Model American Congress 2012

Chains broken ... Challenges awoken

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Table of ContentsPreamble........................................................................................................................4Rules of Procedures......................................................................................................5Committee on Foreign Relations...............................................................................11

Venezuela.................................................................................................................18Libya.........................................................................................................................38Sudan .......................................................................................................................52

Committee on Finance...............................................................................................71 The Debt crisis...........................................................................................................77

Brazil.....................................................................................................................106 Committee on Judiciary...............................................................................................4

Criminal Justice......................................................................................................132Death Penalty..........................................................................................................153Euthanasia ..............................................................................................................170

Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental affairs.............................191Homegrown Terrorism ..........................................................................................195Weapons of Mass Destruction................................................................................220

Committee on Near East South Asian Affairs.......................................................239Syria .......................................................................................................................242India........................................................................................................................267

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Preamble

This document represents the culmination of the work of the Academic Committee and the Organizing Committee throughout the year. For eleven years Model American Congress has sought to provide Egyptian students with the necessary professional and life skills demanded by the job market, and has established itself as a leading student activity with its sustained success and

For the members of the Academic and Organizing Committee, MAC’12 represented a threshold for a new decade, hopefully one of continued success and prosperity for the model.

When talking about the model this year, is necessary to say that we are indebted to everyone who has worked to sustain and preserve the model’s outstanding status as one of the most successful student simulation activities in Cairo University.

In the end, the culmination of our work is directed towards empowering Egyptian youth to be the game-changers of the future, and to work towards a better Egypt, for all.

This is dedicated to every Egyptian hero, big or small, who has sought to live a life of dignity, and or may have died for it. To you, all of us are forever indebted.

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Model American Congress’12 Rules of Procedures

Section I: Parliamentary Authority

-These rules shall be the official rules of the Model American Congress (MAC),- MAC Rules of order Revised, may be used for purposes of definition, but in cases of conflict, these by-laws shall take precedence,- No one may amend these by-laws except the members of the committee.

Section II: Senate members and officers

First, the duties of the chairman/lady of each committee shall be:- T o declare the opening and closing of each committee meeting,- To recognize all the speakers,- To decide all points of order,- To put questions to a vote and announce the results,- To preserve order and decorum and to clear the floor of any disorderly persons.

Second, the duties of the Vice-Chair shall be:- To chair the committee during the chairman/lady absence or when the latter yields the floor to,- To read all bills and amendments,- To assist in counting of the votes,- To make sure that there is a quorum present at all times during which business is being transacted.

Third, the duties of the Ranking Member shall be:- To advise the Chairman/lady in the decision of any parliamentary questions,- To Direct the Academic flow of the debate,

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- To act as source of all academic materials that needed by the senators during the congressional meetings.- To make sure that the committee bills are issued according to all technical and legal specifications.

Fourth, the duties of the Party Consultant shall be:- To arrange each and every party factions and wings,- To work on the formulation of the party statement,- To assist the Ranking Member in providing the Academic materials,- To act as source of party and senators stances.

Fifth, the duties of the Senators shall be:- To Work on the discussed committee topics, as well issuing a bill on the discussed topics to be taken to the senate floor,- To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum.

Sixth, the duties of the Lobbyists shall be:- To provide the senators with the academic materials and any technical or legal support,- To work on the discussed committee topics,- To lobby for or against the committee bills in the other committees and in the floor,- To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum.

NOTE: the Chairman/lady may vote when it is necessary to break a tie, to complete a 2/3 vote, to make a quorum, or in any case where his/her vote would change the results, at which time he may vote if he/she chooses.

Section III: Standing Committees

- The committee Chairman/lady shall assign the senators prior to the opining of the Model American Congress Conference,- There shall be one Chairman/lady and 20 senators for each committee,- The Committee on the Rules shall consist of the Model American Congress President, President Pro-tempore and the Chairmen/ladies of the 5 Committees. Other senators may be arbitrarily admitted.

Section IV: Agenda and Order of Business

- The Agenda of the Senate Floor and each of the standing committees shall be drawn up in advance of the opening of the respective sessions.- The Vice-chair shall see that each member of the chamber has received a copy of the agenda.- Bills not on the agenda may only be introduced by a motion to suspend the rules.- Bills passed in the committee should be forwarded to the Committee on Rules, Where they will be placed on the agenda of the Senate Floor.- In Committee, the sponsor of the bill may make any changes on his/her bill by arranging them with the Ranking Member before the markup session.

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Section V: Rules of Order

The following are some motions, which shall be used in Senate. If two motions are on the floor simultaneously, the higher numbered one shall take precedence..

ACCLAMATION

A bill may be passed by acclamation only before debate has begun. The acclamation preserves the preliminary bill before amendments are passed, and it requires a simple majority vote. "I'd like to move to an acclamation voting procedure on the presented bill".

OBJECT TO CONSIDERATION (only on the floor) This motion, if passed, has the effect of canceling the effect of the bill. It is used only if the body feels that the bill being discussed is frivolous, irrelevant, not within the body’s jurisdiction, or clearly unconstitutional. It must be done before debate on the bill has begun. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass “I object to consideration of this question, having…. "

TO DIVIDE A MOTION

If a delegate calls for a division of a motion, it means he/she wants the bill to be voted on separately from its amendments. 2/3 majority is required to divide a motion, it can be raise though in case we have an acclamation motion pre-discussing the bill."I call for the division of the committee" (And its asked for a vote by actual count to verify a voice vote for the bill without amendments)

PREVIOUS QUESTION

This ends debate prematurely and brings the assembly to an immediate vote on the main motion. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass “I move the previous question, to…"

SUSPEND THE RULESThis motion suspends the rules of the chamber involved for a definite purpose, for a specified time. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass. “I move we suspend the rules and consider the chairs authority"

POINT OF ORDER

If a breach of parliamentary procedure occurs, a senator may bring it to the attention of the chair. The punishment of the offender shall be at the discretion of the chair, as well it can be used to raise a motion for a caucus, mark up session or holding a congressional hearings and in that cas4e it always begins with “I move that….”. "I'd like to raise a motion to move to a… "Or “I appeal the chair’s decision" or “I move we postpone this meeting until"….

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POINT OF PERSONAL PRIVLEGE

A delegate may rise to appoint of privilege if there is a question concerning the rights of a member or the entire assembly. It can call for the reading of pertinent Bill, the opening of a window … etc. "Point of personal privilege"

TO RECESS/ADJOURN

A senator may, at his/her discretion call for a recess/adjourn of any meeting. It requires a majority vote to pass. “I move that we recess until….” or “I move that we adjourn”

Note: All motions require a 2/3 majority to pass except the recess, adjourn & acclamation both requires a simple majority to pass. Only the point of personal privilege can be raised while a senator has a floor.

SECTION VI: Voting

- All voting on the main motion shall consist of a show of hands of the ayes and nays but this is done only if there is a marked uncertainty as to the result of the vote. No division shall be allowed if any new motion has been made since the vote has been taken. - The majority vote as well as the 2/3 vote shall consist of the number of senators present and voting.- All motions and points shall be out of order once the vote has begun. Abstentions shall not be counted where its only allowed in case of the amendments and the bill voting.- All motions require a 2/3 majority to pass except the recess, adjourn & acclamation both requires a simple majority to pass.- In case of having a miss-vote a re-voting procedure is taken by the chair, by which a voice vote for the motion is taken as in the case of the divided motion.- Abstentions aren't allowed in case of a motion vote

SECTION VII: Debate Flow

The Congressional Committee meetings:

<chairman/lady> the Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider our congressional agenda the "….", the "….", and the "…."

<Opening statements by chairman and RM>

<chairman/lady> "thanks to the gentleman or the gentle lady" pointing to the ranking member, a quorum(10) being present, the committee will now proceed the consideration of the declared agenda for that congressional meeting, and now the floor will be yield to the vice-chair to have the roll call, senators attending should reply as present

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<Chairman/lady> the honorable senator…of….. Is recognized for two minutes<chairman/lady>other members may submit opening statements comments for the record<chairman/lady>honorable senators wishing to speak should raise their placards high and keep them high….<Chairman/lady> the honorable senator…of….. is recognized for two minutes<chairman/lady> "thanks to the gentleman or the gentle lady"and so on

<Senator> point of order <chairman/lady> honorable….of……what's your point <senator>I'll move that we go to a hearing session for…minutes<chairman/lady> honorable senator that’s in order, the question is on agreeing to the motion offered by the gentleman. to…. Those in favor say "aye" <pause> those opposed say "no" <pause>(if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a raising hands motion takes place)<chairman/lady> In the opinion of the chair, the ayes [nays] have it and the motion is [is not] agreed to

The Mark up Session:

<chairman/lady> the Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider S.111 the"…..bill title…..", a bill to…..<Clarifying stmt by the ranking member>

<chairman/lady>A quorum (10) being present, the committee will now proceed the consideration of S111 the "…..bill title….", I'll now call up the S111. The ranking member will report the bill.

<RM begins to read the bill>

<Chairman/lady> (interrupt reading) the bill was circulated in advance. Without objection, the first reading of the bill is dispensed with.

<if objection is heard, a senator or the RM should raise "move to dispense with the reading>

<chairman/lady> Are there any amendments to the present bill?<if any member called ayes>

<chairman/lady> now the floor will be opened for 10 minutes for having amendments, the ranking member will record the amendments.<chairman/lady> the time for recording S111 amendments has elapsed, the honorable …of…….amendment calls for…<After finishing reading the amendment if the member raised "reserve a point of order" at this time then he would be recognized for 1 minute><chairman/lady> the gentleman/lady is recognized for 1minute in the support of the amendment

<Member explains the amendment><chairman/lady> the time of the gentleman/lady has expired, since there is no further discussion, the question is on agreeing to the amendment offered by the gentleman/lady. Those in favor say "aye"<pause>, those opposed say "no" <pause>

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(if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a raising hands motion takes place)<chairman/lady> In the opinion of the chair, the ayes [nays] have it and the amendment is [is not] agreed to.And so on the amendments are discussed & voted to…………<chairman/lady> hearing no further amendments, the question now occurs on the adoption of the bill as amended. All those in favor say "aye"<pause> all those opposed say "no"<pause> In the opinion of the chair, the Ayes have it and adoption of the bill as amended is agreed to.(if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a voice recorded voting takes place)<Chairman/lady> I now move the bill as amended be forwarded favorably to the senate floor. All those in favor say "aye" <pause> all those opposed say "no" <pause> in the opinion of the chair, the Ayes have it and the motion is agreed to.

<Possible request for a voice recorded vote><Chairman> without objection, the motion is to reconsider is laid on the table, and staff is authorized to make any technical and conforming changes.There being no further business, without objection, the committee stands adjourned.

SECTION VIII: The Floor

- The committee on rules will set the floor agenda a day before the floor - The floor of MAC will involve the 100 senator as speakers, while the secretariats and the lobbyists are not recognized. However, the lobbyists conduct their task informally. - The bills pass throughout the floor to the white house with a simple majority of 50+1- All the committee rules & motions are in order in addition to putting the object to consideration.

The Filibuster:

- In recent practice, a unanimous consent agreement has sometimes included the provision that would require a 60-vote (Three-fifths of the present and voting senators) majority threshold to be met for amendments or legislations to be considered agreed to, rather than the ordinary simple majority required. These amendments may be of a controversial nature with the potential of causing a Filibuster, a 60-vote required majority.

Honorable President/ President Pro-Tempore, I would like to move to a filibuster on the presented bill….“In the opinion of the president, the filibuster is adopted on the presented bill...”

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MAC Committee on Foreign Relations

Congressional Research Service Report

Prepared by:

Chairman: Mahmoud NabilVice-Chairlady: Maha Sameh

Ranking Member: Ahmed el ShiekhParty Consultant: Asmaa Tohamy

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Model American Congress

COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS

……..We exceed expectations

“The purpose of foreign policy is not to provide an outlet for our own sentiments of hope or indignation; it is to shape real events in a real world.” John F. Kennedy

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“International incidents should not govern foreign policy, but foreign policy, incidents” Napoleon Bonaparte

This is dedicated to;

The 25th Jan Martyrs, the revolutionary Youth, and all Justice

Seekers…

Also to our EX MAC-ians, our High board, our fellow Secretariats of MAC'12, our delegates of CFR'12 , and all the coming generations of MAC…

With all the sincerity and best wishes,

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Secretariats of the Committee on Foreign Relations

Mahmoud NabilMaha SamehAhmed el ShiekhAsmaa Tohamy

About the Committee on Foreign Relations:-

Committee on Foreign Relations is considered one of the most important committees in the US Senate. The committee was created in 1816 and since then it played a significant role in important events that contributed for the creation the American political history and the American foreign policy like the purchase of Alaska, the establishment of UN … etc.

The committee enjoys a broad extent of jurisdiction that covers vital issues like: foreign assistance and loans; diplomatic service; international law as relates to foreign policy; declaration of wars; maritime, environmental, and scientific affairs as relates to foreign policy; US foreign relations in general; international aspects of nuclear energy… and others.

The committee is also divided into seven vital subcommittees due to the importance and complexity of the work in the committee. These subcommittees are: the subcommittee on 1)Western Hemisphere, Peace Corps and Global Narcotics Affairs; 2)Near Eastern and South and Central Asian Affairs; 3)African Affairs; 4) East Asian and Pacific Affairs;

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5)International Operations and Organizations, Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues; 6)European Affairs; 7)International Development and Foreign Assistance, Economic Affairs, and International Environmental Protection.

In Model American congress, the committee on foreign relations is also considered as one of the most important and permanent committees in MAC since the launching of the model. Each and every year we discuss a lot of influential topics that is related to the US foreign policy, hence affecting the whole world.

Table of content:First: Venezuela ... a threat in America's backyard:

Introduction about the historic relations with Latin America

1- Monroe Doctrine Venezuela as a threat:

1- History of Venezuela 2- Political turmoil 3- Period of democratic rule4- Economy of Venezuela

Chavez into power 1- Brief ouster2- Venezuelan political system

Us Venezuelan relations 1- During Bush administration2- During Obama administration3- Us funding to democracy projects4- Oil issues

Venezuelan foreign relations

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1- China :2- Iran 3- Syria4- Libya

History of tensions between Venezuela and Colombia 1- Venezuela's military purchases2- Venezuela's activities in Latin America

Major concerns in Venezuela 1- Human rights concerns2- 2012 presidential elections3- State sponsor of terrorism list

Prospects for the US Venezuelan relations

Second: Sudan ...”an era of stability or a new round of conflicts??!!!”

Introduction 1) History of Sudan 2) Brief description for The region of Sudan

Disturbances 1) South Sudan

               a) First Civil war               b) Second Civil War               c) Peace, Referendum and independence               d) Abiey Conflict        2) Darfur

US-Sudanese relations 1) Before separation 2) After Separation a) US-North relations b) US-South relations

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The Sudanese Foreign relations 1) North Sudan Foreign Relations 2) South Sudan Foreign relations

Prospects for the future 1) Relations between North & South 2) Relations Between North & South and USA

Third: US-Libyan Relations…. Post-Qaddafi Libya ; “S table country VS graves and arms!”

introduction:

1-Demographics & Tribal System 2-Brief history of Libya before Gaddafi

Pre-Revolution:

Gaddafi's Rule (including Political, Economic, and social status)

Revolution: 1-course of the revolution and international responses 2- the NTC 3- armed civilians and human rights violations by Gaddafi's Forces & the NTC

Post Revolution: -------- 1- the transitional period 2- surfacing conflicts between revolution comrades

chemical weapons in Libya : 1- chemical non proliferation treaty

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2- Libyan stocks

US-Libyan relations:

1- history of the relations and strategic importance of Libya for the US 2- the status quo of the relations

Prospects For the Libyan Revolution

Prospects for the US-Libyan Relation

Venezuela ... a threat in America's backyard

The term "America's Backyard" started in reference to Central and South America. "America's Backyard" is about the United States' traditional area of dominance and major sphere of influence, which was Central and South America for a long time. With Latin America in near proximity to the US, the neighboring continent has been labeled as “America’s Backyard.” 1

1 Diplomacy & Statecraft Volume 11, Issue 1, 2000, america's backyard

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US historic relations with Latin America: During the early 19th century, many Spanish colonies in Latin America were trying to take advantage of the failing Spanish empire and were trying to gain their independence from Spain. However, during the early 1820s, Spain was on the verge of restoration. The United States and Great Britain did not want Spain to gain any power back in Latin America because they wanted those colonies to become independent. The term "America's backyard" was then coined during this time as a reference to Latin America. The United States supported the Spanish colonies' independence because they wanted Spain and other European countries to be out of the Western Hemisphere, or in other words, out of "America's Backyard".

Monroe doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine is a policy of the United States that was introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by Europe and other countries to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention (however, the wording referred to the entire Western Hemisphere, which actually includes parts of Europe and Africa). The doctrine was introduced by President Monroe when he was enraged at the actions being executed around him. 2

The United States has been interested in developing its relations with Latin America over the course of history to increase its political and economical influence over this region. In attempts to further economic development, the US government has exercised many strategies towards Latin America, especially over the past half century, including the Alliance for Progress, which was initiated by U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1961 aimed to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and South America.

President Obama said that the United States has sometimes taken Latin America for granted, but that he sees the region as an increasingly important player on the world stage. He called Latin America "a region on the move, proud of its progress, and ready to assume a greater role in world affairs," and he described the U.S. economy as deeply entwined with that of Latin America. "Latin America is only going to become more important to the United States, especially to our economy," the president said "Trade between the United States and Latin America has surged. We buy more of their goods and products than any other country, and we invest more in

2 Rodrigue Tremblay (2004). The New American Empire (pp 133-134)

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this region than any other country…. In other words, when Latin America is more prosperous, the United States is more prosperous." 3

Venezuela ... the threat: Columbus discovered Venezuela in 1498. Venezuela is located on the northern coast of South America and is about the size of Texas and Oklahoma combined. Venezuela is among the most highly urbanized countries in Latin America. With a population of approximately 25 million, Venezuela consists of the following ethnic groups: Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, and African. The religious makeup is Roman Catholic 96%, Protestant 2%, and other 2%. The official language is Spanish but the citizens speak other numerous indigenous dialects. The total population literacy rate of age 15 and over that can read and write is 93.4%. The cosmopolitan capital city is Caracas, of which a quarter of the residents are immigrants or descendants from Europe, Arabia, and Africa.

History of Venezuela: Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522. The newcomers faced fierce resistance from the indigenous population, but they were ultimately suppressed as the European settlers finally toke-over Venezuela. Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audience of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of new Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1776.

The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guairá whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and more fertile and healthy climate.

3 3-Peter Nicholas, " Latin America increasingly important to the U.S ", Los Anglos Times, March 22, 2011, found on this link: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/22/world/la-fg-obama-chile-

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Venezuela went into a fierce war for independence at the early 19th century period going through several attempts to separate itself from the falling Spanish monarchy. Yet sovereignty was attained definitively after Simon Bolivar aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821. José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta's victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo on 24 July 1823 helped seal Venezuelan independence. New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Grenadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia.4

Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became the first president of the new republic. Between one- fourth and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare (including perhaps one-half of the white population), which by 1830 was estimated at about 800,000.

The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue and red, in that order: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the bloodshed by the heroes of independence.

Political turmoil: Venezuela entered a period of political turmoil after independence in which it was dominated by authoritarian regimes that witnessed continues coups and governmental changes and even civil wars. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much more than a million people.

The countries discovery of oil in 1911 only led to more corruption as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped centralize

4 Important info about Venezuela, embassy of people's power and Foreign Affairs, found on this link: http://venezuela-us.org/historia/

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the Venezuelan state and develop its power. The discovery of oil would prove pivotal to the Venezuelan republic as it will later transform the Venezuelan economy from being dependant on agriculture to being dependant on oil and its prices. The GDP of the Venezuela was the highest in Latin America in 1935.5

Venezuelans yet fought for political freedom and democratic rule to try to over through the consecutive dictator regimes and after a failed coup attempt in 1945 and then in 1952 a failed elections to try to put the country on the right political tract, a democratic regime was born in 1958 when The military dictator Perez Jimenez was forced out on 23 January 1958.

Period of democratic rule: By the end of 1959, the Venezuelan people again responded to free elections to elect a new president. The electoral campaign was marked by an intense debate that divided the political actors into who supported a moderate reform program and who wanted a program of revolutionary and deep transformations. Moderates approved a political pact for the government that excluded the remaining political factions. This pact, known as the Pact of Punto Fijo, was used to create Venezuela’s “representative democracy” that limited governance to two principal political parties, Democratic Action (AD) and the Christian Democratic Party (COPEI).

Under the pact, different government from both parties alternated power. Among them were: Romulo Betancourt (1959-1964); Raúl Leoni (1964-1969); Rafael Caldera (1969-1974); Carlos Andrés Pérez (1974-1979); Luis Herrera Campins (1879-1984); Jaime Lusinchi, (1984-1989); Carlos Andrés Perez (1989-1993); and Rafael Caldera (1994-1999).

As a result of this political pact, extensive social sectors and political parties remained excluded from the new system. The Communist Party of Venezuela (CPV) and the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MRL) were banned and persecuted. Between 1960 to 1973, the different representative governments had to face guerrilla movements and discontented military groups who had taken arms due to the sectarianism practiced by the economic and political elite.

These old political wounds added to the growing deterioration of the economic situation of the country during the 1980s and led to a social explosion on February 27, 1989, known as the “Caracazo.” Additionally, in 1992 the government of Carlos Andres Perez had to face two military rebellions of young officials who were unhappy with all the rampant corruption and the neoliberal economic policies that kept the majority of the country in poverty.

Economy of Venezuela:5 The Transition to Democratic Rule in Venezuela, US library of congress, found on this link: http://countrystudies.us/venezuela/5.html

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With an estimated 211 million barrels of proven oil reserves, (the largest in the hemisphere, up from previously reported 99 billion in proven reserves), Venezuela’s major economic sector is petroleum, which accounts for 90% of exports, more than 30% of its gross domestic product, and half of the government’s fiscal income. The country is classified by the World Bank as an upper middle income developing country because of its relatively high per capita income of $10,150 (2009).

Despite Venezuela’s oil wealth, economic conditions in the country deteriorated in the 1990s. The percentage of Venezuelans living in poverty (income of less than $2 a day) increased from 32.2% to 48.5% of the population between 1991 and 2000.

High levels of inflation, averaging 30% in 2008, 27% in 2009, and 28% in 2010, have also eroded purchasing power. For several years, Venezuela has had the highest rate of inflation in the region. In addition to inflation, there have been periodic shortages of basic food staples because of price controls that have stifled local production. The government’s response to shortages has been to nationalize some domestic agricultural producers or distributors. The government has threatened to nationalize Polar, the country’s largest food manufacturing company, but has not done so to date.

Venezuela’s GDP is 17% dependant on manufacturing. The manufacturing sector continues to increase dramatically in spite of private under-investment. Venezuela manufactures and exports steel, aluminum, transport equipment, textiles, apparel, beverages, and foodstuffs. It produces cement, tires, paper, fertilizer, and assembles cars both for domestic and export markets.

Chavez into power:

After spending about two years in jail, Hugo Chavez, the popular leader of the military rebellion of February 4, 1992, was nominated as the candidate of a coalition of the progressive forces of the country in the 1998 elections. The phrase Chavez had used after being arrested for his role in the rebellion — he indicated that they had

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failed, “For now” — remain marked in the collective subconscious of Venezuelans. In a country burdened by corruption and a democracy of elites — where nobody wanted to assume responsibility for failures in governance — this gesture would not be easily forgotten. With a program of transforming government and calling a constituent assembly to rewrite the country’s constitution, Chavez won the presidency with an overwhelming majority in spite of not having the endorsement of the traditional political parties.

Brief ouster: During the early years of President Chavez’s presidency, new laws and reforms were promoted, among them ones that sought to direct more oil resources to social programs and diminish the number of large land holdings in the country. These changes threatened many vested interests and led to a coup attempt in April 2002 and a sabotage of the oil industry in late 2002 and early 2003.

The coup of April 11, 2002 was launched against President Chavez with the support of members of the opposition, the privately held media and sectors of the armed forces. Though President Chavez was briefly taken from power, his public supporters and members of the armed forces seeking to uphold and defend the constitution returned him to power on April 13.

A few months later, the defeated opposition movement tried to sabotage the state petroleum industry, PDVSA. In alliance with the then-managers of the business, the opposition organized a mass layoff that paralyzed the industry and greatly affected the economy. Nevertheless, the government managed to recover the petroleum industry.

Venezuelan political system: When Hugo Chavez was first elected as the President of Venezuela, he initiated a reform so as to bring about a radical change which would enhance the social, economic and political development of the country. The current constitution was drafted on 1999 by and passed by a popular referendum, with 70% saying yes, replacing the earlier constitution which was made in 1961. Subsequently, the name was changed from "República de Venezuela" to "República Bolivariana de Venezuela". This recent constitutional changes emphasize on human rights, development of free education and upholding the inherent Venezuelan traditions, cultures and beliefs.

The political system of Venezuela is divided into three groups as Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches. The executive branch of the government is presided over by the President, who also looks into the appointment of higher posts like the Vice-President, members of the Cabinet and important other members of the National

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Assembly. He is also the decision maker regarding the size and arrangement of the ministers in the cabinet.

United states-Venezuelan relations: The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been significant friction with the Chávez government. Tensions in relations turned especially sour in the aftermath of President Chávez’s brief ouster from power in April 2002. Venezuela alleged U.S. involvement in the ouster, while U.S. officials repeatedly rejected charges that the United States was involved.

Bush Administration: The relationship between the two countries contained huge restraints due to the allegations of assassination attempts by the US against chavez. Soaring oil prices in the beginning of the chavez era due to chavez movements with other OPEC countries proved provocative to the bush administration.

Administration officials voiced increasing concern about President Chávez in 2005, and tensions increased in U.S.-Venezuelan relations, with elevated rhetoric on both sides. In both March and September 2005, State Department officials testified to Congress that President Chávez’s “efforts to concentrate power at home, his suspect relationship with destabilizing forces in the region, and his plans for arms purchases are causes of major concern.” And most of the time Chavez was insulting George W. Bush, conleeza Rice and other American officials saying "The imperialist, genocidal, fascist attitude of the U.S. president has no limits. I think Hitler would be like a suckling baby next to George W. Bush," "you are a donkey, Mr. Danger. You are a donkey, Mr. George W Bush." 6

Obama administration: During the U.S. presidential campaign, Barack Obama maintained that his Administration would use principled bilateral diplomacy to engage with such adversaries in the region as Venezuela under populist President Hugo Chavez.

In response to written questions during her confirmation hearing for Secretary of State before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in mid-January 2009, Senator Hillary Clinton characterized President Chavez as a “democratically elected leader who does not govern democratically.” She maintained that while the United States should be concerned about Chavez’s actions and posture, “we should not exaggerate the threat he poses.” Clinton asserted that the United States “should have a positive

6 6- Thomas George, quoting from Hugo Chavez Quotes on liberalism, found on this link: http://www.boycottliberalism.com/Hugo-Chavez-Quotes.htm

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agenda for the hemisphere in response to the fear-mongering propagated by Chavez and [Bolivian President] Evo Morales.” She maintained that the Administration believes that bilateral cooperation with Venezuela on a range of issues (like counterterrorism, counternarcotics, energy, and commerce) would be in the mutual interests of Venezuela and the United States. Clinton maintained that “it remains to be seen whether there is any tangible sign that Venezuela actually wants an improved relationship with the United States.”

U.S. Funding for Democracy Projects: The United States has funded democracy-related projects in Venezuela for a number of years through a variety of programs funded by the State Department, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the National Endowment for Democracy (NED)

USAID, through its Office of Transition Initiatives, has funded democracy projects in Venezuela since 2002, with the goals of strengthening democratic institutions, promoting space for dialogue, and encouraging citizens’ participation in democratic processes. Transitions Initiatives (TI) funding reached its highest year in FY2005 about $5. According to USAID, the funding supports projects implemented by five U.S. organizations.7

The State Department has supported democracy projects in Venezuela largely through Economic Support Funds (ESF), but also recently through Development Assistance (DA) funding.

Oil issues: The relations between two countries extended to have oil relations with each others, as Venezuela is an establishing member of the OPEC organization. It is the 4th biggest provider of oil to the United States of America, exporting 11.5% of the total American imports of oil. Venezuela’s oil exports to the U.S. are 68% of total Venezuelan’s oil exports, showing clear dependency from Venezuela on the American market. In 2007, Venezuela’s total exports destined for the United States amounted to $39.9 billion, with oil products accounting for almost 96% of the total. The December 2002 strike orchestrated by the opposition reduced Venezuela’s oil exports, but by May 2003, Venezuelan officials maintained that overall oil production returned to the pre-strike level. Venezuela’s state-run oil company, PDVSA, owns CITGO, which operates three crude oil refineries and a network of some 14,000 retail gasoline stations in the United States.

Despite notable frictions in bilateral relations, Venezuela continues to be a major supplier of oil to the United States. On numerous occasions, however, Chavez has threatened to stop selling oil to the United States. In February 2006, he asserted 7 congressional research service, Venezuela: political conditions and US policy

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that the “U.S. government should know that, if it crosses the line, it will not get Venezuelan oil.” In April 2006, he warned that his government would blow up its oil fields if the United States ever were to attack. In November 2006 (amid Venezuela’s presidential election campaign), President Chavez asserted that "Venezuela would not send one more drop of oil to the U.S.” if the United States or its “lackeys” in Venezuela try a “new coup,” fail to recognize the elections, or try to overthrow the oil industry."

Venezuela’s Ambassador to the United States asserted in July 2006 that oil- cutoff comments by Venezuelan officials, including President Chávez, only reflect what would be Venezuela’s response against aggression initiated by the U.S. government. Once again in February 2008, President Chávez once again threatened to stop oil exports to the United States, this time if ExxonMobil was successful in freezing billions in Venezuela oil assets in a dispute over compensation for its Orinoco oil investments. Because of these comments, however, some observers have raised questions about the security of Venezuela as a major supplier of foreign oil.

There are also concerns that Venezuela is looking to develop China as a replacement market, although Venezuelan officials maintain that they are only attempting to diversify Venezuela’s oil markets. In June 2006, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report, on the issue of potential Venezuelan oil supply disruption. The GAO report concluded that a sudden loss of all or most Venezuelan oil from the world market could raise world prices up to $11 per barrel and decrease U.S. gross domestic product by about $23 billion. It also concluded that if Venezuela does not maintain or expand its current level of oil production, then the world oil market may become even tighter than it is now, putting pressures on both the level and volatility of energy prices.

Venezuelan Foreign Relations: First of all Venezuela is trying most of the time to develop its relations with US enemies like China, Iran, Libya and Syria.

China: If we could build an imaginary bridge between the two countries, to highlight the most important aspects and facts of the bilateral relations in these 34 years, the period which began in 1999 and corresponds to the Venezuelan Bolivarian government, would have a significant relevance in the design as a whole, due to the rapid and solid growth and diversification of the current bilateral relations.

It is not a coincidence that the strengthening of the relations with China came under the government of President Hugo Chavez. The incessant barrage of threats and

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counter-threats hurtling between Washington and Caracas is the background, sometimes the foreground, of Sino-Venezuelan relations.8

Simply put, if U.S. ties to Venezuela were friendly, Beijing would have little to do in this oil-rich state that exports 60 percent of its output to its northern neighbor. Yet, Washington has been suspicious of Hugo Chavez since his election as president during the Clinton administration and relations have nosedived under the presidency of George W. Bush. . Meanwhile, Chavez insists that the U.S. plans to invade Venezuela and uses his enormous oil slush fund to press for Latin independence from Washington. Enter China, searching for oil.

Chavez always wanted to grasp Beijing concerns and he has repeatedly tried to pull China in his side in disputes with Washington, For example, he has condemned Washington’s refusal to supply spare parts for Venezuela’s aging F-16s and for blocking his efforts to purchase aircraft from Spain and Brazil on the grounds of U.S.-licensed components used by the Spanish and Brazilian companies , and he said that he will buy [the planes] from China [or] Russia and after that he said “We could easily sell [our] oil to real friends and allies like China, India or Europe”

In mid-2005 the Chinese ambassador in Caracas tried to put a brake on Chavez’s rhetoric in a long interview (El Universal, August 28 and 29, 2005). He understood Venezuela’s wish to diversify its clients, but added that “the natural markets for Venezuelan oil are North and South America.” He conceded that China was cooperating with the Venezuelan government in the expectation of securing access to some of the oil for itself.9

Agreements between Venezuela and China In 2005 Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and Chinese Vice President Zeng Qinghong signed 19 agreements concerning oil, agriculture and technology, including 5 agreements with the President of the Chinese National Petroleum Corporation. Chavez pledged that each agreement will turn into a thousand things and he promised that not even one of the 19 agreements would remain just on paper but instead all come to reality

Bi-lateral cooperation between China and Venezuela has been in the works for some time now. In late December, 2004, Chavez visited China, where he further strengthened relations with Chinese President Hu Jintao. Caracas and Beijing agreed to invest in joint ventures in oil and gas exploration in Venezuela. Relations between "China and Venezuela are in better conditions than ever," noted Chavez, adding that

8 Bian Ji, " Venezuela, China: 34 years of diplomatic relations " , China daily, Updated: 2008-07-05, found on this link: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2008-07/05/content_6821807.htm9 William Ratliff, " Pragmatism over Ideology: China’s Relations with Venezuela " , China Brief ,Volume# 6 , found on this link: http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=3936&tx_ttnews%5BbackPi %5D=196&no_cache=1

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"now [the relations] go from the subsoil, where there is petroleum and gas, to the stratosphere, where we are going to put a satellite."

For quite some time Venezuela has been looking to foster new trade relations, in particular with China and Russia, in order to break dependency on the United States. The South American nation is currently the world's fifth largest producer of petroleum. It supplies the United States with 13% of its oil, making it the closest major supplier.10

Economy In 2010, exchanges and cooperation between the People's Republic of China and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela made positive progress and their strategic partnership of common development deepened. And according to the financing agreements between the two countries, China had agreed to extend $20 billion in loans to Venezuela pointing to deepening ties between the two countries as China seeks to secure oil supplies here.

The linchpin of the loans appears to be China’s thirst for oil, with the China National Petroleum Corporation, or C.N.P.C., agreeing to form a venture with Venezuela’s national oil company to explore for oil in southern Venezuela. Eventually the companies could produce 400,000 barrels a day in the area. 11

China is a transit point in spreading Nuclear Programs: Venezuela is a major oil producer and has no nuclear power plants; however in October 2009 the government signed an agreement with a Russian company to build one. Yet on the 13 of March 2011 these plans were put on hold.

China is sure that it can't get into direct war against US because this would be the end of the world. That's why they sell nuclear knowledge to developing countries and promise them of protecting them with VITO right in the UN, in exchange for sharing in natural resources (especially oil) and being an open market for china or getting loans from China as proof of its own power. This scenario is so close to Venezuelan case. After electing Chavez in 1998, he created good relations with China and made oil extraction contracts with Chinese companies. He also got loans from Chinese national banks. All of that is topped by the statement of Chavez that China is to lend his country 20 billion dollars in 2010.

10 Sarah Wagner, "Venezuela and China Sign 19 Cooperation Agreements", Venezuela analysis, Jan 31st 2005, found on this link: http://venezuelanalysis.com/news/908

11 Simon Romero, "Chávez Says China to Lend Venezuela $20 Billion", April 18, 2010, found on

this link: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/19/world/americas/19venez.html

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Iran: Both of them were thinking of creating a world without the dominance of one single power. Iran is backing Venezuela's bid for a seat on the UN Security Council and at the same time Mr. Ahmadi nejad was expected to lobby for his nation's nuclear program, which he insists is for peaceful purposes. And in 2006, At the Non-Aligned Movement summit in Cuba which both leaders recently attended, Mr. Chavez said he would defend Iran. He said it was "under threat" of invasion, after it ignored UN demands to suspend uranium enrichment.12

Iran and Venezuela share an interest in maintaining the price of oil, developing Venezuela's oil-rich areas, and more importantly in rejecting U.S. dominance and interference around the world.

The diplomatic ties between Iran and Venezuela go back almost 50 years and until recently amounted to little more than the routine exchange of diplomats. With the election of Iranian President Mahmud Ahmadinejad in 2005, the relationship dramatically changed. Now is the time to develop policies in this country to ensure this partnership produces no poisonous fruit.

Signs of the evolving partnership began to emerge in 2006, when Venezuela joined Cuba and Syria as the only nations to vote against a U.N. Atomic Energy Agency resolution to report Iran to the Security Council over its failures to abide U.N. sanctions to curtail its nuclear program. A year later, during a visit by Mr. Chavez to Tehran, the two nations declared an "axis of unity" against the U.S.

Iranian investments in Venezuela have been rising. The two countries have signed various Memoranda of Understanding on technology development, cooperation on banking and finance, and oil and gas exploration and refining. In April 2008, the two countries also signed a Memorandum of Understanding pledging full military support and cooperation. United Press International reported in August that Iranian military advisers have been embedded with Venezuelan troops. 13

Nuclear co-operation: Venezuela and Bolivia are supplying Iran with uranium for its nuclear program, according to a secret Israeli government report obtained by the associated press. The two South American countries are known to have close ties with Iran, but this is the first allegation that they are involved in the development of Iran's nuclear program, considered a strategic threat by Israel.12"Iran and Venezuela bolster ties" , BBC News, 17 September 2006, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5354812.stm

13 Robert M. Morgenthau, "The Emerging Axis of Iran and Venezuela" , September 8, 2009, found on this

link:http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203440104574400792835972018.html

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"There are reports that Venezuela supplies Iran with uranium for its nuclear program," the Foreign Ministry document states, referring to previous Israeli intelligence conclusions. It added, "Bolivia also supplies uranium to Iran." The report concludes that Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez is trying to undermine the United States by supporting Iran.14

Venezuela and Bolivia are close allies, and both regimes have a history of opposing U.S. foreign policy and Israeli actions. Venezuela expelled the Israeli ambassador during Israel's offensive in Gaza two years ago, and Israel retaliated by expelling the Venezuelan envoy. Bolivia cut ties with Israel over the offensive.

Syria: Basically Syria and Venezuela are in very good relations with each other, Venezuela has been supporting Syria and its President Bashar el Assad. In 2006 President Hugo Chavez visited Damascus and said that his government is united with Syria in strong opposition to the U.S. government's "imperialistic" aggression in the Middle East.15 Chavez has built close ties with Iran, Syria and other Mideast countries while his relations have grown tense with the U.S. and Israel.

So it's known that Syria-Venezuela relations became closer after Hugo Chavez was elected president in 1998, as part of his anti-American policy, Chavez tightened relations with countries such as Syria , Libya and Iran."

That's why during the Syrian revolution President Hugo Chavez lent his support to embattled Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad, blasting what he called attempts by western powers to oust him by force. He criticized the “imperial madness” of the international community which, according to him, seeks to attack Syria under the pretext of defending its people.

