MacDonald’s Fairy Tales and Fantasy Novels as a Critique of Victorian Middle-Class Ideology

Osama Jarrar

olkloristsingeneralagreethattheevolutionofthefairytalegenreisindebtedtooneoftheearliestoralstorytellingtraditionsrelatedtothewondertale—Märchen. TheMärchen existedlargelyinEurope.Theywerespokentraditionalnarrativesinthesensethattheyweremeanttobetold,notread;theyweretoldtoadultsbymenandtochildrenbywomen.FromaMarxistviewpoint,theMärchen wereusedtoreflectsocialproblemsandideologicalconcernsinpre-capitalistsocieties.Insocietiesbasedonclassstruggleandexploitation,wondertalesembodiedasubversivepotentialthatreflectedautopianspirit.Thequestioningofnormsupheldbythedominantsocializingprocesswasattheheartofthisspirit;magic,elves,witches,kings,andqueens,weremetaphoricalrepresentationsofossifiedreality.Thedisruptionofsocialrelationshipsinfigurativerepresentationgivesfairytalesaestheticcapacitytorevealthefamiliarworldinanewlight.Inotherwords,wonderinoldfairytales,accordingtoJackZipes,isideological;wondergivesthefairytaleitssubversivepotentialtoevokesurpriseinreaderswhorespondtotheirhiddenmessage.Zipeswrites:

Yet,itisexactlythis disturbancewhichtheliberatingfairytalesseekonbothaconsciousandunconsciouslevel.Theyinterferewiththecivilizingprocessinhopeofcreatingchangeandanewawarenessofsocialconditions.Thisprovocationiswhyitismoreimportantforcriticstorecognizetheupsettingeffectofemancipatorytalesandtostudytheiruncannyinstitutionsforoldandyoungreaders.(Fairy Tales 191;emphasisintheoriginal)

BythetimewritersliketheBrothersGrimm(JacobandWilhem)andCharlesPerraultcollectedandeditedwondertalesforthepurposeofthesocializationofchildren,wondertaleshadbecomewhatisnowknownasfairytales.AccordingtoKatharineBriggs,theGrimm’sMärcheninspiredmanyEnglishcollectorsandpavedthewaytotheemergenceofliteraryfairytalesinEngland.Shearguesthat

TheGrimmBrothers’methodofworkingwasaninspirationtocollectors,andaftertheirtimetheconscientiousreproductionoftalesastheyweretoldbeganinEngland.MostoftheMärchen

North Wind 30 (2011): 13-24

F

14 | Jarrar

aremoretalesofenchantmentandstrangehappeningsthanofrealfairies,butwherefairiesoccur...theyareverymuchaftertheEnglishpattern.AsfarastheGermanfairiesalteredtheEnglishtraditionitwastostrengthentheimageofthehobgoblins,pixiesandhagsandrathertooverlaythememoryofthefairyladiesoftheRomances.FromthetimeoftheGrimmsonwardourownstoriesbegantobecollected.(179)

Theliteraryfairytale,however,isdifferentfromthefairytaleinthesensethattheformeriswrittenbyanidentifiableauthor.ManyliteraryfairytalewritersincorporatesomeofthethemesandmotifsoftheMärchentoaddcomplexitytothelanguageandtoenrichtheirfantasynovels.Thelanguageofthefairytaleandthefantasyembodiesideologicalmessagesthateithersubvertorstabilizevaluesandnormsofmainstreamculture.Thecombinationofideologyandlanguageinchildren’sfictioniskeyelementbecauseitmirrorstheideologytheauthorswanttopassontochildreaderswhetherconsciouslyorunconsciously.AccordingtoJohnStephens:

Ifachildistotakepartinsocietyandactpurposivelywithinitsstructures,heorshewillhavetomasterthevarioussignifyingcodesusedbysocietytoorderitself.Theprincipalcodeislanguage,sincelanguageisthemostcommonformofsocialcommunication,andoneparticularuseoflanguagethroughwhichsocietyseekstoexemplifyandinculcateitscurrentvaluesandattitudesistheimaginingandrecordingofstories.(8)

