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Education Research Journal Vol. 2(6): 186 – 198, June 2012 Available online at http://resjournals.com/journals/educational-research-journal.html ISSN: 2026-6332 ©2012 International Research Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Lumosity training and brain-boosting food effects on

learning

Kpolovie, Peter James

Department of Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt

Author‟s Email: drkpolovie@yahoo.com, peter.kpolovie@uniport.edu.ng, Tel: +2348088061666.

Abstract This randomized six-group experimental study investigated the effects of lumosity training, and brain-boosting food on students’ learning, in order to proffer optimum functional or workable solution to the ever fresh question of how learning could best be improved. Seventy-two randomly drawn subjects and four treatments cum two control conditions were randomized into six groups of 4 treatments and 2 controls of 12 each. For six weeks that the experiment lasted, while one of the experimental brain-boosting food groups received brain-boosting food (salmon, mackerel and sardines, that are rich in omega-3 essential fatty acids as well as blueberries, mangoes plus watermelon that are antioxidant), the other received suitable dose of brain-boosting food supplements (ginkgo biloba and folic acid), while eating normal food. While one of the two lumosity training groups exercised the brain with it for 15 minutes twice a day, the other did for 30 minutes twice daily; each preceding a two-hour prep time. The control groups’ members of course, were accorded no treatment. Results showed positive significant effects of lumosity training and brain-boosting food on learning as subjects in each of the treatment groups learned significantly better than their counterparts in the control groups. Consequently, brain-enhancement exercise with lumosity training, and eating of brain-boosting food were recommended. Keywords: Lumosity training, brain-boosting food, learning, learning enhancement, randomized six-group experimental design. Introduction Man‟s activities are centred on learning. He acts both as a demonstration of his learned experiences and as a process for learning of new experiences. Every human institution that one could think of, emanated from learning, operates by learning and is aimed at learning, in one way or the other. In fact, the most central phenomenon in human life can rightly be said to be learning. The desire to express learning and to acquire more of it both consciously and unconsciously is infinitely endless. No individual has learnt maximally and none perhaps, could ever do so; yet to maximally learn in a perfectly unforgettable manner is doubtlessly the ultimate goal of all humans (Kpolovie, 2010a; 2007; 2005; 2003; 1999; Kosemani & Kpolovie, 2003).

Learning is operationally defined as the complex synergy of cognitive, affective, psychomotor and environmental experiences and other influences for the acquisition, maintenance, organization, reorganization and

enhancement of changes in an individual‟s behaviour, knowledge, skills, values, personality and world views for better resolution of problems as measured by the Experimental Learning Test of this investigation. Each problem so resolved, is itself a relevant piece of learning that adds to the complex whole and better prepares the individual for further acquisition and organization of knowledge to produce yet a more intelligent behaviour in overt or covert problem resolution. Learning has been and will continue to remain a central topic not only amongst psychologists but humanity, and its provocative nature has occasioned hundreds of theories and thousands of experimental studies. This particular experiment of the effects of Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on learning was anchored on the various theories of learning/memory enhancement, constructivism in particular, as memory of a given learning experience is a necessary precondition for it to be learnt.

The concern on how to enhance learning has been so uppermost in the human mind and endeavour. Incredibly

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high numbers of theories and websites have been dedicated exclusively to enhancement of learning. For instance, Google search engine as of 12 noon of Saturday, October 1, 2011 showed over 1,100,000,000 web pages/links to learning, 367,000,000 to theory of learning and 1,250,000,000 to memory. Emerging Technologies (2011) categorized all such theories and websites into fifty (50) and further classified them into nineteen (19) as follows: Miscellaneous sites, Aptitude-treatment interaction, Anchored instruction, Bandura’s social learning theory, Behaviourism, Cognitive dissonance, Constructivism, Contiguity theory, Cooperative learning, Dewey’s Dual coding theory, Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory, Gestalt theory, Information processing, Piaget, Social judgment theory, Situated learning and Subsumtion theory. Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011) classified the several theories that seek to explain how people learn into eight as: Behaviourist theories, Cognitivist theories, Constructivist/social/situational theories, Motivational and humanist theories, Design theories and Models, Descriptive and Meta theories, Identity theories and Miscellaneous learning theories and Models.

The Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence (2007), under the sponsorship of Carl D. Perkins Cureer and Technical Education Act through the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board has for the purposes of simplicity narrowed the various learning theories and models into three as (1) Behaviourism, (2) Cognitivism and (3) Constructivism theories and models. A learning model gives a picture that aids people to understand the learning process and product that cannot be directly seen or experienced. A learning theory provides a general explanation for causal relationships between variables associated with learning as a phenomenon over time; gives explanations and predictions of behaviour; is incapable of been established beyond all possible doubts; and could be modified on the basis of overwhelming empirical evidence. In other words, a theory of learning “is a logically organized set of propositions which define events, describe their inter-connectivity as explanations for the occurrence of learning” (Kpolovie, 2010:18). Such events in this experiment are Lumosity training (categorized into 30 minutes of 15:15 and 60 minutes of 30:30 per day) and brain-boosting food (categorized into brain-boosting food supplements – folic acid and ginkgo biloba and brain-boosting food diet – salmon, mackerel, sardines, mangoes, watermelon and blueberries).

Behaviourism theory of learning is largely anchored on making associations between events like lightning and thunder as in Aristotle‟s essay on Memory; and emphasizes the role of classical conditioning, operant conditioning or „instrumental conditionism‟ that sees behaviour as a function of its consequences (Saettler, 1990; Vikoo, 2003; Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence, 2007; Kassin, 2006; Matlin, 1999; Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, 2011). Congnitivism holds that learning involves the acquisition and reorganization of the cognitive structures through which human‟s process and store information. Thus, in

cognitivism theory, learning is a function of establishment of associations through contiguity and repetition (Ausubel, 1969; Piaget, 1971; Gagne, 1977; Sanders, 1983; Wickens, 1984; Vikoo, 2003). Constructivism theory of learning on which this investigation was based, posits that “humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas… views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional” (Smorgansbord, 2011; Wikimedia Foundation Inc, 2011). The learner‟s uniqueness and complexity is encouraged, utilized and rewarded as an integral part of the learning process. Learning is the sole responsibility of the learner. Therefore, he must be actively involved in the learning process. Specifically, constructivism theory of learning avers that;

i. Knowledge is constructed from experience. ii. Learning is personal interpretation of the world. iii. Learning is an active process in which meaning is

developed on the basis of experience. iv. Conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of

meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning.

v. Learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity (Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence, and Instructional Design, 2007).

vi. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

vii. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student.

viii. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps (North American Division Office of Education 2004-2011).