He said “They’re starting to say: ‘Let’s see if we sanction the government, we’re going to freeze their assets, we’ll blockade them, throw bombs on them, in order to defend the people.’16 So he thought that what basher el Assad has been doing there is just to defend his country from those terrorist groups, so he called the Syrian protestors as "terrorists". Early in 2012, Venezuelan state owned oil firm PDVSA confirmed supplying diesel to the Syrian government contrary to the western efforts to isolate the Assad regime. Chavez responded to the questions on the possibility of this diesel actually being used in military actions by saying “Venezuela did not question

14 "Israel: Venezuela, Bolivia Supplying Iran With Uranium for Nuclear Program" , Fox News, May 25, 2009, found on this link:http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,521731,00.html

15CHRISTOPHER TOOTHAKER, " Chavez Says Syria, Venezuela United" , August 30, 2006, found on this link: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/29/AR2006082901599.html

16 http://www.yalibnan.com/2011/04/26/venezuelas-chavez-sides-with-syrias-assad/

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the United States about what it did with the fuel that Venezuela sold it, and that no one could dictate to Caracas. We are free. We are a free country”

Libya: While concerning Libya it's known that Hugo Chavez is from the people who are supporting Kaddafi most of the time, and he is one of his allies. Also during the revolution there were media reports that suggested that Gaddafi had fled to Venezuela.

And that raised questions as to why Gaddafi would choose Venezuela over any other country. The answer may be clear from the growing closeness of the bilateral relationship between Libya and Venezuela over the past decade. The extent of that relationship was apparent in the statement made by Maduro after the first bi-national, mixed commission between the two countries in Caracas in October 2008. Then Maduro urged that the relationship deepen beyond their mutual interest in energy (with both countries being oil producers and members of OPEC) to other areas, including finance and more social-political activity.

He also condemned NATO's bombings in Libya, as well as the roles of the United States and some European nations. Saying the aim is to seize control of the country's oil wealth. Chavez has been a staunch defender of Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi. He did not say whether he had been in contact with the Libyan leader in recent days.

History of the tensions between Venezuela and Columbia:

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Since the 20th century the relationship has evolved with ups and downs mostly regarding the Colombia–Venezuela maritime territory dispute over the Gulf of Venezuela. The lowest point in the relationship occurred on August 19, 1987, after the Colombian corvette ARC trespassed into disputed waters and then President of Venezuela, Jaime Lusinchi, ordered the Venezuelan Air Force to the area. The standoff was resolved through diplomatic channels but the dispute remained.

One of the main issues has been the large wave of Colombians who migrated to Venezuela in the 1970s and 1980s, working primarily in low-end jobs. Many Colombian immigrants were imprisoned in Venezuela and kept poor, faced discrimination and endured human rights violations. The Colombian armed conflict between the Colombian government and guerrilla groups has also provoked impasses between the two countries. Military illegal incursions by the two countries' military forces into each others' territory have been frequent since the conflict in Colombia escalated in the 1980s, which subsequently triggered forced displacements in Colombia and into Venezuela. Illegally armed groups also trespassed into Venezuela. Illegal products range from gasoline, drugs and weapons to stolen cars. Since 2002, the relationship between Venezuela and Colombia has fluctuated due to ideological differences that separate Presidents Hugo Chávez and Álvaro Uribe, respectively. The relationship between the two countries once again reached a low point in November 2007 after a failed effort to achieve a humanitarian exchange, causing relations to freeze. 17

In the weeks before Colombia gets a new president, tensions between current President Alvaro Uribe and Venezuela's Hugo Chavez reached a breaking point this week when Chavez cut diplomatic ties with its neighbor over renewed accusations he is coddling Colombian rebels. Colombia claims Venezuela is harboring Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) rebels, and Uribe made the accusation again at a meeting of the Organization of American States on Thursday, prompting Chavez to say he was cutting all ties with his southern neighbor.

The United Nations has called for restraint and a dialogue between the two countries. The United States has voiced support for its ally Colombia. Some Colombians were hoping the incoming president Juan santos who is inaugurated Aug. 7, will help smooth things over. Santos appears more concerned about having good international relations and is more in tune with international opinion of Colombia from studying abroad and from his travels, than outgoing President Uribe, who is "much more of a local guy, much more parochial," Otis explained. 18

17 Ramirez, Socorro. "Colombia   – Venezuela: construir canales de comunicación para prevenir el conflicto". Analitica.com. found on this link: http://web.archive.org/web/20071215085321/http://www.analitica.com/va/hispanica/colombia_paz/1417173.asp.

18 Larisa Epatko, "Diplomatic Stress between Colombia and Venezuela Grows" , July 23, 2010, found on this link:http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2010/07/colombia-and-venezuela.html

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"Any time there's a severance in diplomatic relations or a freezing in commercial relations, which is what's happened as well, the borders often get closed, tractor trailers line up at the borders trying to bring goods back and forth," said Otis. Trade between the two countries fell from $7 billion in 2009 to a projected $2 billion this year, he added.19

Uribe and Chavez's relationship started out well, but over the last couple of years grew testy starting with a 2008 Colombian raid into Ecuador to take out a FARC leader. Chavez showed solidarity with fellow left-wing leader in Ecuador, Rafael Correa, by sending Venezuelan troops to the Colombian border, said Otis, and the relationship further deteriorated with the allegations that FARC guerillas were camped in Venezuela.

Both Chavez and Uribe appeared to be using the spat for their own purposes. Chavez blamed Colombia for problems inside Venezuela and said Colombia with U.S. help will attack Venezuela. And every time Uribe complained about Chavez, his approval ratings rise.

In 2009 Tensions between Venezuela and its neighbor Colombia have flared over a proposed deal in which Bogota would allow the United States to establish seven military bases on its soil. The issue has become a source of dispute in South America, and it became as Venezuela was increasing its military and nuclear cooperation with Russia.

The Americans have asked for the bases to aid in the fight against drug trafficking. The Venezuelan leader, Hugo Chavez, however, said that "various friends of Colombia are worried about these bases". 20

After recalling his ambassador from Colombia, the Venezuelan leader on announced punitive trade measures on the country, including prohibiting the import of 10,000 cars from Colombia. It also sought to substitute for Colombian imports by increasing imports from more friendly states like Argentina and Brazil.

Venezuela’s military purchases: For several years, U.S. officials have expressed concerns about Venezuela’s purchases of military equipment. In January 2006, the State Department indicated that the United States had denied licenses— required by the Arms Export Control Act—to transfer U.S. technology for use in 12 military transport planes that Spanish

19 Ibid19

20 Michael Hirshman, "Tensions Escalate Between Venezuela and Colombia" , August 6, 2009, found on this link:http://www.rferl.org/content/Tensions_Escalate_Between_Venezuela_And_Columbia/1794059.html

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companies had contracted to sell to Venezuela. According to a State Department spokesman, the proposed sale could contribute to de-stabilization in Latin America.

In May 2006, the State Department determined (pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act) that Venezuela was not fully cooperating with U.S. antiterrorism efforts, an action that triggered a prohibition on the sale or license of defense articles and services to Venezuela. Since then, the State Department made the same annual determination each year.

In January 11, 2007, testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, then Director of National Intelligence (DNI) John Negroponte expressed concern that the President Chavez’s military purchases and moves toward developing his own weapons production capability were increasingly worrisome to his neighbors, and could fuel an arms race in the region.

Venezuela’s Activities in Latin America: As U.S.-Venezuelan relations have deteriorated over the past several years, the Chávez government has focused its relations with Latin America and its activities in the region in part as a means of countering the United States and U.S. interests and influence in the hemisphere. DNI Michael McConnell testified in February 5, 2008 testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Chavez will continue to attempt to unite Latin America under his leadership behind an anti-U.S. and radical leftist agenda, but noted that as time passes, Chávez’s leadership ambitions are likely to encounter growing opposition. Over the years, there have been concerns about President Chavez’s attempts to export his brand of populism to other Latin America countries. He has strongly supported Bolivia’s President Evo Morales, and offered assistance to help Bolivia re-write its constitution and implement radical reforms to the economy. In Peru’s 2006 presidential elections, Chávez openly supported the unsuccessful presidential candidacy of a nationalist former army colonel who had led a failed military uprising in 2000.

Major concerns in Venezuela: There are a lot of important and ongoing issues in Venezuela that really affect United States of America and thus USA tries to interfere and manage those issues in order to be sure that all concerns are going right and according to its interests.

Human rights concerns: Human rights organizations and U.S. officials have expressed concerns for several years about the deterioration of democratic institutions and threats to freedom of speech and press in Venezuela under the Chavez government. The State Department’s February 2009 human rights report stated that Venezuela’s human

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rights situation continued to be characterized by “politicization of the judiciary,” and “official harassment of the media and of the political opposition.” 10 Some observers are concerned that Chavez is using his political strength to push toward authoritarian rule. Human Rights Watch maintains that the Chavez government dealt a severe blow to judicial independence by packing the Supreme Court with his supporters under a new law that expanded the court from 20 to 32 justices. Since 2004, according to Human Rights Watch, the packed Court has fired hundreds of provisional judges and granted to permanent judgeships to about 1,000 others.

2012 presidential elections: With the vote scheduled for Oct. 7, Hugo Chavez looks set to face the toughest presidential election of his tenure, as a recent poll has him neck-and-neck with likely challenger Henrique Capriles. Venezuelan authorities have finally announced a date for next year’s presidential elections, ending months of speculation and setting the stage for the first serious electoral challenge to President Hugo Chavez. The vote is to be held on Oct. 7, 2012, when Mr. Chavez will stand head-to-head with the winner of opposition primaries set to take place on Feb. 12.This gives the opposition a chance to campaign for their chosen candidate, most likely state governor Henrique Capriles Radonski. Mr. Capriles is the first Venezuelan politician to rival Chavez in the polls, thanks perhaps to a charisma that is on par with that of the socialist firebrand.21

There had been speculation that Chávez had ordered the election brought forward to March, in order to stifle any chance the opposition had of launching a successful campaign. Indeed, the date has been brought forward from the traditional December vote, likely for that same reason claim critics. The date may also have been chosen in order to give Chávez a full year to recover from chemotherapy, the fourth round of which he announced today. “I have faith, my recovery is going well,” he told state television. “After this chemotherapy, the last one God willing, I will undoubtedly start physical exercise.”22

There could be another twist in the tale this week, as the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) announces its decision in the case of Leopoldo López, a popular former mayor. The Venezuelan government declared Mr. López “inhabilitado” – barred from standing for public office – on allegations of corruption, despite his never having been tried in court on the charges. López challenged the ban at the IACHR in 2008.

21 Girish Gubta, " Venezuela sets date for 2012 presidential election" , September 13, 2011, found on this link:http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/Latin-America-Monitor/2011/0913/Venezuela-sets-date-for-2012-presidential-election22Ibid

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Like Capriles, López is popular and does not lack charisma. The IACHR is expected to rule in his favor; though there is little hope that Chávez will overturn his government’s decision. If the president did choose to allow López to stand, however, he may be doing himself a favor. Both López and Capriles competing for the vote could split an already fragmented opposition just as Chávez ramps up his own campaign, in the wake – he hopes – of a successful recovery from cancer.

Henrique Capriles Radonski, was mentioned in The U.S. Department of State 2008 Human Rights report as denial of a fair public trial. The 39-year-old governor of Venezuela's second-most populous state, Miranda, does not, however, believe in statist economics, indefinite re-election for presidents, the evils of capitalism or other central tenets of Chavez's "revolution".

State Sponsors of Terrorism List: In light of the assistance the Chavez government gave to the FARC, some observers, including some Members of Congress, had called on the Bush Administration in 2008 to designate Venezuela as a state sponsor of terrorism. Other countries currently on the state sponsors of terrorism list include Cuba, Iran, Sudan, and Syria. The Bush Administration began an initial inquiry into designating Venezuela as a state sponsor in March 2008, but did not make such a designation.

In terms of economic sanctions associated with being on the terrorism list, the EAA requires a validated license for the export of goods and technology to a country if the Secretary of State determines that the government of such a country “has repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism” and if the export of such goods and technology could make a significant contribution to the country’s military potential or could enhance its ability to support acts of international terrorism.23

The sanctions associated with being on the terrorism list would likely have an effect on U.S.-Venezuelan economic relations. A substantial portion of U.S. exports to Venezuela, particularly for the oil sector, would likely require validated licenses for so-called dual-use exports and technology. The termination of the tax credit that prevents double taxation would increase the cost of U.S. companies operating in Venezuela, and could be a disincentive for some U.S. companies operating there.

Prospects of the U.S. – Venezuelan relations:

23 congressional research service , Venezuela: issues for the congress

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There are two major scenarios for the future of the relations between the two countries, 1st they may go to open new kind of relations between each other, as Obama may tend to have good relations with Venezuela, in order to open new diplomatic relations and start dealing with Chavez and his government, like what Hillary Clinton said before, and till the new presidential elections in Venezuela take place, as it may be for the American interests.

The 2nd one is that US may cut all the relations with Venezuela and try to lessen its dependence of oil on this country, and try to replace it with another country like Libya or Sudan, and at the same time the whole world and the international community how Venezuela is violating the international laws and is supporting the terrorism, and thus it can get the right to impose sanctions and send air strikes through the military bases in Colombia.

Libya

Introduction Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west.

With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometers, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. The largest city, Tripoli, is home

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to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica.

The first inhabitants of Libya were Berber tribes. In the 7th century B.C., Phoenicians colonized the eastern section of Libya, called Cyrenaica, and Greeks colonized the western portion, called Tripolitania. Tripolitania was for a time under Carthaginian control. It became part of the Roman Empire from 46 B.C. to A.D. 436, after which it was sacked by the Vandals. Cyrenaica belonged to the Roman Empire from the 1st century B.C. until its decline, after which it was invaded by Arab forces in 642. Beginning in the 16th century, both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica nominally became part of the Ottoman Empire.

History:

Tripolitania was one of the outposts for the Barbary pirates who raided Mediterranean merchant ships or required them to pay tribute. In 1801, the pasha of Tripoli raised the price of tribute, which led to the Tripolitania war with the United States. When the peace treaty was signed on June 4, 1805, U.S. ships no longer had to pay tribute to Tripoli.

Following the outbreak of hostilities between Italy and Turkey in 1911, Italian troops occupied Tripoli. Libyans continued to fight the Italians until 1914, by which time Italy controlled most of the land. Italy formally united Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934 as the colony of Libya.

Libya was the scene of much desert fighting during World War II. After the fall of Tripoli on Jan. 23, 1943, it came under Allied administration. In 1949, the UN voted that Libya should become independent, and in 1951 it became the United Kingdom of Libya. Oil was discovered in the impoverished country in 1958 and eventually transformed its economy.24

In its foreign policy, the Kingdom of Libya was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States, of which it became a member in 1953.

Foreign relations of the kingdom of Libya:

The government was in close alliance with the United States and United Kingdom; both countries maintained military base rights in Libya. The U.S. supported the United Nations resolution providing for Libyan independence in 1951 and raised the status of its office at Tripoli from a consulate general to a legation. Libya opened a legation in Washington, D.C., in 1954. Both countries subsequently raised their missions to the embassy level and exchanged ambassadors.

Libya and the United States signed an agreement under which the United States also obtained military base rights, subject to renewal in 1970, in return for economic aid to Libya. The most important of the United States installations in Libya was Wheelus Air Base, near Tripoli, considered a strategically valuable installation in the 1950s and early 1960s. Reservations set aside in the desert were used by British and American military aircraft based in Europe as practice firing ranges. Libya forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and

24 Libyan economy info., The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., 2007, Columbia University Press: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107722.html?pageno=2

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Turkey, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955, but declined a Soviet offer of economic aid.25

Pre revolution:Muammar al-Qaddafi:

On Sept. 1, 1969, 27-year-old Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi deposed the king and revolutionized the country, making it a pro-Arabic, anti-Western, Islamic republic with socialist leanings. It was also rabidly anti-Israeli. A notorious firebrand, Qaddafi aligned himself with dictators, such as Uganda's Idi Amin, and fostered anti-Western terrorism.26

The Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya:

The remaking of Libyan society that Qadhafi envisioned and to which he devoted his energies after the early 1970s formally began in 1973 with a so-called cultural or popular revolution. The revolution was designed to combat bureaucratic inefficiency, lack of public interest and participation in the sub national governmental system, and problems of national political coordination. In an attempt to instill revolutionary fervor into his compatriots and to involve large numbers of them in political affairs, Qadhafi urged them to challenge traditional authority and to take over and run government organs themselves. The instrument for doing this was the "people's committee." Within a few months, such committees were found all across Libya. They were functionally and geographically based and eventually became responsible for local and regional administration.

In 1986 Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests. 27

Lockerbie:

On Dec. 21, 1988, a Boeing 747 exploded in flight over Lockerbie, Scotland, the result of a terrorist bomb, killing all 259 people aboard and 11 on the ground. This and other acts of terrorism, including the bombing of a Berlin discotheque in 1986 and the downing of a French UTA airliner in 1989 that killed 170, turned Libya into a pariah in the eyes of the West. Two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted in the Lockerbie bombing, but Qaddafi refused to hand them over, leading to UN-approved trade and air traffic embargoes in 1992. In 1999, Libya finally surrendered the two men, who were tried in the Netherlands in 2000–2001. One was found guilty of mass murder; the other defendant was found innocent. Libya had hoped its fainthearted cooperation would lead to suspended sanctions, which had severely affected the Libyan economy. The UN did suspend its sanctions, but they were not formally removed for another four years, not until Sept. 2003, when Libya finally admitted its guilt in the Lockerbie bombing and agreed to pay $2.7 billion to the victims' families. In 2004, Libya also agreed to

25 Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), "Independent Libya" ,  U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved July 14, 200626 Qadhafi and the Revolutionary Command Council, library of congress country studies, 1987, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ly0038%29

27 Brian Lee Davis. Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.. p. 186.

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compensate the families of the victims of the UTA airliner bombing ($170 million) and the Berlin disco bombing ($35 million). 28

Demographical status:

Libya has a small population residing in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per km² (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per km² (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. 50% of the population is estimated to be under age 15.

Native Libyans are primarily of Berber and Arab heritage. Small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or semi nomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest

28 John Biewen, "shadow over Lockerbie : mass murder over Scotland" , American radio works, March 2000, found on this link: http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/lockerbie/story/printable_story.html

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groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians), and Sub-Saharan Africans. 29

Libya was a very poor agricultural country with bleak economic prospects until 1958, when petroleum was discovered. Much of the income from petroleum was used to improve the cities, to modernize transportation, and to build up the military. The resulting migration of Libyans to urban areas created a growth in unemployment, spurring the government to invest in agricultural development in order to make farming more attractive. Although petroleum production has dropped since the 1970s, oil exports continue to generate about 95% of export earnings and 25% of the country's GDP. Libya is also a major exporter of natural gas and has several large gas liquefication plants. In addition, gypsum, salt, and limestone are produced in significant quantities. Libya has increased industrial production in recent years. The principal manufactures are refined petroleum, liquefied natural gas, petrochemicals, iron and steel, aluminum, textiles, handicrafts, and construction materials. Food processing is also important. 30

Libyan civil war:

Following popular uprisings in neighboring Tunisia and Egypt, Libya witnessed massive peaceful protests in Benghazi starting on the 17th of February 2011. The Qaddafi regime responded to the protests in a shocking brutality leading a huge amount of human casualties that left the international community in a state of shock for quite some time. The aggressive

29 Libyan demographic profile 2011, index mundi, found on this link: http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html 30 Opcit , http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859275.html

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response of el Qaddafi led to the eventual arming of the civilians in Benghazi and the ouster of el Qaddafi forces from Benghazi and the start of the Libyan civil war.31

N.T.C:

On 24 February 2011, politicians, former military officers, tribal leaders, academics and businessmen held a meeting in the eastern city of Bayda. The meeting was chaired by former justice minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil, who quit the government a few days before. The delegates discussed proposals for interim administration with many delegates asking for UN intervention in Libya. The podium at the meeting displayed the pre-Jamahiriya flag.32

The formation of the NTC was announced in the city of Benghazi on 27 February 2011 and its intended purpose is to act as the "political face of the revolution". On 5 March 2011, the council issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state".33

Structure:

The National Transitional Council is a body that claims to be, and is widely recognized as, the "only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state". Starting off at 33 members, it has now risen to 51, with proposals to increase its size further to 75 or even 125.

On 5 March 2011, a crisis committee was set up to act as the executive arm of the council. The Executive Board was dismissed on 8 August 2011 due to administrative mistakes in investigating the assassination in July of army commander General Abdel-Fatah Younes. A new cabinet was unveiled in early October 2011. On 23 October, Jibril resigned as Mustafa Abdul Jalil declared an end to the civil war, and Abdurrahim El-Keib succeeded him as prime minister on 31 October.

The Executive board was dissolved on 22 November 2011 as per Interim constitution which states the Executive board be dissolved upon the formation of the Interim Government.

International recognition:

France became the first nation to recognize the National Transitional Council as the official representative government of Libya, on March 10, 2011. The United States recognized the council on July 15: “I am announcing today that, until an interim authority is in place, the United States will recognize the TNC as the legitimate governing authority for Libya, and we will deal with it on that basis,” Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said, speaking from Istanbul in Turkey.34

31 Timeline: Libya's civil war, Gaurdian, 19 Nov. 2011, found on this link: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/19/timeline-libya-civil-war 32 Discussion under way for provisional government in Libya, Maltastar News, 25 feb, 2011, found on this link: http://maltastar.com/pages/r1/ms10dart.asp?a=14356 33Patrick O’Connor, "The US recognizes Libya’s Transitional National Council", world socialist web site, 20 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2011/jul2011/pers-j20.shtml 34  Pierre Tristam, " What Is Libya's National Transitional   Council?" , Middle east issues, found on this link: http://middleeast.about.com/od/libya/f/Libya-National-Transitional-Council.htm

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As of 25 November 2011, 101 UN member states and four other countries have stated they recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole legitimate representative body of Libya. On 15 July, many of these countries constituting the Libya Contact Group issued a joint statement that they consider the council to be Libya's "legitimate authority".35

United Nations NATO intervention:

Following the shock of the un-foreseen Qaddafi aggressive response to the protests, and the several pleadings of both the NTC and the Arab league, the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 1973 to allow for a now fly zone over Libyan airspace in favor of protecting civilians. The no fly zone was to be implemented by the NATO on the 17th of March 2011.36

On 19 March 2011, a multi-state coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution.37 on 19 March, military operations began, with US and British forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the French Air Force and British Royal Air Force undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the Royal Navy. Air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles by French jets were since confirmed. The official names for the interventions by the coalition members are Opération Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the United Kingdom; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawn for the United States.

The NATO intervention provided air space cover for the NTC forces to proceed and re-capture coastal regions that the Qaddafi forces derived them out of, at the beginning of the war. When NATO intervened the Qaddafi forces were just a few miles out of the city of Benghazi in what would have been a crushing defeat for the opposition.

On the 21st of August rebels entered Tripoli facing little to no resistance, and el Qaddafi and his sons fled the city. Qaddafi made a radio speech to his people urging them to continue fighting. On the 16th of the next month after several diplomatic ventures by the NTC, the United Nations agreed on easing the sanctions imposed on Libya during the Qaddafi regime, including on its national oil company and central bank. The UN general assembly approves a request to accredit interim government envoys as Libya's sole representatives at the United Nations, effectively recognizing the NTC. Fighting in Libya ended in late October following the death of Muammar Gaddafi, and NATO has stated it will end operations over Libya on 31 October 2011. However, Libya's new government requested that its mission be extended to the end of the year, but on 27 October, the Security Council voted to end NATO's mandate for military action on 31 October.38

35 Ian Black, " Libyan rebels win international recognition as country's leaders", 15 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jul/15/libyan-rebels-international-recognition-leaders 36 Department of Public Information , News and Media Division, New York, Security Council6498th Meeting (Night), 17 March 2011, found on: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sc10200.doc.htm 37 "Libya: UN team to start probe of human rights abuses", BBC News Africa, 27 April, 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13202981 38 Huma Khan and others, " Moammar Gadhafi's Private Mercenary Army 'Knows One Thing: To Kill' " , abc world News, Feb, 22, 2011, found on this link: http://abcnews.go.com/International/libya-benghazi-doctor-

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Human rights concerns:

Following the outbreak of the civil war, el Qaddafi forces committed huge crimes against humanity. The UN human rights commissioner, Navi Pillay, said in late February that what was happening in Libya "may amount to crimes against humanity". There have been reports that Col Gaddafi's forces trying to retake Misrata from rebels are indiscriminately shelling the city.39

Moammar Gadhafi used foreign mercenaries from Africa who don't speak Arabic, as a private army to protect his regime and they have shown no hesitancy to fire on civilian protesters, witnesses have said. Though video reports from the country have been scarce, some videos have been posted on YouTube showing locals beating dark-skinned people they said were captured mercenaries and were blamed for shootings.

Even Libya's ambassador to India confirmed the reports, telling Reuters that African mercenaries are being used to crush protests.40

NTC captives:

Former Libyan rebels are still holding about 7,000 prisoners, the United Nations says.

The detainees are being held without access to legal process because the police and courts are not functioning, and some may have been tortured.

Many are sub-Saharan Africans suspected of being mercenaries hired by the Gaddafi regime. The UN said the new Libyan government had responded positively when pressed to deal with the issue.

The BBC's Barbara Plett in New York says this was the first UN assessment of the situation in Libya since the end of the eight-month civil war.

The report, by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, estimates that 7,000 prisoners in Libya are currently held in prisons and makeshift detention centres, most under the control of revolutionary brigades.41

Al Qaddafi assassination:

gadhafi-foreign-mercenaries-quell-protests/story?id=12972216#.TtSkeWM1LmM 39 Libya ex-rebels still hold 7,000 prisoners, says UN, BBC News, 29 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-1593210540 Libya ex-rebels still hold 7,000 prisoners, says UN, BBC News, 29 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15932105 41 "Gaddafi killed in hometown, Libya eyes future" , Reuters, found on this link: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/20/us-libya-idUSTRE79F1FK20111020

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Although the killing of col. Qaddafi marked the end of the civil war, and constituted the beginning of the new Libya, the circumstances of his death and the way al Qaddafi’s body was handled was internationally criticized by human rights organizations. These circumstances fired questions and doubts on whether the new Libya would respect human rights, or would it be engulfed in vendetta actions.

Death Several videos related to the death were broadcast by news channels and circulated via the internet. The first shows footage of Gaddafi alive, his face and shirt bloodied, stumbling and being dragged toward an ambulance by armed men chanting "God is great" in Arabic. The video appears to picture Gaddafi being poked or stabbed in the rear "with some kind of stick or knife" or possibly a bayonet. Another shows Gaddafi, stripped to the waist, suffering from an apparent gunshot wound to the head, and in a pool of blood, together with jubilant fighters firing automatic weapons in the air. A third video, posted on YouTube, shows fighters "hovering around his lifeless-looking body, posing for photographs and yanking his limp head up and down by the hair."42

Public display The interim Libyan authorities decided to keep his body "for a few days", NTC oil minister Ali Tarhouni said, "to make sure that everybody knows he is dead.” To that end, the body was moved to an industrial freezer where members of the public were permitted to view it as confirmation. Gaddafi's body was publicly displayed in a freezer in Misrata until the afternoon of 24 October.43

Calls for investigation:

Numerous organizations including the United Nations, the U.S. and UK governments have called for an investigation of the exact circumstances of Gaddafi's death, amid concerns that it may have been an extrajudicial killing and a war crime.

42 "Libya's NTC orders probe into Gaddafi killing" , al Jazeera News, 24 October, 2011, found on this link: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/2011102413358850809.html 43 "UN calls for probe into Gaddafi's death" , al Jazeera News, 22 October, 2011, found on this link: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111021235116164421.html

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The UN human rights office spokesperson said that he expects the UN commission already investigating potential human rights abuse in Libya would look into the case. Waheed Burshan, a member of the NTC, said that an investigation should happen.

On 24 October 2011 the NTC announced that it had ordered an investigation in response to the international calls and that it would prosecute the killers if the investigation showed he died after his capture.

Chemicals Weapons in Libya Libya announced its renunciation of all weapons of mass destruction, including chemical weapons, on December 2003. Subsequently, the Libyan Government deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) with the United Nations on February 2004. With the help of Organization for The Prohibition of Chemicals Weapons (OPCW) in order to ban all the chemicals weapons.44

When Libya joined the Chemical Weapons Convention in 2004, it was obligated to declare all of its chemical warfare materials, and once the OPCW confirmed the declaration, to destroy the materials in their entirety, in accordance with established deadlines. 45

In October 2011 Mahmoud Jibrilthe Prime Minster of NTC declared that two sites containing chemical weapons were found in Libya including mustard gas which have been stockpile and the existence of them was never declared to OPCW,  The NTC security committee insists the weapons exist and are safe, but are not yet centrally controlled. 46

And that would fuel the terrorist activities especially Al Qadaa in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , and also that would make Libya a global terrorism risk and an accessible arsenal for any potential insurgency, many such weapons have already been looted, raising fears both in Libya and among its neighbors of new violence in the months ahead.47

Us Libyan relations:Strategic importance of Libya to US:

Libya's Oil Yes, it's true that Libya produces only 1.6 million of the globe's 87 million barrels of oil a day. However, it produces some of the most coveted and highest quality light, sweet crude oil on the planet. Its crude is easily refined into gasoline and diesel. It is also lower in sulfur, making it cleaner to burn.

44 "The Chemical Weapons Convention Enters Into Force in Libya", Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, 02 February 2004, found on this link: http://www.opcw.org/news/article/the-chemical-weapons-convention-enters-into-force-in-libya/45 "OPCW Inspectors Return to Libya", Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons 04 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.opcw.org/news/article/opcw-inspectors-return-to-libya/

46 Karen Allen, "On the trail of Libya's missing missiles", BBC News, 18 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15781302

47 Abigail Hauslohner, "Gaddafi's Abandoned Arsenals Raise Libya's Terror Threat", Time World news, Sept. 07, 2011, found on this link: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2092333,00.html#ixzz1ej2Kc6Nq

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Saudi Arabia is the de facto custodian of OPEC's 4.7 billion barrels a day of effective spare capacity. However, Saudi crude oil overall is not of the same quality as Libya's.

Most of the country's production is classified as medium crude oil. Arab Light, the leading Saudi oil by volume, is a relatively high 1.8 per cent sulfur and heavier. This makes it more difficult to refine into light products such as diesel and other fuels.48

Geographical location Libya is on the coast of the Mediterranean with a close proximity to Europe. If the country loses its grip on the coastal regions it could lead to increased flow of illegal immigrants to Europe, destabilizing the region which is an economical background to the US.

Proliferation of weapons

To date, the worry has been that elements of al Qaeda were infiltrating the ranks of the Libyan rebel forces. But if the above intelligence is correct, the greater worry may be that Gaddafi was willing to strike back at the United States and its NATO allies by supplying weapons to terrorists. Of course, this would not be the first time that Gaddafi has employed “indirect” means to attack the United States, the most devastating example being the bombing of Pan Am 103 in 1988 that killed 270. There is also the possibility that the weapons going to AQIM are being sold by elements within Libya’s security forces because of a breakdown in control from Tripoli. In either case, weapons appear to be getting in the hands of some pretty dangerous folks.

This is just another reason why the US let the military campaign against Gaddafi drag on—as the administration has—is such a problem. Common sense says that stirring up a hornets’ nest is a sure way to get stung. If you don’t want that to happen, it’s best to destroy it—and the sooner the better.49

Status quo of the relations:

On July 15, 2011, the United States government announced that it had granted diplomatic recognition to the National Transitional Council as the legitimate Libyan government. It granted accreditation to Ali Aujali as the Libyan Ambassador to the United States on August 15.

The United States formally supports the NTC and believes in the future of the democratic process in Libya. The United States was a major ally of the NTC during the war against Gaddafi, launching Operation Odyssey Dawn on 19 March 2011 after Susan Rice, its

48 Tony D'Altorio, " Why Libya Is Important to Oil Prices" , March 5, 2011, found on this link: http://wallstreetmess.blogspot.com/2011/03/why-libya-is-important-to-oil-prices.html

49 Gary Schmitt, " New Worries That Libyan Arms Flow to Al Qaeda", the American Blog, July, 1 ,2011, found on this link: http://blog.american.com/2011/07/new-worries-libyan-arms-flow-to-al-qaeda/

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ambassador to the UN, successfully persuaded sceptics of the proposed Libyan no-fly zone on the United Nations Security Council to abstain from voting on the resolution rather than voting "no" or exercising veto power. The United States Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy played an instrumental role in suppressing Libyan air defenses in late March before shifting toward a supporting role in Operation Unified Protector.50

The US took longer than other leading NTC allies to formally recognise the council as Libya's legitimate authority, but it ultimately handed over the Libyan Embassy in Washington, D.C., to the NTC in early August 2011. Later that month, the US led an effort at the United Nations to repeal parts of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 in order to allow unfrozen Libyan assets to be transferred to the interim government. 51

Prospects for Libyan revolution:

On October 20th, the whole world witnessed a very historical moment, which is the assassination of Muammar el Gaddhafi. With news of Muammar Gaddhafi's death, the U.S., NATO, and the Libyan National Transitional Council (NTC) deserve a moment to relish in the successes of the democratic movement in Libya. Yet it's important to understand that despite this success, the story of Libyan democracy is in its infancy. Now begins the difficult part.

Can the NTC establish rule of law, democratic institutions, security, a stable economy, and a

50 Tom Vanden Brook, "U.S. warplanes taking aim at supporting role in Libya", USA today, 4 May, 2011, found on this link: http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-04-04-us-libya_N.htm 51 Louis Charbonneau, " U.S. asks U.N. to unfreeze $1.5 billion Libyan assets" , Reuters, August 24, 2011, found on this link: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/24/us-libya-un-usa-idUSTRE77N5F020110824

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functioning government for the whole of Libya? This is traditionally the most difficult part of any revolution.52

At this point, it's wise to step back for a moment and reflect upon some of the lessons learned, and how those lessons can help guide future U.S. or NATO involvement in future scenarios of intervention.

A lot of issues need to be clarified more, what are the future scenarios for them, one of them is the issue of disarming civilians, after the revolution this problem appeared as a nightmare for the Libyan future. Giving people weapons is easy, but taking them away is not. There are going to be some serious issues in disarming this heavily armed population and reducing the risk of an explosion of post-Gaddafi violence. Witnessing the excessive amounts of reckless celebratory gunfire after the fall of Tripoli shows an undisciplined, poorly-trained force of heavily armed people that are probably in no hurry to give up their new toys.

What will ultimately happen in Libya is anybody's guess at this point. What can happen in Libya is subject to both the desire of the Libyan people, and the willingness of NATO and the world to assist them in this process as they see fit. While these lessons are not exhaustive, they are important to keep in mind for future conflicts, and as the current story continues to unfold.

So accordingly, some people are talking about a civil war that may break out between the different tribes there; some other people are talking about a scenario of separation in Libya, because of the struggling of many countries to benefit from Libya, and because in Libya each tribe is seeking its own interest.

Prospects for the US-Libyan Relation:

Many Members of Congress welcomed the announcement of Libya’s liberation and the formation of the interim government, while expressing concern about security in the country, the proliferation of weapons, and the prospects for a smooth political transition. Securing stockpiles of Libyan conventional and chemical weapons has emerged as an issue of broad congressional concern, as has ensuring that transitional authorities act in accordance with international human rights standards in pursuing justice and handling detainees.

Imposed sanctions: The Obama administration slapped el Kaddafi regime with severe sanctions early in March 2011, freezing in the process over 30 billion dollars of Libyan assets. After the fall of the regime, the administration sent a letter to the congress on Thursday 25 th of February 2012, asking for the sanctions to be extended for another year. Obama remains adamant that remnants of Gaddafi’s family present a clear and present danger to the US. “We need to protect against this threat and the diversion of assets or other abuse by certain members of Gaddafi’s family and other former regime officials”.

Rise of Islamists:

52 1 Matthew Wallin, "Libyan Lessons For Doomed Autocrats and U.S.", AOL defense, October 26, 2011, found on this link: http://defense.aol.com/2011/10/26/libyan-lessons-for-doomed-autocrats-and-u-s/

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Like citizens in other Middle Eastern societies, Libyans have grappled with questions posed by Islamist activism, state repression of Islamist groups, and violent Islamist extremism over a period of decades. Since Kaddafi’s downfall, a number of confrontations between conservative militia forces and local religious communities have centered around disputed interpretations of Islamic religious and cultural practices. To date, the leadership of the TNC has not demonstrated rhetorical or material support for Al Qaeda, the Muslim Brotherhood, or Hamas. On March 30, the TNC released a statement affirming its support for U.N. Security Council resolutions on Al Qaeda and the Taliban and U.N. conventions on terrorism.

Like other political organizations and opposition groups, the Muslim Brotherhood was banned in Libya under Kaddafi. However, its membership worked clandestinely at home and remained active abroad. The group has renewed its public activity in Libya since the start of the revolution. A statement attributed to the Libyan Muslim Brotherhood in late February 2011 welcomed the formation of the TNC but called for a future, non-tribal government to “be formed by those who actually led the revolution on the ground” and to exclude supporters of the original Kaddafi coup or officials involved in human rights violations.

The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) is a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization and Islamist movement that used violence in past attempts to overthrow Muammar al Qadhafi and his government. Some figures affiliated with the LIFG, such as current Tripoli-based militia commander Abdelhakim Belhajj, participated in this reconciliation process and have reiterated their rejection of Al Qaeda and its ideology in public interviews in 2011. Some Libya-based members of the LIFG responded to the release of leading figures on February 16 by announcing the reorganization of the group as the Libyan Islamic Movement for Change (LIMC).

Al Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM/AQIM) U.S. government officials and their regional counterparts remain focused on the potential for the unrest in Libya to provide opportunities to Al Qaeda’s regional affiliate, Al Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM/AQIM). Some press reports suggest that AQIM personnel have obtained weaponry from looted Libyan military stockpiles, including surface-to-air missiles. The Algerian, Malian, and Chadian governments continue to express concern about the potential for instability in Libya to weaken security along Libya’s long borders, which could allow AQIM operatives and criminal networks that provide services to AQIM to move more freely. While the Libya-based leaders of the LIFG participated in reconciliation with Kaddafi’s government while in prison and renounced violence as a domestic political tool, some of their supporters are reported to have sent Libyans abroad to participate in insurgencies and terrorism

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Sudan … era of stability, or a new round of conflict

History of Sudan:52

Sudan geographically is one of the largest countries in Africa. Records of man inhabitation of Sudan go back to at least 7 thousand years ago. The country measures about one fourth of the United States total area. What is now northern Sudan was in ancient times the kingdom of Nubia, which came under Egyptian rule after 2600 B.C. An Egyptian and Nubian civilization called Kush flourished until A.D. 350. Missionaries converted the region to Christianity in the 6th century, but an influx of Muslim Arabs, who had already conquered Egypt, eventually controlled the area and replaced Christianity with Islam. During the 1500s a people called the Funj conquered much of Sudan, and several other black African groups settled in the south, including the Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer, and Azande. Egyptians again conquered Sudan in 1874, and after Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, it took over Sudan in 1898, ruling the country in conjunction with Egypt. It was known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1898 and 1955.

