devi Temple and shows Maya Devi, mother of the Lord Buddha, supporting herself by holding the branch of a tree with her right hand. Next to her Gautami Prajaprati, her sister, stands in a supporting posture during the time of delivery. The newborn Gautam is standing upright on a lotus pedestal. Two other celestial figures are seen pouring water. Lotus flowers are also seen being scattered from heaven.

Asokan Pillar: This is one of the most important monuments, since it is the first epigraphic evidence related to the life of Lord Buddha. The pillar bears an inscription from Emperor Asoka which states: “Hida Budhe Jate Sakyamuni”, which means that Sakyamuni Buddha was born here.

Puskarini pond: The famous and most sacred pond known as Puskarini, in which it is believed that Maya Devi bathed just before giving the birth to the Lord and also where the infant Buddha was given his first purifying bath. Devotees feel proud and purified of all evil after washing their face in the pond.

Marker stone: The most important spot at Lumbini is the Marker stone (stone slab-conglomerate), which was found in the Maya Devi Temple during the 1992-1995 archaeological excavations. The stone is thought to mark the exact birthplace of Lord Buddha.

Other structural remains: The brick masonry foundations of stupas and vihars surrounding the Maya Devi Temple date from 3rd to 8th century BC., and are a testimony of the earliest pilgrimage phases at the site.

Master Plan AreaThe Eternal Flame (Shantideep): The eternal peace flame burns as a symbol of world peace.

The Monastic Zone: This lies in the middle section of the Master Plan area. The green area and the central canal separate the monastic zone into eastern

and western sections, which are set aside for the two major sects of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana.

The Lumbini Museum: The Lumbini Museum is located in the northern part of the Master Plan area. It houses artefacts collected from the archaeological excavations in the sacred complex, and in the surrounding areas. The collection consists of ancient coins, religious manuscripts, terracotta fragments, stone and metal sculptures related to the life of Lord Buddha and to the history of Lumbini. The building has a moderate seminar hall, a large ground floor for the display of the objects, offices and a laboratory.

Eco-tourism: In addition Lumbini offers various eco-tourism activities, which are associated with the natural setting and wide variety of animals living in the area. As Buddha was associated with water and forest from his birth onwards, the Master Plan gave high priority for the conservation and development of the natural environment.

Lumbini Village Tour: Traditional villages of the Terai Region surround Lumbini. Visitors can see traditional costume and learn about local culture, particularly in connection with traditional farming practices.

2.3. Buddhist sites around Lumbini and circuit tourThere are many sites associated with the life of Lord Buddha (fig. 1) in the vicinity of Lumbini, each having specific values for pilgrimage, sightseeing, historical and archaeological purposes.

3. TOURISM ENHANCEMENT IN LUMBINI

3.1. Governmental actionsIn 1972 HMG of Nepal formulated the Nepal Tourism Master Plan for the overall development of tourism in Nepal. The plan recommended developing Lumbini as an international pilgrimage destination and as one of the important sightseeing destinations for tourists in Nepal. The plan focused on the promoting a Kathmandu-Gorkha-Pokhara-Tansen-Lumbini-Chitwan-Kathmandu tour. Lumbini was expected to play a pivotal role in the promotion of national tourism. The plan also gave directions for the implementation of Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan for the overall development of Lumbini, in order to promote the site in the international tourism market. According to the Tourism Plan, one of Lumbini’s limitations is that it is remote and isolated for both pilgrims and

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tourists. A strategic development of Lumbini would help Nepal to foster its socio-religious heritage, and would provide considerable economic development. Lumbini could increasingly attract pilgrims and tourists from Buddhist countries, and would thus represent an international tourist attraction.

Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan (1978) is the basis for all actions in Lumbini, and provides a very comprehensive framework for the overall development and conservation of the site. In this regard, the Master Plan not only tries to develop the area as an important pilgrimage destination, but also as a destination for different purposes, such as historical, natural, archaeological and cultural reasons.

3.2. Non-governmental actionsBesides the governmental organizations in Lumbini the following non-governmental institutions are involved in tourism:

Lumbini Development Trust (LDT)The LDT is established by the Lumbini Development Trust Act 2042 (1985) for the purpose of developping Kenzo Tange’s Master Plan. His Majesty the King of Nepal is the patron of the Trust.

In terms of tourism, LDT is formulating and implementing different policies and programmes for the development of the area. LDT has established an information center in front of the Maya Devi Temple with an information officer, tourist guides and

supervisors to disseminate information to tourists and pilgrims. Additionally, LDT has organised events such as the World Buddhist Summits and the International Buddhist Conference, and has promoted the construction of the international monasteries

The author prepared the concept paper “Visit Lumbini Year 2006” and submitted it to the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoCTCA) and the LDT. There are enough hotels, and an adequate transportation system and infrastructure in Lumbini for the current levels of visitors. What is lacking is awareness and publicity in the international market. Besides pilgrimage, extra religious activities could attract increasing numbers of tourists to Lumbini. The proposed ‘Visit Lumbini Year 2006’ is expected to draw more than 100 thousand tourists in Lumbini. The concept paper recommended various infrastructural developments and publicity of the site in the international market and was recently passed by the general convention of the LDT as the basis for organizing the celebrations.

Various programmes will be organized in 2006, involving different organizations, the government and the local communities. This programme would be an effective platform to revive the status of Lumbini and to increase the number of tourists. The objectives of the programme are: • to celebrate the Silver Centenary Golden Jubilee

(2550th birthday) of the Lord Buddha;• to promote, publicize and create awareness of

Name of the site Significance Location Evidence (historical/archaeological)

TilaurakotIdentified with the ancient Kapilvastu, the capital of the kingdom of Shakyas, where Buddha spent his earlier 29 years of life.

Kapilvastu District

• Grandeur of the excavated site• The river Banging identified as

the Bhagirathi River

Niglihawa/Aaraurakot Birth town of Kanakmuni Buddha Kapilvastu

District

• Asoka Pillar• Archaeological ruins• Historical documents

Gotihawa Birth town of Krakuchhanda Buddha Kapilvastu District

• Asoka Pillar• Archaeological ruins• Historical documents

KudanBuddha met his father and son at this place on the first visit to his native state after enlightenment

Kapilvastu District

• Asoka Pillar• Archaeological site

Sagarhawa The place of the massacre of the Shakyas Kapilvastu District

• Large pond• Archaeological site• Historical documents

Devdaha Maternal home of Maya Devi Nawalparasi district

• Presence of an ancient temple on a mound

• Historical documents

Ramgram Site of the Stupa where the physical remains (astu dhatu) of Buddha are believed to be buried

Nawalparasi district

• Presence of an ancient temple on a mound

• Historical documentsFig 1. Buddhist Sites Around Lumbini (Source: Dhakal, 1999)

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Lumbini nationally and internationally;• to stimulate the concerned authorities to complete

the Lumbini Master Plan;• to make Lumbini an all-season destination by

organizing different programmes;• to stretch the length of visits to at least 2 days;• to improve pilgrimage tourism in Nepal;• to enhance the domestic, regional, village and

sport tourism in Lumbini;• to start formal and non-formal peace education

and Buddhist studies in different educational institutions in Lumbini and facilitate the peace and security situation in Nepal;

• to promote the Lumbini Buddhist University;• to carry out social development programmes

around Lumbini, such as cleaning villages, renovating roads, etc.;

• to mobilize local participation in the development of tourism in Lumbini;

• to coordinate national and international monasteries and organizations in order to improve the religious ambiance in Lumbini;

• to plant trees in order to improve the environment of Lumbini.

Nepal Tourism Board (NTB)The Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) is a national organization established in 1998 in partnership between HMG of Nepal and the private tourism industries to develop and market Nepal as an attractive tourist destination. NTB provides a platform for the development of tourism in Nepal by combining the governmental commitment with the dynamism of private sector tourism industries.

Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP)The Government of Nepal, together with international agencies like UNDP, SNV and DFID established the Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP) in order to formulate policies for sustainable tourism development, and to work towards poverty alleviation in the Lumbini area.

TRPAP aims to reduce rural poverty by developing sustainable rural tourism models and introducing them in a local self-governance system in and around Lumbini. This involves extensive exercises at grass roots level, which include working with local communities, providing training to understand the theory and practice of tourism, supporting local people to improve rural areas, building skills to serve the industry, assisting with funds to initiate tourism enterprise, institutionalising the process and

supporting it with appropriate policies and guidelines from local to national level. The programme follows ‘bottom up’ and community participatory approaches. The programme has been working with local people in seven different VDCs in and around Lumbini since 2001.

International MonasteriesJointly with LDT or independently, the international monasteries are a working for the promotion of tourism in Lumbini.

Private and non-governmental organizationsThe private hotels and resorts, together with organizations such as hotels associations, travel agents associations and tourist guides associations are also involved with Lumbini tourism. The Siddarthanagar Hotel Association, in cooperation with the Hotels Association of Nepal, organized the “Lumbini Festival – 2004” in Bhairahawa. They also developed the 2 nights/3 days package tour programme including the sites around Lumbini.

Local PeopleIncreasingly local people are getting involved with the tourism activities in Lumbini. They are participating in the establishment of middle class hotels and guesthouses and by becoming professional tour guides, rickshaw drivers, and shopkeepers selling traditional products etc.

3.3. Capacity enhancement In order to improve tourism, local capacity needs to be enhanced in several areas, since the local communities’ role in enhancing the attractiveness of the holy site is meaningful. Local people need training in income generating activities, co-operative management, souvenir production, tourists guiding, lodge management, food hygiene and production. All hotels in Lumbini provide vehicle services, local guides, cultural programmes and village bicycling trips, thus mobilizing and providing opportunities to the locals. TRPAP has given various trainings and support to the local people and tourism entrepreneurs in and around Lumbini, including providing funds for the production of local handicrafts, as well as searching for a way to export their products to the international market (fig. 2).

During the survey period the author attended a meeting of the “Lumbini Hastakala Bikri Samuha”, where was discussed that the unmanaged and temporarily shaded souvenir shops in front of the Maya Devi Temple are degrading the status of Lumbini. According to

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the Master these shops should be constructed near the bus park, which is located 3 km away from the temple. The shopkeepers from their side complained about about hawkers, thieves and brokers. Also discussed was pricing, lack of training, manipulation of tourists by their guides, language problems, etc. Upon discussion with LDT, the shopkeepers said to be willing to move and even pay, if LDT constructs permanent structures for them.

4 TOURISTS FLOW IN LUMBINI

4.1. Present tourist flowStatistics show that the number of tourists visiting Lumbini since 1991 has fluctuated considerably (fig. 3). Large-scale events in 1998 (First World Buddhist Summit and Visit Nepal Year) and a positive approach towards effective implementation of the Master Plan resulted in an increase in visitor numbers that year.

The steep decline in the number of tourists in 2002 can be attributed to the instability in Nepal at that

time. In addition the tragic events in the United States on September 11 negatively affected the number of tourists around the globe, and can be considered a factor here. The lack of sufficient transportation and accommodation facilities may also have negatively affected the number of visitors. The increase in numbers since 2003 may relate to the Second World Buddhist Summit in 2004 and possibly to the completion of the Maya Devi Temple.

4.2. Seasonal indicesThe Lumbini Master Plan forecasted that 70% of the total tourists would be concentrated in the high tourist season from October though February, and 25% in the low tourists season of March, April, May, August and September. Figure 4 shows the monthly tourist arrivals in Lumbini, indicating October – March as the peak season. June and July are the months with very small numbers of tourists. Other months are moderate.

4.3. Package ToursLumbini is sold as part of a Buddhist package tour by agents in Kathmandu and India. Indian tours usually combine it with other Buddhist sites such as Buddhagaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar. The Indian packages generally enter Nepal on a half-day trip and depart the same day. Their contribution to the tourism income of Bhairahawa and the Lumbini area is almost nil. Tour guides with these packages are not required to follow any code of conduct while interpreting at the main heritage site of Lumbini.

The package from Kathmandu is usually combined with sightseeing in Pokhara, Tansen, Chitwan, and Gorkha, with an overnight stay in either Siddarthanagar

YEAR NUMBER OF TOURIST ARRIVALS

1991 120161992 151971993 194391994 209571995 200231996 253971997 232801998 221191999 107152000 141352001 101352002 90362003 280532004 37892

Type of training conducted by TRPAP

trainings/ settlement Male Female Total

MCET 36 475 222 697TEAP 123 1293 954 2247Book/Account Keeping 16 133 62 195

Katera mat weaving 1 0 12 12Local Guide training 4 72 8 80

House Keeping 1 2 18 20Small Hotel & Lodge Management 2 35 4 39

Food and Beverage Service 1 6 6 12

Front Office & English Language 1 8 5 13

Murti (statue) making 3 37 26 63

Mushroom cultivation 1 15 8 23

Mooj craft training 5 0 88 88Leadership/Networking 2 16 7 23

Improved cooking stove installation training

1 10 14 24

Tourism Entrepreneurship 12 198 168 366

Sculpture production & design 1 7 13 20Banana fiber weaving 1 0 18 18

Total 211 2307 1633 3904

Fig 3. Tourist Arrivals in Lumbini (Source: LDT, 2004)

Fig 2. Type of Trainings Given by TRPAP (Source: TRPAP, 2005)

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NO. OF TOURIST ARRIVALS IN 2003

NO. OF TOURIST ARRIVALS IN 2004

Jan 3043 3160 Feb 3625 5690 Mar 3725 6298 April 855 1321

May 443 492

June 239 350 July 626 782

Aug 2461 3590

Sept. 1653 1889 Oct 3149 3220 Nov. 4316 5186 Dec 3918 5914

Lord Buddha. However, great heritage sites are places of attraction for everybody, irrespective of personal religious faith. It is therefore logical that Lumbini, which is symbolically related to peace and harmony, should be promoted as a place of reverence for all peace-loving people, and visitors with historical and archaeological interests.