The theory of learning points to the fact that the learner is at the centre of learning. That is, it is only the learner who can make learning to occur in him. If the learner alone can make learning to occur in him, then it logically follows that to ensure better learning, the learner must develop his learning ability by improving it. In other words, to optimize learning, the learner must be engaged in activities or practices that are capable of actually enhancing his memory, brain, intelligence and entire cognitive function maximally. This investigation was therefore focused on finding out those key practices that the learner must be engaged in to make his memory, brain, intelligence and cognitive function incredibly smarter to guarantee better learning. Research Questions and Hypotheses Though the theories of learning have successfully explained how learning occurs, the question that has not

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been satisfactorily answered is what makes learning occur, irrespective of the theory or combination of theories adopted? This experiment is aimed at proffering answers to this unresolved question of what makes learning occur. In more specific terms, this investigation will provide answers to the following research questions:

1. What are the effects of Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on student‟s learning?

2. What is the effect of Lumosity training on students‟ learning?

3. What is the effect of brain-boosting food on students‟ learning?

4. What is the interaction effect of Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on students‟ learning?

Four corresponding hypotheses were postulated thus:

1. H1: Lumosity training and brain-boosting food have significant effects on students‟ learning. H0: Lumosity training and brain-boosting food have no significant effects on students‟ learning.

2. H1: Lumosity training has a significant effect

on students‟ learning. H0: Lumosity training has no significant effect on students‟ learning.

3. H1: Brain-boosting food has a significant

effect on students‟ learning. H0: Brain-boosting food has no significant effect on students‟ learning.

4. H1: There is a significant interaction effect of

Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on students‟ learning. H0: There is no significant interaction effect of Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on students‟ learning.

Lumosity owns the Lumos Labs Inc. developed by renowned neuroscientists and cognitive psychologist for the improvement of brains and lives. Its websites is http://www.lumosity.com. Lumosity is the most effective online tool for cognitive enhancement that offers brain training exercises that strategically target brain areas such as memory, attention and processing speed to make the individual, irrespective of age, smarter and better fit, mentally. Lumosity training has been clinically tried in Lumos laboratories and found to improve working memory, visual attention, fluid and crystallized intelligence and executive functions, creativity, health, flexibility, self-confidence and problem-solving skills and learning (Lumos Labs Inc., 2011).

Lumos Labs Inc “partners with researchers at Stanford, UCSF, Harvard, and Columbia, among other prestigious universities. We also work with numerous health care organizations to provide cognitive training services” (Lumos Labs, Inc, 2011). Users, scientists, medical doctors, opinion leaders and corporate organizations have

praised Lumos Labs Inc. ever since its inception. Lumos Labs Inc. has been incorporated into the European Space Agency‟s Mars500 programme for the simulated trip to the planet, Mars.

In the past, the scientific community held the view that learning occurs by changing the strength of neural connections because the structure and organization of the brain does not change much after childhood. This view has been disproved over the last few decades when neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists engaged in revolutionary research and found that “the brain can fundamentally reorganize itself when confronted with new challenges, and that this can occur regardless of age. Evidence suggests that the brain, when given the right exercise, can actually reshape itself to become more efficient. This ability, known by scientists as „neuroplasticity’, has far-reaching consequences. Neuroscientists and researchers are continuously discovering new ways for leveraging neuroplasticity to improve the brain‟s health and performance” (Lumos Labs, Inc, 2011). Lumos Labs Inc. also designed personalized brain training exercises to enable the individual attain cognitive peak performance and to combat possible cognitive decline occasioned by aging, injuries or other neurophysiological conditions.

Like the human body that needs regular exercise and practice to excel in any sporting activity or any skill, the human brain requires constant challenge to function satisfactorily or excellently. The best way of providing the brain with such challenge is the Lumos Labs Inc‟s brain or memory enhancement training that becomes more and more difficult in order to improve memory at each higher level. Lumos Labs Inc. provides more than 35 brain enhancement exercises or games, each of which cannot be exhaustively accomplished by an individual, and yet it optimally strengthens the brain‟s ability to remember details, solve novel problems, pay attention and perform higher-order tasks.

The author‟s personal experience tends to have shown that works that entailed incredible memory, attention and intelligence; executive function; mental fitness; cognitive acuity; high creativity; problem-solving speed; self-discipline; curiosity; and above all, persistence, could be executed more easily with regular brain exercise with Lumosity training (Kpolovie, 2012). According to Kpolovie (2011, 29 and 30), while “persistence refers to indomitable willpower, unshakable determination, irrepressible commitment, absolute determination, relentless pursuit, continuous and ever-increasing confidence and resolute action in the direction of one‟s goal until it is satisfactorily achieved,” self-discipline is “the ability to and the actual commitment to make oneself do what one should do, exactly how and when he should do it, irrespective of whether he feels like doing it or not.” Out of his curiosity to find out whether his remarkable achievement of publishing two ground breaking books within six months, a 659 pages book on Advanced Research Methods and a 739 pages book on Statistical Techniques for Advanced Research (Kpolovie, 2010 and 2011, respectively) was partly due to his daily use of Lumosity training, he

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embarked on this experimental investigation of the effects of Lumosity training and brain-boosting food on learning. Whether this suspicion was experimentally confirmed or not, will be indicated with the results of this study.