The 20th century saw the growth of Sudanese nationalism, and in 1953 Egypt and Britain granted Sudan self-government. Independence was proclaimed on Jan. 1, 1956. Since independence, Sudan has been ruled by a series of unstable parliamentary governments and military regimes. Under Maj. Gen. Gaafar Mohamed Nimeiri, Sudan instituted fundamentalist Islamic law in 1983. This exacerbated the rift between the Arab north, the seat of the government, and the black African animists and Christians in the south. Differences in language, religion, ethnicity, and political power erupted in an unending civil war between government forces, strongly influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF) and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction is the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). Human rights violations, religious persecution, and allegations that Sudan had been a safe haven for terrorists isolated the country from most of the international community. In 1995, the UN imposed sanctions against it.53

In January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum to decide between unity or independence from the central government of Sudan as called for by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended the country’s decades-long civil war in 2005. According to the South Sudan Referendum Commission (SSRC), 98.8% of the votes cast were in favor of separation. In February 2011, Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir officially accepted the referendum result, as did the United Nations, the African Union, the European Union, the United States, and other countries. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially declared its independence.54

Economy: The region of Sudan is considered one of Africa’s fastest growing economies in 2010.² The rapid development of the country largely from oil profits even when facing international sanctions was noted by the The New York Times in a

53 Background notes on Sudan, bureau of African Affairs, US department of state, April 8, 2011, found on this link: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm54 Ibid

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2006 article.³ Due to the secession of South Sudan, which contained over 80 percent of Sudan's oilfields, the economic forecast for Sudan in 2011 and beyond is uncertain.

While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of the 40 million strong Sudanese population, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan's post-2000 growth. The People's Republic of China is Sudan's largest economic partner, with a 40 percent share in its oil.4 The country also sells Sudan small arms, which have been used in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur and South Kordofan. 5

The independence of oil-rich South Sudan, however, placed most major oilfields out of the Sudanese government's direct control. In order to export oil, South Sudan must rely on a pipeline to Port Sudan on Sudan's Red Sea coast, as South Sudan itself is landlocked, as well as on Sudan's superior refinery infrastructure. The exact terms of a revenue-splitting agreement between Juba and Khartoum have yet to be established, but Sudan will likely receive a significant portion of the income from South Sudan's oil sales as a fee for the use of Sudanese pipelines, refineries, and port facilities, perhaps as much as 50 percent of the profits.

Agriculture production remains Sudan's most-important sector, employing eighty percent of the workforce and contributing thirty-nine percent of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Instability, adverse weather and weak world-agricultural prices ensures that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.

II) Disturbances:

OverviewBritain's Southern Policy

From the beginning of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the British concentrated their development on North Sudan, leaving the South with least official attention. The British justified this policy by claiming that the south was not ready for exposure to the modern world, and they closed the region to outsiders. As a result, the south remained isolated and backward.

During 1920s, the British detached the south from rest of Sudan; barring northern Sudanese from entering or working in the south, replacing Arab administrators, expelling Arab merchants, discouraging the spread of Islam, fighting the practice of Arab customs, and wearing Arab dress. On the other hand, they revitalized African customs and tribal life. Finally, a 1930 directive stated that blacks

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in the south are to be considered a people distinct from northern Muslims and that the region should be prepared for eventual integration with British East Africa. 55

During World War II, some British colonial officers questioned the economic and political viability of the southern provinces as separate from northern Sudan. Britain also had become more sensitive to Arab criticism of the southern policy. In 1946 the Sudan Administrative Conference determined that Sudan should be administered as one country; readmitting northern administrators to southern posts, abolish the trade and employment restrictions imposed, and introducing Arabic in the south as the official administration language.

Some British officers argued that northern domination of the south would result in a southern rebellion against the government. Khartoum therefore convened a conference at Juba to allay the fears of southern leaders and British officials in the south and to assure them that a post independence government would safeguard southern political and cultural rights.

- First Sudanese Civil war: Despite these promises, an increasing number of southerners expressed concern that northerners would overwhelm them. The hostility of southerners toward the northern Arab majority surfaced violently when southern army units mutinied in August 1955 to protest their transfer to garrisons under northern officers. The rebellious troops killed several hundred northerners, including government officials, army officers, and merchants. The government quickly suppressed the revolt and eventually executed seventy southerners for sedition. But this harsh reaction failed to pacify the south, as some of the mutineers escaped to remote areas and organized resistance to the Arab-dominated government of Sudan and starting the first Sudanese civil war. 56

By 1969 the rebels had developed foreign contacts to obtain weapons and supplies. Israel, for example, trained Anya Nya recruits and shipped weapons via Ethiopia and Uganda to the rebels. Anya Nya also purchased arms from Congolese rebels and international arms dealers with monies collected in the south and from among southern Sudanese exile communities in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. The rebels also captured arms, equipment, and supplies from government troops. The Sudanese government however conducted several arms agreements mostly from Soviet Union and soviet arms manufactured in Egypt.

In 1971 Joseph Lagu, who had become the leader of southern forces opposed to Khartoum, proclaimed the creation of the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM). Despite his political problems, Nimeiri remained committed to ending the 55 Robert O. Collins, "THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM, 1899-1955", Library of congress country studies, June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sd0028)56 A research done by the Library of Congress, "The South and the Unity of Sudan", June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sd0031)

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southern insurgency. After considerable consultation, a conference between SSLM and Sudanese government delegations convened at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in February 1972. In which they reached an agreement under the help of the Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie.57

The Addis Ababa agreement gave the south an autonomous rule over their region and their right to choose executive figures to handle their operations and collect taxes from the people of the south, thus ending the first civil war at 27th March 1972. 58

- The second civil war:

A number of reasons led to the renewed outbreak of fighting; the failure to fulfill the economic development and real political representation in the South, the discovery of Oil in the south and the political decision in Khartoum to locate the oil refinery in the North, The plan initiated by Numairy in June 1983 to re-divide the south into three provinces, The Impose of Islamic laws upon the Sudanese state by decree in September 1983 “September laws”.59

57 John Pike, "Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA)", Jan. 5, 2000, federation American Scientists, found on this link: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/spla.htm58 A research done by the library of congress, "The Southern Problem", June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+sd0038%2959 Col. Barnabas L Wama, "PROLONGED WARS: THE WAR IN SUDAN", a research paper presented to The Research Department, In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements of ACSC, March 1997, PDF , found on this link: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/97-0588.pdf

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During the same period, soldiers who came from the Anya Nya units absorbed into the army after the Addis Ababa Accords, had resisted illegal orders to be transferred north. Col. John Garang de Mabior, assumed power of the rebels “SPLA”.

Garang welded the desperate troops into the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) with its political wing, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM). Initially the SPLA defines itself as a movement for all oppressed Sudanese citizens According to the SPLA/SPLM manifesto; the war is intended to liberate the whole Sudan from its main enemies, represented by Northern and Southern Sudanese bourgeoisie and bureaucratic elites, religious fundamentalism.

Although the alliance with the dissidents from the North had led to the popular uprising that overthrew Numairy in April 1985, the SPLA/SPLM felt that this was not enough, and the war continued.

In 1988, Democratic Unionist Party - part of Sudan's ruling coalition government - drafts cease-fire agreement with the SPLM, but it wasn’t implemented.

In 2001, Sudanese Islamist leader Hassan Al-Turabi's party, the Popular National Congress, signs memorandum of understanding with the southern rebel SPLM's armed wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), as a result Al-Turabi was arrested the next day. In the same year, the Sudanese government accepted Libyan-Egyptian initiative to end the Sudanese civil war after failure of peace talks between SPLM leader John Garang and President Omar Bashir in Nairobi. 60

In 2002, SPLA and Sudanese government signed agreement on six-month renewable cease-fire in central Nuba Mountains. On 20 July in the same year, Talks in Machakos-Kenya lead to a breakthrough agreement between southern rebels and Sudanese government on ending the civil war. The Machakos Protocol agreed on a broad framework, setting forth the principles of governance, the transitional process and the structures of government as well as on the right to self-determination for the people of South Sudan, and on state and religion

During 2003-2004, SPLA and Sudanese Government Signed 5 other protocols; The Protocol on security arrangements, The Protocol on wealth-sharing, The Protocol on Power-sharing, The Protocol on the resolution of conflict in southern Kordofan/Nuba Mountains and the Blue Nile States, The Protocol on the resolution of conflict in Abyie. Followed by agreements at the end of 2004; one on permanent cease-fire arrangements, and, one on the International/Regional Guarantees

On 9 January 2005, A Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed, and marked the implementation of all Protocols signed. The brief terms of the peace agreement are as follows:

• The south will have autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum on secession.

60 A chronology of key events, "South Sudan Profile", BBC NEWS, 8 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14019202

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• Both sides of the conflict will merge their armed forces into a 39,000-strong force after six years, if the secession referendum should turn out negative.

• Income from oilfields is to be shared 50 to 50.

• Jobs are to be split according to varying ratios (central administration: 70 to 30, Abyei/Blue Nile State/Nuba mountains: 55 to 45, both in favour of the government).

• Islamic law is to remain in the north, while continued use of the sharia in the south is to be decided by the elected assembly. 61

In 2005 July, Former southern rebel leader John Garang was sworn in as first vice-president, In addition to signing a new Sudanese constitution which gives the south a large degree of autonomy.

In 2005 August - South Sudanese leader John Garang was killed in a plane crash. He was succeeded by Salva Kiir Mayardiit. Garang's death sparked deadly clashes in the capital between southern Sudanese and northern Arabs. one month later, a power sharing government was formed in Khartoum.

In 2005 October, Autonomous government was formed in South Sudan, in line with the January 2005 peace deal. The administration is dominated by former rebels.

After some “non-major” tensions, in December 2009, The Leaders of North and South reached an agreement on the terms of referendum on independence of south due in 2011. In 2011 January, The people of South Sudan vote in favour of full independence from Sudan. 62

After some clashes and disputes mostly over the region of Abye, the republic of south sudan became officially an independent country on 9th of July 2011, putting an end for a long history of civil wars, and leaving a question of whether the new country will live peacefully with its Northern neighbor or a new round of conflicts will break out!.,

Current conflicts:1) Abyei conflict: SUDAN’S “KASHMIR”

61 A report in the United Nations Mission in Sudan, "The background to Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement", 10 Nov. 2011, found on this link: http://unmis.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=51562 A report in the united nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs, " the history of Sudan: the second civil war", Feb. 2006, found on this link: http://www.unsudanig.org/new_gateway/sudan/data/history/The%20Second%20Civil%20War.pdf

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Considered a historical bridge between north and South Sudan, the Abyei Area had previously been considered part of the larger Abyei District within the now-abolished state of West Kurdufan. Under the terms of the Abyei Protocol, the Abyei Area was declared, on an interim basis, to be simultaneously part of the states of South Kurdufan and Northern Bahr el Ghazal.

Historically, Abyei was unique, having developed a reputation as an economic and cultural bridge between North and South Sudan. Therefore, Abyei repeatedly surfaced as a key factor in Sudan’s North-South struggle. Later, after discovering oil, the importance of Abyei increased as it holds a significant amount of hydrocarbon reserves.63

Abyei is claimed by a southern group, the Dinka Ngok, and northern nomads, the Misseriya. The Misseriya spend part of each year grazing their cows in the area. There are several prominent Dinka Ngok in both the Sudan People's Liberation Army, which fought for the south's independence, and in the SPLM, its political wing. On the other side, armed groups of Misseriya were often used as a proxy army by Khartoum during the civil war.

According to the Abyei Protocol, the North and South have agreed on:

• A special administrative status for Abyei

• A mechanism for local governance until 2011

• A process for determining Abyei’s boundaries

• A share of oil revenues to meet the needs of Abyei survivors and returnees

• A security arrangement

• A referendum in 2011, simultaneous with the South’s referendum, to determine if Abyei will thereafter be part of the North or the South. 64

63 Roger Winter and John Prendergast , " Abyei: Sudan’s “Kashmir” (Strategy Paper), Center for American Progress, 2011, found on this link: http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/abyei-sudan%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Ckashmir%E2%80%9D64 Ibid

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In 2011, the referendum of Abyei was cancelled, after arguments on whether the nomadic Misseriya were eligible to vote.

A string of clashes followed the cancellation of the referendum. In May 2011 Following what they described as a "southern ambush" on their men on the northern army seized control of Abyei town, the capital of Abyei region, and President Omar al-Bashir issued a decree dissolving Abyei's joint administration, which was headed by a southerner.

The US and the UN condemned what they essentially characterized as a southern provocation followed by a northern over-reaction. On 20 June 2011, Governments of north and south Sudan signed an accord to demilitarize the disputed Abyei region and let in an Ethiopian peacekeeping force under a UNSC resolution. The Ethiopian peacekeeping troops arrived in the middle of July 2011. 65

After the recognition of the southern republic, both countries continue to claim Abyei, but the presence of the Ethiopian troops is preventing direct military confrontation between them, so far. The absence of a permanent resolution for this conflict will always keep the door open for a military confrontation between two countries share a black bloody history, and tens of arguments and tensions.

2)Darfur:

The crisis in Darfur began in February 2003, when two rebel groups emerged to challenge the National Congress Party (NCP) government in Darfur. The crisis in Darfur in western Sudan hassled to a major humanitarian disaster, with an estimated 1.9 million people displaced, more than 240,000 people forced into neighboring Chad, and an estimated 450,000 people killed. In July 2004, the House and Senate declared the atrocities in Darfur genocide, and the Bush Administration reached the same conclusion in September 2004. On May 4, 2006, the Government of National Unity and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) signed the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) after almost two years of negotiations. In 2010, the SLM pulled out of the

65 James Copnall, " Sudan: why Abyei is crucial to north and south", BBC news, 23 May 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13502845

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government and joined other rebel groups. As of May 2011, no agreement has been reached between the government and Darfur rebel groups. 66

- Background

The conflict's origin goes back to land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture. Since the population of Darfur is predominantly Muslim, conflict is not about race or religion, but about resources as the nomadic tribes facing drought are going after the territory of sedentary farmers. 67

Beginning in 1991 elders of the Zaghawa people of Sudan complained that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign. Sudanese Arabs, who control the government, are widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government is accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing against non-Arabs in Darfur. 68

Due to these claims and the danger of drought facing the people in Darfur, and the already existing fight for resources the SLM toke arms against the Sudanese government, starting the conflict of Darfur on the 26 February 2003, when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) publicly claimed credit for an attack on Gulu, the headquarters of Jebel Marra District.

In early 2010, security conditions in Darfur began to deteriorate, despite some progress in negotiations between the government of Sudan and some rebel groups. Attacks of the Sudanese army and the Janjaweed rebels left hundreds of civilians killed or seriously injured.

- The Doha Peace Talks

On May 31, 2011, after three days of conference on the crisis in Darfur, organized by the government of Qatar in Doha, the participants (civil society groups, Internally Displaced Persons, refugees, the Government of Sudan, Darfur rebel groups, tribal leaders, and Darfuris in the Diaspora) endorsed a framework document for peace in Darfur. According to press a release issued by the organizers, “the conference endorsed the Doha draft document as the basis for reaching a permanent ceasefire, a comprehensive and inclusive peace settlement, and sustainable peace and stability in Darfur.” The government of Sudan also announced that a vice president from Darfur would be appointed. Darfur rebel groups called for more negotiations to reach an agreement. 69

- United Nations Peacekeeping in Darfur:

66 "Q&A:Sudan's Darfur conflict", BBC news, 23 February 2010, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3496731.stm67 Bechtold, P. K. (2009). A History of Modern Sudan. Middle East Journal, 63(1), 149 - 15068 http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/africa/sudan?id=135105069 Ted Dagne, " Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur and Status of the, North-South Peace Agreement" , African Affairs.

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On July 31, 2007, acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1769. The resolution called for the deployment of a hybrid United Nations-African Union force in Darfur (UNAMID). The U.N. was expected to fully deploy 26,000 peacekeeping troops to Darfur by mid-2008. As of April 30, 2011, UNAMID deployed a total of 23,129 peacekeeping personnel.

The intervention was mainly for reaffirming the commitment of the international community to stopping the suffering of the people of Darfur and ensuring stability in the region.

- Humanitarian aspect of Darfur:

Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians, while certain non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim that over 400,000 people have been killed.

The large number of mortality rates sparked international response. The humanitarian agencies condemned the delayed and un-effective actions of the international community to the “humanitarian catastrophe” in Darfur. The huge death toll was due to a variety of causes, ranging between direct causes in combat to un-direct mortalities due to draught and miss-placement of refugees, hunger and disease.

III) US-Sudanese relations

1) Before separation

- Overview: The United States and Sudan shared warm friendly relations starting 1956, when the U.S. recognized Sudan shortly following the attainment of independence from the United Kingdom. Sudan broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. in June 1967, following the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War. Relations improved after July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to overthrow President Nimeiry, and Nimeiry suspected Soviet involvement. U.S. assistance for resettlement of refugees following the 1972 peace settlement with the south added further improved relations. 70

After the assassination of the American ambassador Cleo A. Noel by the ‘black September’ Palestinian movement in 1973, the relations got strained again as the assassins got released in 1974 to Egyptian custody. The U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan was withdrawn in protest. Although the U.S. Ambassador returned to Khartoum in November, relations with the Sudan remained static until early 1976, when President Nimeiri mediated the release of 10 American hostages being held by Eritrean insurgents in rebel strongholds in northern Ethiopia. In 1976, the U.S. decided to resume economic assistance to the Sudan.

70 US Sudan relations, Embassy of United States, Khartoum, Sudan, found on this link: http://sudan.usembassy.gov/ussudan_relations.html

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The bombing of Tripoli in 1986 by the US, and the overthrow of the elected government in 1989, bringing basher into power, strained the relations between the two countries and consequence events caused the US to reduce its staff in the embassy of the United States to only essential personal. Despite these events Sudan continued to be the largest sub-Saharan single entity to receive economic and military aides from the US. 71

U.S. relations with Sudan were further strained in the 1990s. Sudan backed Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait and provided sanctuary and assistance to Islamic terrorist groups. In the early and mid-1990s, Carlos the Jackal, Osama bin Laden, Abu Nidal, and other terrorist leaders resided in Khartoum. Sudan's role in the radical Pan-Arab Islamic Conference represented a matter of great concern to the security of American officials and dependents in Khartoum, resulting in several draw downs and/or evacuations of U.S. personnel from Khartoum in the early-mid 1990s. Sudan's Islamist links with international terrorist organizations represented a special matter of concern for the U.S. Government, leading to Sudan's 1993 designation as a state sponsor of terrorism and a suspension of U.S. Embassy operations in Khartoum in 1996. In October 1997, the U.S. imposed comprehensive economic, trade, and financial sanctions against the Sudan. In August 1998, in the wake of the East Africa embassy bombings, the U.S. launched cruise missile strikes against Khartoum. The last U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan, Ambassador Tim Carney, departed post prior to this event and no new ambassador has been designated since. The U.S. Embassy is headed by a charge d'affaires.

In response to the Government of Sudan's continued complicity in unabated violence occurring in Darfur, President George W. Bush imposed new economic sanctions on Sudan in May 2007. 72

2) After the Separation: Separation between the north and the south did not do much improvement to the status quo of the relations between the north of Sudan and the US. Sudan continues to be on the list of the states sponsor of terrorism, US still revoke the human rights violations made in Darfur by the north government. The seat of US ambassador in Khartoum remains vacant. However, relations between both countries have, at least, the hope of improving due to President Obama's sending of Special Envoy Scott Gration to Sudan to improve diplomatic conditions, and discuss ways to avert the current Darfur conflict. On September 9, 2009, the United States has published a new law to ease the sanctions on parts of Sudan.

On the other hand the south Sudanese new independent state consolidates a great new ally to the United States. The new state is ruled by a conservative evangelical Christian government, which has allies to the hugely popular conservative movement in the states. The United States supports the south Sudanese government with great economical and military aides. The peace pact in 2005 that lead to the popular 71 "A guide to the United States history of recognition of Sudan", Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State, found on this link http://history.state.gov/countries/sudan72 Barbara Slavin," U.S. hits Sudan with new sanctions" , USA today, 30 May, 2007, found on this link: http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-05-29-sanction-sudan_N.htm

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referendum in 2011 is sponsored by the United States and America was the first

country to acknowledge the independence of south Sudan.73

- US aid: Despite policy differences the U.S. has been a major donor of humanitarian aid to the Sudan throughout the last quarter century. In 1991, the U.S. made major donations to alleviate food shortages caused by a two-year drought. In a similar drought in 2000-01, the U.S. and the international community responded to avert mass starvation in the Sudan. USAID has consistently been the world's largest donor of food assistance to Sudan. Since 2004, those affected by conflict in Darfur have comprised the majority of food aid beneficiaries in Sudan. In 2011, USAID responded quickly to assist tens of thousands of Sudanese displaced by conflict in Abyei and Southern Kordofan, in coordination with the international humanitarian community, including the United Nations. 74

IV) Sudanese foreign relations:

1) North Sudan:

- Egypt: Egypt and Sudan have enjoyed intimate and longstanding historical ties, seeing as they are each other's closest allies in the North African region. The two countries are connected by various cultural ties, and political aspirations. Sudan showed great solidarity with Egypt in its Camp David peace initiatives with Israel in the late 1970s. In 2008, Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif urged the two countries to focus on two specific projects: the Aljazera project which aims to cultivate some two million acres (8,000 km²) of land in Sudan, and a joint project to improve food security in agricultural and meat production.

Egypt's policy on Sudan is that it is in favor of a united Sudan. As such Egypt was not directly involved in the Sudan Peace Process that was hosted in Kenya under the auspices of IGAD and that gave the peoples of south Sudan the right to secede and form an independent state in 2011 after the long and brutal Sudanese civil war that cumulatively lasted more than 40 years and claimed over 2 million lives.

- Chad: The relations between North Sudan and Chad isn't that good or we can say that they cut off all the relations between them, Relations between the two states have deteriorated since Chad accused Sudan of being behind Sunday's attack on Adre, which

73 US Sudan relations, Embassy of United States, Khartoum, Sudan, found on this link: http://sudan.usembassy.gov/ussudan_relations.html 74 "USAID to Sub Saharan Africa", USAID, July 15th ,2011, found on this link: http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/sudan/

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left about 100 people dead. On December 23, 2005 Chad accused Sudan of being the "common enemy of the nation" after a Chadian rebel attack on a town a statement issued by Chad's government after this attack and claimed that not only was Sudan behind the attack on Adre, but it also accuses Sudanese militia of making daily incursions into Chad, stealing cattle, killing innocent people and burning villages on the Chadian border. "Chad is today in a state of war with Sudan," the statement says. 75

The statement went on to call for Chadians to form a patriotic front against Sudan. On May 11, 2008 Sudan announced it was cutting diplomatic relations with Chad, claiming that it was helping rebels in Darfur to attack the Sudanese capital Khartoum. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir made the announcement that his country was breaking off diplomatic ties with Chad on state television.

"These forces [behind the Omdurman attack] are all basically Chadian forces supported and prepared by Chad and they moved from Chad under the leadership of [rebel chief] Khalil Ibrahim," President Bashir said in his televised statement. He added his country reserved the right to retaliate against Chad. 76

- China

The People's Republic of China is Sudan's biggest trade partner. China imports oil, from Sudan, and Sudan imports low cost items as well as armaments from China. China and Sudan enjoy a very robust and productive relationship in the fields of diplomacy, economic trade, and political strategic. The two nations established diplomatic relations on January 4, 1959 and have since become strongly close global allies. Also their cultural relations are very tight in Education they have close ties, as Sudanese students go to China to learn Chinese, and Chinese students go to Sudan to learn Arabic.

- Libya: Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s and reached a low in October 1981, when Libya began a policy of cross border raids into western Sudan. After the 1989 coup d'état, the military government resumed diplomatic relations with Libya, as part of a policy of improving relations with neighboring Arab states. In early 1990, Libya and the Sudan announced that they would seek “unity.” This unity was never implemented.

- Israel: Israeli- Sudanese relations are unique for their secrecy and inconsistency. This is in a large measure a result of political instability, and unlike the most Muslim countries in the periphery of the Middle East, Sudan's initial policy towards Israel was by no means hostile. In 1956 the bilateral contacts began between Israel and Sudan 75 Stephanie Hancock, " Chad in 'state of war' with Sudan", 23 December 2005, BBC News, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4556576.stm76 " Sudan cuts Chad ties over attack" , 11 May 2008, BBC News, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7394422.stm

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after the independence of Sudan. However, many factors militated against a consistent policy on the part of Sudanese government. The unstable nature of Sudanese state caused by the military takeover, inter bilateral conflicts, perennial struggles between Islamic and secular groups were partially to blame for the inconsistency in the country's foreign relations. 77

In 1958, less than three years after independence, the pro western regime Prime Minister Abdallah Khalil was over thrown. This change resulted in an immediate change in the country's foreign policy orientation. As long as Khalil was in power, he maintained good relations with United States of America, and as long as Khartoum maintained a pro western orientation, there was little tension in Sudanese Israeli relations.

In November 1958 military coup took place and General Ibrahim Aboud came to power and decided to re orient his foreign relations. The new policy called for mending fences with the Egyptian president Gamal Abdulnasser, serving contact with the west, and avoiding any association with Israel, and up till now the relations between both countries are deteriorated.

3) South Sudan:

- Israel:

On 28 July 2011, it was announced that full diplomatic ties had been established between the two countries. This is considered a significant boon to Israel, as Sudan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and does not recognize Israeli sovereignty. As on 15 July South Sudan was recognized by Israel and offered the new state economic help after it seceded from the mainly Arab and Muslim north.78 Economic ties show the most potential. As of 23 July 2011, several Israeli companies are already in talks for various business deals. Just days after independence declaration, Israeli businesspeople seeking economic cooperation with world's newest country in fields of security, infrastructure, medicine and agriculture.79 Israel also is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, who are now ready to return to their native country.

- North Sudan: After decades of civil wars between both nations, and after the separation the relations between North Sudan and South Sudan tended to be peaceful relations and North Sudan was the first country to recognize South Sudan as independent state. On Friday, Sudan's Minister of Presidential Affairs, Bakri Hassan Saleh, announced that it recognised "the Republic of South

77 Jacob Abadi, " Israel and Sudan: The Saga of an Enigmatic Relationship", Middle Eastern Studies, Jstor, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 19-41, found on this link: http://www.jstor.org/pss/428402278 "South Sudan will have relations with Israel-official", July 15 2011, Reuters, found on this link: http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFLDE76E1EA2011071579 Ofer Petersburg , " Israeli companies discover South Sudan ", 22 July, 2011, found on this link: http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4097591,00.html

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Sudan as an independent state, according to the borders existing on 1 January 1956", when Sudan gained independence from Britain. 80

The new country is rich in oil, but one of the least developed countries in the world, where one in seven children dies before the age of five.President Bashir, who agreed the 2005 peace deal with the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), stressed his country's "readiness to work with our southern brothers and help them set up their state so that, God willing, this state will be stable and develop. The co-operation between us will be excellent; particularly when it comes to marking and preserving the border so there is a movement of citizens and goods via this border," Said President Bashir

- Egypt: Egypt was from the early countries that recognized south Sudan as independent state, and Egyptian prime minister made his first visit to South Sudan and designed to put Egypt in the vanguard of Pan- African diplomacy. It is not, however, out to prove that Egypt was a menacing great power in Africa. Sharaf pledged to improve cultural, educational and economic links with South Sudan. Egypt can play a critical role in educational assistance after the educational infrastructure was devastated during the civil war period. Thousands of southern Sudanese students study in Egyptian universities and institutions of higher learning.81

V) Prospects for the future:Overview of Sudan strategic importance:

From a practical standpoint, it may be difficult to see any strategic value in Sudan. Sudan is deeply divided along almost every line imaginable. Clashes between North and South, East and West, Christian and Muslim, center and periphery and local tribal rivalries have created a fractured state at best and a broken state at worst. In 2008, the International Criminal Court indicted Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir on war crimes charges.

It would seem from an international security point of view that Sudan is a highly nominated candidate for international neglect. But there are reasons that make this 6,500 miles away region vital for the United States foreign policy. Despite the state of complete dissolution in the country.

Here are three reasons Sudan is important to the world of international security:

Oil: Sudan has enormous oil reserves--over 6 billion barrels discovered so far. Most of the oil fields are in South Sudan but the government in the North controls mos t of the refinement facilities. The only port cities are in the North, since the southern border is landlocked. Because the North relies on Southern crude oil and the South relies on

80 "South Sudan becomes an independent nation", 8 July 2011, BBC news, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-1408984381 Gamal Nkrumah, " Heading for headwaters”, 31 March- 6 April 2011, issue no. 1041, al Ahram weekly, found on this link: http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1041/eg1.htm

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Northern transportation and refinement, peace is essential for Sudan's oil production. This symbiotic relationship is tenuous even during peacetime and violence would upset this fragile balance, leading to economic hardship for both North and South Sudan.

The dependence on Middle Eastern oil has led to a number of costly problems for the international community and diversifying the international oil supply keeps one country or region from controlling global energy. Sudan has an enormous potential to provide the world with energy and adding another African oil partner to its list of providers is not only wise but preferable. Maintaining the peace in Sudan before and after the referendum vote will protect the fragile oil relationship between the North and the South and keep Sudan supplying the world with oil.

Geographic Location: Sudan also has a unique and important position on the African continent, since it is the largest country in Africa and comparable in size to Western Europe. It borders nine countries: Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Chad and Libya. It contains much of the Nile River (both the Blue Nile and White Nile) and it borders the Red Sea to the east.

Access to these countries and to water ways gives Sudan great strategic worth. Much of the world's oil imports travel through the Red Sea by way of either the Suez Canal to the north or the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait to the south. The Red Sea has recently seen increased pirate attacks and Eritrea has seen rising terrorist activity, both of which threaten global shipping in the area. A strong partnership with Sudan would allow the world to protect its imports in the Red Sea and increase its ability to fight extremism and terrorism in Eritrea.

Using Sudan as a base of operations, however, is only realistic if the country is relatively peaceful and more internal conflict would prevent this. The international community cannot station troops or organizations in Sudan if the organizations were forced to defend themselves against Sudanese threats as well.

The Threat of a Failed State: Sudan was ranked in 2010 as the world’s third failing state. The Sudanese government is divided according to the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, yet even the two governments combined do not control all of Sudan's military strength. Militant groups like the Janjaweed in Darfur enjoy significant influence in many regions in Sudan, threatening the stability of the entire country. If Sudan descends further into chaos, it is likely that terrorist networks will move into Sudan as a safe haven. The international community has realized since the attacks on September 11th that failed states are often recruiting bases for terrorist networks. Al-Shabaab, a terrorist group in Somalia with strong ties to Al-Qaeda, is a perfect candidate for filling the power vacuum left by the Sudanese government's collapse. Sudan is an enormous and strategically-placed country that could be a base of operations for terrorist organizations. Thus, the United States and the international community in general have a strategic interest in keeping Sudan's government in control. A peaceful outcome in the

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2011 referendum would secure the Sudanese government's control over militant groups, which will keep terrorist networks like Al-Shabaab from using Sudan as a base of operations

1) Relations between North & South

The successful secession of the south was followed by different holding issues, that either to be resolved peacefully by reaching a compromise between North and South, or be the spark that ignite a new round of conflicts and wars between both countries. Focusing on 2 major problems;

- The location of the new border

The precise location of the border between north and south was so contentious that the details were not resolved before secession. The CPA promised a referendum in Abyei, and consultation exercises in South Kordofan and Blue Nile, which would allow people living in states situated on the north side of the proposed border to have a say about which country they lived in. Since many residents of these states self-identify as non-Arab and non-Muslim and fought against Khartoum in the civil war, they feel aligned to Republic of south Sudan (RoSS). 82

Sudan has blocked the promised referendum in Abyei (see Abyei’s part) and the consultation in South Kordofan and has delayed the consultation exercise in Blue Nile. All three areas are now subsumed in violence, with thousands dead, injured, missing or displaced. A continous distrust and tensions on both sides of the border that are unlikely to go away without intervention.

- The economic relationship between the two nations: “Shipment of Oil”

The CPA resulted in 75% of Sudan’s oil being allocated to RoSS. The South produces 385,000 barrels a day, and it transships north and east through an existing North Sudanese pipeline to Port Sudan. Since the CPA in 2005 the North and South were sharing the oil revenues with each others, but unfortunately they didn’t agree clearly on the status of the oil after separation.

In June 2011, Kiir told reporters "We do not want to take all the oil revenues, we must leave something for the North to help them in facing the economic challenges,". But after secession he changed his words saying "I am saying that we will rent the North's oil pipelines and we will give them money for our oil to be transported, and we will of course pay and there is no problem," Adding, "However, this offer is unaccepted by the North. They need oil. But we fought for 21 years without oil and we can still go for 3 years until we build our own oil infrastructure". 83

82 Wagine Peace, "The Birth of a Nation and the Prospects for Peace and Development", October 2011, Parliament, found on this link: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmintdev/writev/1570/ss01.htm83 " South Sudan: Kiir Talks Tough On Oil, Abyei" , 19 July 2011, All Africa, found on this link: http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210116.html

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On the other hand, In June Sudanese president Omer al-Bashir said "I give the south three alternatives for the oil....either the north continues getting its share, or we gets fees for every barrel that the south sends to Port Sudan," Adding, "If they don't accept that, we're going to shut down the pipeline”

Meanwhile South Sudan is renting Sudan's oil pipelines, no exact information for the price is known, but it said to be something between 15$ & 33$ per barrel. Neighbouring Chad pays $0.4 a barrel. The highest known transhipping rate elsewhere is $2 a barrel. Clearly, Khartoum’s excessive charges will lead to further tensions between the two countries, especially in the oil-rich border regions.

2) Relations between North & South and USA:

North Sudan was looking forward for lifting it from the USA list of states sponsor of terrorism, as well as lifting the long time sanctions imposed on its economy. Barrack Obama told El-Bashir in 2010 that conducting the separation referendum peacefully will make USA reconsider Sudan’s positions in the states sponsor of terrorism.

After Separation, No real improvements happened in the relations. The ongoing Darfur Crisis, The unresolved conflicts in Abyie, Bahr Elghazal & Blue Nile, Bashir’s continuous support for Iran’s nuclear program, and the continuous human rights violations ; all that decrease the opportunity for a better relations

On the Other hand, South Sudan as a new porn country needs a continuous support. With the role USA played in the process of CPA and referendum, USA put the first brick in the relations between USA and the South.

South Sudan is Important for USA for different reasons; the presence of 75% of Sudanese Oil in the South, resisting the Chinese control of African Oil & markets, constructing an important Alley in this highly important region specially after the Arab spring revolutions, protecting Israel interests in the region.

So, for the current scene, the mutual interests for both countries support them to have more deep relations in the future.

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Model American CongressCommittee on Finance

Future Ahead, Past in our headsCongressional Research Service Report

Prepared By:

Chairlady: Hadeer Maged

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Vice Chairman: Ahmed EhabRanking Member: Donia ShaheenParty Consultant: Olivia Saeed

About the Committee on Finance

The Committee on Finance is one of the original committees created in the US Senate. It was originally established in 1815 as a select committee formed to solve economic issues arising from the War of 1812. It was not till December 10, 1816, when the Senate officially designated the Committee on Finance a standing committee. The Committee had power over certain aspects of tariffs, banking and currency issues and appropriations. The Committee’s jurisdiction has fluctuated throughout the years, as its jurisdiction over appropriations and banking and currency issues has been suspended.Jurisdiction: The Finance Committee’s jurisdiction is defined by subject matter; not by agency or Department. The Committee’s Jurisdiction includes issues such as: taxation and other revenue measures, bonded debt of the United States; collection districts, and ports of entry and delivery; customs, reciprocal trade agreements; tariff and import quotas, and related matters thereto; general revenue sharing; the transportation of dutiable goods; deposit of public moneys; health programs under the Social Security Act, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and other health and human services programs financed by a specific tax or trust fund; and national social security.As a consequence of the Committee’s broad subject matter jurisdiction, the Finance Committee has sole or shared jurisdiction over the activities of numerous agencies and offices

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Subcommittees:The Finance Committee is divided into 5 Subcommittees that allow its members to tackle specific issues within the jurisdiction of the committee. The Chairman and Ranking Member establish the Committee’s subcommittees and membership for each Congressional session, which is still subject to the approval of the whole committee. The Chairman and Ranking Member serve as ex officio members of all subcommittees. The subcommittees of the committee on finance in the 111 th congress are:84

Health Care Taxation, IRS Oversight, and Long-Term Growth Energy, Natural Resources, and Infrastructure Social Security, Pensions, and Family Policy International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness

Current Committee:

The Current Committee on finance has twenty three members, 13 democratic majority members and 11 republican Minority members. A Democratic Chair, Senator Max Baucus, and a Republican Ranking Member, Senator Orrin Hatch.85

84 http://www.senate.gov/general/committee_membership/committee_memberships_SSFI.htm#SSFI12

85 http://www.govtrack.us/congress/committee.xpd?id=SSFI

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Index:1-Topic one: debt crisis

introduction………………………………………………………………...……………………………………77

Cause of debt crisis………………………………………………………………………………..77

1. the currency war…………………………………………………………………….…………………….….81

competitive devaluation……………………………………………………….…………..….81

mechanism of currency devaluation……………………………………….………..…..81

advantages and disadvantages of currency devaluation………………….…….82

china Vs the US………………………………………………….………………………………....84

USA relations with china……………………………..…………………………….84

China's holdings of US securities………………..……………………………..85

Chinese currency devaluation……………………………………………………85

The impact of the Chinese currency devaluation on the US………87

The US response to the Chinese currency devaluation……………...89

2. Unemployment…………………………………………………………………………………………………92

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..…..92

Reasons behind high unemployment in the US……………………………………..93

The Americans job act…………………………………………………………………….…….94

Wall street demonstrations………………………………………………………………..…95

3. The agricultural reform………………………………………………………………………..…………..96

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….96

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a) Subsidies……………………………………………………………………………….…..96 Types of subsidies……………………………………………………….….

…..97 Advantages and disadvantages of

subsidies…………………….....98 What will happen if subsidies disappear………………………..

…...99b) Visa reform…………………………………………………………………….

…………100 Introduction...…………………………………………………………..…..……

100 Advantages and

disadvantages……………………………………………101c) Food

insecurity………………………………………………………………………...103 Effect of financial crisis on food security in U.S…….

…………….103

2- Topic two: Brazil Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..……….

…….106 Political corruption…………………………………………………………………………….

…111 Crime rates……………………………………………………………………………………….

….112 US-Brazil potential

FTA…………………………………………………………………………………….113 US domestic policies……………………………………………………………………….……

113 Economic objectives……………………………………………………………………….……

114 Commitment of the partner……………………………………………………………..

….114 Foreign policy considerations………………………………………………………….

…..114 Doha Round…………………………………………………………………….

……………………………....115 Agriculture in Brazil…………………………………………………………….……………………….

……116 US- Brazil Agriculture relations……………………………………………….

………………………..117 US- Brazil Competitive

point:................................................................................118

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Soy bean…………………………………………………………………………………………..…..118

Poultry………………………………………………………………………………………………….119

Beef &veal…………………………………………………………………………………………….119

Pork………………………………………………………………………………………………………119

US-Brazil WTO disputes………………………………………………………………………..…….…….120

Case 1: US cotton Subsidies……………………………………………………………..……120

Case 2:US Ethanol Tariffs Subsidies……………………………………………………….121

Offshore Drilling:……………………………………………………………….…………..…………………122

General look at oil industry……………………………………………….………………….122

USA & Brazil oil's Project………………………………………………………….……………124

1. Brazil Oil reserve…………………………………………….……………..125

2. US oil reserve …………………………………………………..……………125

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Topic one

The debt crisis

The causes of the debt crisis:

The financial crash of 2008, and the subsequent sharp drop in economic output, showed that the growth of the prior two decades was no longer sustainable. A credit-heavy economy meant that the crisis would take the form of a financial crash, but all the focus on finance concealed the roots of the problem: a lack of profitability in productive areas.

