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1Original Peoples

THE ISLANDS

The term “Caribbean” is normally understood to embrace the thousands of islands, large and small,which stretch like stepping-stones from Florida in the north to the northern shores of South America. Totheir west the islands are washed by the waters of the Caribbean Sea, which is itself enclosed by theCaribbean coasts of Central and South America. The waters of the mighty Atlantic Ocean lap theeastern shores of most of the islands. Further east is West Africa. There is practically nothing betweenthe islands’ eastern shores and Africa.

In English-language history texts of the Caribbean, it has been customary to include Belize inCentral America and the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname and Cayenne) in South America. This is becausethese mainland territories were traditionally closely tied administratively to Caribbean islands. Similarconsiderations to a lesser extent apply to Bermuda which, though geographically isolated far into theAtlantic, nevertheless shares much historically with Caribbean islands. The Bahamas are technically aseparate entity from the Caribbean but are historically very much a part of the area.

The term “Greater Caribbean” can be used to describe the islands together with the mainlandcountries which border them. This textbook will follow the traditional practice of focusing primarily onthe islands, the Guianas and Belize (though much more on the former than the latter). It is impossible,however, to ignore entirely the Greater Caribbean area. The larger area has always interacted with theislands.

The Caribbean islands are subdivided into three major geographical areas. The Greater Antillescomprise the four largest islands of Cuba, Hispaniola (shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic),Puerto Rico and Jamaica. The Bahamas are the myriad islands that extend from Florida to the GreaterAntilles. The Lesser Antilles consist of a string of smaller islands from the vicinity of Puerto Rico toTrinidad in the south. These Lesser Antilles are further subdivided into the Leeward Islands in the northand the Windward Islands in the south. Both these terms are leftovers from the days of sailing ships.

It has been customary, especially in the Lesser Antilles, to consider these islands “mere specks inthe ocean,” insignificant to world affairs and lacking all potential to someday become world leaders.While it is true that some islands are little more than uninhabited rocks, it is also true that some at leastof the islands are not nearly as small as their own inhabitants have been led to believe.

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The problem lies partly in the Mercatorprojection map which has been the standard way ofvisualizing the world since the sixteenth century.This map, one of the great hoaxes of the colonial era,shows the Northern Hemisphere (especially Europeand North America), much larger in relation tothe rest of the world than they really are. Areas in theSouthern Hemisphere (e.g., the Caribbean, Africaand South America) are drawn much smaller thanthey are in reality.

These distortions have been remedied in thePeters maps, which will be preferred in this book. Oneglance at the Peters maps will establish how big orsmall areas are in relation to one another. It will bereadily apparent that Cuba, for example, is nearly asbig as England. Columbus recognized this factimmediately in 1492—in fact he thought that Cubawas larger than England and Scotland put together.

The islands are all within the tropical or subtrop-ical zones and form a single cultural unit. Similaritiesfar outweigh differences in topography, flora andfauna, local foodstuffs, lifestyle and cultural expres-sions. The broad sweep of history has similarlytouched all the islands, at every stage of theirdevelopment.

Today, for reasons which will become apparentin this book, the islands are home to a variety of racialand linguistic groups. Most territories are now inde-pendent, though some still remain attached, via onepolitical device or another, to their French, Dutch,British or U.S. overlords.

FIRST NATIONS

The written history of the Caribbean began abruptlywith Christopher Columbus’ European incursion of1492. The people Columbus met were not literateand therefore did not document their history inwriting. The picture available to us today of the pre-Columbian period is far from complete, but scholarshave been steadily piecing together information onthe lives of the first Caribbean nations. Informationon these original people comes from three mainsources, namely

1. The work of archaeologists. These have un-earthed skeletal remains, remains of settlements

and artifacts of all kinds. Archaeologists havealso worked closely with scholars in other dis-ciplines such as linguistics, geography andethnography to try to reconstruct the lives ofthe original peoples.

2. The study of First Nations people who survivedoutside the Caribbean. The first inhabitants ofthe islands migrated primarily from South andCentral America. Some of their distant relations,as it were, still live in places such as Guyana andVenezuela. It is possible by observing thelanguages and cultures of these survivors tocatch an occasional glimpse of their earlierCaribbean counterparts.