While Hardy (2011) found that Lumosity training can significantly enhance cognitive function and change the way that the brain processes Mathematics, Kesler (2011) applied Lumosity Math Tutor that is designed for improvement of processing speed, cognitive flexibility and number sense in Stanford University and the results showed after six weeks of training statistically significant improvement in Math skills, speed of processing, attention and flexibility. It was equally found that the Math Tutor enhanced both cognition and math skills even in girls with the genetic disorder of Turner‟s syndrome significantly. Baker, cited in Hardy (2011) experimented with his “brain dead” 93 students in Pennsylvania University and found that “those who completed Lumosity training improved twice as much as the control in math and reading. And the improvements aren‟t just on paper, either.” Even only after 10 minutes on Lumosity, his students were recharged and refocused to significantly learn better.

Rasser (2011) concluded on Brain Game (Lumosity Games) that even “job search in Telegraph has a link to a series of Lumosity games that include cognition, cognitive enhancement, computerized testing, neuropsychology and technology.” The Brain Training game called Memory Matrix exercises the individual‟s memory for shapes, spatial layouts and pattern recall. This is meant for acceleration of spatial recall and working memory area of cognition. The Brain Training exercise named Word Bubbles is designed to inexhaustibly train and improve the individual‟s speed in verbal fluency by prompting him to think flexibly and creatively in coming up with appropriate words. This exercise is on the cognitive area of processing speed and verbal fluency. Speed Match is a Brain Training task that is designed to exceptionally improve the individual‟s processing speed and reaction time. It focuses on improving speed, which is often considered as a bottleneck for other cognitive functions. This covers the cognitive area of processing speed in all spheres of life. The Brain Training game that is named Raindrops is carefully designed to maximally improve numeral skills and reasoning at the fastest possible time. It primarily emphasizes swift numerical reasoning accuracy. This exercise deals with the cognitive areas of Problems Solving and Arithmetic accuracy. Lost in Migration is a brain training package that is extremely designed to incredibly improve the individual‟s cognitive control and reaction time. This task focuses on suppressing the individual‟s automatic response to a given stimuli. This training covers the Cognition areas of Attention and Focus.

The benefits for use of Lumosity training, according to Hardy (2001) are indeed, endless. This was a conclusion he reached when analysis of his data of all those who use it revealed that “97% of people who train with Lumosity for at least 10 hours see increases in their Brain Performance Indexes (BPIs). These BPIs measure improvement in brain areas such as memory, attention, and problem-

solving, and more generally a person‟s ability to recall and process information. The question, though, is whether these improved scores translated into real world benefits. The answer is yes.” In another investigation, Hardy (2011) of Lumos Labs, Inc. found that “As few as 20 days of working memory training can improve more complex reasoning and problem-solving abilities, known collectively as fluid intelligence.” The experiment of Susanne Jaeggi at the University of Michigan, cited by Hardy (2011) has similar results that “people who engage in as few as 4 hours of cognitive training can enhance their fluid intelligence – the ability to creatively solve new problems.”

Lumosity, an online cognitive training can incredibly engage the individual‟s innate neuroplasticity to enhance memory and attention and make the person smarter. Perhaps, Lumosity training actually increases release of dopamine, the neurochemical that is very crucial for many brain functions as observed by the researchers in Karolinski Institute in Sweden as cited by Hardy (2011) that “Training participants, who had 5 weeks of cognitive, training, saw improvements in working memory tests and increased levels of dopamine release. Control participants with no training experienced neither … As a neurotransmitter – a chemical used for communication between brain cells – dopamine is particularly important for signalling reward. The brain releases dopamine to say „good job, do that again”. It was also observed that the participants “who did Lumosity training for 20 minutes daily tested significantly higher in visual attention and working memory at the end of the 5-week study.” Those who did not have Lumosity training did not improve.

It must be noted in very strong terms that almost all the findings on the effectiveness of Lumosity in enhancing cognitive function are done and reported by Lumos Labs team. There was therefore an urgent need for a neutral person to independently investigate the effect of Lumosity training on cognitive function. More so, none of the works has been done in Nigeria. The need for investigating claims of the positive effect of Lumosity training on learning or cognition in Nigeria could not be overemphasized. The current experiment was executed to adequately fill this great knowledge gap.

There are two categories of brain-boosting food in this experiment – Dietary brain-boosting food and brain-boosting food supplements. The dietary brain-boosting food refers, for the purpose of control, to food that is rich in Omega-3 essential fatty acid for boosting brainpower and lowering the risk of developing Alzheimer‟s disease. Food that is loaded with Omega-3s is specifically cold-water fatty fish (salmon, mackerel and sardines) and the non-fish sources of Omega-3s (soybeans, pumpkin seeds and walnuts). Other types of dietary brain-boosting food are the ones packed with antioxidants that protect the brain cells from damage. Colourful fruits (blueberries, mangoes and watermelon) and dark green vegetables are particularly good antioxidant „super food‟ sources (Smith and Robinson, June 2011; Ben Rubenstein and 112 others, 2011; Bocco 2011). “Eat brain „super foods‟. Roughly 50-60% of the brain‟s overall weight is pure fat, which is used as insulation for its billions of nerve cells;

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the better insulated a cell, the faster it sends messages and the speedier your thinking. Therefore eating foods with a healthy mix of fats is essential for long-term memory. Fish (wild salmon, mackerel, anchovies especially) and dark leafy green vegetables are excellent choice” (Todd, 4 December, 2007). A well-maintained brain is quicker, smarter, less forgetful and less prone to age-related decline. Essential fatty acids as in omega-3 are excellent food for the brain. Eat any food that is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids to enable the brain function at its best (Peters, 2008). Walnuts, flaxseed and dark leafy green vegetable will help the brain run smoothly. The best of foods to eat for healthiest and most functional brain is salmon, anchovies, sardines and mackerel that very richly contain omega-3 fats and give DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). Todd and Perlmutter emphasized that “DHA is far and away the most important nutrients for brain health” (Todd, 2007). Also, that the brain produces more free radicals that is highly reactive and contributes to cell damage than any other organ. The free radicals can best be cleaned with antioxidants. “Antioxidants are bodies‟ clean-up crew and work around the clock to scrub the body clean of free radicals”. He further asserted that antioxidants are primarily found in great abundance in blueberries and goli berries plus other berries and dark green vegetables as well as in mangoes and watermelon.