These aspects, which contribute to the World Heritage Status, should also be promoted in potential local and international tourism markets. If Nepal can attract 5% of those potential markets it would be a miracle for Lumbini, as well as for Nepalese tourism.

5. TOURIST ACCOMMODATION IN AND AROUND LUMBINI

There are many budget hotels and lodges, as well as modern hotels in and around Lumbini that can easily manage the present number of tourists. The available data shows that Lumbini has an accommodation capacity of more than 700 beds, whereas average tourist arrivals are approximately 200 per day in peak season. Amongst these visitors only c. 25% stays overnight in Lumbini. However, pilgrims prefer cheaper accommodation hence immediate operation of the Sri Lankan Rest house is necessary and the middle range Mikasa Hotel has been proposed. Figure 5 shows that most of the investment to establish basic infrastructure originates from outside Lumbini. However, local people need to assume responsibility to make Lumbini an important destination, and they will only benefit if they succeed. Siddarthanager

or Lumbini. The Hotel Association in Siddarthanager has developed a package tour programme of 2 nights 3 days connecting with the sites around Lumbini.

4.4. Potential marketsLumbini is a focal point for Buddhists and holds great attraction for other tourists from all over the world. Thailand, where 90% of population is Buddhist, is a huge market both for pilgrims and high-end tourists to Nepal. If proper access, accommodation and amenities were provided this market segment would have great potential. Sri Lanka has a majority Buddhist population with significant interest in the birthplace of Lord Buddha and China, with the largest neighbouring market, has declared Nepal an important tourist destination. There are more than 1.5 billion Buddhists in the world and the 1.5 billion Hindus are equally respectful of the

NAME ADDRESS QUALITY CAPACITY INVESTOR

Lumbini Hokke Hotel Master Plan area, Lumbini Star class 92 JapanBuddha Maya Garden Hotel Lankapur Star class 34 KathmanduLumbini Buddha Hotel Mahilwar Lodging/Food 30 LDT/Ktm.New Lumbini Garden (New Crystal) Hotel Mahilwar Star class 78 Kathmandu

Hotel Lumbini Mahilwar Lodging/Food 18 LocalLumbini Village Hotel Mahilwar Lodging/Food 20 LocalLumbini Garden Lodge Mahilwar Lodging/Food KathmanduSri Lankan Pilgrim Rest Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 170 Sri LankaGautam Buddha Lodge Padariya Lodging/Food -Hotel Lord Buddha Int. Mahilwar Lodging/Food -Lumbini Garden Restaurant Master Plan area, Lumbini Food/curio shop KathmanduKorean Monastery Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 60 KoreaPanditarama Meditation Center Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 35 (only for mediators) MyanmarNepal Nun Society Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 50 KathmanduMahabodhi Society India Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 150 JapanShanti Stupa Japan Master Plan area, Lumbini Lodging/Food 30 (only for learners) Japan

Fig 5. Accommodation in Lumbini (Source: LDT, TRPAP, 2005)

Fig 4. Monthly Tourist Arrivals in Lumbini (Source: LDT, 2005)

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This indicates that extra religious activities should be developed and organized besides religious functions. NUMBER OF VISITS

A majority (72.73%) of respondents were visiting Lumbini for the first time. However, 9.09% where on their second visit and one Sri Lankan pilgrim had visited Lumbini 31 times. TRPAP conducted a survey in 2004 to explore the potential for repeat visits and discovered that a large majority (87.4%) of the visitors expressed their willingness to return to Lumbini. These analogous results indicate that there is potential to attract the pilgrims/tourists.

(Bhairahawa) also provides desirable accommodation for tourists. In a survey it was found that 25% of the total tourists visiting Lumbini prefer to stay in Siddarthanagar, where almost all investors are local with a responsibility to develop tourism.

6. TOURISM IN LUMBINI: FIELD SURVEY

This section analytically presents the interviews conducted with pilgrims and tourists in Lumbini during August 2005. Altogether 55 tourists and pilgrims were selected by the researcher and interviewed.

6.1 Analytical description of the resultsCOUNTRY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

The nationality of the respondents suggests that Asia is the largest market followed by Europe, America and Australia. The majority of the tourists interviewed fell in the age group 20-30 (34.55%); 38 were male and 17 were female.

PURPOSE OF VISIT

An enquiry was made to find the purpose of the visit of the respondents. The majority of the respondents (58.18%) visited Lumbini with the purpose of going on a pilgrimage. 36.36% wanted to sight see and 7.27% visited purely for pleasure. 41.83% of tourists visits Lumbini for purposes not related to religion.

Region Country Tourists Tot. %

Asia

China 2

27 49.1

Japan 6Korea 2Malaysia 1Myanmar 1Nepal 4Sri Lanka 8Thailand 2Vietnam 1

Europe

Austria 1

23 41.8

France 2Germany 4Ireland 1Italy 4Poland 1Slovania 2Switzerland 2UK 4

America USA 3 3 5.5Australia Australia 2 2 3.6Total 55 100

Purpose of visit Tourists %Pilgrimage 32 58.18Sightseeing 20 36.36Adventure 3 5.45Convention/meetings 1 1.82Holiday pleasure 4 7.27Business - 0Trekking Mountaineering - 0Others (Cultural experience) 1 1.82

Number of visits Tourists Percentage1 40 72.732 5 9.093 2 3.644 2 3.645 3 5.456 2 3.6431 1 1.82

INFLUENCES PROMPTING VISITS TO LUMBINI

The respondents were asked what influenced them in their decision to visit Lumbini. The majority of respondents stated that they were influenced by religion and holy texts. Tour guides, friends and guidebooks were also cited as significant influences. The most interesting result is that in the current media oriented age, none of the tourists felt they were influenced by advertising in any form. It suggests that the publicity of Lumbini in the present advanced media age is low, or that the tourists are not influenced by it. MoCTCA, LDT, NTB, TRPAP, some hotels and travel agents have websites, brochures, magazines etc. but the respondents were not aware of them.

VISIT ORGANIZER

The data shows that the maximum number of the respondents (72.73%) organized their visit themselves, 21.82% visited as part of a guided tour and 5.45% had visited as part of a programme organized by governmental or non-governmental organizations. The tourists visiting without guided tours experienced many problems. They found it very difficult to find suitable transportation, accommodation and

Influence to visit Lumbini Tourists %Advertisement (Internet/TV/Magazines/ brochures) - -

Tour guide 10 18.18Religion and Holy books 22 40.00Friends 8 14.55Guide books 5 9.09Others 13 23.64

Fig 6. Country Wise Distribution of Respondents

Fig 7. Purpose of visit

Fig 8. Distribution of Number of Visits

Fig 9. Influence to visit Lumbini

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restaurants. They explored the sites themselves and their visits generally lasted longer than a single day. More information centres need to be established and maintained to assist these visitors.

Tourists participating in guided tour programmes only visited the scheduled sites. They faced comparatively fewer problems, but the length of their stay was usually less than one day. If these large groups could be persuaded to stay for a longer period, they would contribute significantly to national as well as local economy and employment. Policies should be developed to tap this group.

LENGTH OF STAY

The maximum number of respondents (41.82%) stayed for 1 day. However, the tourists not staying in Lumbini and returning back to India or Bhairahawa also stated their stay period as one day. 58.2% of tourists stay for 2 or more days in Lumbini. The tourists visiting through their organization stayed longer, suffering different problems but contributing to the economy, employment and other sectors.

Length of stay Tourists %1 day 23 41.822 days 17 30.913 days 12 21.824 days - -More than 5 days 3 5.45

MODE OF TRANSPORTATION AND ROUTE

Bhairahawa is the nearest modern city with airport. Independent tourists usually use a variety of modes of transportation. Regarding travel from Bhairahawa to Lumbini, the respondents opined that travel in the tourist bus or private car is comparatively comfortable

Plan

e

Tour

ist B

us

Publ

ic B

us

Priv

ate

car/J

eep

Taxi

Oth

ers

Tota

l

Kathmandu-Bhairahawa 6 4 3 1 14India- Bhairahawa - 10 3 8 1 2 24Pokhara -Bhairahawa - 6 5 - - - 11Chitwan-Bhairahawa - 1 4 1 - - 6Bhairahawa-Lumbini - 12 17 16 6 4 55

whereas the public bus is uncomfortable because of over-crowding and the use of slow and old vehicles. The respondents suggested a faster bus service, with better information regarding its departure time, duration of travel and price.

FLIGHTS

There are enough regular flights from Kathmandu to the Gautam Buddha Airport-Bhairahawa. Still, the majority of visitors choose other modes of transport. PUBLIC BUS

Tourists traveling to Bhairahawa by plane can take a public bus or taxi from Bhairahawa. None of the respondents had received any information at the Bus Park or the airport about public bus and taxi services from Bhairahawa to Lumbini. Those traveling on a guided tour, tourist bus or public bus direct from Kathmandu to Lumbini did not need to use the public bus or taxi from Bahirahawa, or the guide arranged it. Public bus is a practical option for those changing their vehicle at Bhairahawa. Out of 17 respondents traveling on public bus 12 (21.8%) felt the public bus was a practical option.

INFORMATION MATERIAL AT BHAIRAHAWA AIRPORT

The respondents were asked whether they had received any information material in Bhairahawa bazaar and airport. The majority of the respondents (52.73%) did not receive any information, 10.91% received some information and 36.36% were unable to give their opinion.

STAY IN LUMBINI

23 of the respondents stayed in hotels in Lumbini and Bhairahawa, 11 in monasteries and 8 in lodges. Of the 55 respondents only 16 had pre-booked before arriving Lumbini- the others looked for lower cost accommodation on arrival. The budget class pilgrimage rest house (Sri Lankan Pilgrimage Rest House) is not currently in operation in Lumbini and respondents complained that the alternatives are costly. Another factor is that tourists are often influenced by Indian guides who frighten them about the current political and security situation of the country and advise against staying in Lumbini.

Travel from Bhairahawa-Lumbini Tourists %Comfortable 33 60.00Uncomfortable 12 21.82Acceptable 10 18.18

Stay in Lumbini TouristsHotel 23Lodge 8Monastery 11Relative’s/Friend’s house -Guest house 3Others -Not respond 10

Fig 10. Length of stay in Lumbini

Fig 11. Mode of transportation and traveling route

Fig 12. Travel Bhairahawa-Lumbini Fig 13. Stay in Lumbini

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FINDING ACCOMMODATION IN LUMBINI

Very few of the respondents were aware of the accommodation options in Lumbini. Most hotels do not have websites and only a small number of the respondents had seen information materials or location maps. The hotel owners had invested significant funds to build accommodation, but had failed to provide information about it. This left the respondents relying on Taxi/Rickshaw drivers, guidebooks, local people, or having to hunt for lodging themselves. Searching for accommodation by walking from place to place or asking local people or drivers is not an adequate system for a World Heritage Site and a world famous tourist destination. The respondents should have been provided with detailed location maps, tariffs of the hotels and information on their facilities.

ACCOMMODATION INFORMATION IN LUMBINI

Although there is lack of information about location, tariff and facilities of hotels in Lumbini, most opined that searching for accommodation in Lumbini is easy.

COMFORT WHILE WORSHIPPING, PRAYING AND MEDITATING

As Lumbini is one of the foremost cultural and spiritual destinations in the world, an attempt was made to find out how comfortable it is to worship, pray and meditate there. The majority of the tourists (80.0%) felt that it was comfortable, 5.45% said it was uncomfortable and 14.55% were unable to give their opinion.

Pilgrimage is traditionally hard work and devotees are ready to face problems and difficulties. They believe the harder the visit the more fruitful it will be, hence they are not concerned with the general problems they face. However, the concerned authorities have a responsibility to manage the site properly and solve the problems that arise.

Comfortableness of worshipping, prayer and meditation Tourists %

Yes 44 80.00No 3 5.45Don’t know 8 14.55

EXTRA-RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

Lumbini has much to offer beyond pilgrimage. Guided tours to sites related to Lord Buddha (Kapilvastu, Devdaha, Ramgram etc.), cultural activities, museum guided tours and eco- tourism are the main extra religious activities at present. Development and publicity of the sites around Lumbini and easy

Extra-religious activities Tourists %

Shopping 12 21.82Cultural activities, conferences, seminars etc. 19 34.55

International monasteries 12 21.82Guided tour to countryside 12 21.82Guided tour to the sites related to Lord Buddha (Kapilvastu, Devdaha, Ramgram etc.)

24 43.64

Museum guided tour 16 29.09Eco-tourism 15 27.27Others 1 1.82

access to them would attract greater numbers of visitors. Lumbini-the Fountain of peace could be an appropriate platform for conferences and seminars. Preservation of traditional culture and performances of cultural and religious activities in and around the Maya Devi Temple could lengthen the stay period.

As Lumbini is an archaeological and historical site, it has potential to attract cultural tourists, and a well-managed museum would develop this market. Eco-tourism activities and guided tours to the countryside are additional attractions. International monasteries should be promoted as places where tourists can observe and enjoy the traditional art and culture of different countries in the same place.

Opinion World Heritage Site Tourists %Yes 39 70.91No 13 23.64Don’t know 3 5.45

OPINION ON WORLD HERITAGE SITE

An enquiry was made regarding the opinion on Lumbini as a World Heritage Site. The majority of the respondents (70.91%) knew that Lumbini was a World Heritage Site, but 23.64% were not aware. As Lumbini is world famous cultural site, it should be known internationally so that it can develop as a top class tourist destination. More awareness programmes, sign-boards, published materials and electronic materials are needed to increase awareness about Lumbini.

INTERPRETATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS

An enquiry was made into whether the respondents were aware of the meaning of the archaeological remains. The majority of the respondents (78.18%) claimed to understand their significance, 16.36% did not know what they represented and 5.45% were unable to give an opinion. Similarly the majority of

Fig 14. Comfortableness of worshipping, prayer and meditation

Fig 15. Extra-religious Activities in Lumbini

Fig 16. Opinion on Lumbini as a World Heritage Site

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Meaning of archaeological remains Tourists %Yes 43 78.18No 9 16.36Don’t know 3 5.45

Maya Devi Temple for religious function Tourists %

Yes 35 63.64No 11 20.00Don’t know 9 16.36

the respondents (70.91%) knew that Lumbini was a World Heritage Site.

As Lumbini represents a history of more than 2500 years, the archaeological remains must be preserved for the future. Every visitor must be aware of the importance if the ruins otherwise they may become damaged. Awareness signboards are required to ensure their preservation, and to educate visitors about the status of the site. More awareness programmes, published materials and electronic materials are needed to increase awareness about Lumbini.

Protection of Marker stone and Nativity sculpture Tourists %

Yes 33 60.00No 16 29.09Don’t know 6 10.91

MAYA DEVI TEMPLE The Maya Devi Temple is the central attraction for pilgrims and tourists in Lumbini. The pilgrims like to perform religious functions there and the tourists enjoy watching them. The majority of the respondents were satisfied by offering incense (Dhup), lighting butter lamps and candles, praying and chanting for a few minutes and visiting the birthplace of Lord Buddha.

This, however, cannot be considered as fulfilling the desired religious functions of Buddhists who cannot perform them inside the temple. Outside the temple there is no designated place for the performance of religious functions. Instead pilgrims have to make do with performing them near the Asokan Pillar in the open air and consequently suffering from heat/rain exposure and disturbing noise. The open roof of the Maya Devi Temple can be used for the meditation purposes and 41.82% of the respondents thought it should be used for religious activities. 34.55% was against using the space because pilgrims/visitors should not walk on roof if there is holy site below.

Use of roof for religious purposes Tourists %Yes 23 41.82No 19 34.55Don’t know 13 23.64

THE MARKER STONE AND NATIVITY SCULPTURE

The majority of the respondents (60.0%) were satisfied with the level of protection of the Marker Stone, however, most of the respondents were not satisfied with the position, as it is difficult to observe.

USE OF ROOF FOR RELIGIOUS PURPOSES

The respondents were asked about their opinion on the use of the flat roof of the Maya Devi Temple for religious purposes. The majority (41.82%) thought the roof should be used, and 34.55% were against using the roof. As it is holy site, pilgrims want to meditate on the roof. Those who were against using the roof thought pilgrims/visitors should not go on roof as there is holy site below. Religious functions can also be performed around the Maya Devi Temple but a specific are has not been allocated. The religious functions can be disturbed by rain, wind, thunder and the hear of the sun in the open ground.

ATTITUDE-RATING ON ASPECTS OF LUMBINI

The following table represents the satisfaction rating on different aspects of Lumbini. Most of the respondents considered the different aspects of Lumbini as average.

A TRPAP visitors survey explored the satisfaction experienced during a visit to Lumbini and showed that almost all visitors were satisfied by the visit. Only a negligible number of visitors (0.8 percent) expressed dissatisfaction. The data shows that the majority of Japanese visitors were less satisfied by their visit, specifically with the development works and facilities. The majority of Indian, Sri Lankan, Thai and Korean visitors were completely satisfied. The survey found that the majority of the pilgrims/tourists enjoyed the visit so much that they did not care about problems and difficulties they encountered.

ESTIMATION OF THE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE

TRPAP conducted a visitor’s survey to estimate the expenditure patterns of the pilgrims (year 2003). In terms of average expenditure of the visitors by country, tourists from Thailand were found to have the highest spending capacity with Rs. 4,911 per person per day. Tourists from China were the next

Fig 17. Meaning of Archaeological Remains

Fig 18. Maya Devi Temple for religious function

Fig 19. Protection of Marker Stone and Nativity Sculpture

Fig 20. Use of Roof for Religious Purposes

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with an average expenditure of Rs. 4,291, Taiwan with Rs. 4,028, Japanese with Rs. 4,018, Korean with Rs. 2,523, Sri Lankan with Rs. 1,758 and Indian with Rs.1,584.

MOST INTERESTING AND BEST EXPERIENCE

An attempt was made to find the most interesting thing and best experience the respondents experienced in Lumbini:• Tranquillity and peace• Lord Buddha's birthplace• New Maya Devi Temple• Its cleanliness• The pleasant park• Praying next to pond where Buddha was born• The Marker stone• Good archaeology • Nativity sculpture• Asokan pillar• Sacred Pond and newly constructed ponds.

7. CONCLUSIONS

7.1. Requirements for the development of tourism in LumbiniImprovements have been made over the last 10 years and the majority of the current tourists are satisfied. However, despite its significance, Lumbini is not reaching its potential and this can be attributed to several reasons: General lack of tourism development planning, including:• Lack of budget class hotels and guesthouses. • Need for better and more comfortable access to

the site, with a clear multi-media international marketing strategy.

• Need for information centres, advertising and trained staff.

• Need for development of package tour programmes including different pilgrimage sites and sightseeing destinations.

Delay in implementation of the Lumbini Master Plan and its appropriate review in the current situation. The completion of the Master Plan should favour the overall development of Lumbini as a “destination for all”. It should focus on the need for:• Local Lumbini residents being involved in the

decision making process on all levels.• Identification of proper places for religious and

cultural functions.• Further research and excavation of Lumbini

and other related sites, and awareness raising to inform visitors of the importance of preserving

the site.• Enhancement and maintenance of the natural

habitat in/around Lumbini.• Sensitivity to the security and political problems

in the country

7.2 Possible strategies for the development of tourism in LumbiniThe following strategies will help Lumbini to develop its tourism potential:• All bodies working towards a responsible

development of tourism planning, policy formulation, marketing, monitoring etc. should work together towards common goals.

• An International Airport in Bhairahawa, which is most essential for tourism, but may affect the archaeology, peaceful environment and wildlife, should be considered.

• A decision should be made as to whether Lumbini should be promoted as a multi-disciplinary tourist destination for pilgrims, historical, cultural, archaeological, spiritual and eco-tourism, or purely as a spiritual destination for a limited number of visitors.

• The influx of tourists must be open for more economic return, but also controlled for spiritual and archaeological reasons.

• A review of the Lumbini Master Plan should be undertaken and its link with tourism redefined.

7.3. ConclusionsLumbini is a World Heritage Site, a destination for pilgrimage and faith tourism and belongs to all in the world. Lumbini not only provides an ultimate pilgrimage and nirvana for the Buddhists, it is also an important destination for non-Buddhists. It not only belongs to Nepal and the Nepalese people, but a sense of ownership is essential for the faster and smoother development of the complex and the region. The most important recommendation is that the Lumbini and LDT management should be free from political and ideological allegiance. The teachings of Buddha and his message of compassion and devotion to the service of humanity, universal brotherhood, world peace, meditation, progress and welfare of mankind should be foremost in the minds of those managing the site. The proper and phase wise implementation and completion of the Lumbini Master Plan can solve the current short fallings, and with good governance Lumbini has the potential to become a world-class tourist destination for all.

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ANNEXES

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ANNEX 1: LUMBINI WORLD HERITAGE NOMINATION

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Lumbini: Map indicating the proposed core and bufffer zone

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ANNEX 2: ANCIENT MONUMENT PRESERVATION ACT 1956 – FIFTH AMENDMEND 1988

Ancient Monument Preservation Act 2013 (1956 AD) - An Act made to preserve the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological, Historical or Artistic Objects

PreambleWhereas it is expedient 1to maintain peace and order by preserving the ancient monument and by controlling the trade in archaeological objects as well as the excavation of the place of ancient monuments and by acquiring and preserving ancient monument and archaeological, historical or artistic objects. Now, therefore, His Majesty the King has made and promulgated this Act on the advice of the Cabinet of Ministers.

1. Short Title. Extension and CommencementThis Act may be called the “Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 2013 (1956 A.D.)It shall come into force immediately throughout the kingdom of Nepal.

22. DefinitionUnless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this Act:a. “Ancient Monument” means temple, monument, house, abbey, cupola, monastery, stupa, bihar etc which have their importance 3above one year, from the point of view of history, arts, science, architectonics or art of masonry, and this word shall also mean the site of the monument as well as the human settlement or place, and remnant of ancient human settlement, relies of ancient monument, cave etc having specific value from the national or international point of view irrespective of the fact that such settlements or places are adjoining with each other or are separate in the same area.b. “Archaeological Object” means the object made and used by human being in pre-historical period or handwritten genealogy, handwritten manuscript, golden inscription. copper inscription, petrography, wooden inscription, bhojapatra (document written on the bark of brick tree). tadapatra (document written on the leaf or bark of palmyra tree), paper, coin, house where historical event has occurred or where historically special personality has resided and things such as stone, wood, soil, ivory, bone, glass, cloth, paper or metal used by such person or some important portion of the house in which attractively scribed things are used, scribed or inscribed idol, temple of

god or goddess, Buddhist cenotaph. statue, thanks, things used in royal palace, replica of animal, birds and any movable or immovable objects, which depict the history of any country, and objects as prescribed by His Majesty’s Government by a notification in the Nepal Gazette from time to time.c. “Curio” means modern handicrafts not exceeding hundred years of age.d.“Preserved Monument Area” means the place or area where ancient monument is situated and which has been declared as preserved area under Section 3.e.“Chief Archaeology Officer” means the Director General of the Department of Archaeologyf.“Preservation” means the work such as sweeping, covering, repairing, cleaning etc. done to keep the monument in its original form.4 g.“Local Bodies” means the Village Development Committee, Municipality or District Development Committee.“Prescribed” or “As Prescribed” means Prescribed or as prescribed in the rules made under this Act.

53. An Area May be Declared as Preserved Monument Area1) His Majesty’s Government, if wishes to declare any place or area where any monument is located to be as preserved monument area, shall display a notice at the place where the monument is located and also at the adjoining public place specifying the boundaries of the preserved monument area.2) Any person, who is dissatisfied with the notice displayed pursuant to Sub- Section (1), may lodge his protest to His Majesty’s Government within 35 days of the displaying of such notice.3) His Majesty’s Government may give its final verdict on the protest lodged pursuant to Sub- Section (2).4) After the final decision taken pursuant to Sub- Section (3) on the protest lodged against the notice displayed pursuant to Sub- Section (1) or if no protest is lodged at the expiry of the period prescribed for lodging the protest, His Majesty’s Government may, by publishing notification in the Nepal Gazette delimitating the bound of the place or area8 where the ancient monument located, declare such place or area as preserved monument area.5) Anyone wishing to install or connect a telephone line or electricity, to dig ground for drinking water or sewerage, to construct or repair road, to shoot- out a film, to organize a fair or festival, to perform dancing or singing ceremony, to park vehicles or to paste a poster and painting within the preserved Monument Area shall have to take permission, as prescribed, from the Department of Archaeology. Provided that

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permission shall not be needed to be taken from the Department of Archaeology to conduct and perform traditional dancing and singing or to organize a fair or festival.6) Anyone who, on his own land within the Preserved Monument Area, is willing to construct a new house or building or to repair, alter or reconstruct a house or building so as to make changes on its original shape, shall have to construct, repair, alter or reconstruct it as is matching the style of the area and as is in consonance with the standard prescribed by the Department of Archaeology.7) If a Person has submitted to the *6 Municipality the drawing of a house or a building to be constructed, repaired, altered, or reconstructed within the Preserved Monument Area, the *Municipality shall, before giving its consent on the drawing under the prevailing law, have to take approval of the Department of Archaeology on such drawing. After reviewing the drawing received from the *Municipality, the Department of Archaeology may give its approval, reject it or give its approval with amendment. 8) While constructing, repairing, altering or reconstructing the house or building in the Preserved Monument Area, if the construction, repair, alteration or reconstruction is not done in accordance with the approved drawing, the Department of archaeology may issue an order to stop such work. 9) The Town Development Plan Execution Committee may, by giving an Ultimatum of thirty- five days, issue an order to demolish the house or building if it is constructed, repaired, altered or reconstructed in defiance of the order issued by the Department of Archaeology pursuant to Sub- Section (8). Any Person, who is dissatisfied with such order, may lodge a protest to His Majesty’s Government within thirty- five days of the issuance of such order. The verdict of His Majesty’s Government regarding such protest shall be final.710) In cases where no complaint has been lodged against the order issued under sub-section (9) to demolish a house or a building, the concerned person shall have to demolish the house or building within seven days from the date of expiry of the time-limit, and in case where a complaint has been lodged and His Majesty’s Government has decided to demolish such house or building, the concerned person shall have to demolish the house or building within twenty one days from the date of the decision. If the house or building is not demolished within the said time- limit, the authority or official issuing such order shall demolish the house or building and all expenditures incurred while demolishing shall be recovered from the concerned person.