3. The observations of the first Europeans. It isunfortunate to have to rely heavily on the testi-mony of Columbus and his compatriots since,however useful their observations, they werestill outsiders looking in on cultures they didnot always understand. Still we are greatlyindebted to the early European historians, con-querors, priests, administrators and travelersfor documenting the lifestyles of the originalinhabitants. They thereby provided at the veryleast, a body of material to sift through andanalyze, if even all of it cannot always beuncritically accepted as self-evident truth.

It was not long after 1492 before a few nativepeoples were born and raised in Spanish colonialism,complete with literacy in the Spanish language. In anideal situation, these should have been a perfectgroup to record in writing the history and culture oftheir people. Unfortunately, however, as will soon beshown, by the time they came along, their peoplewere already being rapidly exterminated. This exter-mination was virtually complete before there wastime for a stable literate native community to emergein the islands, with the facilities and leisure to docu-ment the history of their own people.

An obvious place for a literate class of indige-nous historians to start would have been the areytos(or arietos), which survived the early years of theSpanish invasion. Areytos were songs accompaniedby dance, in which people sang of the history andgenealogies of their community. These ceremoniescould go on for days and were reminiscent of the

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GUANARAO(St Lucia)

CAMAJUYA (Grenada)

ALUBERA(Tobago)

CAIRIANI(Trinidad)

IGUANACAERA/MATININO (Martinique)

AIRI NAGAN(MarieGalante)

CARUCAIRI/GUACANA (Guadeloupe)

GUALADI(Antigua)

GUAMAONI(Barbuda)

GUATICABON (Dominica)

YARUMAI YARAMAQU(St Vincent)

AMONANA (Saba)

BIEKE (Vieques Island)

BECUYA (Bequia)

CAIRIACO (Carriacou)POTOPOTURU(Canouan)

BEGOS(Mustique)

ACANAO (Margarita)

ARUBEIRA (Aruba)

POREGARI (Blanquilla)

CUBAGUA (Cubagua)

CARUPANO (Peninsula de Paria)

CUACAUTE (Curaçao)

BURIARI (Bonaire)

YARUMA (Orchila)

AYAY CIBUQUEIRA (St Croix)

OCAMANIRO (Redondo)

ARIOGANA/CHIQUITO (Montserrat)

JUTIA (Caja de Muertos Island)

BORIKEN (Puerto Rico)SIQUEO (Desecheo)

YUCAYOINEQUA (Great Abaco)

GIAMAICA (St Kitts)

CUBA(Cuba)

KAIMAN(Cayman Islands)

GUANASA(Pine Island)

JAMAICA(Jamaica)

GUANABO (La Gonaive)

ANIGUA (Isla Vache) ADAMANEY(Isla Saona)

GUANEY CAHINI (la Tortue)

HAITI/QUISQUEYA(Haiti/Dominican

Republic (Hispaniola))

BAHAMA (Grand Bahama)

BIMINI(Bimini) CIGUATEO (Eleuthera)

GUANIMA (Cat Island)

ABACOA (New Providence)

JUMETO (Great Guana Cay)

YUMA(Great Exuma)

GUANAHANI (San Salvador)

SAMANA (Samana Cay)

BAARUCO (Crooked Island/Acklins Island)

MAYAGUANA (Mayaguana Island)

CAYCOS (Caicos Islands)

INAGUA (Great Inagua)

IUCAYO CAICEMON (Little Inagua)

MANIGUA (Rum Cay)

CAUTIO(Florida)

CIGUEY (Monito)

AMONA (Mona Island)

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

C a r i b b e a n

S e a

Map 1-1 Indigenous Names for the Caribbean Source: Based on Sued-Badillo, Jalil, Ed. General History of the Caribbean, Volume 1: Autochthonous Societies. London: Palgrave Macmillan;Paris: UNESCO, 2003.

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recitations of the traditional griots of West Africawho likewise memorized the histories of their com-munities. Bartolomé de Las Casas, most illustriousof the pioneer Spanish historians of the area,enthused over this form of oral history. “Theyremember these songs better,” he observed, “than ifthey had written them down in books.”