Just as a car racer needs gas, the brain needs fuel like omega-3s essential fatty acid and antioxidants to perform at its best. For losing energy, the brain also needs complex carbohydrates like whole-wheat bread, brown rice, oatmeal, whole beans and high-fiber cereal to fuel it. Contrary to these, are foods that stall the brain‟s performance and should best be avoided or at most eaten scantily. Smith and Robinson (June 2011) argued that to have optimally functioning brain does not require one to eat certain food such as alcohol and diets that are high in saturated fat which research has shown to increase the risk of Dementia and impair concentration and memory. The primary sources of saturated fat are animal products (red meat, whole milk, butter cheese, sour cream and ice cream) – (Edmonds, 2011).

University of Maryland Medical Centre (UMMC) (2011) noted that omega-3 fatty acids are essential acids. They are necessary for human health, particularly the brain; but the body cannot make them. One must only get them through eating of food that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Salmon, tuna, and halibut are good food for the purpose. Omega-3 fatty acids are also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and they play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Omega-3 fatty acids are also very popular because they help to reduce the risk of heart disease. The American Heart Association recommends eating fish (particularly fatty fish like Salmon, mackerel, sardines, lake trout, herring and albacore tuna) at least twice a week due to their omega-3 fatty acids content. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain and appear to be important for cognitive (brain memory and performance) and behavioural functions. Symptoms of omega-3 fatty

acids deficiency include fatigue, poor memory, dry skin, heart problems, mood swings, depression, poor circulation and attention deficit, cognitive decline, dementia and Alzheimer‟s disease.

Tallmadge, (March 24, 2004) posited that “Today, the highest concentration of omega-3s is found in fish. The two most potent omega-3 fatty acids are known as DHA and EPA and are usually found in only fishes, such as mackerel, salmon and tuna. These fatty acids end up in every single cell membrane in the human body. They act as a cell lubricant; improve flexibility and communication among cells (particularly brain cells)”. Omega-3s “reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attack” as reported by a nutrition professor, Penny Kris-Etherton, at Pennsylvania State University. The risk of diabetes is also reduced with omega-3s. Omega-3s equally “enhance bone density and inhibit proliferation of cancer cells in the breast, prostate and colon and improve skin condition”. In infants, omega-3 “improves cognitive and visual acuity”. Of greatest importance to this investigation is the fact that “omega-3s boost levels of brain chemicals serotonin and dopamine, decreasing depression” and ensures improved learning. Consequently, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences has established a minimum daily requirement of omega-3s to be: 1.1 grams for adult women and 1.6 grams for adult men.

Yaffe and Ruden Medical Association (2011) emphasized the great need of omega-3s for enhancement of the brain and cognitive function as well as in the treatment and prevention of certain diseases. “Though most Americans eat too much of saturated and trans fats, “there‟s at least one kind of fat that we don‟t get enough of. We should be eating more omega-3 fatty acids, which can offer a tremendous range of health benefits and are found in only fish (like salmon and sardines) and certain seeds”. Omega-3s are called “essential fatty acids” because they cannot be manufactured by the body and must only come from eating them directly. Omega-3s are important components of cell membranes, particularly in the brain and eyes and they also help to make hormones that keep blood from abnormal clothing. Omega-3s, eaten from oily, cold-water fish; have DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) that enhance brain, memory and the entire cognitive functioning. They also reduce risk of heart attacks and stroke, macular degeneration and various types of cancer, including prostrate, colon and breast. DHA and EPA reduce or prevent depression, insulin resistance in diabetes in addition to reducing the risk of forgetting, memory loss, Alzheimer‟s and Parkinson‟s diseases.

Largely, we cannot live well and function maximally, mentally or cognitively without eating more and more of omega-3 fatty acids (Wikimedia Foundation, 2011). Omega-3s is very vital in the health of the membrane of every brain cell, in particular, and other cells of the body. Omega-3s make the brain to work at its best and prevent blood from becoming the “sticky” abnormal clot formation and thus reduce or prevent the risk of heart attack and stroke as well as hypertension, depression, ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), joint pain, skin

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ailments and rheumatoid problems. Omega-3s enhance production of body chemicals that help control inflammation in the joints, the bloodstream and the tissues. “Some research has even shown that omega-3s can boost the immune system and help protect us from an array of illnesses including Alzheimer‟s disease” (Bouchez, 2011).

Generally, virtually everyone is suffering from memory loss, retention loss or forgetting. Forgetting is apparent, spontaneous or gradual loss of or failure to readily access information already encoded and stored in an individual‟s long term memory. Retention loss can be as a function of cue-dependent forgetting (retrieval failure), trace decay (when memories decay), organic causes (like physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain), interference problem (retroactive or proactive inhibition) and information decay (disintegration of the information due to lack of use) (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc, September 30, 2011). With brain-boosting food and Lumosity training, learning can best be maximized and forgetting be best minimized for the individual and his memory will “become the supercomputer” that it should be as findings of this experiment have revealed as you shall soon see.