The Obama administration was supposed to meet the challenges and seek to put the economy on the right track away from the recession and the crash but he seemed to put the economy on a different footing.

So whenever the government has faced a budget deficit simply the US government covers the shortfall by its Treasury, they do something like that by issuing new bonds and other debt instruments to bridge the shortfall. These bonds are held by banks, corporations and even by foreign countries. So doing such a thing was routine in US and there were always more than enough people to invest in Federal government knowing that these bond were rated to be AAA and it was the safest types of bonds.

But they kept issuing bonds and they kept selling them to other countries, corporations and banks, even though there was no much revenue to cover for these debts. So the gap between the government outlays and the government revenues kept widening and the debt kept increasing till it reached almost a 14 trillion dollars were it were about to exceed the debt ceiling, and as the amount of money that the government can borrow is limited by the debt ceiling so there has been a must that the congress has to vote to raise it.

The congress had to do such a voting as if it would have exceeded the debt ceiling this might have led to a real crisis that the US might have entered sovereign default which means that the US at that time will not be able to pay the interest and the principle at the maturity date of these bonds, thereby creating an international crisis in the financial markets.

Therefore the congress has agreed to raise the level of the debt ceiling on April 15, 2011 to reach US $14.294 trillion. If it were not the case the US treasury would have

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been banned from borrowing as in the absence of sufficient revenue, a failure to raise the debt ceiling would result in the administration being unable to fund all the spending, so there was no escape to raise the debt ceiling by the congress.

This action was accompanied by a plan to reduce the growth of the debt; this can be done by two methods whether to increase revenues or to decrease expenditures; so if they have chosen the first option to increase revenues by increasing taxes, it would be impossible as the unemployment rate has reached a very high percentage in the United States and doing such an action may trigger the anger of millions of people against the Obama administration, while the other option is that the government can cut spending in different sectors in the government. Actually the proposal to cut spending was the one who was supported by many democrats and republicans and there has been a bill to have spending cuts of roughly $1 trillion.

Now the last up date of the Current Outstanding Public Debt of the United States is $15,621,445,734,132.83 (treasury direct, 2012), this total debt can be divided into debt held by the public which is equal to 10,884,773,109,942.45 (2012), it is all federal debt held by individuals, corporations, state or local governments, foreign governments, and other entities outside the United States Government less Federal Financing Bank securities, and Intergovernmental Holdings which is equal to $4,736,672,624,190.38 (2012) they are Government Account Series securities held by Government trust funds, revolving funds, and special funds; and Federal Financing Bank securities.86

This means that Every man, woman and child in the United States currently owes $50,730 for their share of the U.S. public debt total debt so this represent a huge number that is impossible to be paid by cutting the government spending only there must be other fiscal and monetary policies that should be adopted, this shows that the coming year and the impact on the coming generations would be so heavy and no one knows how this crisis will be ended.

The US is indebted mainly to Americans. Still, foreigners hold a very large portion of the national debt, with China and Japan owning the biggest chunks. At March 2011, The U.S. public debt totaled $14.3 trillion of this amount, 41.8% was held by U.S. government trust funds and 58.2% was privately held. Of the total level of privately-held U.S. Treasury securities ($8.3 trillion), foreigners owned 53.8% of the total ($4.5 trillion). China’s holdings of U.S. Treasury securities as of March 2011 were $1.1 trillion. The importance of China’s holdings of U.S. debt securities (as of March 2011) can be measured as follows. They constituted: 25.6% of total foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities, 13.8% of U.S. privately-held Treasury securities, and

86 http://www.treasurydirect.gov/NP/BPDLogin?application=np

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8.0% of the total level of U.S. federal debt (privately held and intergovernmental) (CRS, 2011, P.14). 87

We can see from the chart here that china owns the largest amount of this debt as they own about 21.09% of the whole debt owned by foreign countries, or about $1134.1billion dollars. Next come Japan with a $979.0 billion dollars, or about 20.40% (2012), so that means that china represent one of the biggest obstacles to the USA to pay for its debt as China is the biggest foreign buyer of Treasury bonds.88

So the problem now is very complicated as china accumulates a large amount of the US treasury notes and at the same time the RMB is significantly undervalued against the dollar and that has been a major contributor to the large annual U.S. trade deficits with China and the loss of U.S. jobs in recent years. So now the problem can be analyzed in two ways first they don’t have the money to pay for their debt and second the Chinese products are competing with the US products all around the world and in the US itself. Consequently with this unfair competitive advantage that china has, the US products will not be able to sustain.

Now to solve the debt crisis there could be more than one solution this can be explained as the follows:

To cut the agricultural subsidies that is given to the farmers in order to help these farmers financially. These subsides represent a very large portion of the government spending that a lot of money is wasted on such aid to farmers, as it is given sometimes even if the farmers are not really in need of it. Also it gives unfair advantage to American farmers against other farmers in other poor countries that they can’t compete with them, and this violates the WTO rules.

87 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34314.pdf 88 http://www.davemanuel.com/us-national-debt-clock.php

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To increase the working population as there is about 200 million working people, or taxpaying people in America. These 200 million people pay about 1.2 trillion dollars in taxes each year. If the government can increase the working population of the United States about 10 times its present number and it tax them all at the present rate, the government would have a national income of 10 or 11 trillion a year. So then, if the government could get to put one trillion aside each year, they could pay off the National Debt in about 10 or 11 years. Of course that solution may take a long time to solve this debt crisis but it may help in solving both the high percentage of unemployment there that had reached about 9.1% on the short run and to solve the problem of the national debt on the long run.

To cut the benefits that is given to the US citizens but that may trigger their anger about cutting this kind of aid specially that the food insecurity has reached about 15% inside the US itself so this doesn’t give good signs about the whole performance of the economy. So this might be a solution for solving the national debt but it may lead to demonstrations that may turn into a revolution.

To Cut the U.S. Corporate Tax Rate as it represents one of the highest corporate tax rates on the world level, cutting this taxes may lead to promote higher long-term economic growth, improve U.S. competitiveness, higher wages and living standards, boost entrepreneurship, investment, and productivity, lower the tax burden on low-income taxpayers and seniors, attract foreign direct investment (FDI), and help the states compete globally.

So all of these solutions are just few ones out of hundreds of solutions to solve the debt crisis but the problem is that it will take a long time to have an impact on reducing the national debt, so will the US bear this long time or will it come to an end before solving it?!

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1. The currency war“An international currency war has

broken out “Guido Mantega,

Brazil’s finance Minister

What is the meaning of competitive devaluation?

the currency war or competitive devaluation is a situation in which countries compete in order to achieve a relatively low exchange rate for its currency, this could be achieved by lowering the value of its currency by direct government intervention or when governments manipulates the exchange rates in order to gain international competitiveness.

Mechanism of currency devaluation:

When a country wants to devalue its currency it can use different policies like:

The direct government intervention in the state’s central bank, this can be done most probably by maintaining a fixed exchange rate. A fixed, or pegged, rate is a rate the government (central bank) sets and maintains as the official exchange rate. A set price will be determined against a major world currency. In order to maintain the local exchange rate, the central bank buys and sells its own currency on the foreign exchange market in return for the currency to which it is pegged.

Unlike the fixed rate, a floating exchange rate is determined by the private market through supply and demand. A floating rate is often termed "self-correcting", as any differences in supply and demand will automatically be corrected in the market (2012).89

89 http://www.investopedia.com/articles/03/020603.asp#axzz1cJAWrpbr

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Another method to devalue a currency is by having quantitative easing, which means increasing the money supply in the domestic economy by printing more money through the central bank. Increasing the money supply will translate into a draconian dollar devaluation even if the central bank does not directly buy any foreign assets.

Advantages and disadvantages of the currency devaluation:

Competitive devaluation represents a double edged weapon as it has advantages for some countries and disadvantages for others as the following:

1. The advantages:

The exports of the country that devalue its currency will be more cheaper as the value of their money is decreased so people all around the world will find it attractive to buy these cheap products and therefore the demand will increase for it. On the other hand the imports to this country will be expensive for its citizens as its value is much higher than the domestic products, so by all of that this country will gain economic advantage over other counties.

The importing country they will benefit too by the advantageous exchange rate and citizens there will buy these goods cheaper than their domestic products.

When the balance of payment of any country is unfavorable the devaluation policy is adopted. When the currency is devalued the imports become more expensive while the exports become cheaper. So as a result the value of exports will be greater than the value of imports in the balance of payment, so that may shrink the gap in the budget deficit.

For a developing country that is devaluing its currency it can reap a sizable profit from exporting its products to countries that have a relatively stable currency that is valued much higher than its own.

Countries may find it attractive to pay for their debt if the country that owns this debt is devaluing its currency, this could happen as the value of this country’s currency became less valuable than before, so when they buy it they will find that the country’s currency much cheaper than when they have bought it before. So

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that makes the country more attractive to buyers not only of goods but of currency itself, including debt.

Also one of the important things that result from lower exchange rate is that it could help to provide more jobs creation inside the country as it makes imports more expensive to the consumers and make them demand more of the domestic products which will lead to boosting the economy and help to enhance the industrial sector, eliminate unemployment and raise gross domestic product.

It could be one of the best solutions for developing countries that are spending more on imports than they earn on exports.

Foreign investors may find it attractive to invest in those countries where currency is devalued, as they may gain economic and competitive advantages over other businesses in other countries.

2. The disadvantages:

Devaluing a country’s currency has a bad effect on the international trade, as it may trigger a retaliatory action by other countries which in turn can lead to a general decline in international trade, harming all countries.

Devaluing a currency can harm the citizen purchasing power when they buy imports and when they travel abroad.

Devaluing a currency by the government could harm the country as the more the government devalues its currency, the lower the probability that it will get another loan from a foreign government in the foreseeable future.

If quantitative easing is applied to devalue a currency this may lead to inflation or maybe hyperinflation. As The average prices of products in a country is the ratio of the quantity of currency in the country to the quantity of products produced in the country. When the government prints money, it increases the quantity of the currency without changing the quantity of products. So the result is that prices go up by the same percentage as does the money supply, leading to inflation which may lead to a crisis by itself.

Devaluation increases the foreign debt burden in terms of home currency especially on the poor countries. Another thing is that the country has to pay greater amount of money for imports; on the other hand she gets less money for its exporters. So devaluation may causes deterioration in terms of trade.

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China VS the USA:

The USA relations with china

The relationship between China, one of the oldest civilizations with the biggest population, and the United States, one of the youngest civilizations with the strongest economy, is significant not only for the two peoples but also for the future of the whole world. The factors influencing the Chinese-US relationship include economic, strategic, diplomatic and cultural elements. Undoubtedly, among them the economic factor is the most important one (Zhu Shida, 2002).90U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S. - China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 to $457 billion in 2010. China is currently the second largest U.S. trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. Because U.S. imports from china have risen much more rapidly than U.S. exports to China, the U.S. merchandise trade deficit has surged, rising from $10 billion in 1990 to $273 billion in 2010. The rapid pace of economic integration between China and the United States, while benefiting both sides overall, has made the trade relationship increasingly complex. On the one hand, China’s large population and booming economy have made it a large and growing market for U.S. exporters.

Over the past decade, China has been the fastest-growing market for U.S. exports. U.S. imports of low-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. 90 http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Mar/29138.htm

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consumers by increasing their purchasing power. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs and become more globally competitive.

China’s Holdings of U.S. Securities

China’s holdings of U.S. public and private securities are significant. These include U.S. Treasury securities, U.S. government agency securities, corporate securities, and equities. These securities help the federal government to finance its budget deficit. China is the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities as china’s holding of it have reached in 2010 about $1,160 billion. Also the Department of the Treasury reported that China’s Treasury securities holdings was $1,174 billion as of May 2011 (CRS, 2011).91

China had gained an advantage from holding this huge number of treasury securities as it can be largely attributed to its policy of intervening in exchange rate markets to limit the appreciation of the RMB to the US dollars. This could be achieved as china requires the Chinese exporters to pay in dollars in exchange for the RMB as they often are paid in dollar, so as a result the Chinese government now accumulates a significant amount of dollars which makes it control the price of the Yuan in the exchange rate market against the price of the US and that’s how china keeps the devaluation of its currency. More over china doesn’t keep these dollars in its reserves and earn no interest rate on it; they actually reinvest it in buying US treasury securities because they are seen as a relatively safe investment. All of these actions restrict the US from banning the Chinese government to stop the devaluation of the Yuan.

The Chinese currency devaluation

Unlike most advanced economies such as the USA, China does not maintain a market based floating exchange rate. Between 1994 and July 2005, China pegged its currency, the renminbi (RMB) or Yuan, to the U.S. dollar at about 8.28 Yuan to the dollar. In July 2005, China appreciated the RMB to the dollar by 2.1% and moved to a “managed float,” based on a basket of major foreign currencies, including the U.S. dollar.

91 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf

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In order to maintain a target rate of exchange with the dollar and other currencies, the Chinese government has maintained restrictions and controls over capital transactions and has made large-scale purchases of U.S. dollars. According to the Bank of China, from July 2005 to July 2009, the dollar-Yuan exchange rates went from 8.27 to 6.83 Yuan per dollar, an appreciation of 21.1%. However, once the effects of the global financial crisis became apparent, the Chinese government halted its appreciation of the RMB and subsequently kept the Yuan/dollar exchange rate relatively constant at 6.83 from July 2009 to June 2010 in order to help limit the impact of the sharp decline in global demand for Chinese products (CRS, 2011, P.21).92

This graph shows the Yuan per dollar and it shows how China’s currency was moving until July 2008, and then was held flat. (Frank Vargo, 2009)93

But china continued in its currency policy and it continues to manipulate its currency in order to keep the value of its currency artificially low against the

92 ibid 93 http://shopfloor.org/tag/currency-devaluation

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dollar (with estimates of undervaluation ranging from 15% to 50%) Claiming that this policy constitutes subsidy for Chinese exports to the United States, also the Chinese officials have insisted that the current currency policy is not meant to favor exports over imports, but instead to foster domestic economic stability. The Chinese officials see the exchange rate, prices and market mechanisms in general is used as tools in a broader development strategy. The goal of this development strategy is not to create a market economy but to make China a rich and powerful modern country. All of the Chinese leaders observe that all countries that have raised themselves from poverty to wealth in the industrial era have done that through export led growth (Brookings, 2011). “The Chinese government have benefited from such an action as an undervalued RMB might also have the effect of limiting the level of U.S. exports to China than might occur under a floating exchange rate system. Also Obama had warned that the economic relationship between the two countries had become “deeply imbalanced” in recent decades, with a yawning trade gap and huge Chinese holdings of U.S. government debt (Frank Vargo, 2009). 94

The impact of the Chinese currency devaluation on US economy

The intervention of the Chinese government to keep its exchange rate substantially below the level of the international market this have resulted in a price distortion that have prevented the international markets from functioning well. This price distortion also has a great effect on China’s own economy, by encouraging large-scale investment in export manufacturing, and discouraging investment in the domestic consumer market.

China's policy of undervaluation of its currency, provision of subsidies on its exports to US and making imports more expensive, took the market share in world trade away from US. Moreover the growing economic ties with China have exposed U.S. manufacturing firms to unfair competition from low-cost Chinese firms, this has induced many U.S. production facilities to relocate to China which resulted in hurting several U.S. manufacturing sectors and the loss of many manufacturing jobs, and has led to the loss of hundreds of thousands of U.S. jobs in other sectors.

One of these sectors that have been harmed is the solar power production, this sector has experienced three bankruptcies for three solar companies these companies are Solyndra, a California based solar panel manufacturer, filed for bankruptcy on 31 August 2011, following in the footsteps of Evergreen Solar, based in Massachusetts, and Spectra Watt, based in New York. These

94 http://shopfloor.org/tag/currency-devaluation

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bankruptcies and the closing of BP Solar plant in Frederick, Maryland in 2010 removes about one-fifth of the solar panel manufacturing capacity in the United States. Solyndra laid off about 1,100 workers, which is considered the largest to date in a solar firm bankruptcy. The cause of Solyndra’s demise, like that of other solar companies, is due to Chinese solar panels, subsidized by the government, undercutting the global solar market.

In the following graph we can see that in 1995, the United States had 43 percent of the market but there share have dwindled to 7 percent in 2010–just a pittance compared to that of China and Taiwan. China now has almost three-fifths of the world’s solar production capacity. All of these economic advantages can be explained by China’s low cost labor, free or subsidized land from local governments, extensive tax breaks, low-cost loans from state-owned banks, and other state assistance (IER, 2011).95

China’s currency policy has been a major factor in the size and growth of the U.S. trade deficit with China. Some congress members contend that the current high unemployment with the high trade deficit that is resulting from the Chinese currency manipulation can no longer be tolerated.

Also china’s central bank is the largest foreign country holder of the U.S. government debt which may give it leverage over the United States. It is often said that China is “America’s banker,” and that could lead to undermine the U.S. economy by selling all of its dollar holdings, thereby causing a collapse of the U.S. dollar and perhaps the U.S. economy.

95 http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2011/09/02/another-u-s-solar-firm-files-for-bankruptcy/

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The US response to the Chinese currency policy

As china is not allowing its currency to appreciate and as a lot of Americans are losing jobs especially in the manufacturing sector, so on the 11 th October 2011, the US Senate passed a bill that would allow for new tariffs on Chinese exports to the United States if China continues to undervalue its currency.

This bill states that The Government of the People’s Republic of China has pursued an international trade policy that violates its obligations as a member of the World Trade Organization and other international organizations, which has resulted in a perpetual, historically high trade imbalance with the United States that threatens the stability of the global economy.

Also as members of both the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund, the People’s Republic of China has assumed a series of international legal obligations to eliminate all subsidies for exports and to facilitate international trade, but the People’s Republic of China has failed to do so.

The Chinese Government continues to maintain control over the decisions of Chinese enterprises through ownership, board membership, and coercion. Also the Chinese Government, directly and indirectly, facilitates unfair requirements for coproduction agreements between United States companies and Chinese entities.

Since 1994, the People’s Republic of China has repeatedly intervened in currency markets and it have taken measures that have significantly misaligned the value of its currency against the United States dollar and other currencies. This policy by the People’s Republic of China has resulted in substantial undervaluation of the renminbi by up to 40 percent or more.

So as a result of all of these congress findings it has decided to impose tariffs on the products of the People’s Republic of China that is imported to the US, also the president shall take the necessary steps to negotiate a trade relationship with the People’s Republic of China that will achieve and maintain balanced trade between the United States and the People’s Republic of China within four years after the date of the enactment of this Act (open congress, 2011).96

This action has been opposed by china as they claimed that China had manipulated the value of its currency. “The renminbi exchange rate is gradually achieving a more balanced and reasonable level,” the central bank said in a statement.

96 http://www.opencongress.org/bill/112-h2909/text

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In response to this action, The Ministry of Commerce MOC have reiterated its position over the new bill passed by the US Senate to add pressure on China's currency policy making.

So the MOC spokesman Shen Danyang have said that The US Senate's move to force its trading partners currency to appreciate through the passing of law is in violation of international rules and the country's obligations to the world. Also the move will not only hurt the mutually beneficial relations between China and the US, but also it will hurt the long-term interests of the peoples of the two countries.

"If the US continues to go down the path, China will have to take further actions," Shen said. "China hopes the US doesn't turn an economic problem into a political one and doesn't force others to take medicine when the country itself is suffering an illness."(Xinhua, 2011)97

But after that the US and China made significant progress in talks as Chinese officials agreed to end policies that favor domestic firms, making it easier for U.S. companies to compete.

Although China had allowed its currency to appreciate over the past year, Geithner is encouraging China to let the Yuan appreciate faster, which critics have argued has been kept artificially low to benefit Chinese exporters. 

"We hope that China moves to allow the exchange rate to appreciate more rapidly and more broadly," Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner said (the hill, Vicki Needham, 2011). 98

97 http://en.ce.cn/subject/usyuanbill/usyuanbillcr/201110/19/t20111019_22773510.shtml

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So the debate is still ongoing between the US and china whether to remove the bill or not, putting in considerations that this violates the WTO rules and this may lead to increase the hatred between the two countries, so no one knows where the debate will take the two countries.

98 http://thehill.com/blogs/on-the-money/801-economy/160323-us-china-make-significant-progress-in-talks

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2. Unemployment

September 09, 2011"You should pass this jobs plan right away."

- BARACK OBAMA

The economy took a dive in late 2007, and the administrations of Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama have struggled to reverse the loss of jobs. Since Obama took office in 2009, various government programs and bailouts have been instituted to stimulate the economy, including Cash for Clunkers and a tax credit for home buyers. In February 2009, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, a stimulus package infusing $787 billion into the economy. But unemployment still soared. The average unemployment rate for 2008 was 5.8 percent. In 2009 the average annual rate shot up to 9.3, topping out at 10.1 percent in October. In 2010, the unemployment rate has hovered around 9.7 percent, dropping to 9.5 percent in June and July. Obama and others have touted the stimulus as preventing a depression (US news). 99 But these stimulus packages are opposed by some senators thinking that it’s a wasteful, inefficient, and ineffective government spending at a time when the national debt continues to soar.

The unemployment rate in the United States was reported at 9 percent in October of 2011 and it has fallen to 8.3 in January of 2012, the lowest since February 2009. From 1948 until 2010 the United States unemployment rate averaged 5.70 percent reaching a historical high of 10.80 in November of 1982 and a record low of 2.50 percent in May 1953 (trading economics, 2010-2012). 100

Between the third quarter of 2009 when the recovery is said to have begun and the third quarter of this 2011, the percentage of workers who had been jobless for a year or longer nearly doubled from 16 percent to 31.8 percent. The number of workers who have been unemployed for a year or longer has jumped, during the same period, from 2.5 million to 4.4 million (David Ruccio, 2011).101

Reasons behind the high unemployment rate in the USA:

There is actually more than one reason for the high unemployment some of these are:

1. Fewer new openings:

While layoffs increased during this recession, they are not the primary cause of the nearly 9 percent unemployment rates. The main factor driving the

99 http://www.usnews.com/topics/subjects/unemployment

100 http://www.tradingeconomics.com/united-states/unemployment-rate

101 http://rwer.wordpress.com/2011/11/06/chart-us-long-term-unemployment-1967-2011/

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unemployment rate so high during this recession was, and continues to be, the sharp drop in creation of new jobs. The credit crunches, the collapse of the housing bubble, and harmful economic policies have made the economy less hospitable to entrepreneurs. This bad business climate discourages business owners from expanding, as a result the number of new job openings in the country crashed to below 3 million jobs whereas there used to be 4.5 million new openings before it.

2. Lack of real growth:

The economy is gripped by chronic lack of real growth. A measly 36,000 jobs were added in January whereas economists have concluded that at least 150,000 new jobs are needed to keep up with the rise in population.

3. Government sector layoffs:

Government sector jobs, which are considered the safest, are becoming a dangerous option as state and local governments are continually cutting jobs. Also the Government spending still does not create jobs or prosperity, as it will not reduce unemployment because government spending does not encourage businesses to invest and hire. Congress should instead focus on promoting innovation and entrepreneurship— which promote wealth creation and, consequently, more jobs. So it should finally admit this fact and encourage private-sector investment and entrepreneurship the best job creators that history has produced.

4. Chinese job grab and devaluation of currency:

China is taking away U.S. jobs in hordes. Unbelievable cost advantages in China, thanks to its ultra low labor costs, are moving thousands of jobs into China and away from the U.S. each year. Plus, the bulging trade deficit is slowly eating up the U.S. economy as hundreds of billions of dollars are going to the rest of the world. Also another problem is that china is devaluing its currency and that have led to the closure of many businesses because of the competitive advantages that the Chinese companies have in the United States, so that’s represent one of the real big problems that have lead to a loss of many jobs in there.

5. High taxes:

Businesses and corporate pay more taxes in the United States than just about anywhere else in the world. As a result they can’t afford to hire more employees because of the high taxes. Also they think that outside the country

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they can pay lower amount of taxes. This means that many businesses are literally pushed out of the country, so that’s make jobs vanish.

As result of these high taxes 10 Big Businesses That Have Moved Their Headquarters Abroad to Pay Less U.S. Taxes these companies are Halliburton, Accenture, Foster Wheeler Ltd, Ingersoll-Rand Co. Ltd, Tyco International Ltd, Cooper Industries Inc, Noble Drilling Services Inc, Global Crossing, Seagate Technology LLC, and Nabors Industries Ltd (HR World Editors).102

The American Jobs Act:

On the 8th of November 2011, Obama gave a speech for his nation; this speech was about the creation of new jobs for the American citizens as the unemployment rate had reached a very huge number which is 9.1 percent. The speech has delivered more than one solution for the high unemployment, these points are:

Obama stated that he was sending the Congress a plan that they should pass right away. It’s called the American Jobs Act and there should be nothing controversial about this piece of legislation as everything in it is the kind of proposal that’s been supported by both Democrats and republicans.

"The purpose of the American Jobs Act is simple: to put more people back to work and more money in the pockets of those who are working. It will create more jobs for construction workers, more jobs for teachers, more jobs for veterans, and more jobs for long-term unemployed". He said.

It will provide a tax break for companies who hire new workers, and it will cut payroll taxes in half for every working American and every small business. It will provide a jolt to an economy that has stalled, and give companies confidence that if they invest and if they hire, there will be customers for their products and services. You should pass this jobs plan right away.

Small businesses will get a tax cut if they hire new workers or if they raise workers’ wages, so he said that if this bill is passed all small business owners will also see their payroll taxes cut in half next year.

“Pass this job bill, and we can put people rebuilding America, thousands of teachers in every state will go back to work, companies will get extra tax credit if they hire America’s veterans, and companies will get a4,000$ tax credit if they hire anyone who has spent more than six months looking for a job”. Obama said.

102 http://www.focus.com/fyi/10-big-businesses-that-have-moved-abroad/#

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While most people in this country struggle to make ends meet, a few of the most affluent citizens and most profitable corporations enjoy tax breaks and loopholes that nobody else gets. So Obama stated that they should raise taxes on those who are most fortunate and can best afford it. “We need a tax code where everyone gets a fair shake and where everybody pays their fair share”. He said (politico, 2011).103

So all of these previous points show the most important parts in Obama’s speech about the job creation plan, but when it came to the congress to vote on this bill the Senate Republicans have voted to kill the $447 billion White House jobs bill despite weeks of barnstorming by President Barack Obama across the country. The plan would have included Social Security payroll tax cuts for workers and businesses and other tax relief totaling about $270 billion. There also was to be $175 billion in new spending on roads, school repairs and other infrastructure — as well as jobless aid and help to local governments to avoid layoffs of teachers, firefighters and police officers. Republicans opposed the measure over its spending to stimulate the economy and its tax surcharge on millionaires.

But on November 23, 2011, President Barack Obama said that although Republican lawmakers have failed to take up the $447 billion jobs bill, he will give them another try so Obama hopes to pass the bill this time in the congress (Jake berry, 2011).104

Wall Street demonstrations:

As the percentage of the high unemployment didn’t change and there was no response from the government about creating new jobs, corruption is everywhere specially in the financial services, so on September 17, 2011 there has been a vast of protesters that have occupied Wall Street. The protests are against social and economic inequality, high unemployment, greed, as well as corruption, and the undue influence of corporations—particularly that of the financial services sector—on government.

So after these demonstrations will the government respond or not?

103 http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0911/63043.html 104 http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/news/940956-196/supportive-crowd-greets-obama-as-he-warns.html

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3. Agricultural reformThe United States now is facing one of the most dangerous problems that any economy may face which is the debt crisis. So, the United States government is trying to solve this problem as quickly as possible it is trying to get the solutions by using all its aspects. We will discuss in this section three of the solutions that the United States may use and how the United States government can use it to solve the debt problem the three solutions are:

a- Subsidies b- Visa reformc- Food security

A-Subsidies:

Agricultural subsidies is Paid by the federal government to producers of agricultural products for the purpose of stabilizing food prices, ensuring plentiful food production, supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities and generally strengthening the agricultural segment of the national economy.

The farmer will get subsidies if he is producing specific crops , some of these 10 crops wheat, feed grains, cotton, milk, rice, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and oilseeds such as soybeans. The United States went from having no role for the federal government in farming to having government intervention in all aspects of farming from planting to harvesting to selling crops and that is the way it was until about 1930. In 1933 the government begins to offer subsidies to farmers to encourage them to be willing limit

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their production of crops in order conserve soil prevent erosion, and accomplish other minor goals for political reasons.

Now, The U.S. Department of Agriculture pays 5 billion to the farmers in cash subsidies to farmers and owners of farmland each year.

Types of subsidies:

1- Direct payments : It was established in 1996 and it is cash subsidies for producers of 10 crops: wheat, corn, sorghum, barley, oats, cotton, rice, soybeans, minor oilseeds, and peanuts, these payments are based on a historical measure of a farm’s acres (how many acres the farmer has) used for production and are not related to current production or prices, it is the largest source of subsidies to farmers.

2- Countercyclical payments:

Farmers and landowners receive counter-cyclical payments when crop revenue declines below a certain level. So the government provides extra subsidies when market prices are lower.

3- Marketing assistance loans: Marketing assistance loans program facilitate the orderly distribution of commodities throughout the year. Instead of selling immediately at harvest, a loan allows a producer who grows a crop to store the production and pledge the crop itself as collateral. The loan proceeds help the producer pay bills when they come due without having to sell the harvested crop at the time of year when prices tend to be lowest. Later, when market conditions may be more favorable, a producer can sell the crop and repay the loan.

4- Conservation Subsidies: It is a subsidy that is paid to farmers in order not to grow crops, but to cultivate ground cover such as grass or trees on retired acres.

5- Insurance: Crop insurance is a risk management tool available to agricultural producers providing protection against low yields and/or lost revenue due to natural disasters including drought, excessive moisture, disease and other perils.The RMA (Risk Management Agency) describes its mission as helping farmers “manage their business risks through effective, market-based risk management solutions.

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6- Disaster Aid:Congress has repeatedly expanded crop insurance programs in order to reduce farmers’ dependence on emergency bailouts. But both insurance subsidies and emergency bailouts have grown in cost. After just about any sort of crop damage, Congress jumps in to declare a “disaster” and distribute millions of dollars to farmers, whether or not particular farmers actually sustained substantial damage.

7- Average crop revenue election:ACRE is designed to protect farmers against revenue losses for each regardless of the cause: price decline, yield loss, or some combination of the two.

Advantages and disadvantages of agricultural subsidies:

Disadvantages: Farm subsidies damage the economy. In most industries, market

prices balance supply and demand and encourage efficient production.

The USDA pays about 35% of its total subsidies to corn growers. When combined with other grains such as rice and wheat, the percentage of subsidies devoted to grain as a category comes out to a whopping 60%. Meanwhile, fruit and vegetable subsidies are almost non-existent.

Even granting that agricultural subsidies may reduce food prices in general, the benefits of a “cheap food” policy are not evenly distributed across all varieties of food; the price of fresh fruits and vegetables has actually risen and this will hurt the consumer directly (2010)105.

62 percent of farmers in United States did not collect subsidy payments according to USDA this is because Farm subsidies typically transfer income from consumers and taxpayers to relatively wealthy farmland owners (their average incomes of $200,000 ) as a result net losses are imposed on society.

Giving subsidies to the farmers make the prices of some crops low and this will prevent the competition and close international trade.( Daniel A. Sumner)106

105 http://www.farmscapegardens.com/blog/45106 http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AgriculturalSubsidyPrograms.html

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Subsidies cause overproduction and this harms the environment because marginal or less productive land is cultivated unnecessarily, which often requires more inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides.

Overproduction also hurts worldwide crop prices and the ability for farmers in countries without subsidies to make a living.

Access to commodity programs and crop insurance are key factors in motivating farmers to plow up native grass land into crop land (farmland). 107

Advantages:

farm subsidies stabilize agricultural commodity markets, aid low-income farmers raise unduly low returns to farm investments, aid rural development, compensate for monopoly in farm input supply and farm marketing industries, help ensure national food security, offset farm subsidies provided by other countries, and provide various other services (Daniel A. Sumner). 108

Subsidies are considered important for maintaining a safe and secure food supply in the United States. They also provide a safety net to farmers to protect against the fluctuating nature of farming and disasters such as floods or droughts. Domestic crop yield can fluctuate considerably depending on the local weather. As a result of these fluctuations in production levels and prices, there could be very large variations in farm revenues between years. A safety net can help to smooth farmers' income over time and ensure they are not required to maintain debt from year to year in order to maintain a consistent income(farmland).109

What will happen if subsidies are cut???

1. If farm subsidies ended, U.S. agriculture would continue to thrive. Farms would adjust, planting different crops and diversifying their sources of income. A stronger and more innovative agriculture industry would emerge, as occurred in New Zealand after it repealed all its farm subsidies in 1984.

107 http://www.farmland.org/programs/farm-bill/history/usfarmsubsidies.asp108 http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AgriculturalSubsidyPrograms.html109 Ibid

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2. Substantial cuts to farm subsidies would save taxpayers money and reduce the federal budget deficit.

3. They should end subsidies for well–off farmers, remove agricultural trade barriers to cut food costs for families and reduce the debt load being imposed on young Americans.

b- Visa reform

A lot of people leave their country and go to other one because they are seeking of more job opportunities, better life, and better standard of living. In order to be able to travel to any other country you have to have visa (an official authorization appended to a passport, permitting entry into and travel within a particular country or region). There are many kinds of visas (depend on purpose of traveling).the one we are interested in our topic is H-2A visa:

“A what America’s farmers and ranchers want is legal guest worker program that allows workers to come across the border, work and go back, which is what many workers want to do. They just want the economic opportunity to work. They do not want to stay here. In an ideal world that is what we want. The H-2A (temporary agricultural worker) program is the only existing guest worker program. And it has a host of flaws and difficulties, which make it not very usable.” Said Stallman (the president of the American Farm Bureau Federation)

The H-2A agricultural guest worker program was passed by Congress in 1986 as part of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA). It is the most functional of visa categories. The H2A visa is designed to allow a foreign national entry into the U.S. for temporary or seasonal agricultural work as farm workers temporarily. The work to be performed must be of a temporary or seasonal- i.e. such as a short annual growing cycle- nature, meaning employment that is performed at certain seasons of the year, usually in relation to the production and/or harvesting of a crop, or for a limited time period of less than one year when an employer can show that the need for the foreign workers(s) is truly temporary. Currently in the United States there are about 30,000 temporary agricultural workers under this visa program. All of these workers are supposed to be covered by U.S. wage laws, workers' compensation and other standards.

Visa reform is a term used in political discussion regarding changes to current immigration policy of a country. In its strict definition, "reform” means to change into an improved form or condition. In the political sense, immigration reform may include promoted, expanded, or open immigration, as well as reduced or eliminated immigration. The immigration system in the US is broken and need to be reformed

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Advantages and disadvantages of the visa reform:

Disadvantages:

Despite that the foreign farmers are paying taxes and their wages is low the grower should also provide farmer with transportation to and from the worker’s temporary home to the workplace, housing to all H-2A workers who do not commute, three meals a day or facilities in which the worker can prepare food. When the contract period is up, the employer must provide the worker with transportation home or to their next workplace. 

The existing H-2A regulatory framework protects US farm workers from being displaced by foreign guest workers. The proposed (H-2A reform) regulations significantly undermine these protections, opening the door to widespread displacement of and discrimination against US farm workers.

At the same time, the relatively low wages of such workers and their acceptance of often difficult working conditions have caused them to be viewed as an economic threat to American workers. That’s why the department of labor issued the adverse effect wage rate (AEWR) which is the minimum wage that must be offered by the employer to the foreign farmers. So the foreign farmers wages should at least equal to AEWR and this in order to affect the employment opportunities of U.S workers (UFW).110

Advantages:

An estimated 70% of all agricultural workers in the U.S. are here illegally either by fake documents or undocumented immigrants which is not good and H-2A reform will facilitate and legalize people that want to work as farmers in the U.S and since it will be easy to apply for a job in the US this will decrease illegal immigrants .

 The H-2A program provides agricultural employers with an alternative source of labor and, in effect, expands the pool of available workers, potentially increasing competition for available jobs. It helps the grower achieve workforce stability.

110 http://www.ufw.org/pdf/DOLH2Acomments.pdf

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Working as a farmer is unwilling by the U.S citizens while there are states the agriculture is the number one industry as New York.

The population of farm workers and their families stimulate the general economy, they are frequent consumers of goods and services, and they purchase and use the same commodities and services, such as food, clothing, housing, utilities, auto essentials, and entertainment.

USDOL (United States department of labor) fees would increase from $10 per worker to $100 per worker. They pay more in taxes than they take out. They pay sales taxes, Social Security, income taxes, and driver’s licenses and fees. Though they are required to pay these taxes, as non-residents they are not able to realize many of the benefits (BOCES Geneseo Migrant Center, P.3).111

By H-2A reform Employers would no longer have to do the same kind of documentation, such as recruitment reports, and would no longer have to send them to USDOL and the state for approval, but instead they would be subjected to more frequent and in-depth compliance audits.

Though wages of American agricultural workers are low in comparison with wage rates in the U.S. economy, they are relatively high by the standards of neighboring less developed countries.

111 http://www.migrant.net/pdf/farmworkerfacts.pdf

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C- Food Insecurity

"Food security" means that people have access, at all times, to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. It means that all people can get the kind of food that they want and healthy at the same time not the kind that they should eat because they don’t have money (because they are food insecure). Food insecurity is often rooted in poverty and has long-term impacts on the ability of families, communities, and countries to develop. It also means that the country is suffering from hunger which is the result from lack of economic growth so, increased food productivity plays an important role in alleviating hunger or from lack of access to family planning services, and World population is growing by 100 million per year, straining the productive capacity of agriculture. Hunger also causes poor maternal health and high rates of infant mortality rates.

Effect of financial crisis on food security in U.S

BEFORE

According to economic research report, Eighty-nine percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2007, meaning that they had access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households (11.1 percent) were food insecure at least some time during the year. About one-third of food insecure households (4.1 percent of all U.S. households) had very low food security—meaning that the food intake of one or more adults was reduced and their eating patterns were disrupted at times during the year because the household lacked money and other resources for food. Prevalence rates of food insecurity and very low food security were essentially unchanged from those in 2005 and 2006.

AFTER

An estimated 85.5 percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2010; the remaining households (14.5 percent) were food insecure, including 5.4 percent with very low food security. So we can conclude that the financial crisis increased food insecure people and this is also shown in the graph:

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The prevalence of food insecurity declined from 11.9 percent of households in 2004 to 11.0 percent in 2005 and remained near that level until 2007. In 2008, the prevalence of food insecurity increased to 14.6 percent of households and was essentially unchanged at 14.7 percent in 2009 and 14.5 percent in 2010. The prevalence of very low food security remained essentially unchanged from 2004 (3.9 percent) to 2007 (4.1 percent), then increased to 5.7 percent in 2008, remained at 5.7 percent in 2009, and declined to 5.4 percent in 2010.

The United States of America will not leave people who are unsecured without food, not just food but a healthy food so it introduces a lot of food security programs such as:

- Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) SNAP is the Nation's largest domestic food and nutrition assistance

program for low-income Americans and serves as a source of demand for the products of American farmers and food industries.