83A. Classification of Ancient Monuments: 1) From the viewpoint of ownership, the ancient monuments shall be classified in two categories as public ancient monuments and private ancient monuments. 2) From the view point of importance, the ancient monuments shall be classified in three categories as of international importance, of national importance and of local importance”.H3B. Ownership, Conservation, Maintenance and Renovation of Public Ancient Monuments: Ownership of the public ancient monuments shall be vested in the Department of Archaeology. The Department of Archaeology shall conserve, maintain and renovate such public ancient monuments.H3C. Conservation, Maintenance and Renovation of the Ancient Monuments under Private Ownership:The Conservation, maintenance and renovation of the ancient monuments under private ownership which are inside the Protected Monuments area shall be carried out by the concerned person. 1) Provided that if it is deemed necessary to conserve, maintain and renovate the private ancient monuments which are of importance from the national and international view point, by the Department of Archaeology, the Department of Archaeology may, conserve, maintain and renovate such ancient monuments. In order to change the fundamental features of the ancient monuments, their maintenance and renovation or to demolish such ancient monuments as referred to in subsection (1), the concerned person shall obtain an approval from the Department of Archaeology. 2) The conservation, maintenance and renovation of the ancient monuments under private ownership which are outside the protected monuments area shall be carried out by the local body or the concerned person at the direction of the Department of Archaeology.3) Provided that the conservation, maintenance and renovation of the private ancient monuments under the Guthi Sansthan (a. public corporation responsible for maintenance and renovation of ancient monuments and religious sites and for continuing traditional and cultural practices) shall be carried out by the Guthi Sansthan under supervision, technical service and direction of the Department of Archaeology. In cases where the conservation, maintenance and renovation of such private ancient monuments is not carried out by the Guthi Sansthan, the Department of Archaeology may carry out conservation, maintenance and renovation on its own or it may cause to carry out the conservation, maintenance and renovation of such Private ancient monuments by a local body or any person even in absence of the approval of the Guthi

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Sansthan.4) Whoever does any act without the approval or in contravention of the directive referred to in sub- sections (2) and (3) , he shall be liable to a punishment of fine ranging from ten thousand rupees to one lakh rupees or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months or the both.93D. Conservation of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites: The Department of Archaeology shall conserve the ancient monuments and archaeological sites which are important from national and international point of view.I 3E. Operation of Religious Temples, Monasteries etc: The person operating a religious temple, monastery etc. shall use up to fifty percent of the amount of the donation offered to such temple or monastery for the conservation of the temple or monastery and for bringing reformation in its surrounding environment.The income and expenditure of the donation offered to religious temples and monasteries and other provisions for its operation shall be as prescribed.I 3F. House and Land Tax may be exempted: His Majesty’s Government may, having published a notification in the Nepal Gazette, exempt the house and land tax to be levied on the private ancient monuments according to the laws.I 3G. Committee may be formed:1) Various committees may be formed in order to survey and classify the ancient monuments; to give advises to the Department of Archaeology as to the style or standard of the house or building to be constructed in the private land within the protected monuments area; and to make necessary provisions with regard to the due conservation of the ancient monuments which have been regarded important from historical and artistic point of view.2)The formation, functions, duties and powers of the committees referred to in sub- section (1) shall be as prescribed.

104. The Ancient Monuments under Private Property may be Purchased or be kept in one’s own Protection:111) His Majesty’s Government may, if it deems necessary from the point of view of protection of the monument and the environment of the monument area, purchase any ancient monument owned by a person as his private property or any land and house situated at the ancient monument area and owned by private person or institution, on paying a price as evaluated.2) If the owner of any preserved ancient monument gives it without taking any price, the Chief Archaeology Officer, giving notice to His Majesty’s Government

should register it as a public Ancient Monument.

5. Power of the Chief Archaeology Officer to cause the Owners of Ancient Monument to enter into a deed of Responsibility on prior approval of His Majesty’s Government.1) For the purpose of permanent preservation of the Preserved ancient monument located at the capital or outside districts of the country, the Chief Archaeology Officer or a ‘Person assigned by him, by taking prior approval of His Majesty’s Government shall cause the owners of ancient monument to enter into a deed of responsibility. If the owner of the, ancient monument does not enter into such deed, the Local office chief should be asked to preserve the ancient monument and to cause the owner of such monument and the concerned 12 Mayor, Deputy- Mayor or ward Member of the concerned Municipality or the Chair person, vice Chairperson or Member of the Village Development Committee as well to enter into the deed of responsibility pursuant to Sub- Section (2) and to submit the same, and the Local Office Chief shall do accordingly.2) Following matters and other matters, as deemed proper, shall be included in the deed of responsibility under sub-section (1):a. Supervision of the monument.b. Responsibility of the monument and duties of its

watchman.c. Restrictions to the owner of the monument as

to demolishing, removing, altering, defacing, transferring the ownership to others except to His Majesty’s Government or erecting any other monument nearby the monument.

d. Facilities of access to the people or His Majesty’s Government or the person assigned by the owner of the monument for the protection or inspection of the monument.

e. If the land, where the monument is located at, is to be sold, it is to be given to His Majesty’s Government on a price as determined by consensus.

f. Official to be appointed by His Majesty’s Government for hearing the case arising from the deed of responsibility.

6. Local Office- Chief is to give statement of the archaeological objects located within his Jurisdictional areaLocal Office- Chiefs of the capital and outside the capital of the country shall, by investigating the archaeological objects located within their jurisdictional area, forward the details:-of such objects, to the chief archaeology officer for the

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preservation of such objects.

137. The Ancient Monuments or Archaeological Objects of Private Ownership may be taken:1) If any person causes loss or damage to the ancient monuments or archaeological objects under the private ownership or attempts to deface them, the Department of archaeology may, by making the payment of the price fixed by a meeting of local gentlemen (Panchakirte mol), take such monuments or objects. The concerned person may conserve them having executed a deed at the Department of archaeology, to the effect that he would conserve such ancient monuments or archaeological objects as usual as prescribed by the Department. 2) If the concerned person does not conserve such ancient monuments or archaeological objects even after execution of the deed pursuant to sub-section (1), Department of archaeology may take such ancient monuments or archaeological objects in its control without paying any price.

148. Excavation not allowed for the preservation of the ancient monument.1) For the Preservation of the ancient monument, If His Majesty’s Government deems necessary to control the work of trenching a tunnel or blasting of land by explosives around the place of the ancient monument, may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, restrict to trench a tunnel or blasting of land by explosives. 2) A person who” violates sub- section (1), shall be punished with a fine up to ten thousand rupees or with an imprisonment up to one and half year.

9. Protection of Shrines and TemplesHis Majesty’s Government may make necessary arrangements to the prevention from misuse or any kind of iII-treatment of places of archaeological importance or pilgrimage or temples which are under the supervision of His Majesty’s Government under this Act.

10. Power to enter into ancient places or places of historical artistic or religious importance.Any person willing to enter into an ancient place or a place of historical, artistic or religious importance which is under the supervision of His Majesty’s Government or 15 under the private ownership may do so without disturbing the religious feeling of the concerned person or the traditional practice.

11. To be fined for improper restrictionAnyone, who imposes improper restrictions on others

from entering into the places mentioned in Section (10), shall be punished with a fine up to 16 five hundred rupees.

1712. PunishmentAnyone, who does the following works regarding any ancient monument or any archaeological object18 which is under the custody of His Majesty’s Government pursuant to this Act or in regard to which the deed of responsibility pursuant to Section 5 has been entered into shall be punished as follows :a. One who destroys, demolishes, removes, alters,

defaces or steals 19 having realized an amount equal to the claimed amount of such Ancient monument shall be punished with a fine of twenty- five thousand rupees to one hundred thousand rupees or with an imprisonment of five years to fifteen years or both.

b. One who uses the ancient monument in an unauthorized way or harms it by any other means * having realized an amount equal to the claimed amount of such ancient monument shall be punished with a fine up to twenty- five thousand rupees or with an imprisonment up to five years or both.

c.20 One who destroys, demolishes, defaces, steals or removes or alters unauthorizedly or causes harm to the archaeological object by any other means, 21having realized on amount equal to the claimed amount of such archaeological objects shall be punished with a fine a five- thousand rupees to one hundred thousand rupees or with an imprisonment up to five years or both.

2213. Restriction on transfer, transaction, export or collection of ancient monument and archaeological object or curio1) An historical, archaeological or artistic object as prescribed by His Majesty’s Government by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette shall not be exported from the kingdom of Nepal or transferred from one place to another even within the kingdom of Nepal. If it is to be transferred to any place, prior approval of His Majesty’s Government shall be taken. Provided that it shall not be deemed as putting any obstruction to export or transfer from one place to another within the kingdom of Nepal or to store at some place any curio approved and marked by His Majesty’s Government pursuant to Sub- Section (3).2) If a person or an institution has, in its personal, traditional or ancestral any archaeological object of more than one hundred years, the owner of such collections shall have to register such object in a prescribed office within a prescribed time as prescribed

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by His Majesty’s Government in a notification published in the Nepal Gazette. 23Provided that it is not necessary under this sub- section to register the ideal of family Gods (Kul Devata). 242A) In cases any person or organization does not register the archaeological objects at the concerned office within the time- limit referred to in sub- section (2), the office may give a time - limit of thirty five days to such person or organization having stipulated there in that if the fine to be paid pursuant to sub-section (2) has been paid, such archaeological objects may be registered.252B) If any person or organization brings the archaeological objects he or it is having for registration at the concerned office within the time- limit given under sub-section (2A), the office shall register those objects having imposed a fine ranging from five hundred rupees to five thousand rupees. If anyone does not get the archaeological objects registered in the time- limit so given, the Department of Archaeology may, on the recommendation of the concerned office, take the archaeological objects without paying the price.3) Any person or an institution, willing to produce or transact in curio or is producing or transacting in curio shall hold license by registering the owner’s name within the prescribed time in the office as prescribed by His Majesty’s Government by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette and each curio so produced shall have been marked as approved by His Majesty’s Government along with the name of the seller.4) The buyer of the curio also shall buy only the curio marked as approved pursuant to Sub- Section (3).5) Any person or an employee of an institution, who violates or attempts to violate the provisions of Sub - Sections (1) , (2), (3) and (4) shall be punished with a fine up to twenty -five thousand rupees or up to five years imprisonment or both and the object relating to the crime shall be confiscated.6) If it is deemed necessary to check as to whether the provisions of this Act are followed or not, the Local Office- Chief or the official as prescribed by His Majesty’s Government by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette may enter with warrant and search the shop or museum where the ancient monument or archaeological objects and ancient handicrafts are transacted or the shop or factory where the curio is transacted produced, or the godown, house or vehicle where such objects are stored, and may arrest and keep in custody person who is alleged to have committed the crime. The official, who hears the case, shall have the right to issue warrant under this Sub-Section.

7) If some one gives information to the concerned official about the crime committed or attempt made to commit the crime under this section and in consequence if the accused is arrested and found guilty, the person who furnished the information, shall be entitled to get ten percent of the fine imposed on the accused.

14. If it is likely to be damaged or mismanaged His Majesty’s Government may buy by compelling to be soldIf the object mentioned in the notification issued pursuant to section 13 (1) is likely to be damaged or mismanaged, His Majesty’s Government may issue an order to buy such object by compelling to sell it on a price as is generally assessed.

15. Power of the Chief Archaeology Officer to inspect and cause the preservationThe Chief Archaeology Officer shall have the power to inspect as to whether or not the statue of God or Goddess that is being worshiped is kept properly and if found that it has not been kept properly he may cause it to be adequately preserved.

2616. Approval to be taken for Archaeological Excavation1) Any person or institution, willing to do an archaeological excavation at a place where ancient monument is located, shall have to take prior approval of His Majesty’s Government as prescribed.2) If any person or institution, finds an object or monument of archaeological importance while conducting an excavation on prior approval pursuant to Sub- Section (1), the concerned person or institution shall notify the Department of Archaeology or Local Office- Chief about it within forty-eight hours and the Local Office-Chief shall, in turn, inform the Department of Archaeology about the same immediately.3) The archaeological property found on the excavation conducted pursuant to Sub- Section (2) shall belong to His majesty’s Government. 4) A person, who excavated without taking approval pursuant to Sub- Section (1), shall be punished with a fine up to twenty-five thousand rupees or an imprisonment up to five years or both.5) A person, who excavates without notifying the Department of Archaeology or Local Office-Chief pursuant to Sub-Section (2), shall be punished with a fine up to fifteen thousand rupees or up to three years imprisonment or both.2716A. Special Provision Relating to Arts, Sculptures and Monuments. Notwithstanding anything contained

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elsewhere in this Act, the Department of Archaeology may conserve or cause to conserve the most rare types of arts or sculptures or monuments showing the importance of any specific time.

17. Power of His Majesty’s Government to issue notice declaring an area as preserved area.1) In the interest of research on archaeological objects if it is deemed proper to control or impose restriction on the act of researching and excavating such objects, His Majesty’s Government may fix the boundaries of an area and declare it as a preserved area by issuing a notice to that effect.2) After the issuance of notice declaring an area as preserved area under Sub- Section (1), His Majesty’s Government shall make necessary arrangement with the landowner for excavation and dully compensate the landowner for the house, if any, and the land. Thereafter, the Chief Archaeology Officer or a person assigned by him shall do or cause to do the excavation and all objects found, while excavating on such places, shall belong to His Majesty’s Government.3) One who causes obstruction in carrying out the work pursuant to Sub-Section (2) at the preserved area, shall be liable to His Majesty’s Government for compensation and shall also be obliged to pay up to rupees 500.00 as penalty.2817A. Preservation of Archaeological Objects1) Except the one under private ownership, all archaeological objects found any where shall be under the custody of the Department of Archaeology.2) The Department of Archaeology may, on taking surety at the recommendation of the Local Office-Chief, handover the archaeological object under its custody to perform some traditional fair, festival or ceremony for a fixed period of time.2917B. Requirement of filling customs Declaration form by foreign nationals willing to import archaeological objects within the Kingdom of Nepal.1) If a foreign national wishes to bring into Nepal an archaeologically important object from the point of view of history, arts, science etc. he shall do so by filling up the customs declaration form in accordance with the prevailing law.2) The person who has brought archaeological object by filling up the customs declaration form pursuant to Sub- Section (1) may take that with him while going out of the kingdom of Nepal.3) The archaeological object brought without filling up the customs declaration form pursuant to Sub- Section (1) can not be taken out of the kingdom of Nepal.3017C. Delegation of Power - The Chief Archaeology Officer may delegate all or some of the powers vested

on him under this Act, to any authority.3117D. Ancient Monument Conservation Fund1) There shall be a fund as prescribed in order to conserve the ancient monuments which are important fro the historic and artistic point of view.2) The amount to be collected in the fund referred to in Sub- Section (1) and the provision for its operation shall be as prescribed.