Brain-Boosting Food Supplements are cognitive enhancement drugs or neuroenhancements that are formulated from plants and fish that are rich in omega-3 fats and antioxidants with minimal site effects. For this experiment, they are Ginkgo Biloba and Folic Acid. Ginkgo Biloba is a natural supplement for enhancement of cognitive function, reversal of memory loss and improvement of blood flow to the brain. Todd (2007) argued that “Ginkgo Biloba is a natural supplement that has been used in China and other countries for centuries and has been reputed to reverse memory loss. It‟s also suggested by some health practitioners to be a highly effective mood enhancer and is worth trying if one experiences memory problems. Similarly, Bocco (2011) stated that ginkgo biloba enhances memory, helps in treatment of dementia, enhances cognitive function and improves blood flow to the brain. On August 8, 2011, Ginkgo-Ginkgobiloba.com outlined the benefits of ginkgo biloba that over twenty types of flavonoids and nutritional elements are obtained from ginkgo biloba for improving human‟s immune functions, boosting metabolism, enhancing intelligence, preserving physical strength and removing fatigue. Ginkgo is superb for brain and cognitive function as well as stress reduction, prevention and treatment of Alzheimer‟s disease and Parkinson‟s disease. It is used as brain booster, treatment of cognitive impairment and for fighting memory loss as well as an anti-aging (iHerb Inc, 2011). Ginkgo biloba could also help to reduce diabetes and in the improvement of diabetic patients‟ sexual ability by its bioactivity. “As we know, ginkgo biloba could be used for improving memory and treating AD, diabetes, asthma, atherosclerosis and other diseases. The main functions of ginkgo biloba are scavenging free radicals, inhibiting PAF and improving the circulation… improving your memory. …If you want to improve memory and had no coagulation problem, you

could take ginkgo biloba as you feeling, even taking more than 300mg per day” will not have negative site effect (Ginkgo-Ginkgobiloba.com, 2011). According to Medicine Net Inc (2011), “Ginkgo biloba has been used for improving blood flow, for improving memory/concentration due to certain brain problems (e.g. Alzheimer‟s disease, dementia), and for relief of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), eye problems, and dizziness”. “One of the most popular supplements in North America and Europe” for cognitive alertness is ginkgo biloba (Ginkgo-Ginkgobiloba.com, 2011). Also, that “Western clinical studies showed ginkgo biloba could help improve Alzheimer‟s disease, brain dysfunction, tinnitus, headache, cardiovascular diseases,…” It could be considered as a special kind of alert medicine. Ginkgo biloba extract increase Neurotransmitter in the brain, learning ability, concentration, attention and memory. Research has also shown that “hippocampal cell activity is significantly better than the controls after been treated with ginkgo biloba extract”. Ginkgo biloba could also protect DNA from oxidative stress in addition to repairing DNA by scavenging intracellular oxidation. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (2011) stated that:

Extracts of Ginkgo leaves contain flavonoids glycosides and terpenoids (ginkgolides, bilobalides) and have been used pharmaceutically. Ginkgo supplements are usually taken in the range of 40-200mg per day. Recently, careful clinical trials have shown Ginkgo to be effective in treating dementia… Ginkgo is believed to have nootropic properties, and is mainly used as memory and concentration enhancer, and anti-vertigo agent. The potential efficacy of Ginkgo biloba EGb 761 in enhancing certain neuropsychological/memory processes of cognitively intact older adults, 60 years of age and over was supported with ample evidence. According to some studies, Ginkgo can significantly improve attention in healthy individuals. In such studies, the effect was almost immediate and reaches its peak in 2.5 hours after the intake. One study suggests that Ginkgo‟s effect on cognition may be attributable to its inhibitory effect on norepinephrine reuptake.

Folic Acid refers to water-soluble forms of vitamin B9, which after conversion to dihydrofolic acid in the liver, produce enormous biological importance that is essential to numerous bodily functions, particularly the brain. Folic acid (also known as folate or vitamin B9) is used in the human body to synthesize DNA, repair DNA, and methylate DNA in addition to acting as a cofactor in biological reactions that involve folate. Folic acid is majorly used for prevention or treatment of neural tube defects, mental depression, forgetfulness, mental confusion, cognitive decline, pregnancy complications, peptic/mouth ulcers, heart palpitations, irritability, sore throat, swollen tongue, behavioural disorders and cancer (Wikimedia Foundation, September 22, 2011). Adequate intake of folic acid during the preconception period (the time right before and just after a woman becomes pregnant), helps to protect against several congenital malformations, such as neural tube defects. Neural tube defects produce malformations of the spine, skull, and brain as well as

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spina bifida and anencephaly. The use of folic acid drastically reduces the rate of or prevents the risk of congenital heart defects, urinary tract anomalies, limb defects, clef lips, fetal growth retardation, birth defects, chromosomal defects in sperm, stroke, cancer and obesity as well as depression, memory loss, learning difficulty and schizophrenia (Wikimedia Foundation Inc 2011). Folic acid is necessary for fertility in both men and women. While folade contributes to spermatogenesis in men; in women, it contributes to oocyte maturation, implantation, placentation and helps throughout pregnancy. Of greatest importance is the fact that there cannot be a healthy brain without enough folic acid. For example, if an individual‟s neural tube suffered defect due to inadequate folic acid intake, his entire central nervous system (the brain and all that is concerned with learning) in the person is damaged. The entire cognitive function of an individual is improved with sufficient consumption of folic acid. Notable experimental studies, documented in Wikimedia (2011) have shown that subjects who take folic acid are significantly better in working-memory, long-term memory, mental agility and verbal fluency than those who took placebo. Folic acid is so essential to the central nervous system and the health of the entire human body that the United State of America and several other nations like Canada, Australia, etc. have by law, mandated “fortification”, the adding of folic acid to all grains products to fortify them and get everybody who eats grain products to automatically take a certain dosage of folic acid. The Food Standards Agency in United Kingdom has also recommended fortification of grains products with folic acid. Each of such nations has recorded incredible results

of cognitive fitness. Nigeria is yet to contemplate fortification of grains products with folate. This absence of dietary consumption of folic acid in Nigeria is a potent factor for the investigation of the effect of folic acid as brain-boosting food supplement in this study to ascertain whether Nigerians have nothing to gain by taking folic acid. Methodology This study adopted randomized six-group experimental design which is a very powerful and most suitable between subject‟s research design for unquestionable establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between two independent variables and one dependent variable (Kpolovie, 2010; Kpolovie, 2007). This experimental design has all the merits of randomized Solomon four-group design and factorial design. This, it does by allowing for the effects of two treatment conditions on a dependent variable to be studied at once with influence of pre-test totally removed. Randomized six-group experimental design does the work that even application of Solomon four-group design twice could not do at once, as it elicits two main effects and an interaction effect (Kpolovie, 2010). The design has six randomized groups, four of which are experimental and the other two are control groups as illustrated hereunder.