Althoughsometheoristsdonotdifferentiatebetweenthefairytaleandthefantasyandincludetheminthesamediscussion,fantasyseemsmoresophisticatedliteraryworkofartthanafairytale.Fantasyincludesmoreliteraryfeaturesthanafairytale,primarilyinitslength,theme,settingandnarrativesequentiality. GeorgeMacDonaldisanineteenth-centuryBritishwriterwhousesbothformsofmagicnarrative—thefairytaleandthefantasynovel.MacDonalduseshisfairytalesandfantasiestoquestionmiddle-classideologyoffamilyandsocialhierarchyinEngland.MacDonald’salternativeideologycontradictsthehierarchicalstructureoftheVictoriansocialscalethatisbasedonhereditaryprivilege,andarguesinfavorofgeneticnobility.

Class and Family in MacDonald’s Eyes TheVictorianmiddle-class,inMacDonald’seyes,hadinternalizedafalse

Ideology of Class and Family | 15

notionofgentlenessandnobility,believingthatnobilityofcharacterwasexclusivetopeopleofhighrank.Thisideawasbasedonatraditionalhierarchy,whichnecessitatedthepresenceofwealthandhighsocialrank.ThismeantthatthepoorwereexcludedfromtheprivilegedstructureoftheVictoriansocialscale.Middle-classpeoplerationalizedthisexclusionbytheirbeliefintheincontrovertiblelawsofhumanbehavior,inthesensethatthepoorwillalwaysremaininferiortotherich.RichardDAltick, inhis Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for Modern Readers of Victorian Literature,assertsthat

thebeliefthatthehierarchicalstructurebasedonhereditaryprivilegehadsomethingsacredaboutitsurvivedintoanageofincreasingsocialfluidity....InVictorianEnglandtheconceptof“deference”—willingacknowledgmentthatthepeopleintheclassesaboveone’sownwerejustlyentitledtotheirsuperiority—wassostrongthatitwasproofagainstallthesubversiveanddisintegratingforceswhichwerebroughttobearagainstit.(18)

Victoriansocietywasinfluencedbytheupheavalsoftheindustrializationprocess.Thefamily,oneofthecornerstonesofVictoriansociety,wassubjectedtocontinuoussocialandculturalchanges.Oneofthesechangeswasthatthefamilywasnolongerbasedonasolidorganicstructure. Psychological,social,andeconomictensionsaffectedtheVictorianfamily,bringingaboutsomeofthemostdrasticchangesinnineteenthcenturysocialhistory.In A Prison of Expectations: The Family in Victorian Culture,StevenMintzarguesthatsocialhistoriansoftendescribetheVictorianmiddle-classfamilyasa“walledgarden”(12),partlybecauseVictorianparentsbelievedthatthematerialisticupheavalsoftheIndustrialRevolutionmightcorrupttheirfamilies.Thus,theytendedtoisolatetheprivatefamilyspherefromthepublicsphere.Inotherwords,thestereotypicalmiddle-classfamilywassomewhatsimilartowhatisknowntodayasthenuclearfamily.Mintzwrites:

Bythebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,however,themiddle-classfamilywasthoughtofinanewway—asisolatedfromlargerkinshipstructuresandtheworldofwork.Conceivedofasaninward-turning,self-containedunit,theconjugalfamilywasregardedasconnectedtotheextendedkingroupandtheoutsidesocietyonlyonthebasisofeconomicself-interestandvoluntaryconsent.(14)

Theisolationofthe“conjugalunit”oftheVictorianmiddle-classfamilyhelpeddefinethesocialrelationbetweenfamilymembers;establishedpositionsforboys,girls,women,andmenemerged.Broadlyspeaking,girlsandboys,accordingtoMintz,wereemotionallyandfinanciallydependenton