It has traditionally been asserted thatColumbus in 1492 met two major groups of indige-nous people in the Caribbean. These were theArawaks (usually called Tainos in the Spanish-speaking territories) and the Island Caribs (so namedto distinguish them from their Carib cousins in SouthAmerica). The Arawaks lived primarily, though notexclusively, in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamasand parts of Trinidad. The Caribs lived mainly,though not exclusively, in the Lesser Antilles.The Caribs were relative newcomers to the islands.The Arawaks and their predecessors had inhabitedthe islands for perhaps 7,000 years or thereabouts.

Archaeologists have argued among themselvesas to whether the terms “Arawak” and “Taino” areappropriate for the Caribbean in 1492. Some arguethat the alleged Island Arawaks were in fact farremoved from their distant Arawak forebears fromSouth America. They argue that the term “Arawak”is a catch-all for a variety of Caribbean peoples whowere, in 1492, at differing stages of development.Some suggest that the term “Taino” is less inappro-priate than “Arawak” since it connotes a commonlinguistic tradition, rather than a homogenouscultural grouping.

Those who challenge the suitability of theterms “Arawak” and “Taino” have come up with abewildering welter of alternative designations.Instead of a single Arawak or Taino population, theypropose a fragmented assortment of Huecoids,Ortoiroids, Casimiroids, Saladoids, Barrancoids,Troumassoids and others, all defined by styles ofpottery found at various archaeological locations.Some of these groups are said to have been extinct,at least as culturally unique groups, in 1492. Otherswere assimilating into a newly developing Tainoculture.

For reasons of convenience, this text willcontinue to designate as Arawaks and Tainos theindigenous people who greeted Columbus in the

Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. The terms willbe used interchangeably. The Caribs will continue tobe considered a separate group. Columbus is saidto have encountered the last remnants of a thirdgroup, the Siboneys, in Western Cuba. The existenceof these people is also a matter of dispute amongarchaeologists. Some suggest that if the Siboneysdid exist they should more properly be termed“Guanahatabeys” or “Guanahacabibes.”

The first known human beings in the islandslived in Trinidad about 6,000 BC. Archaeologistshave examined their remains at the Banwari Tracesite in Trinidad. Their pioneering presence may belinked both to Trinidad’s closeness to the SouthAmerican mainland, from whence these first arrivalscame, and to the fact that Trinidad was joined to thatmainland at various times in the past. People wereliving in Cuba by around 5,000 BC.

These early Trinidadians were part of a so-calledArchaic immigrant group who continued into theLeeward and Windward Islands. They eventuallymerged with later immigrants.

A subsequent wave of new immigrants, amongthem so-called Huecoids and Saladoids, entered thearea from South America. The Saladoids reachedPuerto Rico by at least 430 BC. They continued intoHispaniola.

By around 400 AD, the various immigrantgroups had sufficiently interacted to form the basisof a developing Caribbean culture. This processwas well underway in 1492 when the invadingSpaniards interrupted the process and destroyed thefirst Caribbean peoples.

Despite the inevitable differences over timeand between locations, all of these communitiesshared much in common. They cultivated cassavaand corn (maize), relied heavily on the sea for foodand travel, traded with others in the region, fashi-oned implements and jewelry of stone, bone, wood,shell and mother of pearl, inhaled tobacco or otherdrugs, lived in wooden houses (bohíos) around aplaza and manufactured pottery. By the time that theEuropeans came along, they met a Caribbeancommunity which had been evolving for a long time.In its more advanced areas, most notably Hispaniolaand Puerto Rico, this community was on the verge ofdeveloping powerful states.

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The first Spanish observers described hundredsof political leaders or caciques. As in Africa of thesame period, or indeed Europe itself, the mostpowerful caciques ruled over less powerful ones in asort of confederacy. What the Spaniards called thecaciques majores were akin to paramount chiefs inAfrica or kings and emperors in Europe. Thecaciques under them would correspond roughly tothe barons and earls of Europe and the lesser chiefsof Africa.