In fiscal year 2010, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP):

Served about 40.3 million low-income Americans each month 

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Had an annual USDA (United States department of agriculture) outlay of about $68.3 billion (USDA, John A. Kirlin 2011).112

- WIC (Women, Infants, and Children)

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, commonly known as the WIC program, serves to safeguard the health of low-income women, infants, and children younger than 5 who are at nutritional risk.

As the third largest food and nutrition assistance program, WIC served over 9.1 million participants per month in fiscal 2010. Federal program costs for WIC were $6.7 billion in fiscal 2010 (Elizabeth Frazão, 2011).113

- Child Nutrition Programs

USDA administers five major domestic food assistance programs that exclusively or primarily serve the nutritional needs of children:

o National School Lunch Programo School Breakfast Programo Child and Adult Care Food Programo Summer Food Service Programo Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program.

The child nutrition programs work individually and in concert to provide a nutritional safety net for children and together account for one-quarter of USDA's domestic food and nutrition assistance outlays.

In fiscal 2009, USDA spent $15.5 billion on these programs (Joanne Guthrie, 2011).114

The United States is paying billions of dollars to finance these programs to help those who are food insecure but as mentioned before the unites states is suffering from debt crisis so as any country it wants to increase production and decrease costs and expenses but by applying these food insecurity programs the U.S expenses will increase and here is the problem shall the U.S leave the people who are food insecure and concentrate on increasing production and flourishing the economy to overcome the problem of debt crisis so it will not finance the food insecurity programs (cutting expenses ) or continue paying

112 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/SNAP/

113 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/WIC/114 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ChildNutrition/

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money even the existence of debt crisis problem in order not to have hungry people or insecure people putting into consideration that the unsecured people is increasing so it may need increase the amount of money paid.

Topic twoBrazil

Council on Foreign Relations to US, "it is in the interest of the United States “to understand Brazil as a complex international actor whose influence on the defining

global issues of the day is only likely to increase.”

CFR thinks Washington would be wise to look south again, not for new rivalries, but for new, and even stronger partnerships.

Brazil

Official name: Federative Republic of BrazilCapital: BrasíliaPopulation: 179 millionCurrency: RealOfficial language: Portuguese

Date of independence, or formation date: 1822

Brazil is the world's leading coffee producer and also has rich reserves of gold, diamonds, oil, and iron ore. The city of São Paulo is the world's fifth-biggest conurbation, with some 20 million inhabitants. Brazil became independent of Portugal in 1822. Brazil shares a border with almost every other country in South America--only Chile and Ecuador are untouched--and covers almost half the continent. The largest country in South America and It is the fifth largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada, China, and the U.S.A.

Brazilians are one people, with a single culture. Brazil is the most highly industrialized country in Latin America. Its huge industrial base includes steel, automobiles, military aircraft (including the AMX jet fighter), tanks, hydroelectric power, and a nuclear power program. Its industrial base is so developed that the country exports high-technology aviation components, such as aircraft engines and helicopter landing-gear systems. Brazil will construct a small part of the international space station.

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Brazil's major trading partners are the United States, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Argentina, Mexico, and Canada. Exports represent 7.3 percent of Brazil's gross domestic product (GDP--see Glossary), and industry accounts for about 41 percent, a pattern found in some developed countries. Once an industrial powerhouse of the developing world, Brazil now counts on services for 48 percent of its GDP.

Brazil's economy, Latin America's biggest and the worlds eighth largest is greater than Russia's and twice as large as Mexico's. Its economy will be the sixth largest in the world by 2015, according to a Ministry of Finance prediction. In 1997 Brazil had an estimated GDP of US$775.5 billion, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU).

In 1995 Brazil was ranked third, after China and Mexico, for planned investments by American multinational companies. The second largest United States trading partner in the hemisphere in 1995-97, it is first in foreign direct investment from the United States, with US$41 billion. According to President Cardoso, foreign direct investment in Brazil in 1996 totaled US$9.4 billion, as compared with US$3.9 billion in 1995 and was expected to exceed US$14 billion in 1997. Multinationals based in Brazil remitted US$4 billion in dividends to their parent corporations during 1995. The energy, mining, petroleum, and telecommunications sectors expect investments of US$24 billion by the end of the 1990s.115

Brazil has consolidated its power in South America, extended its influence to the broader region, and become increasingly prominent on the world stage. The Obama Administration’s national security strategy regards Brazil as an emerging center of influence, whose leadership it welcomes “to pursue progress on bilateral, hemispheric, and global issues.116

With a gross national income (GNI) of $1.6 trillion, Brazil is the largest economy in Latin America. Over the past eight years, the country has enjoyed average annual growth of over 4%. This growth has been driven by a boom in international demand for its commodity exports and the increased purchasing power of Brazil’s fast-growing middle class. In 2010, the value of Brazil’s exports reached some $202 billion, contributing to a trade surplus of $20.3 billion. The country’s current economic strength is the result of a series of policy reforms implemented over the course of two decades that reduced inflation, established stability, and fostered growth. These policies have also enabled Brazil to better absorb international shocks

115 "BRAZIL: Introduction", 2006 interKnowledge Corp. date of access: 4/10/2012. http://www.geographia.com/brazil/

"BRAZIL: Introduction", World Desk Reference. Date of access: 4/10/2012.http://dev.prenhall.com/divisions/hss/worldreference/BR/introduction.html

116 Peter J.Mayer, " Brazil- US relation Analyst in Latin American Affairs", Congressional Research Service. Nov,22,2011 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33456.pdf

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like the recent global financial crisis, from which Brazil emerged relatively unscathed. Although current conditions and Brazil’s recent performance suggest the country will sustain solid economic growth rates in the near term, several constraints on mid- and long-term growth remain.

Brazil has long held potential to become a world power, but its rise to prominence has been curtailed by setbacks, including 21 years of military rule, political instability, and uneven economic growth. The Brazilian military stifled representative democracy and civic action in Brazil, carefully preserving its influence during one of the most protracted transitions to democracy to occur in Latin America.117

Most analysts credit Brazil’s strong macroeconomic framework and the Lula Administration’s timely policy response for successfully mitigating the effects of the crisis. As the fallout of the financial crisis spread around the world, the Brazilian government injected at least $100 billion of additional liquidity into the local economy, provided support packages to productive sectors, and cut the key interest rate.

The current President Rousseff On economic policy, sought to constrain spending, cutting about $32 billion (R$50 billion) from the budget and limiting the increase in the minimum wage in hopes of easing inflationary pressures, continued to provide extensive subsidized financing to Brazilian industry, and has launched an anti-poverty plan designed to eradicate extreme poverty by 2014. Going forward, issues likely to require Rousseff’s attention include attracting investment to develop the country’s infrastructure, improving the quality of public education and health services, and reducing high rates of crime and violence in Brazil’s urban centers.

Brazil’s current conditions and recent economic performance suggest the country will sustain solid growth rates in the near term; however, many analysts assert that several constraints on mid and long-term growth remain.38 These include a sizeable public debt burden and fast growing private debt burden, high taxes and interest rates, low investment and savings rates, rigid labor laws, and overburdened transportation and energy infrastructure.

Relations between Brazil and the United States are generally friendly. The United States Increasingly regards Brazil as a significant power, especially in its role as a stabilizing force in Latin America. The Obama Administration’s National Security Strategy states that the United States “welcome[s] Brazil’s leadership and seek[s] to move beyond dated North-South divisions to pursue progress on bilateral, hemispheric, and global issues.”

Although Brazil and the United States share a number of common goals, the countries’ independent foreign policies have led to periodic disputes on trade and political matters. Some long-running disputes include Brazil’s opposition to the U.S.

117ibid

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tariff on Brazilian ethanol and the stalled Doha Round of World Trade Organization negotiations.

Some analysts assert that Brazil’s increasing global prominence and involvement on an array of issues will inevitably lead to disputes with the United States and that managing those disputes in a transparent and respectful manner will be the key to maintaining friendly relations moving forward.

Trade issues are central to the bilateral relationship between Brazil and the United States. Both countries have been heavily involved in sub regional, regional, and global trade talks; however, they have frequently disagreed on the substance of trade agreements. In 2005, opposition from Brazil and other South American countries effectively killed the U.S.-backed Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). Since then, the United States has pushed for bilateral and sub-regional free trade agreements while Brazil has focused its efforts on strengthening the Common Market of the South (Mercosur). During President Obama’s March 2011 visit to Brazil, the United States and Brazil concluded an Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation. The Agreement creates a new bilateral trade dialogue designed to foster deeper cooperation on issues such as intellectual property rights, trade facilitation, and technical barriers to trade.

Total trade between the United States and Brazil totaled $46.3 billion in 2010, an increase of nearly 30% over 2009. U.S. exports to Brazil were valued at $27 billion while U.S. imports from Brazil were valued at $19.3 billion. The United States is now Brazil’s second-largest trading partner and Brazil is the 11th-largest trading partner of the United States.

In order to make greater progress in their economic relations, both governments need to make “courageous political decisions” to move both countries to the next level and change the dynamic of the hemisphere. In the absence of change in the current FTA model, however, neither country is likely to advance trade much beyond current levels. More promising results can be achieved if Brazil and the United States are willing to balance out costs and benefits associated with bilateral trade. The United States should be willing to cut agricultural subsidies in return for an FTA with Brazil. On the Brazilian end, the country must be willing to change its position on services, market access and intellectual property issues. While in the United States there is mounting political pressure for a comprehensive revision of trade policies, in Brazil, the same political willingness does not appear to be in place. Given the fact the United States only seeks trade agreements outlined according to its model, and Brazil’s unwillingness to negotiate FTAs based on the U.S. model.

To understand how Brazil’s trade relations with the United States have evolved over the years, one needs to look at its trade history. Traditionally Brazil's foreign economics policy has been centered on the defensive, protectionist objectives- focusing on isolating the country from external threats and risks.

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Protectionism remains a major inhibitor of economic growth in Brazil. The country has high import tariffs on capital goods, especially in comparison to China, Indonesia, Korea and Thailand.118

Over the past eight years, Brazil and the United States have been involved in a dispute over U.S. subsidies for cotton farmers. In 2002, Brazil went to the WTO to challenge several provisions of the U.S. cotton program. A WTO dispute settlement panel ruled in Brazil’s favor in 2004, finding that certain U.S. agricultural support payments and export guarantees were inconsistent with its WTO commitments. Although Congress modified agricultural support programs in 2005, a WTO compliance panel ruled in 2007 that the U.S. actions were insufficient.130 Following a ruling from a WTO arbitration panel, Brazil announced in March 2010 that it intended to impose retaliatory measures against the United States worth $829 million, including $591 million in higher tariffs on a range of U.S. products and $239 million through suspension of certain intellectual property rights obligations.

According to the U.S. Trade Representative, Brazil has improved its record on protecting intellectual property rights in recent years. In recognition of this progress, the United States Trade Representative lowered Brazil from the Priority Watch List of countries with significant intellectual property rights violations to the Watch List in 2007. Brazil has remained on the Watch List every year since 2007, however, as significant levels of piracy and counterfeiting persists and stronger enforcement is still needed. The United States and Brazil intend to continue working together on intellectual property rights issues under the Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation signed in March 2011.

However, According to the U.S. State Department’s Country Report on Human Rights the following human rights problems were reported in Brazil in 2010: “unlawful killings; excessive force, beatings, abuse, and torture of detainees and inmates by police and prison security forces; inability to protect witnesses involved in criminal cases.

A U.N. Special Reporter concluded that police in Brazil are allowed to “kill with impunity in the name of security.” BUT Although many analysts assert that Brazilian politicians at all levels of government have failed to devote the resources and political will necessary to confront the country’s serious public security problems, there have been a number of efforts in recent years to improve the situation.

118 Priscilla Yeon ,"Brazil and The United States trad agenda and challenges of the Bilateral relationship", Brazil Institute special report 2008. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/brazil.us.tradereport.pdf

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Political corruption:

According to many reports, Brazil loses $36billion to corruption. The discourse around public attitudes to corruption is the period of slavery in Brazil. This led to the acceptance of an elite, upper class that was somehow above the law. The slaves had neither the means, nor the moral attachment to abide by the law, but did not have the social standing to abide by it. This persists in the form of what Graeff describes as “corporatism” in Brazil today, where the upper class is somehow deemed to be exempted from following the letter of the law.

Following the spate of corruption scandals that has blighted the government in recent months, Brazilians from all sectors of society are standing up in support of President Rousseff’s governmental “clean-up” operation and making their voices heard in the fight against corruption. Last Wednesday, Brazilian Independence Day celebrations were augmented by Brazilians around the country marching in protest.119

Brazil has long been open to and encouraged foreign investments, which is why it remains among of the world's leading investment destinations. The government advocates for both state participation in the economy and respect for the contractual rights of investors. However, despite a formally well-functioning business environment, several studies indicate that corruption and bribery are serious obstacles to doing business in Brazil. Especially in business dealings with the government at the local levels, corruption reportedly represents a serious threat.

Positive developments in relation to corruption and investment:

Brazil is often cited for its strong legal framework aimed at curbing corruption, and the country is occasionally used as a role model when establishing legal anti-corruption frameworks in developing countries. However, effective enforcement of laws is a problem

Although the fight against corruption faces obstacles in terms of implementation and lack of political support, anti-corruption initiatives in Brazil are formally strong and well-developed.

Risks of corruption:119 Sarah de Sainte Croix ,"Brazilians Protest and March Against Corruption", The Rio Times, sep

13,2011. http://riotimesonline.com/brazil-news/front-page/brazilians-protest-march-against-corruption/

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Companies operating in Brazil have to deal with a wide range of regulatory agencies due to the federal structure of the political system, which may increase the likelihood of demands for bribes by public officials.

The Brazilian tax system is complex and reportedly prone to corruption. It is reported that tax collectors frequently ask for bribes to relax assessments and inspections, to refrain from pursuing acts of tax fraud or to give advice on the legal possibilities of reducing tax obligations.120

Crime rates:

Much of the crime and violence in Brazil can be attributed to gangs and organized crime groups operating throughout the state. Experiencing violent crimes such as murder, rape, and kidnappings, as well as armed assaults and burglaries, these crimes increase the concern to about employees and Americans in Brazil.

There is also Civil Unrest; the threat of political violence remains a possibility as Brazil periodically hosts large-scale demonstrations. While the vast majority of these protests are peaceful, violence can occasionally flare up, resulting in disturbances, property damage, and increased police activity.

International Terrorism or Transnational Terrorism; Border areas of Brazil, including the Tri-Border Area (TBA) where the Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay frontiers meet, have been subject to illegal activity. Travelers should exercise caution when traveling to these areas. No incidents directed against official or non-official Americans have occurred in the TBA. There are no known indigenous terrorist groups other than the organized crime elements listed, operating in Brazil. Brazil is a non-aligned country with no significant enemies and is not targeted by any known radical groups.

Brazil experiences the harmful effects of illicit drug trafficking. Several Brazilian cities are transshipment points for illicit drugs, especially cocaine. Crack cocaine use is increasing.

Police response, both from the military and civil police, varies. Police authorities cite a lack of resources, under-staffing, and payroll issues among the key reasons why response times are not always optimal and why many crimes go unsolved. Brazilian law enforcement entities continue to look for creative policing strategies to overcome infrastructure challenges to achieve crime prevention in some areas.121

120 "Snapshot of the Brazil Country Profile", Austrian Development Agency. December 2011 http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/latin-america-the-caribbean/brazil/snapshot/

121 "Brazil 2011 Crime and Safety Report: Sao Paulo", United States Department of state, Bureau of diplomatic security. 24/2/2011. https://www.osac.gov/pages/ContentReportPDF.aspx?cid=10497

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US-Brazil potential FTA:

FTA (Free Trade Agreement) is a type of trade agreements at which the member countries lift most (or all) of its trade barriers in front of the other members’ goods and services, those agreements can be bilateral or multilateral, however, those type of agreements don’t support the free motion of capital nor labor.122

FTAs was proved to be one of the best ways to expand countries’ merchandise to foreign markets, especially if those merchandise are expensive and the trade barriers create an additional burden that makes buying that merchandise unaffordable.

For both USA and Brazil, FTAs were great tools to expand their trade all over the globe, although both countries are different in their goals and necessarily in their FTAs’ shapes and members, but both agree on the importance of the agreements to revitalize the economy.

But, When we discuss a FTA between both USA and Brazil, it is something totally different, because, although the two countries are great political allies for decades, they are two powerful economies, not only that, the Brazilian economy is showing a great potential to have more advancement

Important to be stated, is that USA put always some important considerations before negotiating any FTA with any country, so, the same will be applied to the Brazilian case, those considerations are: 1-Impact on US domestic Politics2-Economic objectives3-commitment of the partner country to accomplish the agreement4-foreign policy consideration123

US Domestic Policies:

This considers the political point of views inside the congress and the lobbies if it is powerful enough to pass the FTA in both the house and the senate, also if the other partner will pass the products important for the congressional constituents, and also if the FTA provisions will convince the opposition inside the congress.

If we took Brazil, we will find that the provisions of the bilateral trade between them is witnessing a huge increase, and there is a common point of view between economists inside both USA and Brazil that lifting the trade barriers will increase that flourishing trade between the two countries, however, every lobby and politician will have his own point of view.

122 Business Dictionary, date of access: 10/4/2012. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/free-trade-agreement.html123 Jeffery Schott, " Assessing US FTA policy", http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/chapters_preview/375/13iie3616.pdf

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Economic Objectives:

FTA is a trade agreement after all, and the economical branch is the cornerstone in signing any FTA, and in an FTA it is all about the US exporters, If it will open a new market for them, or increase their advantage in an existing market, also, If the FTA will help USA to take the partner country as a base to further market accessibility to the neighbors of the partner and also spread the democracy, labor rights and IPR in this region.

If we took a look at Brazil, we will find that Brazil will allow the US exporters to lift the barriers that block their merchandise, and also the region of Latin America is not friendly to USA, so having an economically will boost USA position as a superpower.

Commitment of partner country:

“An Agreement needs to agree to all the conditions”, and trivial as it looks to be, it is very important for USA to make sure totally that the partner(s) agree to all the conditions that the USA propose in order to protect its own interest, and this means the commitment of the partner(s) both to share the economic objectives with the USA, implying the changes needed to achieve the objectives, and to integrate with the neighbors to widen the USA perspective inside the region.

Brazil, in this point, is debatable. Although the administration is progressing on some cases like IPR and democracy, however, it is still having some major defects, mainly in the very high crime rates that oppose the stability that any investor needs; also there are some concerns on the human rights there.

Foreign Policy Consideration:

As the title states, the foreign policy of the partner(s) is a major key, in the end you don’t want to develop the economy of an enemy!, however, other factors enter that title, like the expected effect of the economic develop on the democracy there by increasing the living standard and in return the overall culture, also, a key point is the political influence of the partner on the partner’s continent.

Brazil in this point has a great advantage over any pending country, Both USA and Brazil are great political allies, also Brazil is the largest country in Latin America making it a great partner, in addition, Brazil has showed excellent increase in the democracy when the economy started flourishing.124 125

124 Keith Porter," The Relationship of the United States with Brazil", About.com http://usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/countryprof4/p/usbrazil.htm

125 The Doha Round", World Trade Org., http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/dda_e.htm "

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Doha Round:

The Doha Round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim is to achieve major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules. Its fundamental objective is to improve the trading prospects of developing countries. The Doha Ministerial Declaration provided the mandate for the negotiations, including on agriculture, services and an intellectual property topic, which began earlier. In Doha, ministers also approved a decision on how to address the problems developing countries face in implementing the current WTO agreements.

At the Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001 WTO member governments agreed to launch new negotiations. They also agreed to work on other issues, in particular the implementation of the present agreements. The entire package is called the Doha Development Agenda (DDA).

The Fifth Ministerial Conference in Cancún, Mexico, in September 2003, was intended as a stock-taking meeting where members would agree on how to complete the rest of the negotiations. But the meeting was soured by discord on agricultural issues, including cotton, and ended in deadlock on the “Singapore issues”

The talks, named after the Qatari capital in which they were launched in 2001

The Doha round has made no significant progress since a ministerial meeting collapsed in mid-2008 in Geneva. An increasing number of officials admit privately that the round will never conclude, but as yet no government has publicly declared it over.

If the talks are abandoned, it will be the first failure of a negotiating round since the WTO’s forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, was created in 1947.126

Agriculture in Brazil:

Being a vast country with mainly-forest land, Brazil has been a great agriculture land since it was discovered, because of the high fertility of its soil and the diversity of its climate, which allows it to grow a variety of crops- wither annual crops or stable ones-, and it is a also a perfect place for cattle, which makes Brazil a great food-producer.

126 Randy Schnepf, Charles E. Hanrahan, "WTO Doha Round: Implications for U.S. Agriculture", January 4, 2010. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22927.pdf..

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However, Brazil changed its agricultural-attitude and achieved high levels of development in the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st one, it included more crops and it increased the productivity and the quality of those crops which allowed Brazil to invade major markets like EU and USA.

The agriculture development in Brazil started from 1949, for twenty years, this stage of development was a horizontal one, which means the increase of agriculture land by deforestation and enhancing the transportation by creating new roads to connect the far agriculture lands.

By the end of that era, it was the era of military reign in Brazil, in this time, the horizontal expansion was showing its limits, so the military regime decided to start the second development stage, which is the “conservative modernization”.

This stage is the stage that depends on the conservation of the current land space, and the development of the technical methods used, this made Brazil started using new techniques, better seeds for more productive crops, and the usage of higher technology in agriculture.127

Mainly, one of the apparent results of the 2nd stage is the increase of the crops in Brazil, changing from a mainly Coffee with cotton and sugar, into an arsenal of crops ranging from cocoa, cotton, rice, sugarcane, oranges, corn, soybeans, and wheat; those in the traditional segment included beans, manioc (cassava), bananas, peanuts, and coffee.

In 2010, Agriculture accounted for about 6% of the GDP and the Entire agribusiness accounted for 25% of the GDP, and agriculture accounted for 40% of the trade surplus, which shows the importance of the agricultural sector in Brazil.128

127 "Agriculture", Library of the congress, http://countrystudies.us/brazil/71.htm

128Luiz Martinelli, Peter Vitousek, "Agriculture in Brazil; impacts, costs, and opportunities for a sustainable future" 29 September 2010.

http://www.scitopics.com/Agriculture_in_Brazil_impacts_costs_and_opportunities_for_a_sustainable_future.html

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“1998 agricultural products” “2008 Agricultural products”

“1998 agricultural exports” “2008 agricultural exports”129

US-Brazil Agricultural Relations:

When we are talking between the Relations between the first and the seventh largest economies in the globe, then we must expect to see powerful economic relations between the two countries.

In 2010, the agricultural relations between the 2 countries reached about 3.5 Billions U$, with a surplus of 2.3 Billions for Brazil, showing the powerful agricultural relations between the two countries.

The US side contributed by 575 Millions U$, $575 million in 2010. Leading categories include: wheat ($112 million), cotton ($47 million), dairy products ($39 million), and sugars and sweeteners ($28 million).

While the Brazilian side totaled 2.9 Billions U$, the 5th largest supplier of Ag imports. Leading categories include: coffee (unroasted) ($1.1 billion), tobacco ($310

129 http://www.nuffieldinternational.org/csc_conf/2011_csc/braz_ag_perspective_m_suzuki.pptx

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Meat; 20,3%

Fruits Juices; 3,0%

Others; 9,8%

Cereals and Flour; 3,1%

Tobacco; 3,8%

Leather andProducts; 4,4%

Coffee; 6,6%

Sugar and Ethanol; 11,0% Forest Products; 13,0%

Soybean Complex; 25,0%

Meat; 7,5%

Coffee; 12,1%

Sugar and Ethanol; 9,2%

Forest Products; 15,6%

Tobacco; 7,2%

Others; 11,2%

Fruits Juices; 6,1%

Cereals and Flour; 0,2%

Leather and Products; 8,8%

Soybean Complex; 22,0%

Asia (-China, Mid. East); 11,2%

China; 2,7%

USA; 14,9%

Mid. East; 5,9%

Eastern Europe; 3,2%

Africa (-Mid. East); 4,7%

Aladi (-Mercosur); 3,6%

Mercosur; 8,6%

Others; 4,1%

E.U - 27; 41,1%

Asia (-China, Mid. East); 12,4%China; 11,0%

USA; 8,7%

Mid. East; 7,1%

Eastern Europe; 6,9%

Africa (-Mid. East); 6,7%

Aladi (-Mercosur); 6,0%

Mercosur; 2,8%

Others; 5,3%E.U - 27; 33,1%

million), fruit and vegetable juices ($278 million), and raw beet and sugar cane ($221 million).130

The obvious thing in the previous info., is the fact that the only sector in which the US has a deficit in trading with Brazil is the agricultural sector, which give an alarm to the rising agricultural power of Brazil, and also gives an important hint on the importance of the diversity in crops that allowed Brazil to find areas of competition with USA.

US-Brazil Competitive points:-

In 2005, Brazil and USA have seen the most powerful competitiveness in the history of agriculture, as this year was the most iconic year in the development of Brazil in the agricultural sector, and it was the beginning of the real appearance of Brazil on the Global economic Map.131

In that year, Brazil was able to take the first place in the global exports in many major crops that was controlled by USA, that leadership was increased in the following years by the further development in the agricultural sector in Brazil.

In this section, we will deal with those products that mark the major competitive points between the two countries, both from the production and exports.

1-SoyBeans:

Production: Global soybean production rose to 220 million metric tons (mt) in 2005, from the previous year’s total of 192 million mt. Brazil’s share of world soybean production was 25% in 2005. The United States continued to be the world’s top producer of soybeans in 2005 with 39%.

Exports: Brazil’s soybean exports increased in 2005 as well. Brazil’s share of world soybean exports was 40% in 2005. Just slightly below Brazil’s total exports. The U.S. share of soybean exports in 2005 was 37%, However, USA gained the world’s lead again in 2006 until now, yet Brazil and Argentina are contributing with more than half the global exports, so it is still an important point of competition till now.132

2-Poultry (broilers):

130 "Brazil", Office of the US Trade Representative. http://www.ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/brazil

131 Charles E. Hanrahan, "Brazil’s Agricultural Production and Exports", CRS Report for Congress, October 16, 2006. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL33699.pdf

132 "Soybeans and Oil Crops", USDA, Economic Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Soybeansoilcrops/trade.htm

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Production: Global poultry production increased in 2005. Brazil was third in production behind the United States and China with a share of world poultry production was 16% in 2005.The United States is the world’s leading producer of poultry with 27% of world production. China, the world’s second largest producer of poultry meat, accounts for 17% of world production. The European Union produced in 2005 about 13% of world production.

Exports: Global broiler exports increased significantly in 2005 to 6.7 million mt from 6 million in 2004. Brazil led the world in broiler exports in 2005 (41% of global poultry exports) after exporting 2.4 million mt in 2004. The U.S. share of world broiler exports was 35% in 2005. The two countries accounted for some 76% of global exports in 2005.

3-Beaf and veal:

Production: Global beef and veal production increased in 2005 to 52.2 million mt from 51.3 million mt the previous year. Brazil accounts for 16% of world beef production. The United States led the world in beef and veal production with share of global beef production was 22% in 2005. The European Union and China were the next largest producers of beef and veal in 2005. The European Union produced 15% of the world’s beef production, while China produced 7.1 million mt, 14% of global beef production.

Exports: Globally, beef and veal exports increased from 6.5 million mt in 2004 to 7 million mt in 2005. Brazil led the world export market with the share of 26% in 2005. Australia was next with 20% of the world export market share. Argentina was third with 11% of export market share. The United States exported 313,000 mt in 2005(4.4% of world beef exports), an increase from the 209,000 mt exported in 2004, but still low compared to exports of 1.142 million mt in 2003, the year in which a case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow” disease was discovered in the United States. (Important to say is, USA was the world leader till 2003, when BSE was later found that year causing USA to fall to 8 th place).

4-Pork:

Production: Global pork production increased in 2005 from 91.4 million mt in 2004 to 94.2 million mt in 2005. The People’s Republic of China led the world with more than half (53%) of global pork production. The European Union produced about 23% of world production. The U.S. share of global pork production in 2005 was 10%. Brazil produced 3% of global production in 2005.

Export: Pork exports increased from 4.6 million mt in 2004 to 5 million ton in 2005. The European Union was the world’s largest exporter of pork with 28% of world exports of pork). The United States’ pork exports were 24% in 2005. Canada exported 22% of the global exports in 2005. Brazil was the world’s fourth largest pork exporter in 2005, with 15% of world pork exports

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US-Brazil WTO Disputes:

One of the main factors of the rising alert in USA towards Brazil, is the appearance of international disputes between the two countries, although their relations in the political field is very good and stable; the two countries have seen powerful disputes over some trading policies, those disputes were sent to the WTO so it can be the judge between them.

Being the organization responsible for judging the trading disputes, WTO-as a judge- have seen two disputes between USA and Brazil, those disputes had similar outline in both of them.

Case 1: US cotton subsidies:133

In 2002, Brazil initiated a dispute is WTO against USA about US violating the laws of WTO about subsidies paid, expressing its growing concerns about the bad impact of the paid subsidies from the USA government to the cotton farmers.

Subsidies in itself is not a prohibited thing in WTO rules134, however, It is very controlled whether in the quantity of money or the way it is pumped into the market, making it a very complicated and precise process.

But in 2002, Brazil said in the dispute that USA is pumping illegal subsidies in the market, those illegal subsidies are harming Brazil interest and making a great imbalance in the global trade.

So, after searching for more than a year, On September 8, 2004, a WTO dispute settlement panel ruled against the United States on several key aspects of U.S. cotton programs. This ruling was appealed by the United States, and on March 3, 2005, a WTO Appellate Body (AB) upheld the panel’s ruling and provided specific deadlines for removal or modification of the offending U.S. subsidies.

In WTO’s point of view, USA has committed two main faults, the first one is by allowing prohibited subsidies that opposes the WTO laws, those subsidies are pumped in the market for the US cotton buyers to compensate its relatively- high price, which inflects direct damage to other countries.

The other main fault is that USA had pumped subsidies with legal categories, but the quantity of the money was too much for the amount of money allowed for those subsidies, which makes the process easier for the US cotton farmers and this is another obstacle for other nation’s farmers.

133 Randy Schnep,"Brazil’s WTO Case Against the U.S. Cotton". Congressional Research Service March 2009. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22187.pdf134 For more Details “http://docsonline.wto.org/GEN_highLightParent.asp?qu=%28%40meta%5FSymbol+LT%FCUR%FC%2A%29+%26+%28%40meta%5FTypes+Legal+text%29+%26+%28%40meta%5FTitle+subsid%2A%29&doc=D%3A%2FDDFDOCUMENTS%2FT%2FUR%2FFA%2F24%2DSCM%2EDOC%2EHTM&curdoc=3&popTitle=LT%2FUR%2FA%2D1A%2F9”

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According to those previous incidents, USA was subjected to countermeasures for the interest of Brazilian farmers, those countermeasures were in the shape of aids to the Farmers, and they are divided into two main parts (Technical assistance, and liquid money)

However, the two countries in 2010, held some negotiations to determine those countermeasures in a diplomatic way far from the WTO, and they were determined to be in the shape of subsidies in an informal way until the new Farm Bill of 2012 comes out and those payments are legislated.

Case 2: USA Ethanol Tariffs and subsidies:

Ethanol is a type of biofuel that is produced by using some crops like (soybeans-corn…) and transforming it by some chemical processes into a gas fuel, this biofuel was a vicious competition between the two biggest producers and consumers of this fuel……USA and Brazil!

In Brazil, ethanol is produced in a highly efficient, sustainable and cost-effective manner, making the biofuel the most competitive available and considerably less costly than gasoline. Compared to ethanol made from corn in the U.S., Brazil's sugarcane ethanol is around 3 times less costly and has an energy balance 8 to 10 times stronger. Not surprisingly, the country is trying to create a global market for its green product and wants to export to the largest consumers. However, the U.S. protects its own ethanol producers by a steep $0.54 per gallon tariff, blocking direct imports. Moreover, American farmers and biofuel manufacturers receive lavish subsidies, estimated to cost U.S. tax payers as much as $5.1 billion in 2006 for ethanol alone.135

Early 2007, the United States and Brazil pledged to collaborate on the development of biofuels technologies and markets in the Americas. Even though the agreement was hailed by Brazil as recognition of its expertise and leadership in the sector, the country could not convince the U.S. to give up its trade barriers imposed on imported ethanol or its large farm and biofuel subsidies. To challenge this state of affairs, Brazil initiated a case against the U.S. at the World Trade Organization (WTO), the global body that settles trade related disputes. The move could threaten the U.S. biofuel industry.

In December 2010, the U.S. government extended through end-2011 a 54-cent-per-gallon import tariff on ethanol as well as a 45-cent-per-gallon subsidy for blenders’ worth up to $6 billion, which led the bad situation into a worse one by this total opposition to the Brazilian dispute.

Senators John McCain and John Barrasso said on the bi-Partisan delegation that visited Brail in early 2011 that the extension of U.S. ethanol subsidies and a tariff on

135 "Brazil initiates WTO case against U.S. ethanol and farm subsidies", MONDAY, AUGUST 20, 2007. http://news.mongabay.com/bioenergy/2007/08/brazil-initiates-wto-case-against-us.html

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imports is likely illegal under international trade rules, lending some support to Brazil's opposition to U.S. ethanol policy.

Offshore Drilling

In a world controlled by the modern technology, energy resources, that move everything around starting from cars up to the shuttles in the space, are vital for the existence of any country nowadays.

However, when it comes to USA, we are not talking about a normal country; we are talking about world’s biggest super power, which means more industry, more technology, and for certain more energy consumption.

And from that perspective, it is important for the USA to find out how to get the greatest amount of energy resources available to maintain its modern civilization; however, taking a decision requires a detailed look at the history of the oil industry.

A General Look at the Oil Industry:-

Generally, oil is one of the non-renewable resources of energy, along to coal and natural gas (which is produced in the same way the oil is), Oil is the biggest source of energy in the world, due to its variety of uses and products (actually some of the oil products are not connected to the energy, like plastic.s).

Petroleum comes from drilling underground wells on variety of depths, those wells in fact are very expensive and requires a lot of work, time and money, and the advanced

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technology in this industry still faces a lot of hurdles.

The bad thing also, is that the probability of finding oil in the drilled well is 10% only, which increases maximum to 30% in places where successful drilling was done.

USA Consumption of oilUSA is the world’s biggest consumer of oil; it consumes 19.1 Million barrels a day136, where the total oil demand is 89.9 Million barrels a day by the end of 2012137.

One of the most important things that we have to consider, is the strange jump in oil consumption, which is very apparent in the USA case, this increase is a reason in the increasing price which doubles USA problems.

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Offshore Drilling

In order to find the energy, you have to look for its resources anywhere, and this is what is really obvious in the offshore drilling.

136 The Fact Book", Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2174rank.html137 "Oil Market Report",14 March 2012. http://omrpublic.iea.org/

138 "How to Profit in Global Capital Market." http://www.howprofit.com/uncategorized/oil-consumption-per-capita-1900-2010-us-japan-korea-hongkong-china-india.html

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Offshore drilling is the searching for oil (and natural gas) in wells under the seas or the oceans; those wells are extremely expensive and needs more effort and technology, as well as its high risk on the environment.

But, as any industry is, some of those offshore wells are really good, so they deserve some attention aside from all those negative sides discussed above, and especially in two countries, Brazil and USA.

USA & Brazil Oil’s Projects:

In the US delegation that visited, US president Obama Made a very interesting speech that was the buzz of the entire economic society for weeks, the most important piece in that speech is the focus of the current issue.139

“We want to partner with Brazil…on the issue of energy, which is why President Rousseff and I…agreed to launch a Strategic Energy Dialogue.  By some estimates, the oil you recently discovered off the shores of Brazil could amount to twice the reserves we have in the United States.  We want to work with you.   We want to help with technology and support to develop these oil reserves safely, and when you’re ready to start selling, we want to be one of your best customers.  At a time when we’ve been reminded how easily instability in other parts of the world can affect the price of oil, the United States could not be happier with the potential for a new, stable source of energy.

Now, even as we focus on oil in the near term, we shouldn’t lose sight of the fact that the only long-term solution to the world’s dependence on fossil fuels is clean energy technology.  And that’s why the United States and Brazil are deepening our cooperation on biofuels — (applause) — and why we’re launching a U.S.-Brazil Green Economy Partnership, because we know that the development of clean energy is one of the best ways to create new jobs and industries in both our nations.”

After this speech, there was a storm of debates about the soundness of the step of moving the US oil imports from the Middle East to Brazil, while the step had its own positive points; it also called for another question “What about US offshore reserves that the current administration is leaving under the sea?”

In this case, we must take a look at both US and Brazil’s Reserves, and then the decision will be easier and more accurate.

1-Brazil Oil reserves:-

139 "Obama calls for more offshore drilling in Brazil Oil", march. 2011 Institute for Energy Research. http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2011/03/22/obama-calls-for-more-offshore-

drilling%E2%80%A6in-brazil

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Brazil is an emerging Oil power in the world, with the newly-discovered reserves in the Pacific Ocean; Brazil is very close from the dream of becoming a major petroleum power that can even compete the Middle East.

With a very promising report, Brazil’s proven oil reserves rose 10.65% in 2010 to nearly 14.25 billion barrels, the biggest annual increase in the past eight years, the ANP (The National Petroleum Authority/Autoridade Nacional do Petróleo) oil regulator announced this week. Total reserves, overwhelmingly offshore, which also include probable and possible reserves, soared 34.57% to 28.47 billion barrels.140

ANP also indicated that proven natural gas reserves increased 15.23%, ending 2010 at 423 billion cubic meters.

The new figures include initial production at the ultra-deep Lula and Cernambi fields, the first to be developed in Brazil’s promising offshore, pre-salt frontier, so-named because it is located deep below the ocean floor under a shifting layer of salt,Located in a roughly 160,000-sq.-kilometer area, the pre-salt fields could potentially quintuple the country’s current reserves and transform Brazil into a major oil power.

So, with the presence of good relationships, short transportation distance, and more political stability, Brazil is a good choice for USA more than the Middle East, however, with the high costs of drilling and the time needed to start getting real crude oil from those reserves, the transportation to Brazil as the major oil contributor needs some more time….and debates.141

2- US Oil Reserves:USA is facing a very critical era in its petroleum industry, after the infamous accident in Gulf of Mexico142, the banned, new offshore drilling projects in USA became a matter of dreams, however, with the oil prices going wild and USA paying 700Billion U$ every year for Oil imports, people believe that time is convenient to change this old way of thinking.

The Minerals Management Service (MMS), is the part of the U.S. Department of the Interior responsible for leasing tracts to oil and gas companies and collecting the royalties on them, estimated that there are around 18 billion barrels in the underwater areas now off-limits to drilling. That's significantly less than in oil fields open for business in the Gulf of Mexico, coastal Alaska and off the coast of southern

140 "Brazil’s proven oil reserves increase 11% in 2010 reaching 14.25 billion barrels". Fep 18th 2011. http://en.mercopress.com/2011/02/18/brazil-s-proven-oil-reserves-increase-11-in-2010-reaching-14.25-billion-barrels

141 Peter Millard , "Brazil Oil Fields May Hold More Than Twice Estimates", Jan 19, 2011. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-19/brazil-oil-fields-may-hold-more-than-twice-

estimated-reserves.html

142 "Louisiana Oil Spill 2010 PHOTOS: Gulf Of Mexico Disaster Unfolds". Updated: 05/25/11. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/30/louisiana-oil-spill-2010_n_558287.html#s172644&title=Gulf_Oil_Spill

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California, where there are 10.1 billion barrels of known oil reserves as well as an estimated 85.9 billion more.