16 | Jarrar

theirparents.Victoriansmaintainedthetraditionalattitudetogirlsasfuturemothersandhousewivesoncetheygotmarried;menwereconsideredanabsoluteauthorityinthehome;andparentsprolongedthechildhoodstageoftheirchildren.Thuschildrenweresubjectedtoastrictcodeofbehaviorthatmadethemcomplywiththemiddle-classideology.Inotherwords,“theincreasingisolationofthemiddle-classfamilyfrombroaderstructuresofkinshipandworkplacedextraordinarypsychologicalburdensonthehome”(21). MacDonald’snonconformitystemsfromthefactthathechallengesthesupposedhereditarygentlenessofmiddle-classideology,andrationalizeshisassumptionsonthegroundsthatnobilityofcharacterisgenetic,andthatthiskindofnobilitycontributestotheorganicstructureoftheextendedfamily.ToelaborateonhowMacDonaldcontradictstheideologyoftheVictorianmiddle-classaboutsocialhierarchy,IwouldliketoquoteKnowlesandMalmkjær:“InVictoriansociety,nobilityofbirthwasbecomingundervaluedincomparisonwithpurelyfinancialstatus,andMacDonaldcanappeartobeconcernedtoreturntoapre-industrializedsocialorder.However,hismainconcernistoestablishnobilityasamoral,ratherthanasocial,concept”(171).Thepoorweregentleandmorallysuperiortotherichbecausenobility,inMacDonald’sview,wasnotboundtoaspecificsocialclass.Thushereditarygentlenesswasnothierarchical.OneshouldbeawarethatMacDonaldwasaCongregationalministerandbecauseheexpressedhisheterodoxviewsaboutsalvationfromthepulpit,hecameintoconflictwithhiscongregationwhichforcedhimtoresign.AccordingtotheCalvinistfaithonlytheelectwillbesaved.

MacDonaldopposedthisdoctrinebecausehebelievedthatanyone,young,old,richorpoor,couldattainsalvationbythecultivationoftheinnergoodnessoftheheartandsoul(Carpenter76;KnowlesandMalmkjær164).SoitisnoaccidentthatMacDonald’sfairytalesandfantasynovelspicturepoorcharactersasnoble.Asanonconformistanddissenter,MacDonaldadheredtothosewhoweremoreconcernedwiththenobilityofsoul.Buthewasfarfromaloneinthis.MillandDickensacknowledgedtheinherentqualitiesofthepoorandwroteinfavorofanobilityofcharacterthatworkedinharmoniousinteractionwiththerichnessofmoralsandethics.InOn Liberty: The Subjection of Women (1859)JohnMillquestionedtheCalvinisttheorythatunderestimatedtheinnergoodnessofhumansandstressedoriginalsin:“Humannaturebeingradicallycorrupt,thereisnoredemptionforanyoneuntilhumannatureiskilledwithinhim”(360).LikeMill,Dickenstoodirectedhisattentiontothefreedomoftheindividualwill,regardlessofwealthorsocialrank.

The Princess and the Goblin, The Princess and Curdie, and North Wind contradictVictoriannotionsaboutclass,poverty,andthefamilyand

Ideology of Class and Family | 17

introduceinterrogativeassumptionsthataimatmakingchildrencomplywithanewprocessofsocialization.InThe Princess and the Goblinthenurserevealshermiddle-classassumptionsaboutsocialhierarchywhensheunderestimatesCurdieandtreatshimasinferiortotheprincess.ThisisclearlyseenwhenCurdieprotectsIrenefromthegoblinsandthusshepromiseshimakiss:thenurserelatesthat“there’snooccasion;he’s[Curdie]onlyaminer-boy”(48).ThiscommentisjuxtaposedbyIrene,whorepliestothenursethatCurdieis“agoodboy,andabraveboy,andhehasbeenverykindtous”(48).Goodness,braveryandkindnessarepartofthemoralscalebywhichIrenejudgesCurdie.Thenurse,however,doesnotcareabouttheinnergoodnessofCurdieandjudgeshimbyasocialscale,partlybecauseshehasinternalizedamiddle-classnotionof“dignity.”Asacounterviewtothesocialstandardsofthenurse,thenarratorintroducesmoralones:

HereIshouldliketoremark,forthesakeofprincesandprincessesingeneral,thatitisalowandcontemptiblethingtorefusetoconfessafault.Ifatrueprincesshasdonewrong,sheisalwaysuneasyuntilshehashadanopportunityofthrowingthewrongnessawayfromherbysaying,“Ididit;andIwishIhadnot;andIamsorryforhavingdoneit.”So you seethereissomegroundforsupposingthatCurdiewasnotamineronly,butaprinceaswell.Many suchinstanceshavebeenknownintheworld’s history.(198;emphasisadded)