There were five major kingdoms (cacicazgos)in Hispaniola in 1492. They were Jaragua, ruled bythe cacique Behechio, Maguana, ruled by Caonabo,Marién ruled by Guacanagari, Maguá underGuarionex and possibly a fifth, Higüey, under thecacica (female cacique) Iguanama. Hispaniola wasalso divided into five geographical regions, which didnot necessarily coincide with political jurisdictions.

Caciques held tremendous power and com-bined both religious and political authority. LikeAfrican chiefs they sat on a duho or ceremonialstool. They wore various emblems of office. Theyalone were allowed more than one wife, having onoccasion as many as twenty or thirty. There were nostanding armies, but in time of war caciques could,according to Spanish reports, mobilize as many as15,000 soldiers in Hispaniola and 11,000 in PuertoRico. The islands lacked iron and steel. The mostpotent weapon at their disposal was therefore thepoison-tipped arrow. Spanish armor provided someprotection, but Oviedo in the 1520s reported thatthe Spaniards had still not found an antidote to thispoison.

Caciques could order soldiers into suicidemissions. The early Spanish historian GonzaloFernandez de Oviedo claimed that caciques on theGreater Caribbean mainland would occasionallythemselves commit suicide in order to induce someof their subjects into the act.

Caciques lived with their extended familiesin large dwellings. They also maintained a caney,a spacious building for receiving important dig-nitaries. They constructed and maintained suchpublic works as roads, ballparks and irrigationschemes. Succession was matrilineal. This meantthat neither the cacique’s son nor his wife inherited.Instead, inheritance passed to the cacique’s mother’s

children, that is, to the ruler’s brother or sister, orthence to the mother’s nieces or nephews. If therewere no heirs, then elections determined a successor.When caciques died, their possessions were distrib-uted among mourners. Food was buried with them,to sustain them on their journey through the afterlife.

Most of the indigenes in the Greater Antillesand the Bahamas spoke the same language. The onlyexceptions were western Cuba, presumed home ofthe Siboneys/Guanahatabeys/Guanahacabibes andtwo isolated areas in northeast Hispaniola.

The Caribbean people were expert mariners.They had plied their waters for thousands of years.They knew the wind and ocean current patterns andwere intimately familiar with the geography of theregion. Here, as in Africa, Asia and elsewhere, localmariners were of invaluable assistance to Europeanexplorers. The Lucayos of the Bahamas showedColumbus how to get to Cuba. The indigenes toldhim that Martinique was one of the most easterly ofthe islands and therefore a convenient departurepoint for the journey back to Spain. In the Azores onthe way back from Columbus’ first voyage, two cap-tured Arawaks drew him a map of the islands usingbeans. Native mariners such as these were the largelyunsung heroes of European exploration. Columbusdid, however, acknowledge them in a letter written atthe end of his first voyage. “They are of a very keenintelligence,” he wrote, “and men who navigate allthose seas, so that it is marvelous the good accountthey give of everything. . . .”

The local vessels were dugout canoes of vari-ous sizes, made from the trunk of a single tree. Afterhis first voyage, Columbus reported seeing canoeswith as many as 70–80 people in them, each with anoar. Historian Las Casas reported canoes with up to ahundred on board.

On his fourth voyage in 1502, Columbusreported the biggest canoe he had ever seen, in theBay Islands off the coast of Honduras. It contained acabin for passengers and was laden with beer, cacao,cotton and other goods for trading. Columbus was soimpressed that he kidnapped the canoe’s captain foruse as a guide. The natives’ navigational skills werematched by their expertise as swimmers.

The sea also provided much of their food. Fishprotein was supplemented by hutías and coríes, two

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Marién

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

C a r i b b e a n S e a

Maguá

Maguana

Jaragua

Higüey

Map 1-2 Indigenous Cacicazgos/Kingdoms of Hispaniola

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Indigenous pirogues from Margarita and Trinidad in battle, ca. 1590. Women rowedwhile their husbands fought. Anyone taken prisoner remained a captive for life.

small animals which the indigenes hunted. They alsoate the iguana, “a kind of serpent that is very fierceand fearful to look upon but is entirely harmless,” ashistorian Oviedo noted. It was “better to eat than tosee” he concluded.