Groups Pre-test Treatment Post test

1 Brain-boosting fool R O1 Y O2

2 Lumosity training R O3 X O4

3 Control group R O5 O6

4 Brain-boosting food R Y O7

5 Lumosity training R X O8

6 Control group R O9

Figure 1: Randomize six-group experimental design

A randomly drawn sample of 72 SSIII boarding students from an institution of learning in Nigeria and six experimental conditions were randomized into six groups as shown above. Subjects in groups 1, 2 and 3 were given a valid and reliable test, called Experimental Learning Test, with 3 subscales (Statistical Inference, Phonetics and Community Health). The Experimental Learning Test was designed in accordance with classical test theory (Kpolovie, 2002; Kpolovie, 20010; Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2005) by the researcher to avoid information that the subjects or some of them have already been exposed previously, from confounding the findings of the experiment. Learning was measured with the Experimental Learning Test with high construct validity (0.82) and internal consistency reliability (0.84) that

proportionally covered a Specialized Learning Material (consisting Statistical Inference, Phonetics and Community Health) which was specifically designed for the experiment.

A Specialized Learning Material, designed to meet requirements of constructivism learning material (Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence, and Instructional Design, 2007; North American Division Office of Education, 2004-2011) that covers specific areas in Statistical Inference, Phonology and Community Health was given to the subjects to study. Study hours for the specialized learning material were 2 of 1 during afternoon prep and the other 1 during evening prep each working day in the six weeks that the experiment lasted. The specialized learning material was in soft copy form in the

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laptop provided for each of the subjects. They were initially taught collectively on how to boot the laptop and access the file containing the learning material. Only subjects in the groups 2 and 5 were taught how to access and play the Lumosity Training games. While subjects in groups 2 and 5 exercised their brains by playing the Lumosity games for 15 and 30 minutes respectively during each prep period before studying the specialized learning material, subjects in groups 1, 3, 4 and 6 used the entire prep time to study the specialized learning material. Electricity supply and internet access were made available throughout the prep time in the school by the researcher. To ensure that none of the subjects had access to the learning material outside the prep time, their systems and modems were taken from them at the end of each prep time. The subjects in groups 1 and 4 for brain-boosting vitamin supplements were given Ginkgo biloba (500mg) and Folic acid (folic acid 5mg + B12 5mcg) three hours before the first prep time, daily. While those of them in the brain-boosting natural or dietary group had salmon, sardines, mackerel, blueberries, watermelon, mangoes and dark green vegetable each experimental day. All through the six weeks of the experiment, participants were

prevented from taking coffee, alcoholic drink and smoking. At the end of six weeks, the same Experimental Learning Test that only participants in groups 1, 2 and 3 had written at commencement of the experiment was administered to all the 72 subjects under the same strict conditions. Their scores on the test were analyzed with two-way ANOVA, Sheffe‟s multiple comparison tests and independent samples t-test as appropriate to test tenability of the null hypotheses at 0.05 alpha. Results Results showed the omnibus null hypothesis of “no significant effects of Lumosity Training and Brain-Boosting Food on student‟s leaning” is rejected as both the Lumosity Training effect [F (2, 2) = 24.478, p < .05] and interaction effect (Lumosity TrainingxBrain-Boosting Food) [F (2, 66) = 7.683, p < .05] were statistically significant. Consequently, multiple comparisons were done, using Sheffe. Results indicated that those who received 60 minutes daily LT (Lumosity Training) learnt significantly better than subjects exposed to 30 minutes LT, who in turn learnt significantly better than the subjects in the control group as tabulated below.

Table 1: Two-way ANOVA output, showing effects of lumosity training and rain boosting food on students‟ learning

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable:VAR00001

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta Squared

Intercept Hypothesis 271707.347 1 271707.347 88.938 .067 .989

Error 3055.014 1 3055.014a

LT Hypothesis 38329.528 2 19164.764 24.478 .039 .961

Error 1565.861 2 782.931b

B-BF Hypothesis 3055.014 1 3055.014 3.902 .187 .661

Error 1565.861 2 782.931b

LT * B-BF Hypothesis 1565.861 2 782.931 7.683 .001 .189

Error 6725.250 66 101.898c

a. MS(B-BF) b. MS(LT * B-BF) c. MS(Error)

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Table 2: Scheffe‟s multiple comparisons of the effects of LT and B-BF on learning

Multiple Comparisons

VAR00001

(I) LT (J) LT Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper Bound

60‟ 30‟ 20.5833* 2.91401 .000 13.2856 27.8811

CG 55.8750* 2.91401 .000 48.5773 63.1727

30‟ 60‟ -20.5833* 2.91401 .000 -27.8811 -13.2856

CG 35.2917* 2.91401 .000 27.9939 42.5894

CG 60‟ -55.8750* 2.91401 .000 -63.1727 -48.5773

30‟ -35.2917* 2.91401 .000 -42.5894 -27.9939

Based on observed means. The error term is Mean Square (Error) = 101.898. *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Perhaps the graphic mean differences of students‟ learning in the six groups will further clarify the effects of LT and B-BF on students‟ learning.

Where: VAR00001 = learning, VAR00002 = LT (1.00=60‟, 2.00=30‟ & 3.00=CG) and VAR00003 = B-BF (4.00=B-BF & 5.00=B-BFS).