Thephrase“soyousee”isindeedarationalizationofthefactthatCurdieisaprinceofinnergoodnessandofhumblemanners;theconjunction“not...only”privilegesCurdieasaminerboyandthereforethenarratornegatesthesocialstandardswhichareusedbythenurse;andtheuseof“manysuch”and“world’shistory”isahistoricizationthatstressestheexistenceoflimitlesscasessimilartothatofCurdie’s.Whatisbeingrationalizedandhistoricizedisthatnobilityisgeneticandthehierarchicalstructure,basedonhereditaryprivilege,isafalsenotionbecausehistoryprovesitso.ThenonconformityofMacDonald’sassumptionsisrevealedattheleveloflanguage.However,thenarratorinThe Princess and Curdiealso makestheideologicalassumptionsclearanddirect,andthishelpsthereadertounderstandtheprevailingideologyinthetext.

ThisisseenwhenCurdieandhisfather,Peter,returninghomefromthemines,comeacrossIrene’sgrandmother.Shetransformsherselfintoabeautifulyoungladywhileshetalkstothem:Peterissurprised,primarilybecauseheisapoorminerandtheladyisofahighsocialrank.TheladyrefutesPeter’sassumptionsandsaysthatsheconsidershimandhisfamilyasnobleasherself.TheladyaddressesPeterthus:

Youhavegottothankmethatyouaresopoor,Peter....Thingscometothepoorthatcan’tgetinatthedooroftherich.

18 | Jarrar

Theirmoneysomehowblocksitup.Itisagreatprivilegetobepoor....Hadstthoubeenrich,myPeter,thouwouldstnothavebeensogoodassomerichmenIknow.(60-61)

Theimplicationofthequotationcitedaboveistwo-fold.First,povertyisnotasinbutaprivilegethatthepoorpossessandtherichlack.ItisnotaccidentalthatMacDonaldconsidersrichesanobstacletorenunciationandmysticism,becausehisthoughtsarebasedonChristianphilosophyoftheinnergoodnessofpeople.Therefore,materialrichesarenotpartofMacDonald’svisionaryinsights.IfPeterhadbeenrich,thepossibilityofhis“goodness”wouldhavebeenlimited.Second,nobilityofcharacterisnotboundtoadefinitesocialclassbecausethepoorcanalsobenobleandtheirnobilityisjudgedbytheirgoodness.Inthiscasegentlenessisjudgedbyspiritualandemotionalstandards,notbymaterialandphysicalones.ItisinterestingtonotethattheideasinthequotationcitedabovearealsorecurrentthemesinNorth WindandinThe Princess and Curdie.

Forexample,thenarratorinNorth Wind,directsthereader’sattentiontotwosocialconditionsthatpeopledislike—thefirstispovertyandthesecondisdishonesty,bothlinkedtowhatthenarratorcalls“value.”Thenarratorcommentsthat“Povertywillnotmakeamanworthless—hemaybeworthagreatdealmorewhenheispoorthanhewaswhenhewasrich”(106).Thisimpliesthatpovertyisfavoredaboverichespartlybecauseofthe“value”thatmakespovertyaprivilegenotacurse.Theimageofpovertyiscontinuallyjuxtaposedwiththatofdishonesty;dishonestyisindeedacursethattakestheinnergoodnessoutofmanandleaveshimwithoutmoralvalues.Thenarratormaintains:“butdishonestygoesveryfarindeedtomakeamanofnovalue—athingtobethrownoutinthedust-holeofthecreation,likeabitofbrokenbasin,oradirtyrag”(106).Theideologicalmessagebehindthisisthatpeopleshouldbejudgedbymoralstandardsnotbyasocialhierarchy.