18. Saving of the government employee assigned to work under this Act.No suit can be filed at any court for indemnification or for any other things against a government employee for the act that he performs with a bonafide intention under the power vested on him by this Act.

3219.

3320. Prevailing Nepal Law is to be applicableMatters mentioned in this Act shall be governed by his Act, whereas the matters other than those mentioned in this Act shall be governed by the prevailing Nepal law, Provided that following shall be applicable for matters mentioned below:a. Any office or the court acting in accordance with

the prevailing Nepal Law shall, in the case of ancient monument or archaeological object send it to the Local Office- Chief for forwarding it to the Department of archaeology of His Majesty’s Government or to a place as determined by that Department irrespective of any body’s ownership over such objects and no action including either the handing over of it to its owner or auctioning it shall be taken.

b. As regards the price of the object mentioned in clause (a) the Local Office Chief shall realize it or ensure to realize in accordance with the prevailing Nepal Law by making a public assessment of its price.

3420A. To reinstate or put it to its usual placeIf the ancient monument or the archaeological object received at the Department of Archaeology pursuant to paragraph (a) of the proviso to Section 20, is requested by the concerned owner or the trusties to be given back to them for reinstalling or for keeping it to its usual place, with a recommendation from the Local Office Chief and the concerned 35 Village Development Committee or Municipality the Department of Archaeology may, if deemed proper, give back the said object to the concerned owner or the trustee by causing them to enter into a deed as necessary.

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21. Power to Frame RulesHis Majesty’s Government may frame Rule for implementing the objectives of this Act.

1 Amended by Some Nepal Laws (Amendment and Re-legalization) Act, 2020. (1963)2 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)3 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth

Amendment) Act, 20524 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment), Act, 2052.5 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)6 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment), Act, 2052.7 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment), Act, 2052.8 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 20529 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205210 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205211 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)12 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205213 Substituted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205214 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)15 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205216 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)17 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)18 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Fourth Amendment) Act, 2044. (1984)19 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205220 Inserted by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Fourth Amendment) Act, 2044. (1984)21 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205222 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Second Amendment) Act, 202723 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205224 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205225 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205226 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)27 Amended by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)28 Inserted by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)29 Inserted by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)30 Inserted by Ancient Monuments Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043. (1983)31 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 205232 Repealed Judical Administration (Third Amendment) Act 204333 Amended by Some Nepal Laws (Amendment and Re-legalization) Act, 2020. (1963)34 Inserted by Ancient Monument Preservation (Third Amendment) Act, 2043

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ANNEX 3: LUMBINI DEVELOPMENT TRUST ACT 1985 – AMENDED 2003

NEPAL GAZETTE - Published by His Majesty’s Government (Volume 35), Kathmandu, Bhadra, 13, 2042 B.S. (August 29, 1985) (Additional Issue: 26) PART 2 His Majesty’s’ Government, Ministry of Law and Justice

The under-mentioned Act which is enacted by His Majesty’s King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev on the advice and with the consent of he National Panchayat, has been published for the knowledge of all the common people.

Act. No. 11 of 2042 (1985)An Act made to provide for the Lumbini Development Trust

Preamble: Whereas it is expedient to provide for the Lumbini Development Trust in order to present before the people of the world the commitment of His Majesty’s Government to project the goal and ideal of development of Lumbini more effectively and operate the Lumbini Development plan in a more coordinated and smooth manner.

Now therefore, His Majesty’s King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev has enacted this Act on the advice and with the consent of the National Panchayat.

1. Short Title and Commencement1. This Act may be called the “Lumbini Development Trust Act, 2042 (1985)”2. This Act shall come into force immediately.

2. Definitions: Unless the subject or context otherwise requires, in this Act1. Lumbini Development Area “means and includes

the place Tilaurakot (ancient Kapilvastu) Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Sagrahawa, Sisiniyakot, Araurakot, Kudan (Kapilvastu), Devadaha (Rupandehi), Ramgrarn (Nawalparasi), which are directly or indirectly related with the life of the Lord Buddha and his birth place, lumbini and it shall include other areas a specified by His Majesty’s Government by a notification in Nepal Gazette. But, while specifying places in such manner, the places with are directly or indirectly related to the life of the Lord Guddha can alone be specified.

2. “Trust” means the Lumbini Development Trust established in accordance with Section 3

3. “Patron” means the Patron of Trust.

4. “Council” means the Council established in accordance with Section 8.

5. “Chairman” means the chairman of the Council.6. “Vice-Chairman” means the Vice-Chairman of the

Council.7. “Treasurer” means the Treasurer of the Council.8. “Member-Secretary” means of the Member-

Secretary of the Council.9. “Member” means a member of the Council. This

term shall also include the Chairman’ Vice-Chairman, Treasurer and Member-Secretary of tile Council.

10. “Committee” means the Executive Committee constituted under Section 11A of this Act.

11. “Plan Implementation Committee” means the Plan Implementation Committee constituted in accordance with Section 12.

12. “Plan” means the Lumbini Development Plan.13. “Prescribed” or “As prescribed” means prescribed

or As Prescribed in the Bye-rules made under this. Act.

3. Establishment of Trust1. A Trust named as the Lumbini Development

Trust shall e established for the development of Lumbini. This Trust shall be a non-profit making institution.

2. In English, the Trust shall be called the “ Lumbini Development Trust.

4. Trust to be an Autonomous Body1. The Trust shall be an autonomous and corporate

body with perpetual succession.2. The Trust shall have a separate seal of its own for

all its functions and operations.3. The Trust may acquire, use, sell or dispose of

or otherwise manage its movable or immovable property like an individual.

4. The Trust may sue or be sued in its own name like an individual.

5. Patron: His Majesty the King shall be the Patron of the Trust.

6. Objectives of the Trust: Subject to the policy approved by His Majesty’s Government the objectives of the Trust shall be as follows.1. To obtain or arrange for obtaining contribution

of cash in-kind, or any other type of assistance for the plan form any sector within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal.

2. To collect or arrange for collecting contribution for the plan from within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal.

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3. To establish direct contacts with individuals or institutions within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal for the purpose of obtaining assistance or collecting contributions for the Plan.

4. To make available funds for the plans approved after analyzing work pans.

5. To depute a member or any other person to inspect whether or not funds allocated for specific programs as approved by the Board of Trustees have been properly utilized.

6. To introduce changes in the work plan if so deemed necessary in the interest of the Plan.

7. To constitute committees and sub-committees within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal as required for fulfilling the plan.

8. To evaluate the functions and operations of committees and sub-committees constituted under Clause (g).

9. To formulate policies for the committees and sub-committees constituted under Clause (g) and issue guidelines.

10. To maintain close and cooperative relations with His Majesty’s Government.

11. To perform or arrange for the performance of other necessary functions in order to achieve the objectives of the Trust.

7. Repealed

8. Constitution of Council1. A Lumbini Development Council,- as mentioned

below, shall be constituted as an apex. Body of the Trust, for formulating policy to fulfil the objectives of the Trust and for giving necessary guidance and directives to the Committee:- Minister of Education, Culture and Social

Welfare: Chairman- A person designated by His Majesty’s

Government: Vice-Chairman- Three Members of Parliament nominated by

His Majesty’s Government from among the Members of Parliament elected from Kapilvastu, Rupandehi and Nawalparasi Districts: Member

- Four Secetaries nominated by His Majesty’s Government from among the Secretaries to HMG: Member

- Four persons nominated by His Majesty’s Government from among the governmental, non-governmental Buddhist institutions, renowned and outstanding experts: Member

- Four persons nominated by His Majesty’s Government from among the representatives of international institutions and persons famous in the field of conservation of heritage created by

human beings: Member- A person nominated by His Majesty’s

Government: Treasurer- A person nominated by His Majesty’s

Government: Member-Secretary2. In case His Majesty’s Government so deems

necessary, it may increase or decrease the numbers of members mentioned in Subsection (1) by notification in the Nepal Gazette.

9. Tenure1. The tenure of the nominated Members shall be of

five years and they may be re-nominated on the expiry of their tenure.

2. In case the post of any Member falls vacant before the expiry of his tenure, another Member shall be nominated for the remaining period.

3. In case any member wishes to relinquish his post before the expiry of his tenure, he shall have to submit his resignation to the Chairman. The Member shall be deemed to have been relieved of his post after the resignation is accepted.

10. Repealed

11. Meetings of Council1. The Member-Secretary shall, as directed by

the Chairman, convene meetings of the council specifying the date, time, and venue.

2. The Chairman shall preside over meeting of the council. In his absence, the Vice-Chairman shall do so in the absence of both the Chairman and Vice- Chairman, meetings shall be presided over by a member chosen by the member from among themselves.

3. Notice of the meeting shall normally be given one month in advance.

4. The quorum for meeting of the Board of Directors shall be deemed to have been fulfilled in case half of the total membership of the council is present.

5. The opinion of the majority shall prevail in the meeting. In the event of a tie, the person presiding over the meeting may use casing vote.

6. Meetings of the council shall normally by held twice a year, and the Chairman may convene more meeting if he so deems necessary.

7. The Member-Secretary shall maintain the minute book of the meeting.

8. The allowances and other facilities to which members are entitled for attending meetings shall be as prescribed.

9. The procedures of meetings other than mentioned in this section shall be as prescribed.

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11A. Composition of the Committee1. An Executive Committee, as mentioned below,

shall be constituted for running all the activities of the Trust, under the general supervision of the Council.a. Chairman of the Council: Chairmanb. Vice-Chairman of the Council: Vice-

Chairmanc. Treasurer of the Council: Membersd. Four Members nominated by Chairman from among Members: Members

But while nominating in such manner at least a member of Parliament from among Members of Parliament nominated pursuant to Clause of sub-section (1) of Section 8 shall have to be nominated.

e. Chief, Lumbini Development Project: Members

f. Member-Secretary, Council: Member-Secretary

2. The tenure of the Chairman, of the Vice-Chairman, of a Member and of the Member-Secretary shall be conterminous with that of his membership of the Council.

3. In case the post of any nominated member of the Committee falls Vacant due to any reasons, the Chairman may nominate another member from among WIWI’ members Of Council for the remaining period.

11. B Meetings of the Committee:1. The meeting of the committee shall be-held

on the date, time and venue as specified by the Chairman.

2. The quorum for the meetings of the Committee shall he deemed to have been fulfilled in case half (50%) of the total membership of the committee is present.

3. In the absence of Chairman, the Vice-Chairman, shall preside over the meeting of the Committee. And in the absence of both the Chairman and Vice-Chairman, meetings shall be presided over by a member chosen by the members from among, themselves.

4. The opinion of the majority shall prevail in the meeting. In the event of a tie, the person presiding over the meeting can give casting vote.

5. The Member-Secretary shall certify the decisions of the Committee.

6. The other procedures relating to the meetings of the Committee shall be as decided by the Committee itself.

12. Plan Implementation Committee

1. In order to implement the plan under the supervision, direction, and control of the Committee a plan Implementation Committee shall be constituted in the office of the Trust.

2. The Plan Implementation Committee shall consist of persons nominated by the Chairman

3. The Lumbini Development Committee existing at the time of the commencement of this Act shall continue to function under this Act until the Plan Implementation Committee is constituted in accordance with Sub-Section (1).

13. Trust and Accounts1. The Trust shall have the right to collect

contributions for the Lumbini Development Plan form any part of the world and in any currency.

2. The Trust shall comprise of the following amountsa. Amount provided by I his Majesty’s Government for the Plan.b. Contributions made by individuals and organizations within or outside the Kingdom of Nepal for the Plan.c. Amounts received form other sources.

3. The amount of tile Trust may be deposited in any currency in tile Nepal Rastra Bank or any other bank in Nepal or Abroad.

4. All expenditures to be made by the Trust shall be borne by it.

5. Accounts of the Trust shall be operated in the prescribed manner.

13A. Prior Approval of HMG NepalThe Trust must have due approval of His Majesty’s Government prior to the conclusion of any agreements with other parties at home and abroad.

14. Accounts and Auditing1. Accounts of income and expenditure of the Trust

shall be maintained in the prescribed manner.2. Accounts of the Trust shall be audited by the

office of the Auditor General.3. His Majesty’s Government may inspect

documents concerning the accounts and other cash and kinds of the Trust at any time, if it so desires.

15. Delegation of PowersThe Committee may delegate its powers as per necessity to the Chairman of the Committee, any Member, the Plan Implementation Committee, or other Committee or sub-committee or to their representatives is may be required.

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16. Power to Frame Bye-RulesFor the fulfillment of the objectives of this Act, the Committee may frame necessary Bye-rules withy the approval of His Majesty’s Government.

17. Contact with His Majesty’s GovernmentThe Trust shall maintain contact with His Majesty’s Government through the Ministry of *Youth, Sport and Culture.

18. Tax ExemptionNo direct or indirect tax, charge, or fee to be imposed by the Government or at the local level, including all kinds of income tax, property tax vehicle tax, interest tax, sales tax, registration fees, and customs duty shall be imposed on the capital, income, and property of the Trust. Provided that Trust shall pay charge and fees due for any kind of services.

19. Repeal and Savings2. The Lumbini Development Committee

(Constitution) Order, 2032 (1975) is hereby repealed, and all the movable and immovable property of the committee constituted under that Order shall accrue to the Trust. Provided that the Lumbini Development Committee constituted under that order shall continue to exist until the plan Implementation Committee is constituted in accordance with Sub-section (1) of Section 12.

3. (2) All contracts and agreements signed with the committee mentioned in sub-section (1) shall be deemed to have been signed with Trust, and all actions and business conducted by the Committee shall be deemed to have been conducted by the Trust.