However, offshore drilling is not that easy, it needs a lot of time; In addition, offshore oil exploration is slow and costly.If the federal government opened California's coast to drilling tomorrow, the first exploratory wells probably wouldn't be drilled for at least six years, Medlock said. Bringing newly discovered oil fields into full production would take longer.That means any new oil wouldn't arrive on the market until midway through the next decade, at the earliest. The process is slow enough that the Energy Information Administration, the statistics branch of the U.S. Department of Energy, estimated last year that opening the coasts to offshore drilling would have no significant impact on oil prices before 2030.143

So, with Independency in oil reachable-but in 2030-people believe that this is the time to get their own energy and by their own workers with no more payment to other countries with unrest.

And that just leads us to the conclusion, which is to choose whether to wait and MAYBE you depend on yourself, or just keep the things as it is….or at least, try to improve it a little bit!

143 David R. Baker,"The lowdown on offshore oil reserves", July 22, 2008. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/07/21/MN6M11SN60.DTL

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Chairman:

Hani Samy

Vice chairlady:

Mariam Ragaei

Ranking Member:

Ahmad Ashraf Ali

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Party Consultant:

Heba Mostaf

Committee on Judiciary is one of the founding committees in the senate, which was on the 10th of December 1816 .{144}

Jurisdiction :{145}

In the starting years of the committee it was concerned with criminal justice, the expansion of the judicial systems to new territories and states, and judicial salaries. However, in the following years, and due to the civil rights and civil liberties movement in USA, the committees jurisdictions were broadened to include more issues concerning these movements as well as the protection of the American population from individual crimes, the broadening included discussing issues as terrorism, human rights, immigration laws, intellectual properties, anti-trust laws, and internet privacy.

As it’s mainly concerned with the oversight of departments of justice and FBI (Federal bureau of investigation), and the Department of Homeland Security, the Judiciary Committee plays an important role in the consideration of nominations and pending legislation.

Chairmanship:

The Chairman:

The Ranking Member:

144 [“Committee on the Judiciary, About the Committee” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/]145 [“Committee on the Judiciary, Committee Jurisdiction” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/jurisdiction.cfm]

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Sen. Patrick Leahy (Democrat-Vermont)

MAC 2012: Committee on JudiciaryRevolutions spread all over the Arab world; Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Syria, last spring, spreading the principles of justice and dignity for their people, insisting on the fact that Arabs should be treated as the people of civilized, citizen-respecting states.

Due to the beginning of this new Arab dawn, the Committee on Judiciary in the model has decided this year to increase the awareness of the Egyptian youth on issues they thought they would never be granted the chance to discuss in fear of such corrupted regimes.

Criminal justice, it is fact that the debate going on the efficiency of the rehabilitative justice system and the retributive justice system; including capital punishment, creates more ambiguity about the direction the criminal justice system is going everywhere, the committee works on enhancing the understanding of the several aspects needed to discuss when facing criminal justice issues, in order for the youth to share their well-based thoughts and opinions about the suitable system.

Another new issue that faces all civilized communities, including the Arab community, is euthanasia, the broadened view to this issue will be clearly explained and thoroughly discussed in the committee, leaving the educated youth with the choice to support this act or not.

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Sen. Chuck Grassley (Republican-Iowa)

Outline:

First Topic: Criminal Justice Introduction to criminal justice. The history of criminal justice.

First Sub-topic: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution Retributive Justice

o Definition and introduction to the system.o The history and origin of the system.o The system in Religion.o The system in the USA.

Rehabilitative Justiceo Definition and introduction to the system.o The history and origin of the system.o The basis of the system.

The Debate:o The objectivity of each system.o The systems in regards to the criminal's

circumstances.o The better basis of determining a sentence.o The practicality of rehabilitative justice.o Special considerations to imprisonment.

Studies in Deterrence. Financially, cost efficiency. Polls. Proposed solutions:

Second Sub-topic: Death Penalty

Definition and introduction to death penalty. The history of death penalty and capital

punishment:o Worldwide and in the USA.

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Crimes punishable by death penalty. Methods of execution. Pros and cons of death penalty as a punishment:

o The effects of the death penalty on the society

Death penalty's acceptability in religion. Financially, cost efficiency. Cases.

Second Topic: Euthanasia

Definitions. Cases where Euthanasia is possible. Stages and Procedures of Euthanasia. Classifications of Euthanasia. History of euthanasia. The medical and ethical aspects of euthanasia. Famous cases. The religious aspect of euthanasia. The legal background of euthanasia. Famous acts and court trials. The financial/economical aspect of euthanasia. Statistical facts about euthanasia.

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C

riminal Justice"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere."- Martin Luther King Jr.

◆ Introduction to Criminal Justice:

Criminal Justice, Punishment and Corrections in America are a crucial part of the United States’ criminal justice system. The United States has the largest inmate population in the world, with more than 2.5 million in prisons or jails. The roots of corrections in America can be traced back to the European system that was used in England, France, and Holland at the time when early colonists first arrived in this country.

✿The History of Criminal Justice:

OLD AND NEW COVENANT }146{

The history of crime begins in the first book of the Bible which dates back at least seven thousand years. In Exodus 21: 24, the oft misquoted "Eye for an eye" verse, when read in context is a statement of the modern "rule of proportionality" standard used on our courts today. That is, the pay-back (penalty) is proportionate to the harm actually caused. This is a legal principle in Biblical, Rabbinical and Common Law. It has nearly always been understood that this verse was not a literal eye but representative of the "worth" of an eye. In other words, the context of Exodus 21 is "value for value".

ENGLISH COMMON LAW }147{

Along with the evolution of time, the rules and principles of criminal justice have evolved as well, from the old and new covenant periods to English Common Law era, which started by the emphasis of the concept of "The State of Nature" which was explained by its creator John Locke as "..the state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of possessions and

146 [“Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justice” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm]147 [“Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justice” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm]

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John Locke

1stTopic

persons as they see fit. Every man or government is in a state of nature when there exists no civil authority to settle a dispute between them. They have not surrendered themselves to a common judge."

Sir William Blackstone was a legal scholar during this period whose Commentaries on the Law of England became the guiding influence on English (and American) Law for three hundred years. He developed and articulated many legal principles which are Biblical in origin and anyone familiar with the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Constitution will recognize the principles advanced by Blackstone. Among those principles are the theories on Civil duties: "Every citizen who wishes to share in the benefits of social order." In other words, there can be no liberty without responsibility.

The list below is a partial list of the principles of criminal justice which became part of the written law during this period.

1. "Justice is proportionate to our actions."2. "Justice is retributive."3. "Justice is vindicatory." (Provides sanction against the offender)4. "Justice is compensatory." (Restores to the victim)5. "Judgment under the law is declaratory." (Declares what is right)6. "Judgment under the law is remedial." (Corrects what is wrong)7. "Judgment under the law is directive." (Directs behavior)8. "Inalienable right to property. Citizens cannot be forced to give up rights to

property unless they are found guilty of a crime which amounts to forfeiture."9. "Citizens cannot be treated like criminals unless they have been tried and

convicted as criminals.

MODERN THEORY }148{

As criminal law developed in the 20th century, American Jurisprudence moved further and further away from common law principle that a crime consisted of two elements, a guilty deed [Actus Rea] plus a guilty mind [Mens Rea]. The requirement of an act is one that is evidence of a choice being made and choice, of course, brings into question the state of mind (drug induced, emotion induced, medical/psychological aspects). In an effort to make the criminal justice system more uniform and predictable, judges and legal theorists sought to marginalize the element of "intent". They sought to blur the lines between criminal law and civil law by minimizing, or eliminating altogether, the requirement of mens rea.

148 [“Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justice” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm]

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Sir William Blackstone

◆ First Sub-topic: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution:Imprisonment was less common in the early colonial years, but the jail system

soon found its way into being a staple of corrections in America. It wasn’t until the late 19th century that prisons in America shifted their focus – rather than just existing to punish criminals, prisons would now set goals to rehabilitate offenders through both education and skilled labor. Corrections in America would also make it a point to dedicate efforts towards mentally and emotionally re-training criminals so that they will be able to re-enter society when their sentence is complete.

◆First: Retributive Justice ◆✿Introduction to Punishment:

Retributive justice is defined as the theory that considers punishment a morally acceptable response to crime, as long as it is proportionate to the offense. The maxim, "Let the punishment fit the crime" often summarizes the principle adopted in western society; that punishment should be functioning as a deterrent, however although deterrence to the society is one of the main goals of punishment, retributive justice considers that punishment should be determined primarily (possibly even only) by the seriousness of the crime itself, and not by the extent of deterrence that this punishment provides in the behavior of members in the society. {149}

It is a very serious mistake to think that the retributive ideal in the criminal justice system is about vengeance, retaliation or payback. Rather, it is an extremely sophisticated idea that often forms the basis of, and arguably is even the leading indication of, a developed sentencing system. {150}

Applied to the international stage, retributive justice represents the type of justice that international institutions such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) attempt to realize.

149 [“International Debate Education Association, Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=307]150 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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- The Early History of Punishment:The Code of Hammurabi that was written around 1750 BC was the first settlement of retributive justice. In this code, the abiding principle was "Talio" which had to do for mutilating or amputating the part of the body that had committed a crime. {151}

- Punishment in Religion:

Moving on, after The Kingdom of Hammurabi, came the Ten Commandments which summarized the citizen’s duty under law. In the first five books of the Bible, known as the Torah (Law), Biblical punishments follow Hammurabi. Crimes under the Biblical laws were a violation of God’s will and had to be punished for. The legal tenants of the Torah were complimented by interpretations of the Mishnah (oral law) and the Talmud (an encyclopedic compilation of legal debates. The tenants of Jewish law have three purposes. They are "Retributive" (punishing the criminal for his act), "Deterrent" (severe enough to intimidate others from committing the crime) and "Expiatory" (attempting to obtain God's forgiveness). Punishments included: {152}

a) Imprisonment, which was reserved for repeat offenders who had been convicted twice before.

b) Banishment (forcing an offender to leave his home and go abroad or to another region either permanently or for a fixed period of time).

c) Sympathetic punishment (where the offender receives the same injury that he inflicted on his victim. “Life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, burning for burning. The Bible, Exodus 21:23”) was ruled for offenses against the person.

d) Flogging (also known as whipping) was the preferred punishment for a total of 168 offenses including seven types of incest and eight violations of dietary laws.

e) Fines were reserved for property crimes and minor bodily injuries.There were 36 capital crimes including murder, sexual offenses, and witchcraft. The Bible lists three methods of execution; stoning, burning and decapitation. Stoning was the most common method used mainly for crimes that affected the well being of the whole community including sex crimes. Death by burning was the punishment for nine categories of incest and one of adultery-that of sex with a married daughter of a priest. Decapitation (execution by cutting off the criminal's head) was reserved for willful murderers and those convicted of communal apostasy (the renunciation of religion). Capital cases had to be tried by at least 23 judges who needed a majority of at least two to convict. {153}

151 [Lewis Lyon, The History of Punishment (The Lyons Press, 2003). http://wcprg.org/History.pdf]152 [Tim Lambert, “A Brief History of Punishments”, Local Histories, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.localhistories.org/pun.html]153 [Lewis Lyon, The History of Punishment (The Lyons Press, 2003). http://wcprg.org/History.pdf]

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Hammurabi

- Punishment in USA:

In the early years of the United States there was no prison system but sentences consisted of fines, whippings, public humiliation, and banishment. The reform movement focused on the issue of freedom which had been the basis of the American Revolution. Different states enacted laws to reduce the brutality of incarceration and developed procedures to turn the offender into a law abiding citizen. Competition between New York and Pennsylvania focused on the activities of prisoners. In the New York prisons at Auburn and in Ossining prisoners slept alone one to a cell. They were forbidden to speak or engage in any form of contact. In the Pennsylvania system the prisoner was isolated with his only reading material being the Bible. His only diversion was work to complete in his cell, usually the spinning of wool. In the 1860’s and 1870’s the habit of handing down long sentences had begun and helped to create the huge and overcrowded system that still exists. The US prison system is not only the largest but probably the first large prison system which today comprises some 2.5 million inhabitants.

◆Second: Rehabilitative Justice ◆

✿Introduction to Rehabilitation:

Rehabilitation is the idea of ‘curing’ an offender of his or her criminal tendencies, of changing their habits, their outlook and possibly even personality, so as to make them less inclined to commit crimes in the future. It seeks to prevent a person from reoffending by taking away the desire to offend. This is very different from the idea of ‘deterrence’ (which is the idea of making him afraid to offend, though he may still desire to), and the idea of ‘incapacitation’ (which is the idea of taking away his physical power to offend, though he may still desire to and be unafraid to).

Reformists have taken criminal justice to a whole new level by creating the rehabilitation system in criminology and penology. Not only did they enhance the way to deal with criminals from punishing to curing, but also they innovated a new

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concept called "Restorative Justice" where the offender is made to confront his victim, often in the company of the victim's family, and representatives of the society in which the offence took place. These initiatives taken by the reformists were made according to their belief in helping the offenders instead of punishing them.154

- The History of Rehabilitation:

Rehabilitative strategies came to the fore in many Western penal systems in the 1960s. They remain prominent in sentencing policy in many European countries. Although today community-based sanctions would be seen as the most clearly rehabilitative type of sentence, the idea of prison itself having a beneficial reforming effect has had a longer history. The main principle on which prisons were established was that of enforced isolation, causing the offender to contemplate his or her sins and need for redemption. Throughout the nineteenth century the rhetoric of reformation persisted even within the harshest penal regimes. The reformative model then became reinvented in the twentieth century in terms of behavioral science, and reached its high point in the 'medical' or 'treatment' model widely accepted in US prisons in the 1960s.155

- The main questions that the reformists base the rehabilitation system upon are:

Does Prison Work? Why should the judiciary be prevented from locking up more people, if that leads

to a fall in crime? Could it be that the fall in crime rates is because we are locking more people up in

the first place, as has been claimed?There are three points to be made in relation to this question, all of which illustrate strongly the danger of over-using imprisonment.

First, international research shows that decreases in crime rates may be attributed to multiple factors, usually independently of the amount of people put into prison. Secondly, prison research has proved that prison does not work according to simple recidivism criteria. Researches carried out showed that each prisoner had on average clocked up ten previous terms of imprisonment - hardly an indication of the potential of prison for rehabilitation. Thirdly, just as imprisonment disproportionately affects ethnic minorities in other countries, so too does it disproportionately affect the young working-class males in the US society.

154 [Jud Evans, “Deterrence, Retribution and Rehabilitation”, Evans-Experientalism.com, accessed February 28, 2012. http://evans-experientialism.freewebspace.com/evans_retribution.htm]155 [Ivana Bacik, “Crime and Punishment - Retribution of Rehabilitation”, The Bar Council of Ireland, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawlibrary.ie/viewdoc.asp?Docid=144&Catid=18&StartDate=01+January+2001]

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This is because offenders do not in fact commit crime as a result of a rational choice, but in the context of their circumstances, the reformists claim. Research that has been recently carried out into the links between economic deprivation and crime found that an apparently significant variation in sentencing exists depending on disadvantage. In total, 29 per cent of those defendants from the most deprived areas were found to receive custodial sentences, compared to 19 per cent of those from the least deprived areas. It was also found that defendants from more deprived areas are 49 per cent more likely to receive a custodial sentence than those from less deprived areas, once other variables are taken into account. In other words, the findings indicate that the economic deprivation of a particular community may be a factor leading to the increased likelihood of a custodial sentence for those defendants, particularly the young men, from that community. {156}

◆ THE DEBATE ◆

Is rehabilitation a more just objective than retribution? {157}

Yes

Rehabilitation is the more humanizing and dignified objective. It is the most valuable

ideological justification for

punishment, for it alone promotes

the humanizing belief in the notion

that offenders can be saved and not

simply punished. The rehabilitative

ideal alone conveys the message

that the state has an obligation to

help those who fall short of the

standards of behavior it has set.

These people are often those with

the greatest social disadvantages

that have constrained them to a life

in crime in the first place.

No

Punishment signals clearly that certain conduct is wrong. The purpose of

punishment is to show disapproval for the

offender’s wrongdoing, and to clearly

condemn his criminal actions. This is why

we punish; we punish to censure

(retribution), we do not punish merely to

help a person change for the better

(rehabilitation). We still have to punish a

robber or a murderer, even if he is truly

sorry and even if he would really, really

never offend again and even if we could

somehow tell that for certain. This is

because justice, and not rehabilitation,

makes sense as the justification for

punishment. Why is justice and censure

(‘retribution’) so important? Because unless

156 [Ivana Bacik, “Crime and Punishment - Retribution of Rehabilitation”, The Bar Council of Ireland, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawlibrary.ie/viewdoc.asp?Docid=144&Catid=18&StartDate=01+January+2001]157 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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Punishment for punishment's sake (desert) is wrong in a decent society. Desert (retributive) theory,

on the other hand, sees punishment

as an end in itself, in other words,

punishment for punishment’s sake.

This has no place in any

enlightened society.

Retributive justice replaces the interests of society with ideology. Rehabilitative ideal does not ignore

society and the victim. In fact it is

because it places such great value

on their rights that it tries so hard to

change the offender and prevent his

re-offending. By seeking to

reducing re-offending and to reduce

crime, it seeks constructively to

promote society’s right to safety,

and to protect individuals from the

victimization of crime.

the criminal justice system responds to

persons who have violated society’s rules by

communicating, through punishment, the

censure of that offending conduct, the

system will fail to show society that it takes

its own rules (and the breach of them)

seriously.

Punishment acknowledges to victims that they have been wronged. Punishment, in

other words, may be justified by the aim of

achieving ‘justice’ and ‘desert’, and not by

the aim of rehabilitation.

Does rehabilitative justice better account for circumstances of offender? {158}

Yes

Rehabilitation acknowledges the reality of social inequity. To say

that some offenders need help to be

rehabilitated is to accept the idea

that circumstances can constrain, if

not compel, and lead to criminality;

No

Crime is not a product of circumstances; punishment fosters accountability. Crime

is not pathology, it is not the product of

circumstance, and it is certainly not the

product of coincidence. It is the result of

choices made by the individual, and

158 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

139

it admits that we can help

unfortunate persons who have been

overcome by their circumstance. It

rejects the idea that individuals,

regardless of their position in the

social order, exercise equal

freedom in deciding whether to

commit a crime, and should be

punished equally according to their

offense, irrespective of their social

backgrounds. Policies that ignore

these realities foster hardships that

will fall primarily and

disproportionately on the already

disadvantaged, and deepen the

resentment that many inmates find

difficult to suppress upon their

release back into such a society.

therefore the justice system must condemn

those choices when they violate society’s

rules. To say otherwise (i.e. to say that

criminals are merely the product of their

unfortunate circumstances) would be an

insult to ideas of free will, human autonomy

and individual choice – it would be to deny

the possibility of human actors making good

decisions in the face of hardship.

Retribution alone best recognizes the

offender’s status as a moral agent, by asking

that he take responsibility for what he has

done, rather than to make excuses for it. It

appeals to an inherent sense of right and

wrong, and in this way is the most

respectful to humanity because it recognizes

that persons are indeed fundamentally

capable of moral deliberation, no matter

what their personal circumstances are.

Which is a better basis for determining sentencing? {159}

Yes

As a guide to the sentencing decisions

of judges, having rehabilitation as a

goal provides the most flexible and

sensible direction. With rehabilitation

as a guide sentences can give a penitent

offender, or an offender who has

learned from his mistakes (i.e. a self-

rehabilitated offender), the chance to

receive a lighter sentence. On the other

hand it can give offenders a different or

No

Retribution advocates that more serious crimes

should be punished more seriously, because the

more severe the violation of our rules, the

greater the censure that is needed. It means that

if X, a pickpocket, would get punishment A,

then Y, a robber who uses force and then rapes

his victim should get a proportionately more

severe punishment, punishment B. The idea is

‘proportionality’, not ‘equivalence’ – nobody is

suggesting we should rob Y and then rape him

159 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

140

tougher sentence to help them reform,

if they are less likely to reform.

Retribution, by contrast, merely

advocates “an eye for an eye, a tooth

for a tooth”. This simplistic notion of

vengeance is primitive if not barbaric,

and should not be encouraged in

society.

to “pay him back”. It is thus very different from

the idea of an “an eye for an eye”. What matters

is merely that more serious crimes are treated

proportionately more seriously. Punishment A

may one month’s probation while B may be 10

years imprisonment. By contrast, under a

rehabilitative model where the goal was the

reformation of the offender, the pickpocket may

well get 10 years imprisonment if he looks like

he is not going to reform, while the robber-rapist

may get one month’s probation if he is repentant

– a result that is surely ridiculous. When it

comes to deciding the quantum of punishment,

proportionality (retribution) is the only

consistent and fair approach.

Does rehabilitation actually work? {160}

Yes

Studies show rehabilitation programs are effective. If we could

find a medicine that would ‘cure’

some offenders so they would never

offend again, would we really not

want it? Even if it only worked for

some people, is that not still

worthwhile? It is no different with

rehabilitative programs – we should

certainly support them if they can be

shown to work. And indeed, the most

recent studies show that they do.

Such programs include cognitive-

behavioral programs (say, trying to

get a violent offender to think and

No

Rehabilitation programs are not reliable enough. While some

rehabilitative programs work with some

offenders (those who would probably

change by themselves anyway), most do

not. Many programs cannot overcome, or

even appreciably reduce, the powerful

tendency for offenders to continue in

criminal behavior. They simply do not

work. ‘Rehabilitation’ is therefore a false

promise – and the danger with such an

illusory and impossible goal is that it is

used as a front to justify keeping

offenders locked up for longer than they

deserve and sometimes even indefinitely

160 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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react differently to potential ‘trigger’

situations), pro-social modeling

programs, and some sex-offender

treatment programs. The most

credible research (done by a

technique called meta-analysis)

demonstrates that the net effect of

treatment is, on average, a positive

reduction of overall recidivism (re-

offending) rates of between 10% and

12%, which would promote a

reduction in crime.

Prison as punishment does not effectively deter criminals. Stuart

Henry, Ph.D.., Professor and Chair of

Interdisciplinary Studies, College of

Urban, Labor and Metropolitan

Affairs, Wayne State University. "On

the Effectiveness of Prison as

Punishment". Paper presented at the

Conference: Incarceration Nation:

The Warehousing of America’s Poor.

October 24, 2003: "One might

conclude that those incarcerated are

less likely to be rational, cost-benefit

calculators. Indeed, a look at

incarcerated offenders' criminal

history supports exactly this point.

Data shows that the national re-arrest

rate is 63%, although can be as high

as 84% for juveniles, but that 76% of

the state prison population has a

previous criminal history of prior

convictions. The data for 1997 shows

that almost half of those with prior

convictions are for violent offenses.

(‘if we keep him here longer maybe he

might change’). We cannot justify passing

any heavier or more onerous a sentence

on a person in the name of

“rehabilitation” if “rehabilitation” does

not work.

It is too hard to tell if rehabilitation has "worked." The question “does it work?”

must be joined by a second question:

“even if it does work, how can you tell,

with each individual offender, when it has

worked?” This provides further problems

with subscribing to the rehabilitative

ideal, argued below.

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Importantly, 59% of recidivists have

more than two previous convictions

and 43% have more than 3

convictions. Clearly, the threat of

prison as punishment did not work for

the majority of these offenders. This

picture of the deterrence effect of

prison as punishment is further

undermined when examining the

kinds of crimes that those in state

prison have committed."

Imprisonment: A special consideration. {161}

Yes

Rehabilitation is not only important when the court is deciding on the sentence. It is also important when it comes to actually carrying out the punishment. This is perhaps the clearest with sentences of imprisonment. The role of the criminal justice system does not end with the pronouncement of a sentence – for what is to happen to the offender while he is serving his time in prison? Surely we should be trying to help him change: we should provide him with meaningful skills training, with behavioral-treatment programs, with counseling and so on. In other words, we should be trying to rehabilitate him while he

No

The goal of “rehabilitation” is at its most dangerous when it is applied in the context of actually carrying out the punishment of imprisonment; that is, when it is used as a criteria for release decisions. For how can any prison staff, parole officer or even psychologist ever tell that a person “has reformed” or “probably will not offend again”? Evidence has shown that such vast discretion given to treatment staff, guided only by the grand ideal of “rehabilitation”, has systematically produced unfair, incorrect and even racially discriminatory results. Indeed, on what basis can they make any fair, sensible decision? The sad answer is that, since one can never tell if an offender is “cured”, having “rehabilitation” as the goal forces the decision to be made be based on statistical ‘risk factors’ like whether the

161 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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is in imprison (since he is going to be there anyway), instead of just thinking that the job is done. This rehabilitation also plays a role in determining the content of punishment and the shape that it takes.

person belongs to a racial group that is statistically likely to reoffend, or whether the person belongs to an economic underclass that makes him statistically likely to reoffend. Of course all this does is to double-penalize the offender for something he cannot help, such as his race or his poverty. It also leads to what is sometimes called “back-end sentencing”: the offender is sentenced once in court, but in reality he is sentenced again out-of-court – because the final date of his release depends entirely on parole officers or prison staff.

Deterrence:- Study number 1) {162}

To the right is a chart that looks at the re-arrest records of those that have been released into society in 1984 and 1993, courtesy of the Bureau of Justice Statistics.  This chart shows two things:

1. The US criminal justice system does little to help those arrested change the patterns in their life that lead to crime.

2. The US system is getting worse, as is shown in the increase in arrest rates from 1984 to 1993.

The system has gotten especially worse in relation to drug offenses, with the rate changing from 50.4% to 66.7%. Overall in 1994, 61.7% of those released back into society have been re-arrested and 46.9 have been convicted within three years of their release.

- Study number 2) 2002 Study: {163}

162 [“The Mindful Mission”, Retribution vs. Rehabilitation, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.mindfulmission.com/index.php/2006/02/01/retribution_vs_rehabilitation]163 [“Crime in America”, Percent of Released Prisoners Returning to Incarceration, accessed February 28, 2012. http://crimeinamerica.net/2010/09/29/percent-of-released-prisoners-returning-to-incarceration/]

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TWO-THIRDS OF FORMER STATE PRISONERS REARRESTED FOR SERIOUS NEW CRIMES

WASHINGTON, D.C.—Sixty-seven percent of former inmates released from state prisons in 1994 committed at least one serious new crime within the following three years.

This was a rearrest rate 5 percent higher than that among prisoners released during 1983.

State prisoners with the highest rearrest rates were those who had been incarcerated for stealing motor vehicles (79 percent), possessing or selling stolen property (77 percent), larceny (75 percent), burglary (74 percent), robbery (70 percent) or those using, possessing or trafficking in illegal weapons (70 percent).

Those with the lowest rearrest rates were former inmates who had been in prison for homicide (41 percent), sexual assault (41 percent), rape (46 percent) or driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol (51 percent).

About 1 percent of the released prisoners who had served time for murder were arrested for another homicide within three years, and about 2 percent of the rapists were arrested for another rape within that period.

Within three years, 52 percent of the 272,111 released prisoners were back in prison either because of a new crime or because they had violated their parole conditions (e.g., failed a drug test, missed a parole office appointment).

Men were more likely to be rearrested than were women (68 percent, compared to 58 percent), blacks more likely than whites (73 percent vs. 63 percent) and non-Hispanics more than Hispanics (71 percent vs. 65 percent).

Younger prisoners and those with longer records were also more likely to be rearrested.

Post-prison recidivism was strongly related to arrest history.

Among prisoners with one arrest prior to their release, 41 percent were rearrested. Of those with two prior arrests, 47 percent were rearrested. Of those with three earlier arrests, 55 percent were rearrested. Among those with more than 15 prior arrests, that is about 18 percent of all released prisoners, 82 percent were rearrested within the three-year period.

The 272,111 inmates had accumulated more than 4.1 million arrest charges prior to their current imprisonment and acquired an additional 744,000 arrest charges in the 3 years following their discharge in 1994 – an average of about 18 criminal arrest charges per offender during their criminal careers.

These charges included almost 21,000 homicides, 200,000 robberies, 50,000 rapes and sexual assaults and almost 300,000 assaults.

Almost 8 percent of all released prisoners were rearrested for a new crime in a state other than the one that released them. These alleged offenders were charged with committing 55,760 new crimes in states other than the imprisoning state within the

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three-year period. New York, Arizona and California had the most arrests of out-of-state offenders in this study.

The data were from the largest recidivism study ever conducted in the United States, which tracked prisoners discharged in 15 states representing two-thirds of all state prisoners released in 1994.

They were 91 percent male, 50 percent white, 48 percent black, 24 percent Hispanic (of any race) and 44 percent were younger than 30 years old.

Most of them had been in prison for felonies: 22 percent for a violent offense (such as murder, rape, sexual assault or robbery), 33 percent for a serious property offense (mostly burglary, motor vehicle theft or fraud), 33 percent for a drug offense (primarily drug trafficking or possession) and 10 percent for public order offenses (mainly drunk driving or weapons crimes).

Most former convicts were rearrested shortly after getting out of prison: 30 percent within six months, 44 percent within a year, 59 percent within two years and 67 percent by the end of three years.

The study findings are based upon the prison and criminal records of an estimated 272,111 discharged prisoners in 15 states who were tracked through fingerprints records made at various points of contact with the justice system, both within the state in which they had served time and other states to which they traveled.

- Study number 3) {164}

Possibly one of the most significant studies on recidivism (defined for this report as a return to prison) was offered by the Pew Center on the States, Pew Safety Performance Project and released in April, 2011.

The study analyzed returns to prison for 33 states for those released in 1999 and 41 states for those released in 2004 making the study the most comprehensive analysis of returns to prison ever done.

The report compared earlier studies on recidivism conducted by the US Department of Justice for 15 states for releases in 1983 and 1994 and concluded that recidivism rates “have consistently remained around 40 percent.” California was excluded from this finding due to that state’s large percentage of the nation’s prison population and the fact that California’s rate of return to prison is traditionally high.

The report singles out three states, Oregon, Michigan and Missouri for lowering rates of return to prison.

It followed offenders for three years and tracked results. The study found that:

Two-thirds (sixty-seven) of offenders were arrested for “serious” crimes.

164 [“Crime in America”, Percent of Released Prisoners Returning to Incarceration, accessed February 28, 2012. http://crimeinamerica.net/2010/09/29/percent-of-released-prisoners-returning-to-incarceration/]

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Fifty-two percent of the offenders were returned to prison for “serious” crimes and technical violations (they didn’t follow the rules of their release after prison).

The study found two primary variables in recidivism which seem to be present in virtually all past and current studies:

Younger prisoners and those with longer records were more likely to be rearrested.

Post-prison recidivism was strongly related to arrest history.

Cost Efficiency & Polls:It is argued by those who are pro-rehabilitation that the rehabilitation system costs much less than the retributive justice system, as fewer jails would be needed, by that they are making good use of studies that have proven that Incarceration mainly costs more than rehabilitation. For example, in California an average cost of a prisoner is

$35,000 per year to sustain his/her life, while elderly inmates, who require more care, cost an average of $70,000 per year. Their arguments might even reach an extent of turning up to 80% of jails into rehabilitation centers for criminals! They also argue that the country spends so much money to punish the criminals whether in jail or any other sort of punishment, yet the crime rate, as shown in the graph above is remarkably increasing.

Much realistic reformists have suggested directing the money used for jail enhancement and imprisonment reforms in states, to the enhancement of rehabilitation

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centers, in order to get the centers ready to serve their goals of turning the criminals into better citizens. They claim that these enhancements would be reflecting the people's demands; however these claims are backed by polls made to the people.

On the other hand, people pro-retribution claim that introducing the rehabilitation system to criminal justice will cost the building of new rehabilitation centers, as well as providing doctors and tutors that develop rehabilitation programs for each and every inmate on their own, they did not also forget about the commodities that will be needed for the inmates in the rehabilitation centers. Regarding the imprisonment reform, people pro-retribution claim that reform will always cost much less than the introduction of a new system and in itself is a step towards correcting the previous mistakes and shortcomings of the imprisonment system in order to enhance its applicability, and increase its efficiency in deterrence along with punishment.

◆ Polls have been conducted, asking the following questions:165

Q: Generally speaking, do you think that the inmates who have served their time and are released back into society today are more likely, about the same, or less likely than they were before their imprisonment to commit future crimes?

Only 14% of the total respondents thought that prisoners are less likely (vs. more likely or the same) to commit future crimes after serving their time and being released from prison. Over 40% of those polled thought that inmates returning to society were just as likely to commit more crime as they were when they entered prison, and 34% thought that after prison, inmates are more likely to commit future crime. Respondents answered similarly despite differences of economic status, gender, ethnicity, and political persuasion.

Q: Following are four alternative prison policies that California’s prison system could follow for people who have committed property crimes or drug-related offenses. Which would you prefer the state implement?

Treat prison as punishment, and do not offer rehabilitation services to inmates either during their time in prison or after their release.

Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates only while they are serving time in prison.

Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates only after they have been released from prison.

165 [Barry Krisberg, Jessie Cranie, and Susan Marchionna “Attitudes of Californians Toward Effective Correctional Policies”, Views from the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 2004, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/bitstreams/5828.pdf]

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Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates both while they are serving time and after they have been released from prison.

Californians clearly (almost 8 to 1) favor using state funds for rehabilitation over a system that only punishes inmates for drug and property offenses. Merely 8% favor punishment only, while 63% favor rehabilitation both during prison time and after release. Some prefer education and rehabilitation only during detention (13%) and some only post-release (11%). A small number (5%) are uncertain.

Even areas that are typically conservative, whose residents have in the past opposed such measures, now are largely in support of a rehabilitation model.

Q: Which of these four alternative policies do you think would cost the state of California the least in the long run?

By a margin of almost 2 to 1 (45% to 24%), Californians believe that rehabilitating and educating offenders both during their incarceration and after their release from

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prison would be least costly to the state in the long run. Others favored a smaller scope—services in prison only (16%) and post-release only (8%).

Q: “When they leave prison, inmates have no more life skills than they had before they entered prison.” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Of those polled, 66% believe that a lack of life skills is a major factor in recidivism; another 19% believe it to be a minor factor. Only 11% believe that a lack of life skills is not a factor in recidivism.

Q: “Once a criminal, always a criminal” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Q: “The experience of prison reinforces criminal behavior.” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Only 29% of respondents thought that criminality is irreparable and a major factor in recidivism, while another 29% thought it a minor factor, and 38% thought it not at all a factor. In addition, 59% believe that the experience of being in prison is a major factor in subsequent offending and returning to prison, while another 27% consider it a minor factor, and only 10% think that it is not at all a factor.

Q: In the November 2000 general election, California voters approved Proposition 36, which changed state laws to require probation and drug treatment, rather than prison terms, for persons convicted of possessing or using illegal drugs. The new law does not apply to those convicted of the sale and manufacturing of illegal drugs, who could still be sentenced to prison terms. If Proposition 36 were being voted on again this year, would you be inclined to vote YES or NO?

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Of likely voters, 73% would vote for Proposition 36 today. Prop 36 was passed by 61% of California voters in November of 2000.

Q: Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “The crime problem would be reduced if fewer offenders were sent to prison and instead were re-educated and rehabilitated out of prison.”

A total of 56% of respondents agree that education and rehabilitation would help reduce California’s crime problem. When a similar question was asked by the Field Research Corporation in 1982, only 35% of Californians agreed.

The summary of the poll came as the following:"Over the past several decades, California has experimented with a variety of sentencing policies to reduce crime. Most of those reforms have emphasized increasing punishment. These survey data suggest that the state’s public is looking for a reconsideration of these policies. Californians are now saying that punishment alone does not deter crime and that they favor a correctional system that includes rehabilitation as a core operating principle."

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◆ Proposed Solutions to the Debate:

A hybrid system can be created, a system that contains rehabilitation to criminals while doing their time in imprisonment. The main advantage of such a system, is that it provides a compromise between the two extremes, as the imprisonment will stay applicable, and punishment won't be deleted, but alongside punishment there will be also rehabilitation programs to the victims created separately for each victim by specialists, in order to achieve both goals of the two systems, creating a better person of the criminal, as well as deterrence to the society. However the main shortcoming of this hybrid system is that it is financially very costly, as it determines more specialties, more space, more commodities, more programs, more restrictions, and more legal and executive reform.

Another proposed idea, is applying the rehabilitation system on certain crimes that the system proves its efficiency when applied to them, while on the other crimes, retribution is obligatory. However, this needs a long time of experiment, and previous statistical results have proven failure for both systems when applied on different criminals for different crimes regarding the rates of returning to crime!

A third party of thought says that the right of determining the ruling of a crime or a criminal's need of either system should be given to the judge following the case. This gives more capacity to judges to find or even create legal precedence regarding this issue, as they won't have to go through the law whenever they want to see which case deserves what system, however judges are only human, and them making mistakes is very possible, thus the risk of era here increases, a judge may rule by a certain system, or a certain program for a criminal that proves failure, or even create negative residues against the society in the heart of that criminal.

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Death PenaltyImagine that you are having your last meal before being executed! What if someone came and told you: " you will not be executed you will be given a second chance at life imprisonment"This is the dilemma in America having the death penalty or having an alternative to it, considering that America is a symbol for liberty and human rights and many Americans may favor alternatives calling death penalty inhumane. But what about the families of the victims?! What if the victim was your son or daughter?!

◆ What is Death Penalty?Death penalty sometimes called “Capital punishment”. It is the execution of a person by the state as punishment for a crime. The word "capital" comes from the Latin word "capitalis", which means "regarding the head". At one point and time capital crimes where punished by severing the head.Crimes that can result in the death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offenses (serious crimes, especially murder, which are punishable by death){166}{167}.

◆ Introduction to Death penalty:

✿ Early Death Penalty Laws

The first established death penalty laws date as far back as the Eighteenth Century B.C. in the Code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which codified the death penalty for 25 different crimes.

In the Tenth Century A.D., hanging became the usual method of execution in Britain. In the following century, William the Conqueror would not allow persons to be hanged or otherwise executed for any crime, except in times of war. This trend would not last, for in the Sixteenth Century, under the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. Some common methods of

1661 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Death Penalty”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Death_penalty]1672 [“US Legal, Death Penalty Law”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Death_penalty]

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2nd Subtop

ic

execution at that time were boiling, burning at the stake, hanging, beheading, and drawing and quartering. Executions were carried out for such capital offenses as marrying a Jew, not confessing to a crime, and treason.

The number of capital crimes in Britain continued to rise throughout the next two centuries. By the 1700s, 222 crimes were punishable by death in Britain, including stealing, and cutting down a tree. Because of the severity of the death penalty, many juries would not convict defendants if the offense was not serious, which lead to reforms of Britain's death penalty. From 1823 to 1837, the death penalty was eliminated for over 100 of the 222 crimes punishable by death. (Randa, 1997) {168}

✿The Death Penalty in America

Britain influenced America's use of the death penalty more than any other country. When European settlers came to the new world, they brought the practice of capital punishment. The first recorded execution in the new colonies was that of Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608. Kendall was executed for being a spy for Spain. In 1612, Virginia Governor Sir Thomas Dale enacted the Divine, Moral and Martial Laws, which provided the death penalty for even minor offenses such as stealing grapes, killing chickens, and trading with Indians.