InThe Princess and CurdieIrene’sgrandmothergivesCurdiethegiftofimaginativeperceptionandsheputsitinCurdie’shands.ThisgiftgivesCurdiethepowertosensewhetherapersonhasinnergoodnessorinnerwickedness.Curdietriesthegiftonhismotherbytouchingherhandsanddiscoversthathismotherisalady,butthelatterrefusestobelievehim.ThenarrativeisfocalizedthroughthevoiceofPeterwhenherationalizesCurdie’sclaims.Peter’srevolutionaryviewsofnobilityareclearlyseenwhenheasserts:

AndIamsuretheboyspeakstrue,saidPeter.HeonlysaysaboutyourhandwhatIhaveknowneversolongaboutyourself,Joan.Curdie,yourmother’sfootisasprettyafootasanylady’sintheland,andwhereherhandisnotsoprettyitcomesofkillingitsbeautyforyouandme,myboy.AndI

Ideology of Class and Family | 19

cantellyoumore,Curdie,Idon’tknowmuchaboutladiesandgentlemen,butIamsureyourinside mother mustbealady.(89;emphasisadded)

DespitethefactthatJoan’shandsarecoarseandcracked;despitethefactthatherbodyisshabbyandweary,her“inside”valueassureshergoodnessandidentifiesheras“alady.”Theideologybehindthisepisodeisthatitpraisesworkandunderminesplay,becauseJoan’sbeautyisconsumedbyworkforherfamily:“True,herhandswerehardandchappedandlarge,butitwaswithworkforthem”(98).Thefatherjustifieshisclaimsaboutthenobilityofhiswifebystatingthedifferencebetweena“pretended”gentlemananda“real”gentleman.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwoisaroundthenotionsofworkandplay,seemingandbeing:

Thisishow:whenIforgetmyselflookingatherasshegoesaboutherwork—andthathappensoftenerasIgrowolder—IfancyforamomentortwothatIamagentleman;andwhenIwakeupfrommylittledream,itisonlytofeelthemorestronglythatImustdoeverythingasagentlemanshould.IwilltrytotellyouwhatImean,Curdie.Ifagentleman—Imeanarealgentleman,notapretendedone,ofwhichsorttheysaythereareamanyaboveground—ifarealgentlemanweretoloseallhismoneyandcomedownintheminestogetbreadforhisfamily—doyouthink,Curdie,hewouldworklikethelazyones?Wouldhetrytodoaslittleashecouldforhiswages?Iknowthesortofthetruegentleman—prettynearaswellashedoeshimself.(89;emphasisadded)

Peter’sjustificationnegatesthehierarchicalVictoriannotionofgentlemanliness.AsAveryandBullassert,“AlongwiththiscomplexityofemotionssurroundingtheVictorianuseoftheword‘gentleman’wentthefeelingthatgentlemanlyvirtueswerehereditary,thattherulingclassesweremorallysuperiortothosebelowthem”(198).Theproximityoftheconnotations“pretended”and“real”exposetherealmeaningofnobility:realnobilityisequatedwithgoodness,work,andfamilysolidarity,whilepretendednobilityisequatedwithlaziness,play,andexternalappearance.ThefatheragreeswithCurdiethathismotherisatruelady:“Andmywife,that’syourmother,Curdie,she’sa true lady,youmaytakemywordforit,forit’sshethatmakesmewanttobea true gentleman.Wife,theboyisintherightaboutyourhand”(89;emphasisadded).Theconceptofatruelady,inVictorianmind,stressedthatwomenweretobesubmissive,fragile,inferior,andpowerless,whileinPeter’seyestheconceptdesignatesstrength,

20 | Jarrar

mutuallove,andunderstanding.Thus,thefathercontradictsoneofthemostcherisheddoctrinesofVictorianmentality—the“PerfectLady.”BauerandRittarguethat:

ifthewomanofthelowerclasseshadbeendowngradedtothestatusofamerefemale,theuppermiddle-classwomanhadbeenelevatedinthesocialscalesothattheterm“woman”nolongersufficedtodescribeher.Theself-imageofthemodelVictorianwomannowdemandedthatshebeconsiderednotmerelyawoman,butalady,aconceptionthateffectivelyplacedheroutsideandbeyondtheworldofherhumbleworking-classsister.(1-2;emphasisadded)