A nonbarking dog was the only domesticatedanimal. The indigenes grew cotton and cultivatedtheir staple food crop, cassava. Many of the staplesand fruits they ate are still staples today. Theseincluded sweet potatoes, tannias, topee tambu, avo-cadoes, guavas, hog plums, mammee apples, birdpeppers and others.

The local people made bread from both cornand cassava. Columbus proclaimed the cassavabread tasty and nutritious. The Spaniards generallyadopted both corn and cassava bread. Cassava breadlasted for months and Spanish sailors used it forship’s rations.

Roasting was the preferred means of cookingcorn in the islands. On the South American main-land, people ground corn to make a dough whichthey placed on a leaf and baked. Oviedo liked it this

way in the 1520s and many people on the mainlandand in Trinidad still do. The Spaniards did not onlyadopt indigenous bread. They also adopted theindigenous methods of cultivating corn and cassava.

Indigenous houses (bohíos) were substantialstructures, usually arranged around a plaza. Oviedodescribed the construction of bohíos in Hispaniola.The walls were made of canes tied with lianas andthen plastered with earth. Roofing material wasstraw or long grass. The result, said Oviedo, was ahouse impervious to rain and with a roof as good asits tiled counterpart in Spain. On his second voyagein 1493, Columbus was impressed by a village inPuerto Rico. The houses were constructed of strawand wood. A clean, straight street ran from thevillage plaza to the sea. Walls made of woven reedslined the street. Above them grew a pleasant spec-tacle of greenery which reminded Columbus of theorange and cedar groves of Valencia and Barcelonain Spain.

The beauty of the islands in general astoundedthe Spaniards. Columbus, in a famous letter written

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after his first voyage, waxed ecstatic about theexquisite beauty of the Hispaniola that he wouldsoon devastate:

[The mountains] are most beautiful, of athousand shapes, and all accessible andfilled with trees of a thousand kindsand tall, and they seem to touch the sky;and I am told that they never lose theirfoliage, which I can believe, for I sawthem as green and beautiful as they arein Spain in May, and some of them wereflowering, some with fruit, and some inanother condition, according to theirquality. And there were singing thenightingale and other little birds of a thou-sand kinds in the month of November,there where I went. There are palm treesof six or eight kinds, which are a wonderto behold on account of their beautifulvariety, and so are the other trees andfruits and herbs; therein are marvelouspine groves, and extensive champaigncountry; and there is honey, and thereare many kinds of birds and a great vari-ety of fruits. Up-country there are manymines of metals, and the population isinnumerable. [Hispaniola] is marvelous,the sierras and the mountains and theplains and the champaigns and the landsare so beautiful and fat for planting andsowing, and for livestock of every sort,and for building towns and cities. Theharbors of the sea here are such as youcould not believe in without seeingthem, and so the rivers, many and great,and good streams, the most of whichbear gold.

Although much of Spanish officialdom con-sidered the indigenous people idolaters (Columbusdid not) and tried at least in theory to convert them toChristianity, some Spaniards acknowledged the indi-genes’ belief in life after death and in the equivalentsof heaven and hell. The indigenes recognized manyspirits and venerated zemis, triangular figures whichproliferate in their archaeological sites.

To the very early Spanish observers, the paceof life in the islands seemed relaxed. Las Casasnoted that the islanders lacked the European drivefor incessant accumulation of wealth. SomeSpaniards saw this as evidence of their lack of civi-lization. For recreation, Las Casas wrote, theydanced, sang and played the ball game batey in theirballparks, also called bateyes.

According to Spanish observers, the indigenestreated their women well. Apart from the caciques,men were content with one wife. The same could notbe said for Spaniards, Las Casas was careful to pointout. Divorce was rare but easy to accomplish. Failureto have children was one ground for divorce. Therewas a division of labor similar to many other soci-eties. Men hunted, fished and cleared the land.Women cooked, gathered fruits, weeded the fieldsand reaped the harvest.