Laws regarding the death penalty varied from colony to colony. The Massachusetts Bay Colony held its first execution in 1630. The New York Colony instituted the Duke's Laws of 1665. Under these laws, offenses such as striking one's mother or father, or denying the "true God," were punishable by death. (Randa, 1997)

✿The Death Penalty Worldwide

According to Amnesty International, 139 countries have abolished the death penalty. In 2010, only one country, Gabon, abolished the death penalty for all crimes. During 2010, 23 countries executed 527 prisoners and at least 2,024 people were sentenced to

1683 [“Death Penalty Information Center”, History of Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/part-i-history-death-penalty#intro]

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death in 67 countries. More than 17,833 people are currently under sentence of death around the world.

Examples of countries permitting death penalty: Libya- Egypt-Afghanistan-Bahrain-China- Bahamas-Barbados-Oman-Sudan-Ethiopia-Malaysia-Nigeria-Qatar-Saudi Arabia-Cuba-Iran-Uganda-Vietnam-United states-Thailand-Lebanon-Bahamas-Bangladesh{169}.

◆Timeline of DP in America:

1908: 1st person sentenced to death in America. The person was hanged for spying for the Spanish government. He was living in Jamestown colony, the 1st British colony in America (in present day Virginia near Williamsburg)

Late 1700s: Successful abolitionist movement. European philosophers start trend.

1774-83: War of Independence. The Colonies fight for freedom from British rule.

1776: Constitution is written.

1777: Thomas Jefferson attempts to change Virginia's death penalty laws so that only murder and treason are punishable by death. His bill, the Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments in Cases Heretofore Capital, is defeated by one vote.

1861-65: Civil War.

1867: Illinois is 1st state to give juries the option of choosing prison time instead of execution for the crime of murder.

1868: The 14th Amendment is added to the Constitution. It will become a focus in future DP debates: the accused have the right to "due process" within the court system.

1914-18: World War I.

1930s: Great Depression.

1941-45: World War II.

1694 [“Info Please”, The Death Penalty Worldwide, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0777460.html#ixzz1dQSeyWSH]

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1948: The UN writes the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It gives everyone the right to life.

1961-75: Vietnam War. America finds a new spirit of activism and embraces social change.

1967-76: DP suspended by the US Supreme Court. Supreme Court rules that constitutional problems with the DP must be resolved before executions can continue. 600 Death Row inmates had their death sentences reduced to life in prison. All states were told by the Supreme Court to rewrite their DP laws.

1972: Furman v. Georgia Court Case (the Supreme Court reviewed this case and also included the similar cases Gregg v. Georgia, Jurek v. Texas and Proffitt v. Florida). The US Supreme Court found the DP laws to be unconstitutional. The laws were deemed cruel and unusual punishment which is in violation of the 8th Amendment of our Constitution: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." The Supreme Court felt allowing a jury to decide sentencing could yield arbitrary results which would not be fair to the defendant and amount to "cruel and unusual punishment." To counteract this, states wrote new laws providing sentencing guidelines to the jury and to the judge.

Note: Appellant: William Henry FurmanAppellee: State of GeorgiaAppellant's Claim: That the Georgia death penalty was cruel and unusual punishment under the Eight and Fourteenth Amendments.Furman's trial was on September 20, 1968. Because he was poor, Furman got a poor man's trial. His court-appointed lawyer, B. Clarence Mayfield, received the regular court-approved fee of just $150. Furman testified in his own defense. He said that when Micke caught him in the kitchen, he started to leave the house backwards and tripped over a wire. When Furman tripped, the gun fired. Furman said he did not mean to kill anyone.Although murder cases can be complicated, Furman's trial lasted just one day. The court rejected Furman's insanity plea and the jury found Furman guilty of murder. Although the evidence suggested Furman killed Micke accidentally, the jury sentenced Furman to death.)

1993: Pope John Paul visits the US and prays for an end to the DP.

1999: The U.N.'s Human Rights group supports a worldwide moratorium on executions.

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2003: Governor of Illinois, George Ryan, commutes all death sentences after 13 people on Death Row are found to be innocent and are freed. He places a moratorium on all future executions in IL.

2004: NY abolishes its DP. The state's high court finds it unconstitutional.

2008: As of April 1, 2008, the Death Penalty was authorized by 37 states, the Federal Government, and the U.S. Military. Those jurisdictions without the Death Penalty include 13 states and the District of Columbia. (Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin).

In 2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court ruled that the use of the electric chair as a method of execution violated the Nebraska Constitution. With no alternative method of execution on the books, Nebraska is practically without a death penalty. In 2004, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the existing death penalty procedures violated the New York Constitution. The New York legislature has made no effort to change the procedures, effectively eliminating the death penalty in the state.

◆Crimes Punishable by death Penalty{170}:

All executions since 1976 have been for murder or conspiracy to commit murder, although other crimes are eligible for the DP depending on what state you are in.

Most states require additional aggravating circumstances to make a murder eligible for the DP. An aggravating circumstance could be a prior felony conviction, kidnapping the murder victim, raping the murder victim or premeditating the crime, depending on what state you are in.

In 1994, tough new anti-crime laws raised the number of crimes punishable by death from 2 to over 60.

The Federal Government has many crimes punishable by death, including:

o Treason (fighting against your own country).o Espionage (spying).o Large scale drug trafficking.o Attempted murder of a witness in a continuing trial.o Murder while committing a civil rights offense.o Murder while robbing a bank. o Murder while killing a cop, a federal judge, or a prison guard.o Murder using weapons of mass destruction.

1705 [“Anti-Death Penalty”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.antideathpenalty.org/crimes.html]

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◆Methods of Execution:

✿Lethal Injection{171}:Lethal injection is the practice of killing a person using a lethal dose of drugs administered intravenously (into the vein).this method was proposed in 1888 as a

means of execution but was first used by Oklahoma in 1977.

- Method: Using a three-drug protocol:

1) Sodium Thiopental or Sodium Pentothal: is a barbiturate (acid) that renders the prisoner

unconscious.2) Pancuronium Bromide: is a muscle relaxant that paralyzes the diaphragm

(respiratory muscle) and lungs.3) Potassium Chloride: causes cardiac arrest (failure of pumping action of

heart).

- Current Application: 16 states and the federal government authorize lethal injection as the sole method of execution. 20 other states provide for lethal injection as the primary method of execution, but provide alternative methods depending upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of the method being held unconstitutional. As of April 1, 2008, 929 (85%) of 1,099 executions performed since 1976 have been by lethal injection, including 443 of the last 448 executions.

- Problems Associated with Lethal Injection:Two men from Georgia and one from Arizona were executed in 2011 using thiopental (barbiturate) the states purchased from a DreamPharma in London. All three inmates reportedly kept their eyes open long after the sodium thiopental was administered, which indicates the drug was ineffective in sedating them. The inmates would then have experienced excruciating pain, but would have been unable to express it, while the two final drugs used in the protocol paralyzed them, stopped their breathing, and induced cardiac arrest. In cases such as these, protocols for assessing the consciousness of the inmates were not followed, calling into question how the rules can be reliably enforced.

✿Electrocution{172}: Passing through the body of the convict a current of electricity of sufficient intensity to cause death, and the application and continuance of such current through the body

1716 [“Death Penalty Focus”, Lethal Injection, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=52]1727 [“Clark County Prosecuting Attorney”, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/methods.htm]

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of such convict shall continue until such convict is dead. In 1888, New York became the first state to adopt electrocution as its method of execution. William Kemmler was the first man to be executed by electrocution in 1890.

- Method: Using a wooden chair with restraints and connections to an electric current. The offender enters the execution chamber and is placed in the electric chair. Chest, arm, and forearm straps are secured and the headgear conceals the offender's face. The metal part of the headpiece consists of a copper wire mesh screen to which the electrode is brazened. A wet sponge is placed between the electrode and the offender's scalp. The safety switch is closed. The circuit breaker is engaged. The execution control panel is activated.

Problems Associated with Electrocution: The most common problems encountered include burning of varying degrees to parts of the body, and a failure of the procedures to cause death without repeated shocks. Witness accounts of many botched executions over the years have caused electrocution to be replaced with lethal injection as the most common method of execution.

✿Lethal Gas{173}: Killing the offender by placing him in a chamber containing lethal gas. Nevada became the first state to adopt execution by lethal gas in 1924 and carried out the first execution in 1924. The gas chamber is now only available as an option to inmates in California and Arizona.

- Method: The use of a steel airtight execution chamber equipped with a chair and attached restraints where the executioner opens a valve which allows hydrochloric acid to flow

1738 [“Clark County Prosecuting Attorney”, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/methods.htm]

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into a pan behind the chair. He then adds a quantity of potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide crystals into the acid by pulling a lever. The resulting chemical interaction produces white puffy clouds of lethal hydrocyanic gas. This gas affects the ability of the body to process blood hemoglobin and unconsciousness generally occurs within a few seconds after the prisoner takes a breath. If the prisoner tries to hold their breath, the process can take much longer and can cause convulsions.  It is comparable to having a severe heart attack. After the After the prisoner is pronounced dead, usually within five to fifteen minutes, air filters are turned on and corrections officers wearing gas masks enter the chamber to confirm death. Prisoner is pronounced dead, usually within five to fifteen minutes, air filters are turned on and corrections officers wearing gas masks enter the chamber to confirm death.

- Problems Associated with Lethal gas: The most common problems encountered are the obvious agony suffered by the inmate and the length of time to cause death and difficulty of safely maintaining these facilities, some of which were shown to be at risk for leaks.

✿Hanging{174}: The condemned prisoner is weighed prior to the execution using gallows. It is the oldest method of execution in the United States, but fell into disfavor in the 20th century and was replaced by electrocution as the most common method. Today, hanging is only available as an option to condemned inmates in Washington State.

- Method:The inmate, in restraints, is escorted to the gallows area and is placed standing over a hinged trap door from which the offender will be dropped. Following the offender's last statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. Restraints are also applied. If the offender refuses to stand or cannot stand, he is placed on a collapse board. A determination of the proper amount of the drop of the condemned offender through the trap door is calculated using a standard military execution chart for hanging. The "drop" must be based on the prisoner's weight, to deliver 1260 foot-pounds of force to the neck. The noose is then placed snugly around the convict's neck, behind his or her left ear, which will cause the neck to snap. The trap door then opens, and the convict drops. If properly done, death is caused by dislocation of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae, or by asphyxiation.- Problems Associated with Hanging:If not precisely done, the inmate will strangle to death on the rope, die from lack of blood to the brain, or if dropped too far, decapitation (cut of the head) can occur.

✿Firing Squad{175}{176}: It is death by shooting as the shooter aims at the chest, since this is easier to hit than 1749 [“Pro Death Penalty”, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.prodeathpenalty.com/methods.htm]17510 [“About.com, Civil Liberties”, Execution by Firing Squad, accessed February 28, 2012. http://civilliberty.about.com/od/capitalpunishment/ig/Types-of-Executions/Execution-by-Firing-Squad.htm]17611 [“CapitalPunishmentUK.org”, Shooting, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/shooting.html]

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In this photo from June 4th, 1913, a young man named “Antonio Echazarreta” is

executed by Mexican revolutionaries for his role in defending a major outpost.

the head, causing rupture of the heart, great vessels, and lungs so that the condemned person dies of hemorrhage and shock. Currently this method is only used in Utah, but may be dropped from availability in that state in the near future- Method: Execution by a firing squad usually involves a team of five shooters, only some of whom use real bullets with others using blanks. The offender is placed in a specially designed chair which has a pan beneath it to catch and conceal blood and other fluids. Restraints are applied to the offender's arms, legs, chest and head. A head restraint is applied loosely around the offender's neck to hold his neck and head in an upright position. The offender is dressed in a dark blue outfit with a white cloth circle attached by Velcro to the area over the offender's heart. Behind the offender are sandbags to absorb the volley and prevent ricochets. Approximately 20 feet directly in front of the offender is a wall. This wall has firing ports for each member of the firing squad. The weapons used are 30_30 caliber rifles. No special ammunition is used. Following the offender's statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. The warden leaves the room. The firing squad members stand in the firing position. They support their rifles on the platform rests. With their rifle barrels in the firing ports, the team members sight through open sights on the white cloth circle on the offender's chest. On the command to fire, the squad fires simultaneously.

- No obvious problems associated: This is due to difficulties in finding suitable volunteers and the expense of setting up a suitable place where people other than the prisoner will not be injured by flying bullets. It is not used because it is typically associated with the military, the firing squad is one of the least expensive forms of execution--and, if performed correctly, one of the most humane.

◆ Deterrence:

✿Arguments Pro-Death Penalty:

-A criminal would think hundred times before because he /she knows that death penalty is waiting and thus for example if one tends to kill his mother to inherit her if thinks of the death penalty and that he would be imprisoned most probably he won't commit such a crime as he won't be able to use those money he would inherit because he would be dead .

- The death penalty is a just means of protecting society "The legitimate role of government involves the protection of life, liberty and property. Just as the role of the government is to raise an armed force and rain down deadly force upon a bloodthirsty invading army, so also the government is duty bound to inflict death upon the man who chooses to slaughter fellow citizens in their own backyards. Few, if any, object to the use of deadly force against an invading army. Yet those invading soldiers, ordered to fight and likely whipped up by propaganda to go into battle, are far less deserving of death than the assailant who has been proven guilty and convicted in a court of law,

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by a jury of his peers, of shedding the innocent blood of his neighbor – and this of his own free will. Yet we do and must condone war in such situations. Governments must protect life. This is no less true regarding individual life."- Steven Farrell, professor of political economy at George Wythe College.

✿Arguments Con-Death Penalty:

-The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), in its Apr. 9, 2007 website presentation titled "The Death Penalty: Questions and Answers," offered the following:There is no credible evidence that the death penalty crime more effectively than long terms of imprisonment. States that have death penalty laws do not have lower crime rates or murder rates than states without such laws, and states that have abolished capital punishment show no significant changes in either crime, or murder rates.The death penalty has no deterrent effect. Claims that each execution deters a certain number of murders have been thoroughly discredited by social science research. People commit murders largely in the heat of passion, under the influence of alcohol or drugs, or because they are mentally ill, giving little or no thought to the possible consequences of their acts…"

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◆Death Penalty in Religion{177}:✿Arguments of Those Who Say that Religion is Pro-Death Penalty:

Proponents of death penalty usually state that death penalty is supported by the bible depending on:

Exodus 21:12-14: "Whoever strikes a person mortally shall be put to death. If it was not premeditated, but came about by an act of God, then I will appoint for you a place to which the killer may flee. But if someone willfully attacks and kills another by treachery, you shall take the killer from my altar for execution."

Numbers 35:30,31,33 - "If anyone kills another, the murderer shall be put to death on the evidence of witnesses; but no one shall be put to death on the testimony of a single witness. Moreover you shall accept no ransom for the life of a murderer who is subject to the death penalty; a murderer must be put to death...You shall not pollute the land in which you live; for blood pollutes the land, and no expiation can be made for the land, for the blood that is shed in it, except by the blood of the one who shed it."

"Thou shall not kill" means "thou shall not murder" Robert Meyer, Renew America Columnist.

The expression an "eye for an eye" is a prescription for proportional justice and capital punishment Robert Meyer, Renew America Columnist. This statement represents the biblical principle of Lex Talionis, that is, the crime must be proportional with the punishment.

✿ Arguments of Those Who Say that Religion is Con-Death Penalty:

Opponents of capital punishment see it as exactly the kind of revenge and human judgment that Jesus and His apostles so often warned against. They believe the principles set forth by Jesus and the apostles restrict punishment to only that which is necessary to protect society.

Opponents of capital punishment also point out that Jesus taught great principles for us to apply in our lives, rather than specific laws. They see the mercy He showed to the woman caught in adultery (John 8:3-11) as His rejection of capital punishment. However, Jesus never specifically repudiated capital punishment.

Bible does not support the death penalty :

17712 [“TwoPaths.com.”, Capital Punishment, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.twopaths.com/faq_CapitalPunishment.htm]

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Deuteronomy (30:19): "I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse; therefore choose life, that you and your descendants may live".

Exodus (20:13): "You shall not kill." Most Catholics now reject the death penalty Catholic New

Service, 2004 - "Catholic support for the use of the death penalty has dropped significantly—from over 70% of Catholics in the late 1990s to now less than half (48%)."

Bible's "an eye for an eye" does not support death penalty The United Methodist Church. "In Opposition to Capital Punishment". 2004 - "In spite of a common assumption to the contrary, 'an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,' does not give justification for the imposing of the penalty of death. Jesus explicitly repudiated retaliation (Matthew 5:38-39), and the Talmud denies its literal meaning and holds that it refers to financial indemnities. Christ came among us and suffered death. Christ also rose to new life for the sake of all. His suffering, death, and resurrection brought a new dimension to human life, the possibility of reconciliation with God through repentance. This gift is offered to all without exception, and human life was given new dignity and sacredness through it. The death penalty, however, denies Christ's power to transform and restore all human beings. In the New Testament, when a woman having committed a crime was brought before Jesus, He persisted in questioning her

accusers, so that they walked away (John 8:1-11)".

◆Alternatives for Death Penalty}178{:

1) Life Imprisonment:

The most popular alternative to the death penalty is life imprisonment without the possibility of parole plus restitution. This alternative not only costs much less than capital punishment, but also keeps the criminal in jail for the rest of his life - so he cannot return back to society. Restitution means that while the prisoner is in jail, he will be put to work - with all the money made going to the family of the victim. Public opinion over the past few years has shown an increase in support for this alternative as well. When asked plainly of the death penalty, 77% of the public support and believe that the death penalty is good, according to recent polls. However, when an alternative to the death penalty is presented, public support drops. When asked the same question with an alternative such as prison with parole after 25 years, death penalty support drops to 56%. When the alternative "prison with no parole ever" is introduced, death penalty support drops further to only 49%. And finally, when introduced to life in prison with no parole ever, plus restitution, death penalty support drops to its lowest, at 41% - becoming the minority to that alternative. The 17813 [“End the Death Penalty Now.”, Alternatives to the Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. https://www.msu.edu/~millettf/DeathPenalty/alternatives.html]

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public is becoming more aware of the flaws in our justice system, and because of this, public support for the death penalty is at its lowest ever.

2) Prison with Parole:

Other alternatives to the death penalty exist as well. They are just not as popular as life imprisonment. One of these is prison with parole. The average sentence for someone convicted of murder is twenty years. The average time spent in jail for a convicted murderer before being released is around 8.5 years. These numbers mean that most murderers do receive parole and go back into society. John DiIulio (a political scientist) writes that even though some paroled murderers remain dangerous, “the vast majority of [them] never commit another murder or violent crime. Many have not only gone straight but have continued paying their debt to society... by making post-release restitution, manning youth and community outreach centers that work with juvenile felons, and more” (Wall Street Journal, Dec. 15, 1997). When someone is sentenced to death, most of the time it is between 10-20 years before the death sentence is carried out. By this time, we are executing a completely different person than we first sentenced. Criminals are no different than other human beings - they can change, and usually do given ten years in prison. Now, of course, some may never change, which makes this a more dangerous and less supported alternative to the death penalty.

3) Rehabilitation:

Another alternative is rehabilitation or reformatories. Reformatories are used to reform criminals - working with the physical, mental, and moral issues of their inmates - instead of just punishing them as we would in jails. They put their offenders to work for society and try to turn their lives around, so they can live a normal life in society. Reformatories are used now for young offenders, those that are around sixteen to twenty-five years old, but they could be used for older criminals, too. A good use of this method would be for juveniles on death row. Since the death penalty was reinstated in 1976, 18 children under the age of 18 have been executed. This is unacceptable to a civilized society. Instead of keeping these kids in jail for 10-20 years and then executing them, we should at least try to rehabilitate them. We all do stupid things as children (maybe not that stupid, but ...) - we shouldn't have to pay for those stupidities with our lives. Although not all criminals can be reformed, the vast majority of them can be, proven by the fact that most parolees never commit a violent crime again when re-entering society. This alternative to the death penalty is a more practical solution, rehabilitating criminals instead of just punishing them. However, it remains a more dangerous alternative because not every criminal can be truly reformed. Hence, this is probably the least supported alternative to capital punishment.

◆Debate Around the Alternatives:

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✿Arguments against the Alternatives:

Life imprisonment does not repudiate murder like capital punishment Jeff Jacoby, Boston Globe Columnist. "The feeble 'arguments' against capital punishment". Jewish World Review. 19 June 2001 - "'The loss of freedom for the remainder of one's life is no mild punishment,' James Bernstein of New York wrote to the Times.'We do not need the death penalty to express society's utter reputation of those who would take the lives of others.' Bernstein has it exactly wrong. A society that bans the death penalty outright is confirming that it does not utterly repudiate its worst murderers. The United States last week made clear just how seriously it regards McVeigh's monstrous crime. Change the law so that no future McVeigh can be put to death, and the United States will be sending a different message: Mass murder isn't that bad." Death penalty addresses crimes where victim can never be compensated Steven Farrell. "A Conservative Case for the Capital Punishment". 18 Mar. 2005 - "If one robs a store, the captured thief can pay back the debt and, in fact, under biblical law (which is better than today's law) would be tasked to work for the man he robbed until the debt was satisfied seven times the value of the goods stolen. With such a bounteous payback, the thief is then freed and, by his honorable labor, restored to a position of trust..." Farrell continues that murder is not a repayable crime, that society can never again trust that person again, and that the person, therefore, permanently forfeits all rights as a citizen, including the right to life.

✿Arguments with the Alternatives:

Life in prison is a sufficient punishment; execution is excessive James Bernstein. "The Death of McVeigh: A Time to Reflect". Letter to the New York Times. June 13, 2001 - "The loss of freedom for the remainder of one's life is no mild punishment. We do not need the death penalty to express society's utter reputation of those who would take the lives of others." Life in prison is a greater punishment than the death penalty if the goal is to punish a person as severely as possible; life without parole can be seen as meeting this objective better than capital punishment. The reason is that life without parole forces a murderer to live out their remorseful life, whereas capital punishment saves them from living it. This is why many people on death row express feelings of relief about being put to death.

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◆The Financial Costs of Death Penalty{179}:

Death penalty cases are much more expensive than other criminal cases and cost more than imprisonment for life with no possibility of parole. In California, capital trials are six times more costly than other murder trials.

(1) A study in Kansas indicated that a capital trial costs $116,700 more than an ordinary murder trial.

(2) Complex pre-trial motions, lengthy jury selections, and expenses for expert witnesses are all likely to add to the costs in death penalty cases. For the states which employ the death penalty, this luxury comes at a high price. In Texas, a death penalty case costs taxpayers an average of $2.3 million, about three times the cost of imprisoning someone in a single cell at the highest security level for 40 years.

(3) In Florida, each execution is costing the state $3.2 million.

(4) In financially strapped California, one report estimated that the state could save $90 million each year by abolishing capital punishment.

(5) The New York Department of Correctional Services estimated that implementing the death penalty would cost the state about $118 million annually.

✿Costs of Death Penalty in Some States{180}:

Maryland: New Study Reveals Costs in Maryland: $186 Million for Five Executions.

New Jersey: Death Penalty has Cost New Jersey Taxpayers $253 Million.

North Carolina: Death Penalty Costs North Carolina Nearly $11 Million a Year.

Florida: Spent Average of $3.2 Million per Execution from 1973 to 1988.

✿Federal Costs{15}:

The average cost of defending a trial in a federal death case is $620,932, about 8 times that of a federal murder case in which the death penalty is not sought.  A study found that those defendants whose representation was the least

17914 [Richard C. Dieter “What Politicians Don’t Say About the High Costs of the Death Penalty”, Feminism and Nonviolence Studies, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.fnsa.org/v1n1/dieter1.html]18015 [“Death Penalty Information Center”, Costs of the Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. http://deathpenaltyinfo.org/costs-death-penalty#financialfacts]

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expensive, and thus who received the least amount of attorney and expert time, had an increased probability of receiving a death sentence. Defendants with less than $320,000 in terms of representation costs (the bottom 1/3 of federal capital trials) had a 44% chance of receiving a death sentence at trial. On the other hand, those defendants whose representation costs were higher than $320,000 (the remaining 2/3 of federal capital trials) had only a 19% chance of being sentenced to death. Thus, the study concluded that defendants with low representation costs were more than twice as likely to receive a death sentence.

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◆Cases:

✿Innocent. Yet, Prisoned or Executed:

1. Ray Krone{181}: from Arizona, Released.- He spent 10 years in prison in Arizona, including time on death row, for a murder he did not commit. He was released in 2002. He was the 100th person to be released from death row since 1973. DNA testing proved his innocence.

2. Leonel Herrera{182}: Executed.In 1993, He was executed by lethal injection in Huntsville, Texas, for shooting two policemen and after years of his death it was proved that his brother was the real murderer.

✿Convicted. Yet, Was About to Escape Justice: 1. Theodore Frank{183}: Convicted after committing more than 100 Crimes.Michael D. Bradbury, Ventura County District Attorney. "The Death Penalty is an Affirmation of the Sanctity of Life". LA Times. - A two and a half-year-old girl was kidnapped, raped, sodomized, tortured and mutilated with vise grips over six hours. Then she was strangled to death. Her assailant, Theodore Frank, according to court records and his own admissions, had already molested more than 100 children during a 20-year period. A sentence of death is the only appropriate punishment for such a serial assailant committing such an extraordinarily heinous crime."

2. Scott Peterson{184}: Was about to be announced Innocent.He was accused for killing his wife and was about to be announced innocent when his girl friend appeared and testified that when he met her he told her he was not married as his wife died a year ago while his wife was still alive and pregnant! This case affected the public so much that when other evidences began to prevail the demanded that he would be sentenced to death and he was subjected to a death penalty for killing his wife and his baby.

18116 [“Amnesty International USA”, Death Penalty and Innocence, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/death-penalty/us-death-penalty-facts/death-penalty-and-innocence]18217 [“ExcutedToday.com”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.executedtoday.com/2009/05/12/1993-leonel-herrera-v-collins/]18318 [Michael D. Bradbury, “The Death Penalty Is an Affirmation of the Sanctity of Life,” Los Angeles Times, September 24, 2000, accessed February 28, 2012. http://articles.latimes.com/2000/sep/24/opinion/op-25950]18419 [David Walsh, “The Scott Peterson Case: A New American Tragedy”, World Socialist Web Site, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/dec2004/pete-d11.shtml]

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E

uthanasia◆ Introduction:

✿Definitions:

- Euthanasia: is a Greek word that means "Good Death". It refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life by action (active) or by omission of a dependent human being for his or her alleged benefit (passive) which aims to relieve the patient from pain and suffering . It's commonly known as "Pull the Plug" for it entails an act of pulling the plugs of the machines maintaining some terminally-ill patients alive. - Assisted-Suicide: This is different from Euthanasia. The case is termed assisted suicide when someone provides an individual with the information, guidance, and means to take his or her own life with the intention that they will be used for this purpose. When it is a doctor who helps another person to kill themselves it is called "physician assisted suicide". - Palliative Care: The active relief of suffering in a terminally-ill individual through medications like drugs and pain killers that relief pain in spite of deterioration of the patient's case is to the extent that he may be dying but he feels less pain because of the medications he takes. - Living Will: It is a document prepared by an individual in which he states what he wants in regards to health care and how he wants to be treated if he becomes seriously ill and unable to make or communicate his own choices. Living wills are also called "active declarations"{185}.- Dignity: The value that a human gains by existing, not because of any property or action{186}.- Mercy-killing: Killing a patient without their explicit consent to end the patient’s suffering. It's active, involuntary or non-voluntary and other-administered{187}.- Right to Die: The right to refuse medical treatment, even if that refusal would result in death. Also the right to have a physician actually kill the terminally-ill patient or to give assistance to that patient to commit a pain-free suicide{188}.- Right to Life: The right of people other than a terminally-ill patient to keep him alive against his wishes. It means denying his right to die{189}.

1851 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/keywords.shtml]186 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/keywords.shtml]187 [“Missouri Center of Health Ethics” accessed February 28, 2012. http://ethics.missouri.edu/Euthanasia.aspx]188 [“Canadian Mind Products, Human Rights” accessed February 28, 2012. http://mindprod.com/humanrights/euthanasia.html]189 [“Canadian Mind Products, Human Rights” accessed February 28, 2012. http://mindprod.com/humanrights/euthanasia.html]

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2nd Topi

c

✿Cases where Euthanasia is possible:

- Terminal illness:Terminal illness is a medical term describing e a disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated and that is reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient within a relatively short period of time. A patient is often considered to be terminally-ill when the life expectancy is estimated to be six months or less. This may be incorrect. Consequently, though a given patient may properly be considered terminal, this is not a guarantee that the patient will die within six months. Similarly, a patient with a slowly progressing disease, such as AIDS, may not be considered terminally-ill (because the best estimates of longevity were greater than six months). However this does not guarantee that the patient will not die unexpectedly early. In general, physicians slightly overestimate survival.

- Examples of Terminal diseases in which Euthanasia is applicable:

Brain Stem Death : It is the permanent cessation of the functions of cerebral hemispheres and brain stem including respiration and blood circulation and permanent loss of consciousness. The brain stem is a small area of the brain that controls these functions. A patient with a dead brain stem will never be able to breathe spontaneously or regain consciousness. Death is now accepted as a meaning of brain stem death in many countries. However, the patient is kept alive by the aid of life-support measures (feeding tubes, inotropes, total parenteral nutrition, mechanical ventilation, heart/lung bypass, urinary catheterization, dialysis, CPR, defibrillation and artificial pace-maker)

Persistent Vegetative State : After severe brain damage the patient enters a state of coma which progresses into partial arousal which is termed "Vegetative State". After 4 weeks, in this state the case is classified as "Persistent Vegetative State". After 1 more year, the case is classified as "Permanent Vegetative State". It describes the patient who loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain (consciousness) but the functions of the brain stem (respiration and blood circulation) remain relatively intact with the cyclic state of circadian sleep and wakefulness. The patient's hands and eyes can follow a moving object or move towards a loud sound. The existence of a small number of diagnosed PVS cases that have eventually resulted in improvement makes defining recovery as "impossible" particularly difficult in a legal sense.

All types of Malignant Tumors (late cancers) : Frequently, Lung Cancer - Breast Cancer - Prostate Cancer - Liver Cancer - Pancreatic Cancer - Leukemia - Lymphoma

Irreparable organ failure : Decompensated Liver Cirrhosis - Renal Failure not amenable to Dialysis - Congestive Heart Failure stage IV - Irreversible Respiratory Failure - Anoxic Encephalopathy (brain disease) – Sepsis

✿Classification of Euthanasia:

1. Classification according to the Patient subjected to undergo the process:

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- Human Euthanasia: It is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering of a human-being who's terminally-ill as referred before.

- Child Euthanasia: It is a controversial form of non-voluntary euthanasia that is applied to children who are gravely-ill or suffer from significant birth defects. "Joseph Fletcher" proposed that unlike the sort of infanticide perpetrated by very disturbed people, in such cases child euthanasia could be considered humane; a logical and acceptable extension of abortion.

- Animal Euthanasia: It is the act of putting an animal to death painlessly or allowing it to die, as by withholding extreme medical measures, an animal suffering from an incurable, especially a painful, disease or condition. Euthanasia is distinct from animal slaughter and pest control, which are performed for purposes other than an act of mercy, although in some cases the killing procedure is the same.

2. Classification according to Consent of the Human patient:

- Voluntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient. Cases include{190}:

Asking for help with dying or refusing burdensome medical treatment. Asking for medical treatment to be stopped, or life support machines to be switched

off. Refusing to eat.

- Non-voluntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted where the consent of the patient is unavailable. It is illegal worldwide but decriminalized under certain specific circumstances in the Netherlands under the Groningen Protocol. Cases include{6}:

A patient in a coma. A patient is too young (e.g. a very young baby) or is senile. A patient is mentally retarded to a very severe extent. A patient is severely brain-damaged. A patient is mentally disturbed in a way that he should be protected from himself.

- Involuntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted against the will of the patient. Cases include{6}:

A soldier has his stomach blown open by a shell burst. He is in great pain and screaming in agony. He begs the army doctor to save his life. The doctor knows that he will die in ten minutes whatever happens. As he has no painkilling drugs with him, he decides to spare the soldier further pain and shoots him dead.

There is a debate within the medical and bioethics literature about whether or not the non-voluntary and by extension involuntary killing of patients can be regarded as euthanasia. This debate is based upon the idea that these acts maybe somehow considered as cases of murder.190 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/volinvol.shtml]

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3. Classification according to Interference of the physician:

- Passive euthanasia: It indicates to the withholding of common treatments, such as antibiotics, necessary for the continuance of life either by not doing or stopping doing some life-saving intervention. Cases include{191}:

Switching off life-support machines or disconnecting a feeding tube. Not carrying out a life-extending operation or not giving life-extending drugs.

- Active euthanasia: It indicates to the deliberate use of lethal substances or forces by medical professionals or other persons to kill. It is the most controversial means.

✿Other Definitions:

- DNR (Do Not Resuscitate): It is a legal order written either in the hospital or on a legal form to respect the wishes of a patient not to undergo CPR (Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation) or ACLS (Advanced Cardiac Life Support). This is designed to prevent unnecessary suffering. - Principle of double effect: also known as "Doctrine of double effect" or "Double-effect reasoning". It is a set of ethical criteria for evaluating the permissibility of acting when one's act will also cause an effect one would normally be obliged to avoid. In other words, this doctrine says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect it's ethically OK to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn't intended{192}.

✿Stages of Grief in Terminal Illnes:

The stages a person goes through, when diagnosed with a terminal illness, will generally follow the pattern established by psychiatrist “Elisabeth Kübler-Ross” in Five Stages for Receiving Catastrophic News in her book “On Death and Dying” in 1969. While these stages are universal not everyone will encounter them the same way. Some people will go through all stages in order while others will go through one or two stages many times before moving on to the next stage. How a person reacts depends on the individual and the severity of the news.{193}

1. Denial — "I feel fine."; "This can't be happening, not to me."

This is a blocking out mechanism employed as a buffer to the shock of the immediacy of bad news. Everything seems unreal. As the knowledge of the situation becomes clearer, there is a sense of shock with accompanying symptoms.

2. Anger — "Why me? It's not fair!"; "How can this happen to me?"; '"Who is to blame?"

191 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/activepassive_1.shtml]192 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/doubleeffect.shtml]193 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/abouteuthanasia/abouteuthanasia4/Default.htm]

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The person is then forced to confront the knowledge that is beyond their emotional control. The pain and reality hit hard and this is when this phase starts. It is a way of deflecting emotional turmoil away from a vulnerable core. It can be directed at anyone, the doctor, strangers, friends, family members or even God. Feelings of guilt and fear are also common at this time.

3. Bargaining — "I'll do anything for a few more years."; "I will give my life savings if..."

A person will try any means in his power to halt the inevitable. It is a method of trying to gain control over a situation in which they feel powerless. This can involve making deals with God, the Universe - whatever.

4. Depression — "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "I'm going to die soon so what's the point... What's the point?"; "I miss my loved one, why go on?"

A person looks at the possible scenarios and dwells on negative outcomes for a time. Feelings can include intense sadness, hopeless, emptiness, helplessness and exhaustion.5. Acceptance — "It's going to be okay."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it."

This is the stage where it all finally sinks in and the knowledge is stabilized into a new lifestyle. New feelings of hope and peace can grow provided the person is given the support, love and acceptance they need. Families can help their loved ones reach this phase by giving them as much reassurance as they can. Instead of changing routines it is important to keep things as normal as possible for as long as possible.

✿The Procedure:

- Drugs: In Oregon, doctor can write a prescription for drugs that are intended to kill the patient. When the prescription is filled, directions center around making certain that the patient understands about taking all the pills in a single dose and dies after taking the prescription.- Injections: In Netherlands, firstly a coma is induced by intravenous administration of barbiturates “Sedative Sodium Thiopental”, followed by a muscle relaxant “Pancuronium”. The patient usually dies as the result of anoxemia caused by the muscle relaxant. When death is delayed, “Intravenous Potassium Chloride” is also given to hasten cardiac arrest. {194}

◆ History: {195}

(5th Century B.C. - 1st Century B.C.) - Ancient Greeks and Romans Tend to Support Euthanasia:In ancient Greece and Rome, before the coming of Christianity, attitudes toward infanticide, active euthanasia, and suicide had tended to be tolerant. Euthanasia was supported by Socrates, Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against the practice." Hippocrates of Kos" was an ancient Greek physician (460 B.C. – 370 B.C.) of the 194 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/abouteuthanasia/methods-of-euthanasia/]195 [“ProCon.org, Euthanasia and PAD Historical Timeline” accessed February 28, 2012. http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000130]

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Age of Pericles (Classical Athens), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the father of Western medicine. He has written the "Hippocratic Oath" (late 5th century B.C.) which is an oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine ethically. This oath is still sworn in our present time. Hippocrates stated the following in the text of his oath. "I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel".However, few ancient Greek or Roman physicians followed the oath faithfully.{Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(1915) - Dr. Haiselden Allows Deformed Baby to Die Rather Than Give It Possibly Lifesaving Surgery:In the early hours of 12 November 1915, at Chicago's German-American Hospital, Anna Bollinger gave birth to her fourth child, a seven-pound baby boy. The baby was blue and badly deformed. Dr.Haiselden diagnosed a litany of physical defects. He predicted that, without surgery, the child would die shortly. In a decision whose shockwaves would ripple from coast to coast, and mark a milestone in the history of euthanasia in America, Haiselden advised against surgery although it was possible. The Bollingers tearfully agreed and the child died on 17 November, amid growing controversy.{Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(1937) - Voluntary Euthanasia Act Introduced in US Senate:Nebraska Senator John Comstock introduces legislation called the Voluntary Euthanasia Act. It is never voted on but demonstrates an emerging interest in legislating euthanasia.{Article} [Bryan Hilliard, PhD. The Moral and Legal Status of Physician-Assisted Death: Quality Of Life and the Patient-Physician Relationship. Issues in Integrative Studies, 2000]

(1940s) - Nazi Use of Involuntary Euthanasia Changes Public Perception of it in the US:The "Euthanasia Campaign" of mass murder gathered momentum on 14 January 1940 when the "handicapped" were killed with gas vans and killing centers as Adolf Hitler carried out a program to exterminate children with disabilities (with or without their parent’s permission) under the guise of improving the Aryan "race" and reducing costs to society. This eugenic program eventually leads to the deaths of 70,000 adult Germans. As word spread in the late 1940s, the euthanasia movement found itself increasingly on the defensive, scrambling to deny that the form of euthanasia it supported was the same as Nazi murder.{Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(Mar. 31, 1976) - Supreme Court Rules in Quinlan Case:21-year-old Karen Ann Quinlan had fallen into an irreversible coma at a party in 1974. The New Jersey Supreme Court rules in 1976 that Karen Quinlan can be detached from her respirator. This case is a legal landmark, drawing national and international attention to end-of-life issues.{Article} [In Re Quinlan. 1976]

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(June 4, 1990) - Jack Kevorkian Participates in His First Assisted-Suicide:J ack Kevorkian, MD , assists Janet Adkins, a Hemlock Society member, in committing suicide in Michigan. Adkins' death is the first of many suicides in which Dr. Kevorkian assists.{Article} [Wesley Smith, JD. The Slippery Slope From Assisted Suicide to Legalized Murder, 1997]

(Nov. 5, 1990) - US Congress Passes Patient Self-Determination Act:Congress passes the Patient Self-Determination Act, requiring hospitals that receive federal funds to tell patients that they have a right to demand or refuse treatment.{Article} [Patient Self Determination Act. 1990]

(June 26, 1997) - US Supreme Court Rules There Is No Right to Die:The Supreme Court rules in Washington v. Glucksberg and Vacco v. Quill that there is not a constitutional right to die.{Article} [Washington v. Glucksberg. and Vacco v. Quill. 1997]

(1999) - Jack Kevorkian Convicted of Murder:A Michigan court convicts Jack Kevorkian, MD, for the murder of Thomas Youk and sentences him to 10-25 years in prison.{Article} [People v. Kevorkian. 2001]

(2001) - Netherlands Legalizes Euthanasia:The Netherlands officially legalizes euthanasia.{Article} [International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide. Frequently Asked Questions, www.internationaltaskforce.org, 2006]

(2005) - Terri Schiavo Has Her Feeding Tube Removed after Long Court Battle:

The Terri Schiavo case garners national media attention. Terri Schiavo had been brain damaged since 1990. After a Florida Circuit Judge ruled that Terri Schiavo's feeding tube be removed, Terri Schiavo dies on Mar. 31, 2005, 13 days after her feeding tube is removed.{Article} [BBC. Timeline: Terri Schiavo Case, Mar. 31, 2005]

◆ Different Aspects of Debate on Euthanasia:

✿Medical and Ethical Aspect:

Euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics.