North Windintroducesanotherradicalandsubversivepictureofnobility.DespitethefactthatNannyisverypoor,miserable,andatthebottomofthesocialladder,she“wassosweet,andgentle,andrefinedthatshemighthavehadaladyandgentlemanforafatherandmother”(214-215).NorthWind refersseveraltimestothethemeofthenobilityofworking-classpeopleandsherationalizestheirnobilityonmoralgrounds,notonsocialones.Diamondandhisfatheraregentlemenandtheirgentlenessgivesthemsocialacceptanceamongpeopledespitethefactthattheyarepoor.Diamond’sgentlenessisacknowledgedbyNorthWind:

“ButI’mnotagentleman,”saidDiamond,scratchingawayatthepaper.“Ihopeyouwon’tsaysotenyearsafterthis.”“I’mgoingtobeacoachman,andacoachmanisnotagentleman,”persistedDiamond.“Wecallyourfatheragentlemaninourhouse,”saidNorthWind.“Hedoesnotcallhimselfone,”saidDiamond.“That’sofnoconsequence:everymanoughttobeagentleman,andyourfatherisone.”(26)

Indeed,“everymanoughttobeagentleman”inMacDonald’smoralscale,whichmakesadistinctionbetweenphysicalappearanceandspiritualgoodness.Forexample,whiledriving,Diamondloseshiswaysosome“idlers”blockhispathandbotherhim.Luckily,“apale-facedman,inveryshabbyclothes,butwiththelookofagentlemansomewhereabouthim,cameup,andmakinggooduseofhisstick,drovethemoff”(206).Theappearanceofthegentlemancreatestwocontradictorypicturesthataremanifestedthroughtheadjectives“pale-faced”and“shabby,”andthenoun“look.”Thefirstunderminesthephysicalappearanceofthemanbutthesecondhighlights

Ideology of Class and Family | 21

hisgentlemanlylook.IfMacDonaldgivesaplentitudeofpicturesthateverymanoughtto

beagentleman,healsogivesthecounterviewthateverygentlemanisnotanobleman.Thenarrator,in“LittleDaylight”, mocksthewickednessofthenoblesbecauseitbringsaboutdestructionforeveryoneinthecountry.Thenarratorcomments:

Aboutthistimeinaneighbouringkingdom,inconsequenceofthewickedness of thenobles,aninsurrectiontookplaceuponthedeathoftheoldking,thegreaterpartofthenobilitywasmassacred,andtheyoungPrincewascompelledtofleeforhislife,disguisedlikeapeasant…butwhenhegotintothat[country]ruledbythePrincess’sfather,andhadnolongeranyfearofbeingrecognized,hefaredbetter,forthepeople were kind.(225;emphasisadded)

Noblesarenotexemptfromwickedness,whichisasymptomoftheircruelinnerintentions.Thewickednessofthenoblesisjuxtaposedbythekindnessofpeopleintheneighboringkingdom.Ononeoccasion,thenarratorinNorth Windassuresthechildreaderthat“allemperorsarenotgentlemen,andallcooksarenotladies—norallqueensandprincessesforthatmatter,either”(15).Similarly,Curdie,inThe Princess and Curdie,issurprisedthatIrene’sgrandmotherappearstohimindifferentshapes.Heasksherhowshecantransformherselfintosomanyshapes,towhichshereplies:“shapesareonlydresses,Curdie,anddressesareonlynames.Thatwhichisinsideisthesameallthetime”(61-62),andmaintainslaterthat

manyalady,sodelicateandnicethatshecanbearnothingcoarserthanthefinestlinentotouchherbody,ifshehadamirrorthatcouldshowhertheanimalsheisgrowinginto,asitlieswaitingwithinthefairskinandthefinelinenandthesilkandthejewels,wouldreceiveashockthatmightpossiblywakeherup.(81)

MacDonald’sreversalofthethemeofnobilityisdeliberatebecauseitquestions,andevensubverts,theestablishedideologyoftheappearanceofnoblemenandestablishesanalternativeideologythatacknowledgestheinnergoodnessofthepoor.Everyonehasthepotentialtobeagentlemanandthecultivationoftheinnergoodnessofheartplacestheoneatthetopofthesocialhierarchyregardlessofwealthorrank.