Royal Seal affixed onBhadra 13, 2042 (August 29, 1985)

35 Amended by Ancient Monument Preservation (Fifth Amendment) Act, 2052

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ANNEX 4: DECLARATION OF THE SECOND WORLD BUDDHIST SUMMIT

Lumbini, Nepal - 2 December 2004

Assembled at the holiest site of Buddhist pilgrimage and the Fountain of World Peace–the Sacred Garden of Lumbini, the Birthplace of Lord Buddha–we the delegates at the Second World Buddhist Summit, representing the global community of Buddhists, friends of Buddhism, admirers of the Lord Buddha and his teachings and the peace loving people of all faiths, express our gratitude to His Majesty King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev for his kindness in inaugurating the Summit and to Her Majesty Queen Komal Rajya Laxmi Devi Shah for her gracious presence at Lumbini.

1. We do hereby solemnly recognize the Holy Shrine of Lumbini as a source of eternal inspiration for the peace loving people of the world to promote world peace.

2. We express our grateful thanks to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal for:

- Implementing the decisions of the First World Buddhist Summit held in 1998 (especially the completion of the Mayadevi Temple, the construction of the pond and other developments according to the Lumbini Master Plan),

- Enacting the law to establish the International Buddhist University at Lumbini,

- Further continuing the archaeological excavations at the Sacred Garden,

- Granting permission to operate international flights from the Gautam Buddha Airport, Siddharthanagar, to the neighboring cities of India, and

- Continuously observing the Baishak Purnima (Full moon day of May) as Lumbini Day.

3. We express appreciation to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal for agreeing to take action to expeditiously complete the implementation of the Master Plan and the development of the surrounding areas. In this connection it is requested that the government make clear commitments with time-bound action plans, including:

- Declaring the Sacred Garden of Lumbini as a Five Precept Zone, and

- Incorporating peace education in the curriculum of educational institutions at all levels and forms.

4. The First World Buddhist Summit recommended making Lumbini the Fountain of World Peace following which the UN commissioned the exploration of the vision of the World Peace City of Lumbini as a living centre of learning and teaching for all to live together inspired by peace, harmony, non-violence and coexistence. Taking into consideration the theme paper presented to the Summit, we earnestly propose to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal to translate into action this unique and right vision to create a World Peace City of Lumbini around the Sacred Area. It is envisioned to be a radiating centre of a world peace civilization with a rural-urban fabric resulting in a metacity exemplifying the Lord Buddha’s teachings.

5. We extend support to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal for its untiring efforts in developing Lumbini and propose that His Majesty’s Government of Nepal will

- Promote and develop other holy sites namely Kapilvastu, Devdaha and Ramgram evenly by taking immediate steps to undertake research, archaeological excavation and conservation for developing the sites to attract international and domestic visitors,

- Take appropriate and immediate actions for the extension of the Gautam Buddha Airport into an international airport,

- Continue to enlist the fullest cooperation of all national and international bodies for the development of Lumbini and other holy sites,

- Ensure full national commitment and encourage and enhance communities in the promotion and development of Lumbini and the surrounding areas with special emphasis on the environment,

- In the light of increasing responsibilities, undertake necessary actions to constantly review the adequacy of implementation capacity whose enhancement is essential for fulfilling the government commitments,

- Take immediate appropriate actions for the implementation of Resolutions of the UN and other regional organizations which remain unimplemented, and the revitalization of the UN International Committee for the Development of Lumbini and the UN International Advisory Committee,

- Make necessary arrangements so that decisions of this Summit are gazetted, as appropriate, and implemented accordingly.

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6. We reaffirm and resolve to be partners in all promotional activities aiming at the implementation of this Declaration and hope and aspire that the collaboration between the leadership of peace lovers and His Majesty's Government of Nepal will continue to be further strengthened and widened.

7. We, therefore, fervently wish that future Summits be organized in Lumbini every four years.

8. We acknowledge the leadership of the Rt. Hon'ble Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba and contributions of Hon'ble Minister for Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation Deep Kumar Upadhyaya, Most Venerables, Scholars, distinguished delegates, government officials, members and staff of the Lumbini Development Trust and the Summit Secretariat, and the hospitable people of Nepal who have helped to make this Summit a grand success.

9. We express our thanks Dr Young Hoon Kwaak who led the UNDP's vision and scoping mission of the World Peace City of Lumbini study. We also thank Venerable Dr. Sugandha Mahasthavir and Karna Shakya for the presentation of the theme papers at the Summit. Likewise we appreciate the third theme paper prepared by Sunao Miyabara.

10. Finally, we respectfully urge that all efforts be made to resolve the existing situation in Nepal in the spirit of the Buddhist peace vision involving all the parties in conflict.

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ANNEX 5: ANNEX TO THE LETTER DATED 29 SEPTEMBER 2005 FROM THE PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVE OF NEPAL TO THE UNITED NATIONS ADDRESSED TO THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Outcome document of the Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the member States of the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini, New York, 16 September 2005

1. At the invitation of Ramesh Nath Pandey, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Nepal, a meeting of Foreign Ministers and representatives of member countries of the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini (ICDL), comprising Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand, was held on 16 September 2005 at United Nations Headquarters, on the sidelines of the High-level Plenary Meeting of the General Assembly.

2. The Foreign Ministers and representatives expressed their appreciation to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal for having hosted the meeting and provided a briefing on the current state of development of Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Apostle of Peace.

3. They further expressed their sincere gratitude to His Majesty the King of Nepal for his inspiring message to the meeting.

4. They noted with appreciation the efforts made by His Majesty’s Government of Nepal for the implementation of the master plan for the development of Lumbini since its adoption in 1978.

5. They noted with satisfaction that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization has included Lumbini on the list of World Heritage sites.

6. The Foreign Ministers and representatives reaffirmed that the values of peace, non-violence, compassion, friendship and cooperation embodied in the teachings of Lord Buddha are more relevant to the contemporary world than ever before.

7. They reiterated their commitment of international support to the full implementation of the master plan and urged the international community to extend its cooperation to the Lumbini Development Trust in this regard.

8. They urged the United Nations and its agencies to consider their cooperation to complement the national efforts of Nepal for the development of Lumbini.

9. The Foreign Ministers and representatives noted with appreciation the presentation of the study entitled “Vision and Scoping: Lumbini the Foundation of World Peace” carried out by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2000.

10. They recognized the following:

• Making Lumbini a world peace city and fountain of peace

• Simultaneous development of other Buddhist sites near Lumbini

• Socio-economic uplifting of the local population, including poverty alleviation

• Developing Lumbini as an international tourist destination and as a hub for other Buddhist sites in the region

• The importance of preserving a pristine environment and the sanctity of the cultural heritage of Lumbini.

11. The Foreign Ministers and representatives agreed:

• To reactivate the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini, and directed the Permanent Representatives of the member countries of the Committee to meet at least once a year to take stock of the development of Lumbini. The Committee may form a small working group of experts to help it, if necessary

• To consider measures for the implementation of the recommendations contained in the study carried out by UNDP in 2000, including through the involvement of the United Nations system and other international organizations

• To recommend to the United Nations system to update the study, taking into account the new developments concerning Lumbini

• To welcome China, Mongolia, Viet Nam and others if they wish to join the Committee as members.

12. They appreciated the offer of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal to host the next meeting of the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini at Lumbini.

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ANNEX 6: ONGOING IMPROVEMENTS AS PER

MR. GOVINDA CHITRAKAR, MEMBER SECRETARY, LUMBINI DEVELOPMENT TRUST

Since August 2005 the newly appointed Member Secretary Mr. Govinda Chitrakar has carried out various activities.

Management & Planning• Training in management (communication &

teamwork, computer, management planning, guides & gardening;

• Coordination with line agencies: Roads department, Nepal Electricity Authority, River Control Project, Disaster Control Department, Nepal Telecommunication, Department of Geology;

• Meetings with local NGOs;• Weekly reporting and bi-annual self evaluation of

staff;• Separation of procurement and store sections;• Development of formats for various works;• Management in supply/connections of fuel,

electricity and telephone;• Project formulation and proposals submitted to

donors;• Preparation of a Plan of Action;• Wall Construction Committee (11 members); • Raising tax from hotels and monasteries;• Visit Lumbini Year 2006;

Physical Improvements & Development• Expansion of Maya Devi garden to the south and

west;• Work on bus park and cycle stand;• Establishment of plant nursery;• Construction of gate on western side;• Improvement in electricity supply and agreement

with gas supplier;• Provision of UTL telephone systems;• Meeting with the 8 surrounding VDCs, and district

authorities;• Renovation of hotels started; Mikasa and Sri Lanka

Guest House;• Road gravelling and Planting of flowers;• Control rickshaws, beggars and hawkers;• Delegation from different countries were received;• Excavations in Tilaurakot, Kundan, Kanyamai,

Kharidhanra;

The amount of work that has been carried out during the past few months is commendable. We must however keep in mind that these activities must be integrated into an overall comprehensive Management Plan.

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N.

TYPE OF MONUMENT DATING

CHARACTERISTICS

Oth

er

Mon

aste

ry

Tem

ple

Stupa1 B.C. A.D.

Non d

eterm

ined

Sarir

ikaDh

amma

Parib

hogik

a

Udde

sika

Votive

VII

VI V IV III II I I II III IV V VI VII

VIII

IX

S 1 X x x x

Group of 16 stupas which according to Bidari would have been built “between the visit of the Chinese travellers and Ripu Malla” (VII-XIII A.D.) (Bidari 2004: 155). No further information is available, nor excavations have been carried out in order to ascertain the correct dating of the structure.

S 2 X X Round stupa for which neither dating nor further information are available.

S 3 X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Squared stupa dated by Rijal (Rijal 1977) to the Mauryan period. No further information was provided by the archaeologists.

S 4 X X x x X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ?According to Rijal (Rijal 1977), this stupa was built in the Mauryan period, and it was comparable in shape and size to S3. during the Kushana period, “it was encased within the round shape by adding clay and brick bats all around” (Rijal 1977: 31)

S 5 X X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ?According to Rijal (Rijal nd), this round stupa, which for shape and size is similar to S4, was built next to the latter in order to “give the uniform look” (Rijal 1977: 31). If so, it can be inferred that it should be dated to the second phase of S4, that is to the Kushana period.

S 6 X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

According to Rijal (Rijal 1977) this stupa dates back to the Mauryan period, and was damaged probably during the archaeological campaign of Gen. K. Shumsher between 1933 and 1939. During Rijal’s 1976/77 excavations the stupa was opened again, and revealed “a portion of the lid of a gold casket of cylindrical type in association with some charred human bones and other ritual offerings” (Rijal 1979: 19). A photograph of the content of this stupa, with the gold casket still entire, was published by Rijal in the report of the 1976/77 archaeological campaign (Rijal 1979). Because it contains human bones, this stupa can be ascribed to the category of the saririka stupas, which used to be erected over “the corporeal relics of not only the Buddha, but also of his chief disciples, Buddhist teachers, saints and universal monarchs” (Bidari 2004: 198).

S 7 X X Squared stupa for which neither date nor further information are available.

S 8 X X Squared stupa for which neither dating nor further information are available.

S 9 X X Squared stupa for which neither dating nor further information are available.

S 10 X X Stupa for which neither dating nor further information are available.S 11 X X Squared stupa for which neither dating nor further information are available.

S 12 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

ANNEX 7: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS AT LUMBINI

1According to Bidari the stupas are classified in: saririka stupas (containing the relics of Buddha or of his chief disciples, Buddhist teachers, saints and universal monarchs), dhamma stupas (containing religious texts), paribhogika stupas (containing objects which are believed to have been used by the Buddha or by his chief disciples), uddesika stupas (commemorative of incidents of Buddha’s lives) and votive stupas (built by pilgrims for religious merit, but not containing anything ìnside) (Bidari 2004).

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LUMBINI: PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGESS 13 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII

A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 14 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 15 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 16 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 17 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 18 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 19 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 20 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 21 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 22 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 23 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 24 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 25 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 26 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 27 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 28 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 29 X x x x x x x x x ? Squared stupa generally dated by Mishra between the Kushana and the Gupta period (I-VIII A.D.) (Mishra 1996).

S 30 X X X X X X X X X X X X X

According to Mishra, this stupa would date back to the Mauryan period (III B.C.), and underwent three further construction phases during the Sunga/Mitra (II-I B.C.), Kushana (I-II A.D.) and Gupta (III-VIII) periods. Its original Mauryan structure was that of a rectangular stupa, with “two layers of projected steps in the basement” (Mishra 1996: 42). During the Sunga/Mitra period the stupa was enlarged by a thick wall, which would run all around the previous structure. The area encompassed by the wall would be filled in with soil, thus creating “a processional path (pradakshinapath)” (Mishra 1996: 42). During the Kushana period, the stupa was again reconstructed on the top, but most of this phase, particularly the dome and the finial, is today missing. During the Gupta period, another wall was added all around the stupa in order to further enlarge it. Finally, during the Medieval period (VIII-XIII A.D.), many circular votive stupas were added on its top, among which some are still surviving.

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S 31 X X X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

According to Mishra (Mishra 1996), this stupa would date back to the Mauryan period (III B.C.), and underwent at least a second phase of construction during the Sunga/Mitra period (II-I B.C.), when a rectangular stupa was added (probably the one on the western side of the big stupa), in plain style and with a two-steps basement. According to Mishra and Bidari (Bidari 2004; Mishra 1996), in this stupa 19 terracotta seals with inscriptions in Gupta characters were recovered, that seem “typical of a Dhamma stupa” (Bidari 2004: 207). No mention is given for the construction phase, which added a group of 4 stupas on its southern side.

M A1 X X X X X X X X X ?