Figure 2: Graphic presentation of the difference in means Thus, while exercising the brain with LT for 30 minutes daily improved learning from a mean of 20 for the control groups to almost a mean of 80, 60 minutes LT improved to almost a mean of 100 from the baseline or pre-treatment mean of 20. Similarly, B-BF (food rich in omega-3 fatty acids such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines plus food rich in antioxidants like blueberries, watermelon and

mangoes) improved learning from a mean of 20 to about a mean of 60; B-BFS or brain-boosting food supplements (Ginkgo biloba and Folic acid) improved learning to virtually a mean of 80 from as low as a mean of 20 in the control groups. In fact, the effect of B-BF on learning is also statistically significant. For instance, the mean of learning by subjects who took B-BFS is significantly

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greater than those who received natural B-BF: t (70) = 2.142, p < .05. By the principle of Fisher‟s LSD (Least Significance Difference) (Kpolovie, 2011), if the learning difference of about 20 points between B-BF and B-BFS is significant, the close to 40 mean difference in learning between the control group and B-BF as well as the approximately 60 mean difference between control group and B-BFS must each be statistically significant. Synoptically, each of the four null hypotheses postulated for this experiment was rejected on the basis of preponderance of overwhelming statistical evidence. The mean and standard deviation on learning for each of the groups serve as answers to the research questions. Discussion Not only have the results of this experiment corroborated previous findings that Lumosity Training is an extraordinary exercise for enhancement of learning and general cognitive function, but have also concurred with previous findings in the developed world that brain-boosting food (both in vitamin supplement and natural forms) can overwhelmingly enhance human memory or brain in improve learning (Hardt, 2011; Wikimedia Foundation Inc, 2011; Ginkg-Ginkgobiloba.com, 2011; Medicine Net Inc, 2011 and Helpguide Inc, 2011) in line with the constructivism learning theory on which the investigation was based. Constructivism theory of learning points to the fact that the learner is at the center of learning as it is only the learner who can make learning to occur in him. Therefore, to optimize learning, the learner must be engaged in activities or practices that are capable of actually enhancing his memory, brain, intelligence and entire cognitive function maximally. Such key practices as revealed by the results of this investigation are Lumosity training (an online brain exercise for 30 or 15 minutes twice daily, before studying); and eating of brain-boosting food (food that is very rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid like salmon, sardines and mackerel; and in antioxidants like blueberries, mangoes, watermelon) every day; as well as taking of brain-boosting food supplements (500mg of ginkgo biloba and folic acid 5mg + B12 5mcg, 3 hours before studying).

It apparently seems that by exercising the brain with Lumosity training as done in this investigation, an individual more easily engages in activities that have been found in cognitive psychology to improve memory, enhance recall and increase retention of information. Such activities are, according to Cherry (2011) focusing of attention on the materials to be learned; establishment of regular study sessions; structuring and organization of the information to be studied; utilization of mnemonic devices to remember information; elaborate rehearsal of the learning materials; relation of new information to things that are already known; visualization of the learning concepts to improve memory and recall; teaching of the new concepts to another person; paying of extra attention to difficult information and varying of one‟s study routine.

Results of this experiment have shown overwhelmingly that the benefits of Lumosity training transfer to core

cognitive abilities such as processing speed, problem solving, and task switching; and these doubtlessly make a person to learn better and forget less. In the past, learning was scientifically seen as what happened by changing the strength of neural connections. This was anchored on the belief that the structure and organization of the brain did not change much after childhood. With findings of this study and some others like it, research has now discovered that the brain can fundamentally reorganize itself when confronted with new challenges, regardless of age (Hardy, 2011). When given the right exercise like Lumosity training, the brain can actually reshape itself to become more effective and efficient in all its functions; particularly, improvement of working memory, processing speed, learning, long term memory and fluid intelligence. Lumosity training, a multimedia software technology, is an excellent way to help accelerate core cognitive functions and make one to pay more complete attention longer in studying, class, remember more of what has been learned, and better utilize the knowledge in problem solving and as a pro on subsequent learning tasks.

Lumosity training can actively change the brain for better as shown by the research findings, ensuring your greater effectiveness at the basic tasks of memory acuity, processing speed, cognitive flexibility and number sense that you rely on every day. Train the brain with Lumosity and feel more empowered as the exercise tends to improve areas that make you frustrated every day and find yourself more confident in recalling information, focusing in toto on your most important current task and in finding your way easily out of every problem. Lumosity training will make you more self-disciplined and persistent in the attainment of your goal of optimum learning. Lumosity training is a most powerful cognitive-enhancement technology. In fact, the evidence that brain training with Lumosity games works is now sufficiently robust and compelling that it would be difficult for an objective, dispassionate observer to make a contrary claim. Like muscular strength, memory requires the individual to “use it or lose it”. The more you train your brain with Lumosity exercises, the better you will be able to process, remember and use more and more information, and excel in learning generally. Lumosity exercises are novel and unfamiliar to the individual and take him out of his comfort zone to ensure brain enhancement. This is anchored on the fact that neurologists are virtually conclusive that a good brain exercise must be novel as succinctly stated by Helpguide Inc (2011) that “No matter how intellectually demanding the activity, if it‟s something you‟re already good at, it‟s not a good brain exercise”. Lumosity brain exercises are extremely challenging and perfectly interesting.

Brain-boosting food supplements (ginkgo biloba and folic acid) help to keep the brain sharp and smarter and ensure better learning as revealed by findings of this study. Ginkgo biloba and folic acid are brain boosting vitamin supplements that improve reaction time, capacity for processing information, attention, concentration, recall and utilization of information to ensure better learning. They may also reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer‟s

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disease and other dementias by protecting the brain from the effects of high cholesterol and as potent ally in the fight against neurological disorders. Ginkgo biloba and folic acid make an individual smarter, more alert, think with considerably more clarity and focus than usual. They ensure better learning as they seem to confer a measurable cognitive-enhancement effect across a variety of mental tasks, such as recognition and spatial planning as well as sharpened focus and alertness. Ginkgo biloba and folic acid successfully serve as cognitive-modification supplements that significantly boost recall, brain plasticity, speedier learning and perhaps even emotional intelligence and empathy.