MacDonaldalsodiscussesnobilitywithinthefamily.ThisisseeninThe Princess and Curdie when Irene’sgrandmotherstressesthenobility

22 | Jarrar

ofPeter’sfamilyandaimsatcultivatingitthroughCurdie.SheaddressesPeter:“You,Peter,andyourwifehaveboththe blood of the royal familyinyourveins.Ihavebeentryingtocultivateyourfamilytree,everybranchofwhichisknowntome,andIexpectCurdietoturnoutablossomonit”(61;emphasisadded).Theidealfamily,inMacDonald’seyes,islikeatree:thestems,theleaves,andthetrunkworkinharmoniousinteractionthatensuresthetree’s(thefamily’s)survival.Thesimileoftree/familydualrelationshipisarecurrentthemeinMacDonald’snarratives.ThenarratorfurtherarguesthatPeterandJoan

werethehappiestcoupleinthatcountry,becausetheyalwaysunderstoodeachother,andthatwasbecausetheyalwaysmeantthesamething,andthatwasbecausetheyalwayslovedwhatwasfairandtrueandrightbetter—notthananythingelse,butthaneverythingelseputtogether.(42)

ItisapparentthatthecausesofhappinessinCurdie’sfamilyarethemutualunderstandingandrespectofthefamilymembers.AccordingtoMacDonaldtheidealfamilyisbuiltoncompanionship,trust,commitment,andlove. Differentepisodesinhisfairytalesandfantasynovelshighlightsuchidealism.ThefamilysolidaritybetweenCurdieandhisfamily,andDiamondandhisfamily,createsamicrocosmicunitythatensuresthestabilityoftheirfamilies.Likewise,therelationshipbetweenCurdieandhismotherissimilartothatofIrene’swithhergrandmother.ThenarratorarguesthatCurdie’smotherisverykindandonereasonforherkindnessishercareforCurdieandherhusband:“Idoubtiftheprincesswasverymuchhappiereveninthearmsofherhuge-great-grandmotherthanPeterandCurdiewereinthearmsofMrs.Peterson”(98).WhenCurdieinThe Princess and the Goblinproveshimselfhonest,loyal,andbravethekingdecidestotakeCurdiewithhim,butthelatterfeelsthathisdutytowardhisfatherandmotherismoreimportant.Curdietellstheking:“Icannotleavemyfatherandmother,”eventhoughtheparentstrytoconvinceCurdiethattheycangetalongwithouthim.But,filledwithasenseofcareandcommitmenttowardhisparents,Curdiesays:“Ican’tgetonverywellwithoutyou”(235).Whereas,theparentsinThe Princess and CurdieshownoobjectiontolettingCurdiefulfillhismissionandrescuethekingandIrenefromthewickedpeople,becausetheytrustCurdie’shonestyandcourage.Besides,Curdieexpresseshiswillingnesstogo,andthereforefavorsserviceforthecommongoodtothesolidarityofhisfamily:hebelievesthatthecommoninterestofthecountryisnotdifferentfromtheinterestofhisfamily.

Inotherwords,thenuclearfamilyisaminiatureoftheextendedfamily,eachofwhichconsistsofindividualsthatcomplementeachother

Ideology of Class and Family | 23

inharmoniousinteractiontowardswhatMacDonaldcallsthe“familytree.”KnowlesandMalmkjærsuggest:

MacDonald’s noble family is wider than the nuclear. It is, in fact, universal, a family of human and beast, grounded in the divine guardian of all nature whom we meet in The Princess and the Goblin and The Princess and Curdie.There,wealsocometounderstandthatawell-turnednuclearfamilyisamicrocosmoftheuniversalfamilyandthatthechildbecomessocializedintobothasitgrowsupwithitsmotherandfather.(174;emphasisintheoriginal)