Westernmost monastic complex of Group “A”.The monastic complex was excavated by HMGN Department of Archaeology between 1980 and 1986, and revealed a structure which dates back to the Kushana period (I-II A.D.) and which continues until the Gupta period (III-VIII A.D.). According to the reports, the phases sequence of the building can be summarized as follows:

- Kushana period: to this period the archaeologists have dated the dwelling rooms on northern, eastern and southern sides (rooms 14, 9, 8, 5, 6, 11), the meeting hall (upatthana sala) (room 17) and the main courtyard (7), with 2 brick stupas (circular and squared) and a well located in the main courtyard (Mishra 1996). Particularly, the excavation of the well revealed that the bricks used for its construction would bear the engraved images of elephants, horses, palm trees and other votives iconographies. Additionally, inside the well “a few Kushana spouted spots and a faceted pot used for Naga worship” were recovered (Rijal n.d.), which allow to the date the structure to the Kushana period (I-II A.D.) (Rijal n.d.);

- Gupta period: according to Mishra, the monastic complex was re-erected during the Gupta period (III-V A.D.), and displayed in this phase a tri-sala pattern (Mishra 1996).

No mention is made by archaeologists of the artefacts found in this complex, exception made for the Kushana pottery recovered inside the well.Bidari interprets this monastic complex as a “residence that underwent two phases of construction and exhibits an overlapping of structural types. One indication that this was a residential complex is a construction from a later period by the side of the old wall and a brick well inside the residence” (Bidari 2004: 213)

M A2 X X

Easternmost monastic complex of Group “A”This monastic complex was only partially exposed by Mishra, who identified three rooms along the easternmost wall of monastery A1 (rooms 2-4) (Mishra 1996). The walls run west east, and indicate that the monastery extends towards east, outside the fenced area. Such hypothesis seems to be supported by Coningham’s geophysical survey of 200, but no further excavations have been conducted in order to ascertain the extension of this vihara. No dating has been proposed for this structure, neither excavations have been pursued in order to ascertain it.

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M B1 X X X X X X X ? ? ? ? ?

Westernmost monastic complex of Group “B”.According to Mishra, this monastery was started during the Sunga/Mitra period (II-I B.C.), and had two further construction phases during the Kushana and the early Gupta periods, respectively I-II A.D. and III-IV A.D. (Mishra 1996). Unfortunately, very few details of the earliest phases of construction could be recorded, since “they had been badly damaged by latter period of construction” (Mishra 1996). According to Mishra, only the outer walls of the monastery could be dated back to the Sunga/Mitra period (II-I B.C.), whereas to the Kushana period (I-II A.D.) would belong the long covered drainage starting from room 21, running through the centre across the sala and turning south.During the Gupta period, the monastery would measure 44’ 6’’ east-west and 43’ north-south, , and would be composed of dwelling rooms and of an aposthagara sala in the centre of the courtyard. The dwelling rooms are eleven, and are located on the northern, eastern, and southern sides of the courtyard (rooms 19-26 and 29-31). Particularly, in room 23 two tanks were found, respectively measuring 3’ x 2’8’’ x 4’ and 2’5’’ x 1’3’’ x 4’ (the last dimension behind the depth of the tanks), which were interpreted by Mishra as water storage tanks, and which led to the hypothesis that room 23 could be a kitchen (Mishra 1996). The aposthagara sala (room for religious functions) is located in the centre of the courtyard, and measures 13’ east-west and 10’ north-south. The hall is crossed by the long Kushana period drain, which starts from room 21, runs through the centre across the sala and turns south. On the western side of the monastic complex B1, Mishra identified three further walls, which run east to west, and which delineate rooms 27 and 28. No interpretation has been provided by Mishra for these latest findings, but according to Bidari (Bidari 2004) they would “clearly indicate that there are more structures under the pipal tree” (Bidari 2004: 214). However, no further excavations have been conducted in order to ascertain the extension of this vihara.It is important to point out that Bidari interprets Group B (viharas B1 and B2) as non residential block: according to him, in fact, the rooms are very small and of the size one would find in a meditation block for monks and nuns. Additionally, there is no meeting hall of the size of those on Group A (rooms 16-17) (Bidari 2004: 214). However, it must be noted that both B1 and B2 include meeting halls (B1: aposthagara sala; B2: upatthana sala), and that according to Mishra the south-east room of monastery B1 might be interpreted as a kitchen for the recovery of two water storage tanks: these data would rather support the hypothesis of a residential monastery.

M B2 X X x x X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Easternmost monastic complex of Group “B”According to Mishra, this monastic complex dates back to the Mauryan period (III B.C.), and has two construction phases, the former being during the Mauryan period, the latter dating to the Kushana period (I-II A.D.) (Mishra 1996). The Mauryan phasis of the building measured 53’ 2’’ east-west and 48’ 5’’ north-south, and had dwelling rooms on the four sides of the courtyard (rooms 1-18) and a meeting hall (Upatthana Sala) in the centre, measuring 13’ 10’’ east-west and 13’ 9’’ north-south (Mishra 1996). During the Kushana phasis, the dwelling rooms are all in all fourteen, and are located on the northern, western and southern sides of the coutryard (rooms 5-18). A verandah is added on the eastern side of the courtyard, in front of rooms 10-12, and the entry to the monastery is opened on the southeast corner (Mishra 1996).It is important to point out that Bidari interprets Group B (viharas B1 and B2) as non residential block: according to him, in fact, the rooms are very small and of the size one would find in a meditation block for monks and nuns. Additionally, there is no meeting hall of the size of those on Group A (rooms 16-17) (Bidari 2004: 214). However, it must be noted that both B1 and B2 include meeting halls (B1: aposthagara sala; B2: upatthana sala), and that according to Mishra the south-east room of monastery B1 might be interpreted as a kitchen for the recovery of two water storage tanks: these data would rather support the hypothesis of a residential monastery.

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LUMBINI: PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGESA X X

Structure built with ancient bricks, with a small platform inside. No excavation has been pursued in order to ascertain its function and its dating, but “according to local people it was built by a Hindu priest with bricks from nearby structures” (Bidari 2004: 220).

B 1 X X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Meeting hall.According to Bidari, these remains are to be interpreted as a meeting hall, and would date back to the II century B.C. (Sunga/Mitra period) with a second construction phase no more clearly defined (Bidari 2004). No excavations seem to have been pursued in order to ascertain the function and dating of the structure, whereas conservation works were carried out by Rijal between 1975 and 1983.

B 2 X XPlatform. No function and dating are available for this structure (Bidari 2004), nor excavations have been pursued in order to ascertain them.

B 3 X X

Compound wall and Buddhist temples’ basementsAccording to Mishra (Mishra 1996), this structure is to be interpreted as a compound wall running east-west, with the basements of two Buddhist temples in its length. No information is provided by the author about the reasons supporting such interpretation, nor any further excavation has been conducted in order to ascertain the reliability of such interpretation and the extension of the wall.

B 4 X X X X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Rectangular chamber of 15’4’’ x 12’5’’ identified by Rijal during the 1976/77 excavation. According to Rijal (Rijal 1977), the chamber would be characterized by two phases of use. A first phase of use is identified by bricks of rough texture delineating a rectangular chamber, and by a layer of greyish ash soil with Northern Black Polished Ware and Grey Ware. The latter date this first phase of the chamber to a pre-Mauryan period (Rijal 1977). In fact, in Banjarahi (site 8 Km south-east of Lumbini) the Grey Ware has been found in strata of VII/VI B.C., whereas the Northern Black Polished Ware is generally dated to a span of time between VI B.C. and I B.C. (Bidari 2004): such cross dating on the basis of ceramic sequence would therefore allow to date the chamber approximately to the VI century B.C., which allows us to infer some kind of connection between this structure and the Lumbini grama in the south-eastern quadrant of the Sacred Garden.The second phase of the chamber is identified by a layer of faint yellowish soil with Mauryan brick bats and a platform-like Mauryan structure of 5’9’’ x 5’’, and it is dated to the Mauryan period (Rijal 1977). No functional interpretation has been proposed by the archaeologists for this structure.It must be noted that thanks to this excavation, the land profile from the beginning of the north-western side of the Maya Devi Temple has been seen gradually raised towards east by “piling the brick bats and ramming the floor since the Mauryan period” (Rijal 1979).

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AP X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Asoka Pillar: The pillar was erected in 249 B.C. to commemorate the visit of Emperor Asoka to Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha (Bidari 2004). The constructing material being sandstone of the Chunar Hills-(Uttar Pradesh, India), the pillar is tapered from bottom to top, with diameter decreasing about ¼ inch per foot, and is polished at 22’8’’ from the bottom, which is assumed to be the original ground level. The bottom of the pillar is inserted into the centre of a base slab, with a brick foundation underneath (Mishra 1987). Brick wall around the pillar provides additional reinforcement (Mishra, 1987). According to the Chinese monk Yuan Chwang, on the top of the pillar was “the figure of a horse” (Führer 1896: 31).The surface of the pillar bears two main inscriptions by Emperor Asoka and by King Ripu Malla, and about 56 other engravings made by other visitors. The Asoka’s inscription has been differently translated by researchers. According to HMGN Department of Archaeology, it reads as follows: “King Piyadasi (Asoka) the beloved of Devas, in the twentieth year of the coronation himself made a royal visit; Buddha Sakyamuni having been born here, a stone railing was built around the place and a stone pillar erected. The Bhagavan having been born here, Lumbini Village was tax reduced and entitled to the eighth part (only)” (Bidari 2004: 119). Other researchers question the translation of one of the words, “silavigadabhica” (translated by the Department of Archaeology as “a stone railing was built”), and propose the following interpretations:- “he caused a huge stone wall to be made” (Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna and Fleet) (Bidari

2004: 119),- “a stone bearing a figure was caused to be constructed” (Mookerji, Barua, Bhattacharya)

(Bidari 2004: 119). In these regards, Hultzsch and Charpentier “thought it denoted a stone bearing a horse” (Bidari 2004: 119), which would find support in the chronicles of the Chinese monk Yuan Chwang, who states that Ripu Malla’s inscription is located on the eastern side of the upper part of the pilllar, and translated it reads as follows: “Om mani padme hum/may prince Ripu Malla be long victorious”.

SP X X X X

Sacred Pond: The Sacred Pond used to be the natural water basin where Maya Devi is said to have bathed before giving birth to Lord Buddha, and is first mentioned in the chronicles of the Chinese monks travelling to Lumbini. During Shumsher’s archaeological campaign, the pond was enlarged with successive terraces and a brick veneer (Rijal 1979). The 1983 cleaning works carried out by Rijal identified the original oval shape of the pond (Bidari 2004: 215-16). Analogous cleaning works pursued by Lumbini Development Trust in 1993 additionally revealed two artesian wells on the north-east (170x160cm) and south-west (130x114cm) corners of the pond, which were interpreted by Bidari as a testimony that “the ancient trade routes may have passed through Lumbini, since generally such things as wells, rest houses and platforms under a tree or at crossroads were constructed along the well-travelled routes” (Bidari 2004: 215).

VM X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ?

Lumbini grama (Lumbini village): Both Rijal’s excavations in 1970/71 and the recent geophysical and auger survey conducted by Prof. Robin Coningham from Bradford University confirm that the earliest occupation of the area lies underneath the Police station’s mound. The 1970/71 excavations revealed a sequence of ten layers of cultural deposits, which according to the pottery typochronological dating rise from about VI century B.C. (Rijal n.d.) to the Gupta period (III-VIII A.D.). In fact, the lowest layers provided Northern Black Polished wareé, which were associated to a mud-bricks wall and to a terracotta ring well. On the other hand, the upper level revealed a two brick wells, a large number of Kushana figurines, and a circular human burial containing “some portion of the human skull, one iron sickle and a few bones of birds and animals […] in a large number of pots” with incised designs (Rijal 1979: 16). All these materials were dated to the Kushana period (I-II A.D.), whereas a terracotta plaque mould with the image of Lord Buddha in the Earth Touching posture, which was found in the uppest layers as well, can be typologically dated to the Gupta period, thus extending the duration of the settlement to this latter phase.

2According to Bidari, the Northern Black Polished Ware can be dated from the early VI century to the early I century B.C. (Bidari 2004: 248)

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Map of the Archaeological Remains at Lumbini (After Bidari 2004: Modified)

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LUMBINI: PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE CHALLENGESACHARYA UESAKA MISHRA Dating

ICultural deposits dating back to the time of death of Buddha. No structural remains found, probably to be ascribed to the use of perishable materials for construction.

VI B.C.1

II

Rectangular structure of 26x21 m E-W oriented, identified by two walls (internal and external) that include a circumbulatory path based on support walls.Inside the structure: 15 chambers (5 rows E-W per 3 rows N-S: C1-15).Sandstone (Marker Stone) found in C2.

I

A

Rectangular structure of 26x21 m E-W oriented, identified by two walls (internal and external) that include a circumbulatory path based on support walls.Inside the structure: 9 chambers (3 rows E-W per 3 rows N-S: C1-9)Charcoal found in C8, beneath the foundations of the chamber.Sandstone (Marker Stone) found in C2

I

Rectangular structure of 26x21 m E-W oriented, identified by two walls (internal and external) that include a circumbulatory path based on support walls.Inside the structure: 15 chambers (5 rows E-W per 3 rows N-S: C1-15).Sandstone (Marker Stone) found in C2.Mishra interprets the chambers as a support for the upper beams of sala wood in order to produce a higher plinth (Mishra 1995). Additionally, on the basis of comparisons with temples typology in the surrounding area during the Mauryan period, he assumes the remains to have been an apsidal temple with the entrance to the E.

III B.C.2

B

To the structure of stage IA 6 chambers are added east and west (C10-15).Outside the external wall, several bricks on the north and west side identify a brick pavement. Artefacts: NPBW, grey-coloured pottery, red-coloured pottery et al.

III Construction of structure above C2. IIAbove the centre of C2, a smaller chamber is dug out in order to expose the sandstone. No structural remains. No artefacts.

?

IVStructure with 5 chambers: the central is located above C2 of stage II, the others on its SW, SE, NW, NE corners. The NW chamber is a hypothesis, since no record has been.