The use of ginkgo biloba and folic acid as brain-boosting supplements is recommended on the basis of findings of this experiment as they actually improve learning significantly. These supplements have little or no negative side effects. This accounts for why in developed nations like the United States, daily intake of folic acid is mandatory for every person as all grains and grains products are fortified with a certain quantity or level of folic acid. In fact, the use of intelligence-enhancement drugs by long-haul pilots, frequent business travellers, university students, high-functioning executives as well as those suffering from narcolepsy, sleep apnea and depression to fight fatigue is very common. It was on this note that Cascio (2009) stated that “the use of ADD as study aids has become almost ubiquitous” and Talbot (2009) noted that “College campuses have become laboratories for experimentation with neuroenhancements, and Alex was an ingenious experimenter… Alex took 15mg of Adderal most evenings, usually after dinner, guaranteeing that he would maintain intense focus while losing „any ability to sleep for approximately 8 to 10 hours.” Talbot (2009) also affirmed that “In America, university students are taking illegally obtained prescription drugs to make them more intelligent.” Neuroenhancement drugs that the students use there include Modafinil or Provigil, Adderal, Methylphenidate, Ritalin and phophatidylserine (Outram, 2010; Talbot, 2009 and Cascio, 2009). These drugs have negative effects and should not be taken by anyone here. The use of ginkgo biloba and folic acid for brain enhancement as done in this investigation is not illegal.

The use of brain-boosting food that are natural such as those very rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid like salmon, mackerel and sardines as well as food rich in antioxidants like blueberries, mangoes and watermelon should be eaten on daily basis for enhancement of cognitive functions and smarter brain. These natural brain-boosters have no site effect, and our body, particularly the brain needs them for better learning and to be of greater health. We just cannot eat enough of them. For instance, omega-3 essential fatty acid cannot be created by the body; and the body can only get them by eating food that richly contains them.

While the American Heart Association recommends eating of cold-water fatty fish like salmon, sardines, mackerel, herring and albacore tuna that are rich source of omega-3s at least twice a week (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2011), the Food and Nutrition Board of

the National Academy of Sciences has established a minimum daily requirement of omega-3s to be 1.1 grams for adult women and 1.6 grams for adult men (Tallmadge, 2004). The famous Yaffe and Ruden Medical Associates (2011) have equally being emphasizing the great need for consuming omega-3s for enhancement of the brain and boosting of cognitive function as well as for treatment and prevention of certain diseases. Just as a race-car needs gas, an individual‟s brain demands fuelling with brain-boosting food that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants to perform at its best. Eat well and eat right by taking healthy diet – diet that is packed with omega-3 essential fatty acid and antioxidants that contribute immensely to healthy brain and tremendously promote healthy brain functioning as also advocated by Ben Rubenstein and 112 others (2011) of www.wikihow.com; Yaffe and Ruden Medical Associates (2011) and University of Maryland Medical Centre (UMMC) (2011). While omega-3s enrich the brain with essential fatty acids that insulate neural cells for taster sending of messages and smarter thinking as well as for provision of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which is “far and away the most important nutrients for brain health”, antioxidants clean up free radicals from the brain cells and other cells in the central nervous system to effectively prevent cell damage and enhance smarter memory and better learning (Todd, 2007). Also, eating of food rich in omega-3s ensures improved learning by boosting levels of brain chemicals serotonin and dopamine to prevent or decrease forgetting and depression (Tallmadge, 2004; Yaffe and Ruden Medical Association, 2011).

In peroration, learning in an unforgettable way is so important that several theories (like behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism) have been postulated and a myriad of experiments on cognitive enhancement have been executed over the years (Sternberg, 2004; Sternberg and Jordan, 2005; Reisberg, 2006 and Sternberg, 2006). For maximal enhancement of learning, Lumosity training which is a super powerful cognitive-enhancement technology on the internet as well as brain-boosting food supplements (ginkgo biloba and folic acid) plus natural brain-boosting food that are rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid (salmon, mackerel and sardines) and in antioxidants (blueberries, watermelon and mangoes as well as dark green vegetables) should be taken on daily basis. Conclusion This experiment has ascertained that Lumosity training (an online brain exercise) and brain-boosting food (food that is very rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid like salmon, sardines and mackerel, and antioxidants like blueberries, mangoes, watermelon), on the one hand; and brain-boosting food supplements (ginkgo biloba and folic acid), on the other are effective in significantly enhancing students‟ learning. Learning was measured with an Experimental Learning Test with high construct validity (0.82) and internal consistency reliability (0.84) that proportionally covered a Specialized Learning Material (consisting Statistical Inference, Phonetics and

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Community Health) which was specifically designed for the experiment. Lumosity training (30 minutes and 15 minutes twice daily) and brain-boosting food supplements (ginkgo biloba and folic acid) as well as brain-boosting food diets that are very rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid, and antioxidants are fantastic brainpower enhancers for optimization of learning. They tend to be superb in minimization of forgetting or memory loss. Unequivocally, for learning enhancement, Lumosity training is the best, followed by the brain-boosting food supplements and brain-boosting food diet, respectively as revealed by the findings of this investigation. Use of Lumosity training, ginkgo biloba and folic acid as well as diets of salmon, mackerel and sardines which are rich in omega-3 essential fatty acid and of blueberries, watermelon, mangoes and dark green vegetables that are rich in antioxidant are recommended. Acknowledgement My profound thanks go to Lumos Labs, Inc., for Lumosity training; Mason Vitamins, Inc., Miami Lakes, FL 33014, USA for Ginkgo Biloba 500mg; Mega Life Sciences Ltd., for Ginkgo Biloba Extract 40mg; Vitabiotics (Nig) Ltd., for Folic+12 Acid; and Hyacinth Ide and Authority Harmon Benson, for the Brain-boosting food diet supply. The management and students of the institution used for the investigation are greatly appreciated. The Vice Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ajienka, my Dean, Prof. Ebi Bio Awotua-Efebo and the entire management of University of Port Harcourt that allowed me some time to execute this experiment in spite of my being the Head of Department of Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, are intently thanked. I must profoundly thank all those who funded this experiment by coming back excitedly with additional money after buying and studying parts of my book(s), Advanced Research Methods and/or Statistical Techniques for Advanced Research in appreciation of the exceptionally rich information presented. References Ben Rubenstein et al (2011). How to improve your memory.

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