ThecriticsbasetheirassumptionsonthegroundsthatMacDonaldemphasizessolidarityamongfamilymembersontheonehand,andamongpeopleingeneral,ontheother.DifferentepisodesinMacDonald’sfairytalesandfantasynovelsillustratewhatImean.Forexample,inThe Princess and the GoblinthenursepreventsIrenefromgoinguptothemountainsandtalkingtotheminers’children.Indeliberatecontrasttothenarrow-mindednessofthenurse,thenarratorarguesthat“thetruestprincessisjusttheonewholovesallherbrothersandsistersbest,andwhoismostabletodothemgoodbybeinghumbletowardsthem”(197-198).Curdieignorestheingratitudeandimpertinenceofthenurseandhetakeshertolivewithhisfamily;DiamondtakesNannytolivewithhisfamilywheresheenhancesthefamilialrelationshipsofthefamilymembers.“Curdielikedmostofthem[theminers,]andwasafavouritewithall”(19);allcabdriverslikeDiamondandtheywishthattheyhadasonlikehim.Inaddition,thefamilyrelationshipexceedstheboundariesofthehumanspheretoincludeanimalsthathavethepotentialofhumancompanionship.Forexample,Lina[ananimalcreature]isasourceofhelpforCurdieandshecontributestovictoryofthekingagainstthewickedpeople;andoldDiamond[thehorse]contributestotheexpensesofDiamond’sfamily.

Inconclusion,MacDonaldcontradictsthehierarchicalstructureoftheVictoriansocialscalethatisbasedonhereditaryprivilege,andarguesinfavorofgeneticnobility.InMacDonald’smoralscalethepoorarealsonobleandtheirnobilityensurestheirsocialacceptanceamongthedifferentsocialdivisions.Thus,MacDonaldreversesthethemeofnobilitytoexposethefalsemeaningof“gentlemanly”andtoestablishanalternativeideologythatseesinnobilityastepforwardtofamilysolidarity.Thisstemsfromthefactthatthefamilyisoneofthemainagentsofsocializationandthustheidealfamily,inMacDonald’seyes,isamicrocosmicunitythatcomplementsthemacrocosmicrelationshipsbetweenpeopleinallclassdivisions.InthissenseMacDonald’sidealfamilyisnotdifferentfromhisidealgovernmentbecause

24 | Jarrar

botharebuiltonteamwork,notontheutilitarianspiritoftheVictorianmiddle-class.

WorksCitedAltick,RichardD.Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for Modern Readers of

Victorian Literature. NewYork:Norton,1973.Print.Avery,Gillian,andAngelaBull.Nineteenth Century Children: Heroes and Heroines

in English Children’s Stories 1780-1900.London:HodderandStoughton,1965.Print.

Bauer,Carol,andLawrenceRitt.eds.Free and Ennobled: Source Readings in the Development of Victorian Feminism.Oxford:PergamonPress,1979.Print.

Briggs,KatharineM.The Fairies in Tradition and Literature.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1967.Print.

Carpenter,Humphrey.Secret Gardens: A Study of the Golden Age of Children’s Literature. Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1985.Print.

Hollindale,Peter.“IdeologyandtheChildren’sBook.”Literature for Children: Contemporary Criticism.Ed.PeterHunt.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1992.19-40.Print.

Knowles,Murray,andKirstenMalmkjær.Language and Control in Children’s Literature.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1996.Print.

Kane,Penny.Victorian Families in Fact and Fiction.London:Macmillan,1995.Print.

MacDonald,George.At the Back of the North Wind. 1871.London:DentandSons,1973.Print.

—.The Light Princess.1864.George MacDonald: The Complete Fairy Tales.Ed.U.C.Knoepflmacher.NewYork:Penguin,1999.15-53.Print.

—.The Princess and Curdie. 1883.LondonandGlasgow:Collins,1958.Print.—.The Princess and the Goblin.1872.NewYork:Campbell,1993.Print.—. Little Daylight1879. George MacDonald: The Complete Fairy Tales.Ed.U.C.

Knoepflmacher.NewYork:Penguin,1999.304-341.Print.Mintz,Steven.A Prison of Expectations: The Family in Victorian Culture.NewYork:

NewYorkUP,1985.Print.Mill,JohnStuart.On Liberty: The Subjection of Women.1869.NewYork:Henry

Holt,1898.Print.Reynolds,KimberleyandNicolaHumble.Victorian Heroines: Representations of

Femininity in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Art.NewYork:NewYorkUP,1993.Print.

Stephens,John.Language and Ideology in Children’s Fiction.London:Longman,1992.Print.

Zipes,Jack.Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion: The Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization.NewYork:Routledge,1991.Print.