III

Structure of 7x7 m, with 5 chambers: the central is located above C2 of stage II, the others on its SW, SE, NW, NE corners. NW chamber is inferred, since no record has been found. No artefacts.

II

Structure with 5 chambers: the central is located above C2 of stage II, the others on its SW, SE, NW, NE corners. The NW chamber is a hypothesis, since no record has been found.

II-I B.C.3

IVPlatform above and around stage III. Structure identified by N, W and S walls, built on the inner wall of stage I. Many kinds of artefacts.

?

V Square platform with 9 courses of bricks. Inner area filled in with brickbats and few unbroken bricks. V

Platform of 15.40x17.50, built on the N, S and W inner walls of stage I. The eastern side is the entrance, and is located on the inside of the E wall of the east end chamber of stage I.

IIIBrick platform, interpreted as the Temple to enshrine the Nativity Sculpture, and thus dated to the same age as the latter.

350 AD4

VI

A Superstructure built with reused bricks. VI Chaitya of 1.50x1.30 m built above C2. The upper part is lost. No artefacts. ?

VII

A Platform with W, N, and S walls built upon the inner walls of stage I. No artefacts. ?

B Saptaratha Shikara phase of the Temple inferred through the use of decorative bricks. B Saptaratha Shikara phase of the Temple inferred

through the use of decorative bricks. IV Saptaratha Shikara phase of the Temple inferred through the use of decorative bricks.

V I I - V I I I AD5

C Structure mentioned by Mukherji. No remains. C Structure mentioned by Mukherji. No remains.

V Modern temple

1900

D Rebuilding of the Temple. Terminus post quem: 1928, which is the date of some bricks. D Rebuilding of the Temple between 1901 and 1933. 1928-1933

E Renovation of the Temple by K. Shumsher in 1939. E Renovation of the Temple by K. Shumsher in

1939. 1939

FRenovation of the Temple: the exterior is improved, the platform in front of the entrance is increased and the roof is strengthened with cement.

1939-1992

ANNEX 8: STAGES OF MAYA DEVI TEMPLE REMAINS

Stages of Maya Devi Temple remains, according to K.P. Acharya (Acharya 1996), S. Uesaka (Uesaka 2001) and T.N. Mishra (Mishra 1995). Notes: 1 Dating proposed by Acharya (Acharya 1996). 2 Dating agreed by Acharya (Acharya 1996), Uesaka (Uesaka 2001) and Mishra (Mishra 1995). 3 Dating proposed by Mishra (Mishra 1995) on the basis of the bricks’ size. 4 Dating proposed by Mishra (Mishra 1995) on the basis of the stylistic dating of the Nativity Sculpture. 5 Dating proposed by Mishra (Mishra 1995) on the basis of the architectural style of the Temple.

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Plan of Maya Devi Temple Remains (After Bidari 2004)

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ANNEX 9: SWOT ANALYSIS OF LUMBINI GARDEN

Strengths: • Birth place of Lord Buddha• Master Plan prepared by Kenzo Tange. • World Heritage Site Regd. no 666 by UNESCO• Secured 3 square miles of Master Plan area by the

government• Government supported Core Fund, development fund

and staff salary• Self revenue generating system• Provision of Council, Trustees, staff• Representation of International Monasteries• Infrastructure development: access road network,

electricity, airport, linked to highway, artesian wells, moat, UNESCO in a better position to coordinate conservation and restoration activities, greenery (grassland, forests, wetlands)

• Transit point for tourist at Bhairahawa• Local, and national highways • Free ealth service provided by NGO’s• Cross Flow working in local community

development• TRPAP, promote Rural Tourism• Lumbini Crane Conservation Center, promoting

conservation and wise use of wetlands• DDC has furnished Rupandehi Tourism Perspective

Plan• Non official Rupandehi District Conservation Plan

and Biodiversity Assessment carried out by LCCC

Opportunities:• Artesian well, • International Cooperation• Wildlife habitat creation to exhibit representative

Buddhist flora and fauna (birds, fishes, mammals and plants)

• Conservation of biodiversity representative of Central Terai Region,

• Employment opportunity for local people• Pilgrim and general tourism,• Regional hub of airport• To establish arboretum related to Budhha’s life and

Central • Create open enclosure for grassland, forest and

aquatic animal for display• Promote different species of colorful lotus in the

Circular pond at Sacred Garden• Promote special bird watching trips to watch Sarus

Crane and Great horned Owl. • Mobilization of National and International

Resources• Natural fencing (Jatropa, Shikakai and cane) that has

commercial value• Avenue plantation• Shrubbery’s• Grassland maintenance (Vetiver)• Herbs (essential oils, aromatic plants, Cheuri,

Natural dye)• Floriculture outlet• Aquatic plants in water bodies (Wild rice, lotus,

cattails)

Weaknesses: • Poverty among local community• Less representation in the development and

conservation of Lumbini.• Long dry hot period• Inadequate budget required by master plan• Lowering ground water level, • Infiltration, encroachment intrusion by people,

livestock and wildlife

Threats:• Industrial expanses in the peripheral and

approach roads• Arsenic position in ground water• Air pollution• Bad drainage system• Political insurgency

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ANNEX 10: PLANTS SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR PLANTATION

Flower BedOrnamental Flowers to be planted as the border of trails, in patches of circle, squares and other designs as prescribed.

The height of these plants should vary from 1 foot to 2 feet. Most of the flower listed is used for the religious purpose. Yellow coloured flower should get priority in this garden as it is related to Buddhist religion. The list of flower could be exhaustive as there is a developed floriculture practice in Nepal. Plants could be chosen in relation to their flowering season (seasonal flowering variation should take place to give a vibrant look of the garden, according to their colour.

Ornamental FlowersAntirhimum majus (Bhyaguto phul)Aristolochia (Hencha swan)Aster Calendula Sunflower, (Asharfi phool)Camelia (Gunas)Matricharia chamomilea ChamomileChrysanthemum (Godawari Phool)CistrumNarcissus DaffodilDahlia (Lahure Phool)Fuschia Lantern Plant (Krishna Kali)Hedychium (Pankha phool)Jasminum Jasmine Tagatus MarigoldMirabilisNarcissusNerium (Bau swan)Nyctanthus arbor tristis (Parijat phul)*Oenothera (Pitambar Phul)Pansy Passiflora edulis (Ghadi Phol)Rosa spp. Roses of different varietiesThumbergiaSterilitgia Bird of paradise

HerbsHerbs should be planted in the patches of between the flower bed and lawn. The fragrance of Holy Mint, sage is a repellent for mosquito and other insects.

LavendulaOccimum santum Holy MintOccimum bassilicum French BasilSalvia Sedge

Thunbergia cocciniaThunbergia fragransOccimum sactum Holy mint (Tulsi)

Shrubs and hedgesShrubs and hedges should be planted in distance to provide screen and flowers or fruits. This should attract birds and butterflies and add beauty to the garden.

Buddeleja sp.Clerodendron phillipinumClerodendron serratumClerodendron viscosumAnnona reticulata Custard Apple, (Sarifa)Duranta repens (Nil kanda)Saccharum officinarum Sugarcane (Ukhu) Woodfordia fruticosa (Dhayaron)Ziziphus oxyphylla Zyzyphus mauritiana (Bayar)

EpiphytesHanging orchids on trees surrounding the garden will be an attraction to the visitors and contribute to the conservation of rare lowland Epiphytic orchids. Epiphytic ferns could be planted along with the orchids.

Aerides odorataAridis multiflora Fox-tail orchidBulbophyllum affiniDendrobium densiflorum (Sun gabha)Panisia unifloraRhynchostolis retusaSpirandus sinensisVanda cristata

Tall GrassesThe tallest grassland of the world are the grassland of Terai, the species includes Saccharum, Themeda, Narenga etc. The patches grassland in the sacred garden will provide a good place visual barrier and a cosmetic touch. Moreover it provide habitat for many grassland birds and mammals species. After the acquisition of land, Imperata grass is the first to colonize as the pioneer species. Lemon grass is an exotic species that has the value of essential oil, spices, tea and also as a aroma that repels insects. The local also benefits from the grasses for thatching.

Imperata cylindricaCymbopogon citrates Lemon grassSaccharum benghalensis Munj grassVetivera zeyzanioides Vetiver grass (Khus khus)

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Palms, Screw pine, AroidsRepresentative native Palm tree in the garden will help to beautify the area. This could be also grown as avenue tree along with other rows of broad leaf tree. Palm tree is a component of landscape of the tropics.

PalmsAreca catechu Areca nut (Supari)Cocus nucifera Coconut (Nariwal)Phoenix humilisPhoenix aculisPhoenix sylvestris Wild date palm

Trachycarpus martianusScrew PinePandanus nepalensis Screw pine (Taraka)AroidRhapidiphora decursiva

Rock garden Succulent plants like Cacti, Euphorbia, Agave, Yucca, etc are an attraction of rock garden in some isolated places. These plants are mostly exotic to Nepal. A rock garden with representative of such plants will be an attraction to the visitors. The cacti could also be used as a natural fence in some of the gardens.

Cereus peruvianusOpentia sp., Euphobia roylena (Siundi)Agave americana (Ketuki)Yucca

ClimbersClimbers (the list could exhaust) that flowers in different time of the year should be planted adjoining the fences and other structure that could support it. Iis a good values to camouflage unwanted structure such as the concrete poles.

Bougainvilliea, Lonicera (juhi phool), , Cane, Jasmine

Native tree: Buddha’s life is directly related with trees. He was born under the Sal tree, he meditated under the Pipal tree, he got enlightenment under the tree, first preached under the tree and the Mahaparinirvana took place under the tree. In ancient text he slept under the Neem tree during when he was ill. And the local fruits of this region include mango, lichi, papaya, banana etc. Buddha used to say that the tree offers shade and shelter even to the wood cutter. Many animals and birds are related with Buddha life. For instance his first

audience was the deer. Lumbini area is a significant area to develop it as a natural garden, arboretum and also as conservation and a demonstration area. Trees species that are native to the Terai and related to our culture should be represented in the area. Such trees are as follows:

Acacia catechu (Khayer)Acacia rugata (Shikakai)Adina cordifolia (Haldu)Albizia lebbek (Siris)Albizzia procera (Seto siris)Alstonia scholaris (Chatiwan)Annona reticulata (Ram Phal, Sharipha)Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam)Artocarpus integrifolia Jack fruit (Rukh Katahar)Artocarpus lakocha (Lakooch)Azadirachta indica (Neem)Bassia latifolia (Mahua)Bauhinia pupurea (Tanki)Bombax ceiba Silk cotton tree (Simal)Butea minor (Bhuletro)Butea monosperma, (Palans)Carica papaya Papaya (Mewa)Cassia fistula Indian laburnum (Amaltas, Raja briksha)Cedrela toona (Toona)Combretum roxburghiiDalbergia latifolia (Sati sal)Dalbergia sissoo (Sisau)Dubanga grandiflora (Pani Saj)Ficus benghalensis (Bar)Ficus benjamina (Sami)Ficus glaberrima (Dumre)Ficus hederacea Ficus hispida (Khasreto)Ficus oligodon Ficus religiosa (Pipal)Ficus semicordata (Khanayo)Fraxinus floribunda (Lankuri)Gardenia jasminoides (Indra Kamal) Litchi sinensis (Lichi}Litsea monopetala (Kutmero)Mallotus philippensis (Rohini)Mangifera indica Mango (Amp)Michelia champaca (Champ)Moringa oleifera (Sahijan)Phyllanthus emblica (Amala)Plumeria acutifloria Psidiun guajava Guava (Amba)Shorea robusta (Sal, Sakhuwa)Syzygium jambos (Jamun)Terminalia alata (Saj)Terminalia belerica (Barro)

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Terminalia chebula (Harro)Terminalia myriocarpa (Pani saj)Zyzyhus mauritiana (Bayer)

Wetland plantsThe surrounding ponds of the sacred garden should have some wetland plants (as emergent, submerged, floating and as an emergent. It will add beauty to the landscape and attract wetland birds. Beside in the surrounding ponds other wetland and moat will be a place to plant these species. The Holy lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is the flower that emerged in every step Buddha took after his birth. The lotus flower has a high regard in Buddhist religion. Lotus of different species should dot the surface of the pond. The slopes of circular levee should have carpet of green grasses to prevent soil erosion. Establishment of floating garden would attract birds and mammals.

BulrushCanna spp. (yellow, pink, red)Typha elephantica spp. Cattails (Pater)Cautelleya spicataCostus speciosusCurcuma aromaticaCyprus sp.Eleochris spp.Gladiolus spHedychium thrysifrome Hydrilla sp, Nelumbo nucifera Holi LotusPhragmites karka (Narket))Potamogeto sp. Sagittaria sp. Scirpus sp.Trapa biospinosa (Shingada)Trapa tetraspinosa (Shingada)Oryza rufipogon Wild riceZingiber chrysanthum

Trees Associated with Lord BuddhaSaraca ashoka Ashoka treeShorea robusta Sal treeMangifera indica Mango TreeFicus Plaksha (Kavro Tree)Ficus religiosa Pipal treeFicus bengalensis Banyan TreeSyzygium cumini Java PlumDate Palm (Tada)

Crops: Mentioned in JatakaOryza sativa Rice Pennisetum typhoides (Bajra)Cicer arietinum Gram, Pigeon pea

Phaseolus aureus Mung or Golden Gram Sesame indicum SesamumBrassica campsetris (Sarsyu)Capsicum annum Chillie Cuminum cyminum Cumin Piper betel Betel leaves (Pan)Areca catechu Areca nut (Supari)Saccharum officinarum Sugarcane (Ukhu)Gossypium arboreum Cotton (Kapas)

Vegetables:Allium cepa Onion (Pyaj)Allium sativum Garlic Lasun)Cucurbita sp. Gourd.

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