Childbirth was relatively easy. Pregnantwomen worked to the last minute and gave birth“almost painlessly,” as the explorer AmerigoVespucci claimed for Paria, Venezuela, in 1499.They were up in a day and proceeded to the riverto take a bath. Oviedo, also writing of women onthe mainland, said that after delivery they went to theriver for a bath and then rested for a few days. Inthe process, he claimed, their sexual organs returnedto a near-virginal state. He cited as authority thetestimony of Spaniards who had been intimate withlocal women.

Oviedo suggested that well-to-do women weremore concerned with their appearance and morelikely to be sexually liberated than their more hum-ble counterparts. Writing in the 1520s when many ofthe women he described had grown up in the newworld of Spanish exploitation, he claimed that “highborn” women avoided contact with commoners,except for Spaniards, all of whom they considered tobe nobility, even though they recognized differencesof rank among the Spaniards. He described a situa-tion not unlike the forced sexualization of coloredwomen in the later era of African slavery.

Many of these women, Oviedo claimed, wouldeat special herbs to induce abortion. This was becausethey wanted to have a good time and did not wanttheir breasts to become flabby through child rearing.When their breasts did become saggy, they wore a

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Chapter 1 • Original Peoples 9

device that sounded very much like a brassiere.Oviedo described it thus:

When the principal women see thattheir breasts are sagging, they supportthem with a rod of elaborately wroughtgold about a palm and a half long.Some of these rods weigh more thantwo hundred castellanos. A small holeis drilled through each end throughwhich are fastened cotton cords. Oneend of the cord goes over the shoulderand the other under the arm pit, wherethe two ends are tied.

Women of the Island of Giants (Curaçao) andthe Bahamas were, like their men, taller than else-where in the region. Spaniards noted, with somesurprise, the physical prowess and martial qualitiesof many of these women. Like their men, they wereexceptional swimmers. The Spaniard Hojeda met na-tives at Paria, and especially the women amongthem, he said, who could swim two leagues in onego. Columbus’ first serious fight in the islands waswith a small party of male and female Caribs in thewaters of St. Croix. They could fire their arrows justas easily from the water as they could from theircanoes. J.G. Stedman’s late eighteenth-century por-trait of an Arawak girl in Suriname complete withbow and arrows suggests that the female use of thatweapon was widespread and endured for centuriesafter Columbus.

The fighting qualities of island women led tothe legend of Matinino (Martinique), reported byColumbus after his first voyage. The island was said

to be inhabited only by women. Men visited themperiodically for purposes of procreation, but did notstay. The women were reputedly expert archers. Onone occasion, Columbus did indeed encounter abody of women on Guadeloupe, armed with bowsand arrows. Their men were away hunting.

The matrilineal descent for caciques gavewomen access to considerable power and many ofthem became caciques themselves. The femalecacique Anacaona was one of the major paramountchiefs in Hispaniola in the time of Columbus. A par-tial compilation of caciques at the time of Europeanincursion showed several females in Hispaniola andPuerto Rico but none in Cuba, Jamaica or Trinidad.

As in Europe and elsewhere, political allianceswere often cemented through royal marriages.Spanish commanders Ponce de Leon and Cristobalde Sotomayor in Puerto Rico partook of such rela-tionships with the sisters of caciques. In their cases,however, their liaisons stopped short of marriage.

Such then were the indigenous people whogreeted Columbus in 1492. Their society had beenevolving in the islands for thousands of years.They were comfortable with their environmentand could have learnt from new European arrivalsthe way they had learned from new South andCentral American arrivals in the past. But nothingin their past could have prepared them for thecoming of the Spaniards. In short shrift theirislands would be transformed forever. They, theoriginal inhabitants, would however not survive inany significant way to reap the rewards of techno-logical change. Their own destruction would be theprice of material progress that a harsh historywould exact from them.

Further Readings

Morison, Samuel Eliot. Christopher Columbus, Mariner.Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1955.

Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de. Natural History of the WestIndies. Translated and edited by Sterling A. Stoudmire.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959.

Sued-Badillo, Jalil, Ed. General History of the Caribbean.Volume I: Autochthonous Societies. London: Macmillanand Paris: UNESCO, 2003.

Williams, Eric. Documents of West Indian History. Port ofSpain: PNM Publishing Company, 1963.

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