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✱Ethical arguments{196}{197}:

The Argument from Autonomy: - Libertarian View: If a person autonomously chooses to end his or her life or have someone else assist him or her in doing so, then it is morally permissible. One should have a right to self-determination as long as no harm is done to others, and thus should be allowed to choose his own fate.- Conservative View: Life is a gift from God. It is not a person's creation nor a possession so he does not have the right to give it away and die. Euthanasia devalues human life and rejects its importance. The process saves no lives, it only takes them.

The Equivalence Argument: - Libertarian View: There's a moral distinction between active and passive euthanasia. They think that it is acceptable to withhold treatment and allow a patient to die, but that it is never acceptable to kill a patient by a deliberate act

{15}. Further more, some radical views think that there is no morally relevant distinction between active and passive euthanasia. Passive euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible. Thus, active euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible.- Conservative View: Distinction between active and passive euthanasia is morally significant. Passive euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible. Active euthanasia is not permissible at all for it's considered to be a case of murder since the fact that technically, the patient dies as soon as the act of the physician (induction of a lethal overdose for example) takes place{198}. Further more, some radical views think this distinction is nonsense, since stopping treatment is a deliberate act. Although it's certainly true that the patient dies from his terminal-illness, it's also true that the immediate cause of their death is the switching off of the life-support machine.

The Argument from Mercy: - Libertarian View: It is cruel and inhumane to refuse the plea of a terminally-ill person that his or her life be ended to avoid unnecessary suffering and pain. Assisting a subject to die might be a better choice (act of mercy) than requiring that they continue to suffer for dying in peace is better than living in pain.- Conservative View: Not all diseases are painful. In addition, there are other alternatives that could end the patient's pain and suffering without killing him

196 [“Christian Research Institute, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. www.equip.org/articles/euthanasia-arguments] 197 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/against/against_1.shtml]198 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/activepassive_1.shtml]

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such as cessation of active treatment combined with use of palliative treatment or effective pain-relievers and pain-killers.

The Slippery Slope:- Libertarian View: Proper regulation and order measures aiming to control the whole process will stop any further steps that would justify murder. In addition, if a doctor ignores this distinction between killing people who ask for death under appropriate circumstances and killing people without their permission, he's lacking moral understanding and intellect and wouldn't worry about the law in the first place.- Conservative view: Acceptance of certain practices, such as physician-assisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia, won't be controlled by the law and will eventually lead to the acceptance or practice of concepts which are currently deemed unacceptable, such as non-voluntary or involuntary euthanasia. In addition, doctors may soon start killing people without bothering with their permission as the process proceeds fast to be legal.

The Best Interests Argument: - Libertarian View: If an action promotes the best interests of everyone concerned and violates no one's rights, then that action is morally acceptable. In some cases, active euthanasia promotes the best interests of everyone concerned and violates no one's rights. Therefore, in those cases active euthanasia is morally acceptable.- Conservative View: Active euthanasia truly violates the Right to Life which states that the patient can not take his own life. In addition, legalizing euthanasia will place the society on a "Slippery Slope" which will lead to unacceptable consequences.

The Golden Rule Argument:Moral principles, it is argued, ought to be universal. In other words, if a rule is not applied to someone, it should not be applied to others. Similarly, if a rule is applied to someone, it is to be willed to be applied to others. - Libertarian View: This applies to all cases whatever the consequences are. It even applies in cases of active euthanasia.- Conservative View: This does not apply to all cases as every case differs from others. Circumstances, consequences, will and consent determines the course of every case.

✱Medical arguments{199}{200}:

199 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/against/against_1.shtml]200 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/infavour/infavour_1.shtml]

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Necessity of Euthanasia: - Libertarian View: This depends on the burden of pain and suffering the patient faces provided that his case is terminal and has no cure. A patient suffers a lot of pain and psychological burden when he knows that he's going to die, and then he loses his interest in life, stops interacting with the surroundings and seeks death. It's very necessary for them to undergo euthanasia for their burden is incurable and hopeless. - Conservative View: Proper palliative care makes euthanasia unnecessary. The physical, emotional and spiritual care for a dying person when cure is not possible includes compassion and support from family and friends. The World Health Organization states that palliative care provides relief from pain and suffering for it deals with the patient as a person, not as symptoms or medical problem.

Medical Resources:- Libertarian View: Medical resources are distributed among patients according to priorities. "High-risk" cases are the first priority followed by the "First to come" cases. In addition, Costs spent on the procedures of treatment which maybe long-lasting are really expensive. So, Euthanasia is considered to save the huge costs of the long-lasting treatment and provide a larger number of medical resources to the patients in need. - Conservative View: The costs and even the lack of resources do not justify the acts of killing someone who's terminally-ill. This act is entirely pragmatic and is wide-open to abuse, and would ultimately lead to involuntary euthanasia because of shortage of health resources.

Care to the Terminally-ill: - Libertarian View: Euthanasia is a form of care relieving patients' pain and suffering. What lies behind it is Utilitarianism: the belief that moral rules should be designed to produce the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. The code of Utilitarianism is one of the ethical codes of the profession of medicine and Euthanasia applies to its conception. - Conservative View: Allowing euthanasia will lead to less good care for the terminally-ill through the following:

o Euthanasia undermines the commitment of doctors and nurses to saving lives.o Euthanasia may become a cost-effective way to treat the terminally-ill.o Euthanasia will discourage the search for new treatments for the terminally-

ill.o Euthanasia undermines the motivation to provide good care for the dying.

Regulation of Euthanasia:- Libertarian View: There is no reason why euthanasia can't be controlled by proper regulation. However, these regulations won't deal with people who want to implement euthanasia for bad motives and won't stop patients,

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particularly vulnerable ones, being pressured to choose death when they would rather live for a few more weeks. - Conservative View: Although it is possible to draft laws that will prevent the abuse of euthanasia, abuse will happen anyway. So, banning it will be the definitive solution.

Pressure to end Life:- Libertarian View: Pressure on terminally-ill patients to end their lives is a causality that can be dealt with. - Conservative View: The fear is that if euthanasia is allowed, vulnerable people will be put under pressure to end their lives. It would be difficult, and possibly impossible, to stop people persuading patients to request euthanasia when they don't really want it. That pressure can be categorized as moral to free up medical resources, moral on the elderly by their selfish families or psychological for patients abandoned by their families as they may feel euthanasia is the only solution.

Power of Doctors: Doctors are given a larger area of power concerning euthanasia because they decide how and when people are going to die.- Libertarian View: This is not a matter of interest to a large number of people since they want and seek euthanasia by themselves. - Conservative View: Since doctors give patients the information on which they will base their decisions about euthanasia, any legalization of euthanasia, no matter how strictly regulated, puts doctors in an unacceptable position of power.

✱Famous Cases{201}:

- Karen Ann Quinlan:She collapsed on April 15th, 1975. Within hours, she entered a coma from which she could never recover. Her parents knew their daughter would not want to be kept alive by extraordinary means. A year later, as Karen lay in a "persistent vegetative state," the courts finally allowed her treatment to be stopped; but artificial feeding was continued and she was maintained as a living corpse until June 1985, when she eventually died of pneumonia. Her case spurred thousands of letters of sympathy and fuelled the "right to die" movement.

- Teresa Marie "Terri" Schiavo:Terri Schiavo collapsed in Florida in full cardiac arrest on February 25, 1990. She suffered massive brain damage due to lack of oxygen and, after two and a half months in a coma, her diagnosis was elevated to vegetative state. In 1998 Schiavo's husband, Michael, petitioned the Sixth Circuit Court of Florida

201 [“EXIT, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.cc/cases.html]

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(Pinellas County), to remove her feeding tube. He was opposed by Terri's parents. On February 25, 2005, a Pinellas County judge ordered the removal of Terri Schiavo's feeding tube. Several appeals and federal government intervention followed, which included U.S. President George W. Bush returning to Washington D.C. to sign legislation designed to keep her alive. However, the system upheld the original decision to remove the feeding tube. Her feeding tube was disconnected on March 18, 2005 and she died on March 31.

✿Religious Aspect:

- Libertarian View: Religions require us to respect every human being. Therefore we should respect their decisions about the end of their lives. And so their rational decision to refuse burdensome and futile treatment should be accepted.- Conservative View: Birth and death are part of the life processes which God has created, so we should respect them. Therefore no human being has the authority to take the life of any innocent person, even if that person wants to die.

Euthanasia in Judaism{202}: Euthanasia, physician-assisted suicide, and all other types of suicide are almost unanimously condemned in Jewish thought, primarily because it is viewed as taking something (a human life) that belongs to God. There are only two mentions of suicide in the Jewish Bible: King Saul (I Samuel 31:4) and David's counselor, Ahitophel (II Samuel 17:23), both of which required the assistance of another person and are thus comparable to euthanasia. In the former case, a soldier lies claiming that he took Saul's life at his request, and King David has the soldier executed for murder. However, Jewish law does allow for the withdrawal of artificial means of survival if such means will not improve the patient's condition and are the only things keeping the patient alive as long as the intention is to relieve pain and not to cause death.

Euthanasia in Christianity{203}:Christians are generally opposed to euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, on the grounds that it invades God's territory of life and death and has other ethical problems. This position is not universal, however. There are only two mentions of suicide in the Old Testament as mentioned before in the Jewish Bible. In the New Testament, there is one instance of suicide: that of Judas Iscariot, who feels remorse after betraying Jesus and hangs himself (Matthew 27:3-5).- Verses:"Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man his blood be shed for God made man in his image." (Genesis 9:6)"Don't you know that you yourselves are God's temple and that God's Spirit lives in you? If anyone destroys God's temple, God will destroy him; for God's temple is sacred, and you are that temple." (1 Corinthians 3:16-17)

202 [“Religion Facts, Euthanasia and Religion” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm]203 [“Religion Facts, Euthanasia and Religion” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/christianity.htm]

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- Orthodoxy{204}: The Orthodox Church has dealt with controversial issues by a process which addresses the "mind of the Church.". Death is seen as evil in itself, and symbolic of all those forces which oppose God-given life and its fulfillment. The Orthodox Church has a very strong pro-life stand. It firmly opposes euthanasia and regards it as "a form of suicide on the part of the individual, and a form of murder on a part of others who assist in this practice, both of which are seen as sins."- Catholicism: The Roman Catholic Church remains firmly opposed to both suicide and euthanasia as moral options. The Catholic Encyclopedia describes suicide as a grave sin against God. It gives several reasons for this conclusion such as that suicide implies the person is master of his body instead of God.Quotations{205}:"Euthanasia is a grave violation of the law of God, since it is the deliberate and morally unacceptable killing of a human person." - Pope John Paul II, 1995- Protestantism: Protestant denominations vary widely on their approach to euthanasia and physician assisted death. Since the 1970s, Evangelical churches have worked with Roman Catholics on sanctity of life approach. While liberal Protestant denominations have offered religious arguments and support for limited forms of euthanasia as physician assisted dying has obtained greater legal support.

Euthanasia in Islam{206}: Muslims are against euthanasia. They believe that all human life is sacred because it is given by Allah, and that Allah chooses how long each person will live. Human beings should not interfere in this.- Life is sacred:Euthanasia and suicide are not included among the reasons allowed for killing in Islam."Do not take life, which Allah made sacred, other than in the course of justice." - (Quran 17:33)- Allah decides how long each person lives:"When their time comes they cannot delay it for a single hour nor can they bring it forward by a single hour." - (Quran 16:61)"And no person can ever die except by Allah's leave and at an appointed term." - (Quran 3:145)- Suicide and euthanasia are explicitly forbidden:"Destroy not yourselves. Surely Allah is ever merciful to you." (Quran 4:29)The Prophet said: "Amongst the nations before you there was a man who got a wound, and growing impatient (with its pain), he took a knife and cut his hand with it and the blood did not stop till he died. Allah said, 'My Slave hurried to

204 [“Euthanasia.com, Religious Statements” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/orthch.html]205 [“BBC Religions, Euthanasia and Assisted Dying” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/christianethics/euthanasia_1.shtml]206 [“BBC Religions, Euthanasia and Assisted Dying” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/euthanasia.shtml]

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bring death upon himself so I have forbidden him (to enter) Paradise.' " - (Sahih Bukhari 4.56.669)

Finally, it is to be noted that all religions tend to differentiate between Euthanasia and the intervention to remove the medical life-support equipment from a patient who suffers Brain Death. The former is considered an act befitting the honor of the deceased, and merciful toward the feelings of relatives and loved ones.

✿Legal Aspect:

Euthanasia is illegal in all states of the United States. Physician aid-in-dying (PAD), or assisted suicide, is legal in the states of Washington, Oregon, and Montana. The key difference between euthanasia and PAD is who administers the lethal dose. Attempts to legalize PAD resulted in ballot initiatives and "legislation bills" within the United States of America in the last 20 years.

✱Legislations:

Oregon: Ballot Measure 16 in 1994 established the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, which legalizes physician-assisted dying with certain restrictions, making Oregon the first U.S. state and one of the first jurisdictions in the world to officially do so. The measure was approved in the 1994 general election in a tight race with the final tally showing 627,980 votes (51.3%) in favor, and 596,018 votes (48.7%) against. The law survived an attempted repeal in 1997, which was defeated at the ballot by a 60% vote. In 2005, after several attempts by lawmakers at both the state and federal level to overturn the Oregon law, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled 6-3 to uphold the law after hearing arguments in the case of Gonzales v. Oregon.

Texas:In 1999, the state of Texas passed the Texas Futile Care Law. Under the law, in some situations, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support measures, such as mechanical respiration, from terminally-ill patients when such treatment is considered to be both futile and inappropriate. This is sometimes referred to as "passive euthanasia".In 2005, a six-month-old infant, Sun Hudson, with a uniformly fatal disease, thanatophoric dysplasia, was the first patient in which a United States court has allowed life-sustaining treatment to be withdrawn from a pediatric patient over the objections of the child's parent.

Washington: In 2008, the electorate of the state of Washington voted in favor of Initiative 1000 (it requires the patient to ingest the lethal medication unassisted) which made assisted suicide legal in the state through the Washington Death with Dignity Act.

- Montana:On December 5, 2008, state District Court judge Dorothy McCarter ruled in favor of a terminally-ill Billings resident who had filed a lawsuit with the assistance of Compassion & Choices, a patient rights group. The ruling states that competent,

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terminally-ill patients have the right to self-administer lethal doses of medication as prescribed by a physician. Physicians who prescribe such medications will not face legal punishment. On December 31, 2009, the Montana Supreme Court delivered its verdict in the case of Baxter v. Montana. The court held that there was "nothing in Montana Supreme Court precedent or Montana statutes indicating that physician aid in dying is against public policy."

✱Famous Acts and Court Cases:

- Oregon Death with Dignity Act:On October 27, 1997 Oregon enacted the Death with Dignity Act. This act requires the Oregon Health Authority to collect information about the patients and physicians who participate in the Act, and publish an annual statistical report{207}.- The Law: Under the law, a capable adult Oregon resident who has been diagnosed, by a physician, with a terminal illness that will kill the patient within six months may request in writing, from his or her physician, a prescription for a lethal dose of medication for the purpose of ending the patient's life. Any physician, pharmacist or healthcare provider who has moral objections may refuse to participate.The request must be confirmed by two witnesses, at least one of whom is not related to the patient, is not entitled to any portion of the patient's estate, is not the patient's physician, and is not employed by a health care facility caring for the patient. After the request is made, another physician must examine the patient's medical records and confirm the diagnosis. The patient must be determined to be free of a mental condition impairing judgment. If the request is authorized, the patient must wait at least fifteen days and make a second oral request before the prescription may be written. The patient has a right to rescind the request at any time. Should either physician have concerns about the patient's ability to make an informed decision, or feel the patient's request may be motivated by depression or coercion, the patient must be referred for a psychological evaluation.The law protects doctors from liability for providing a lethal prescription for a terminally-ill, competent adult in compliance with the statute's restrictions. The law also specifies a patient's decision to end his or her life shall not "have an effect upon a life, health, or accident insurance or annuity policy."

- Washington v. Glusckberg Case{208}:-Allegation: In 1994, Dr. Harold Glucksberg, a physician (along with four other physicians, three terminally-ill patients, and the non-profit organization, Compassion in Dying, counseling those considering assisted-suicide) challenged Washington state's ban against assisted suicide in the Natural Death Act of 1979. They claimed that assisted suicide was a liberty interest protected by the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution and Washington State’s assisted suicide ban was unconstitutional as applied to terminally-ill, mentally-competent adults. -Decision: The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously decided that Washington’s assisted suicide ban was not unconstitutional. The decision reversed a Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals decision

207 [“Oregon.gov, Public Health” accessed February 28, 2012. http://public.health.oregon.gov/ProviderPartnerResources/EvaluationResearch/DeathwithDignityAct/Pages/index.aspx]208 [“Wisconsin Right To Life, Legislation/Elections/Courts” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.wrtl.org/legislation/courtcases/assistedsuicide.aspx]

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that a ban on physician assisted suicide embodied in Washington's Natural Death Act of 1979 was a violation of the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause. The Court asserted that because assisted-suicide is not a fundamental liberty interest, it was therefore not protected under the 14th Amendment. The Court’s ruling was 9-0.

✱Conviction of Jack Kevorkian with murder{209}:

During the 1990s, Dr. Jack Kevorkian, commonly known as "Dr. Death", was undoubtedly the most well known assisted-suicide and euthanasia advocate in the world. Kevorkian made headlines internationally when he undertook a well

publicized assisted-suicide campaign between 1990 and 1998 that reportedly ended the lives of approximately 130 people. Most of these cases were disabled or chronically-ill. According to autopsy reports, four of the people whose suicides Kevorkian helped had no discernible organic illness{210}.A Michigan judge sentenced Dr. Jack Kevorkian to 10 to 25 years in prison, despite emotional courtroom pleas on his behalf from the widow and brother of the terminally-ill man he was convicted of killing.A jury convicted Dr. Kevorkian of second-degree murder in the death of Thomas Youk, a 52-year-old man who suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou Gehrig's disease. At this trial prosecutors were able to use a videotape Dr. Kevorkian made of himself injecting Mr. Youk with lethal chemicals which was broadcast on CBS News program ''60 Minutes'' along with an interview in which Dr. Kevorkian dared prosecutors to file charges against him.He was paroled for good behavior on June 1, 2007. He had spent eight years and two and a half months in prison. He died from a thrombosis due to kidney problems on June 3, 2011.

✿Financial Aspect:

- Terminal Illness Treatment Realities{211}:In 2003, the US was paying $400 billion as Medicare Prescription Benefit (Medicare Part D, which is a federal program to subsidize the costs of prescription drugs for Medicare beneficiaries. It was enacted with the MMA in 2003). This constitutes only 20% of the projected drug bill of more than $2 trillion for seniors from 2006 to 2015. However, it will not begin to slow the rate of increase in Medicare recipients' out-of-pocket costs.

- Cost of Terminal Care{212}:Aggressive treatments attempting to prolong life in terminally-ill people typically 209 [Dirk Johnson, “Kevorkian Sentenced to 10 to 25 Years in Prison,” New York Times, April 19, 1999, Page A21. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/14/us/kevorkian-sentenced-to-10-to-25-years-in-prison.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm]210 [“American Law and Information Library, Crime and Criminal Law, Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://law.jrank.org/pages/1098/Euthanasia-Assisted-Suicide-Jack-Kevorkian.html]211 [David K. Cundiff, “Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit Realities,” Medscape General Medicine, October, 12, 2003, Section 1. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464964]212 [David K. Cundiff, “Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit Realities,” Medscape General Medicine, October, 12, 2003, Section 2. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464964_2]

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continue far too long. Reflecting this overaggressive end-of-life treatment, the Health Care Finance Administration reported that about 25% of Medicare funds are spent in the last 6 months of life (about $68 billion in 2003 or $42,000 per dying patient). Actually, the last 6 months of a Medicare recipient's life consumes about $80,000 for medical services, since Medicare pays only 53% of the bill. Dying cancer patients cost twice the average amount or about $160,000.

- Cost of Dying{213}:In 2009, Medicare paid $50 billion just for doctor and hospital bills during the last two months of patients' lives. That's more than the budget of the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Education. It has been estimated that 20-30% of these medical expenditures may have had no meaningful impact. Most of the bills are paid for by the federal government with few or no questions asked.Dr. Ira Byock states the following: "It costs up to $10,000 a day to maintain someone in the intensive care unit. Some patients remain there for weeks or even months. Something like 18-20% of Americans spend their last days in an ICU. It's extremely expensive and uncomfortable. Many times they have to be sedated so that they don't reflexively pull out a tube, or sometimes their hands are restrained."

- Cost of Euthanasia Procedures{214}: Due to the cost effective nature of euthanasia this will be the trend in the future. The cost of thousands of dollars for terminal treatment is to be compared to a mere $35.00 for drugs in an assisted-suicide. In Oregon, assisted-suicide is referred to as "comfort-care"

✿Statistics concerning Euthanasia:

- Deaths under Oregon's Physician-Assisted Suicide Act{215}: In 1998: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 16.In 2000: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 27In 2002: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 38

- Deaths from Euthanasia World-wide{216}: There have been at least 3,147 deaths from euthanasia reported worldwide. This is based on data from the Disability and Health Journal published in January 2010 that reported 401 assisted suicide deaths in Washington state by the end of 2009, 246 assisted suicide deaths in Oregon from 1998 to 2005 reported by the International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide, and 2,500 euthanasia deaths in the Netherlands as of 2009 reported by the Euthanasia Prevention Coalition. Exact figures may very well be higher than this total.

213 [CBS News, 60 Minutes, “The Cost of Dying” December 3, 2010. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/11/19/60minutes/main5711689.shtml]214 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28th, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/euthanasiapoliticalkeyissues/economics/]215 [“Euthanasia.com, Statistics, Charts and Graphs” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/charts.html]216 [“NumberOf.net” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.numberof.net/number-of-euthanasia-deaths/]

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- Deaths from Assisted Suicide in the US{217}: By the end of 2009, there are 417 cases of legal assisted suicides in the United States. This is based on a report published in Disability and Health Journal in January 2010. Of this, 401 are in Washington and 16 in Oregon. The only other state to legalize assisted suicide is Montana, which only legalized the act in January 2010.

- Reasons for deaths in 2002 under Oregon's Physician-Assisted Suicide Act{218}: 84%: Feared losing autonomy.84%: Concerned about decreasing ability to take part in enjoyable activities.47%: Concerned about losing control of bodily functions.37%: Concerned about burdening their family, friends or care-givers.26%: Feared inadequate pain relief.

- Deaths due to Suicide{219}: Over 36,000 people in the United States die by suicide every year.In 2009 (latest available data), there were 36,909 reported suicide deaths.Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death for adults between the ages of 18 and 65 years in the United States.Currently, suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the United States.A person dies by suicide about every 15 minutes in the United States.Every day, approximately 101 Americans take their own life.

- Public Support of Euthanasia:In 2005, When asked if doctors should be allowed to end the life of a patient who is suffering from an incurable disease and wants to die, 75% of Americans say "Yes." But when asked if doctors should be allowed to help a patient commit suicide under the same circumstances, only 58% of Americans say "Yes"{220}. Also 85% of Americans say they would want their life support removed if they were in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of recovery{221}

- Public Continues to Support the Right-to-Die for Terminally-ill Patients {222}:

217 [“NumberOf.net” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.numberof.net/number-of-assisted-suicides-in-the-us/]218 [“Euthanasia.com, Statistics, Charts and Graphs” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/charts.html]219 [http://www.afsp.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.viewpage&page_id=050fea9f-b064-4092-b1135c3a70de1fda]220 [David W. Moore, “Three in Four Americans Support Euthanasia,” Gallup.com, May 17, 2005. http://www.gallup.com/poll/16333/three-four-americans-support-euthanasia.aspx]221 [“Life and Death,” Gallup.com, May 17, 2005. http://www.gallup.com/video/16351/Life-Death.aspx]222 [Joseph Carroll, “Public Continues to Support Right-to-Die for Terminally Ill Patients,” Gallup.com, June 19, 2006. http://www.gallup.com/poll/23356/Public-Continues-Support-RighttoDie-Terminally-Ill-Patients.aspx]

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- Moral Acceptability of Doctor-Assisted Suicide: According to the May, 2007 poll, 49% of Americans say doctor-assisted suicide is morally acceptable, while 44% say it is morally wrong. {223}

According to the Gallup's 2011 Values and Beliefs poll, 45% of Americans say doctor-assisted suicide is morally acceptable, while 48% say it is morally wrong. This brings the issue to be the most controversial cultural issue dividing Americans opinions. {224}

223 [Joseph Carrol, “Public Divided Over Moral Acceptability of Doctor-Assisted Suicide,” Gallup.com, May 31, 2007. http://www.gallup.com/poll/27727/Public-Divided-Over-Moral-Acceptability-DoctorAssisted-Suicide.aspx]224 [Lydia Saad, “Doctor-Assisted Suicide Is Moral Issue Dividing Americans Most,” Gallup.com, May 31, 2011. http://www.gallup.com/poll/147842/Doctor-Assisted-Suicide-Moral-Issue-Dividing-

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◆ Final Words:"There is still in our chamber this cloud of euthanasia. At some time in the future we will address It." says Representative Dennis Baxley, and the time has come! 

Now legislate. "Your vote decides a fate!"

Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs’12

1 st Topic

Americans.aspx]

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Prepared By:

Chair-Lady: Nada Adel.

Vice-Chair Lady: Emmy Sulieman.

Ranking Member: Ahmed Zaher.

Party Consultant: Nehal Kamal.

TABLE OF CONTENTS The first topic Homegrown Terrorism Ideology of destruction:

1- Introduction2- Domestic Terrorism

I. HistoryII. Notable Incidents

3- Neo NazisI. History

II. Ideology

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III. Perpetrator analysis “why do people become Neo Nazis? “IV. Incidents committed by the Neo Nazis

4- Fort Hood ShootingsThe reactions toward fort hood shootings

5- The Nation of Islam6- El shabab

I. Notable attacksII. Origins

III. Affiliations to al –QaedaIV. El shabab’s threat on the US

7- Educational system (American Muslim schools)I. Religious Education and public’s opinion regarding them

II. Rising Public concerns8- El sharia

I. American Muslims and ShariaII. Sharia and Family Law

III. Sharia and Criminal LawIV. Popular reactions

9- The US armyI. Requirements for joining the army

II. US army policies towards HommosexualsIII. US army policies towards MuslimsIV. APAAM

The Second Topic Weapons of Mass destruction : kill the world in a scientific way

I. IntroductionII. Types of WMD

I. Nuclear WeaponsII. Biological weapons

III. Chemical WeaponsIV. Radiological Weapons

3-International treaties regarding WMD

4- Bio-security in the USI. Laws for facilities and research

II. Laws for handlingIII. The Biological weapons conventionIV. Scientific Code of conduct

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ABOUT THE COMMITTEE The Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs (HSGAC) is the Senate’s primary oversight committee with broad jurisdiction over government operations generally and the Department of Homeland Security in particular. Its primary responsibilities are to study the efficiency, economy, and effectiveness of all agencies and departments of the federal government; evaluate the effects of laws enacted to reorganize the legislative and executive branches of government; and study the intergovernmental relationships between the U.S. and states and municipalities, and between the U.S. and international organizations of which the U.S. is a member.

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The year after passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the Committee's name changed from the Governmental Affairs Committee to the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee as its jurisdiction expanded to include homeland security issues. In addition to governmental affairs, the Committee now oversees and receives legislation, messages, petitions, and memorials on all matters relating to the Department of Homeland Security, except for appropriations, the Coast Guard, the Transportation Security Administration, immigration, customs revenue, commercial operations, and trade.

Among the Committee’s governmental affairs responsibilities are the Archives of the United States, budgeting and accounting measures generally, government contracting, the Census and collection of statistics, Congressional organization, the federal Civil Service, government information, intergovernmental relations, the municipal affairs of the District of Columbia, the organization and management of U.S. nuclear export policy, the organization and reorganization of the executive branch, the Postal Service, and the status of officers and employees of the U.S., including their classification, compensation, and benefits. The Committee also receives and examines reports of the Comptroller General of the United States and submits recommendations to the Senate as it sees fit related to the subject matter of the reports.

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Home Grown Terrorism: The Ideology Of Destruction.

The threats the world faced since its existence has varied widely between natural, and man-made. One of the oldest threats that have managed to evolve to new and more efficient ways is man himself. Throughout the existence of humanity, the different ideologies and struggle between powers have been tried to be settled in different ways but none worse than terrorism.

Terrorism is such a broad term to the extent that humans haven’t been able to come to a concrete answer to what is it? However, there has been tries to define, terrorism, and it has been’’ broadly defined as politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents’’225.

Terrorism is simply an act of violence that one takes against any targets to prove a political point of view. The Definition is of course very broad and incorporates a lot of cases, but one man’s poison is another’s drug. So we might find our self in a dilemma regarding the reasons behind the act of violence that people some time see a way of explaining violence as a means of getting equal for instance. The fact however remains that targets that are noncombatant i.e. non-fighting, remains an act of violence not accepted by anyone.

One of the earliest terrorist attacks in the United States of America, occurred on the 16th of September 1920226, when an unknown attacker set a bomb in Wall Street, which led to the killing of 38 people, and hundreds being injured after the attack.

The attack was considered to be the worst bombing attack in the US till the Oklahoma bombing in 1995, and the worst in New York till 9/11. The attack fits perfectly to the definition mentioned previously, as the killed and injured were merely innocent passers in the street, or standing by the hit building. Till this day the attackers were not found however, recent research linked the attack to a group called the Galleanists, which is a group that was responsible for a series of bombings the previous year. The attacks were interpreted as a reaction to the post war unrest that occurred in the economic sector due to capitalistic movements in Wall Street.

The history of documented terrorism goes back as far as the beginning of the first century AD. Numerous examples of terroristic acts have been documented all over the world. The thing of interest is the reactions of people towards terrorism, no matter what the cause or who is the perpetrator, people always have the same reaction that is fear.

The international reaction to international terrorism, has not much differed from that of everyday humans when it came to the 9/11 attacks. The attacks have spun 225 Rapheal Perl, “Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy” (Issue Brief for Congress, Order Code IB95112, Updated April 11, 2003)226 Kevin Baker, “Blood on the Street”, The New York Times, February 19, 2009.

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something that we have not seen in a while, international support, and a war that has been called the war on Terrorism.

On the Wake of 9/11, the strategy used before to fight terrorism changed into a process more dependent on the war machine, on intelligence reform and support, and finally global support.

President bush said “We cannot defend America and our friends by hoping for the best. We cannot put our faith in the word of tyrants, who solemnly sign non-proliferation treaties, and then systemically break them. If we wait for threats to fully materialize, we will have waited too long — Our security will require transforming the military you will lead — a military that must be ready to strike at a moment's notice in any dark corner of the world. And our security will require all Americans to be forward-looking and resolute, to be ready for preemptive action when necessary to defend our liberty and to defend our lives.” an indicator at the time that the ship was sailing into a new direction.

Domestic Terrorism

Terrorism of course like anything else can be exported or imported. In the past century the cases of Domestic Terrorism in the USA has been on the rise.

The USA has many definitions of domestic terrorism, that are quiet similar, the first is the one by

The United States Department of Justice which defines domestic terrorism as: The unlawful use of force or violence, committed by a group(s) of two or more individuals, against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.

The second is that which defines domestic acts of terror as it appears in the USA PATRIOT ACT227:

"(A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be intended— (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States."

Domestic Terrorism: A history228.

TABLE 1. Incidents of suspected, prevented and actual terrorism occurring in the United States during the 18-year period 1977 – 1994.

227 UNITING AND STRENGTHENING AMERICA BY PROVIDING APPROPRIATE TOOLS REQUIRED TO INTERCEPT AND OBSTRUCT TERRORISM (USA PATRIOT ACT) ACT OF 2001, PUBLIC LAW 107–56—OCT. 26, 2001.228 LCDR Steven Mack Presley, MSC, USN, “Rise of Domestic Terrorism and Its Relation to United States Armed Forces”, "WRITTEN IN FULFILLMENT OF A REQUIREMENT FOR THE MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE."

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YearSuspected Terrorist Incidents*

Prevented Terrorist Incidents

Total Incidents of Terrorism

1977 nd** Nd 1111978 nd Nd 691979 nd Nd 521980 nd Nd 291981 nd Nd 421982 0 3 511983 2 6 311984 3 9 131985 6 23 71986 2 9 251987 8 5 91988 5 3 91989 16 7 41990 1 5 71991 1 4 51992 0 0 41993 2 7 121994 1 0 0

* = Definitions of suspected terrorist incident and prevented terrorist incident are provided in the notes section.

** = No data (nd) available for years indicated.

SOME OF THE ACTIVE GROUPS OPERATING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE PAST DECADE THAT HAVE BEEN CLASSIFIED AS "TERRORIST":

African National Prison Organization (ANPO). An arm of the African Peoples Socialist Party.

Animal Rights. Principally against use of animals for any purpose beyond their natural existence.

Armed Resistance Group (ARG). aka Revolutionary Fighting Group, Red Guerrilla Faction. This group has been characterized in 1988 as "tired and aging revolutionaries."

Greenpeace. Principally environmental-use extremists.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Reorganized and relocated several arms of its group in 1989.

Macheteros. Puerto Rican nationalists.

Ohio Seven.

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People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Very public-relations oriented.

Radical Feminist Organizing Committee (RFOC). Driven-out of the feminist movement in 1989, operating independently.

RAMBOC (Restore a More Benevolent Order Coalition). Targets and actively pursues the US assets and people of foreign groups with terrorist links, such as the PLO, SWAPO, ANC, etc...

Rolling Thunder. aka American Foundation for Accountability; primary focus is to draw attention to the POW/MIA issue from Vietnam War.

Satanic Cult. Associated with attempted bombing of churches and kidnapping, and animal sacrifices, tombstone vandalism, and miscellaneous actions.

Skinheads (SKA). Groups consists of both racist and anti-racist factions.

SS Action Group. Principally anti-Semitic

Notable incidents:

The Los Angeles building Bombing in 1910

The Wall Street bombing 1920

The Bath School, Michigan bombings 1927

The Unabomber attacks in Harvard 1995

The Oklahoma city bombing 1995

The Centennial Olympic park attacks 1996

Anthrax Attacks 2001

Holocaust Memorial Museum attack 2009

Fort hood shooting 2009

The IRS Austin Attack 2010

The history of the Domestic Terrorism, in the US is not that young, it goes back to the beginnings of the foundation of the new country itself, some historians would disagree to certain events about naming them an acts of terror, take for example the raids of settlers on Native Americans at the time, for land, and resources. However one of the oldest and most notable ways of terror in the United States remains to be shootings. Perhaps one of the most notable incidents is the Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, or that of President Kennedy by Lee Harvey Oswald. The psychology of shootings itself is quiet interesting but that is not the place to discuss it, however it remains one of the most used ways in committing terrorist acts, besides bombing. A lot of movements have chosen to be based on shootings. The Neo-Nazis represent one of the most dangerous groups in the United States right now that has been responsible for many attacks.

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The Freedom to gather and of expression is one of the oldest and most fundamental rights to the Americans. Terrorism and groups such as Neo Nazis Pose threats to these rights, the question of safety versus liberty arises when one tries to find out about these groups.

Shall America Permit these groups to continue to work under the umbrella of the bill of rights while at the same time give them the opportunity to danger what the founding fathers had worked so hard to build? Should we accept the differences, or should we strike hard on those who endanger us?

The Neo-Nazi history:

In 1933, Adolf Hitler established a Nazi dictatorship in Germany. His regime would go on to perpetrate one of the greatest crimes in world history: the Jewish holocaust during the Second World War. This tragedy had its roots in the rise of the neo-Nazis in Germany in the post-WWI era. The neo-Nazi phenomenon was a product of many forces, but two causes of the movement remain crystal clear: 1) German humiliation in World War One and, 2) German anti-Semitism. Both realities blended together to cause the rise of the Neo-Nazis.

The ideology of the Neo-Nazis:

NEO-NAZISM, is related to fascist, nationalist, white supremacist, anti-Semitic beliefs and political tendencies of the numerous groups that emerged after World War II seeking to restore the Nazi order or to establish a new order based on doctrines propounded in Hitler's’’ Mein Kampf;’’ (‘’My Struggle’’ a book written by’’ Hitler’’) others espoused related beliefs deriving from older Catholic, nationalist, or other local traditions. Some openly embraced the structure and aspirations of the Third Reich (The German State from 1933 to 1945 under Adolf Hitler rule) by displaying swastika flags (The symbol of the Nazi party 卐) and glorifying Nazi achievements, while others sought to mask their ideology and agenda.

Starting in the 1970s, a trend of conservative, right-wing populist, ethno-nationalist, and neo-fascist challenges to sitting centrist or social democratic governments allowed right-wing groups a degree of legitimacy they did not possess in the immediate post-World War II era. In response neo-Nazi groups have developed a variety of ways to build bridges to more mainstream political and social movements. Some neo-Nazis repackage their beliefs as forms of "White Nationalism" or "White Separatism,"(autonomy) hiding behind broader racist movements for "White Rights," with alliances spanning Europe and North America. At the

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same time, Europe, North America, the Middle East, and South Asia saw the development of numerous right-wing populist political parties and reactionary fundamentalist religious movements that served to bridge the extreme right to the mainstream. In several countries neo-Nazis (sometimes in alliance with quasi-fascist or xenophobic right-wing populist allies) became more involved in electoral politics, stressing anti-immigrant and sometimes anti-Semitic themes.

The Perpetrator analysis: Why do people become Neo-Nazis?

In the 1980s, social scientists began to move beyond notions of deviance and psychopathology to theories of social mobilization that see people who join any social movement – even neo-Nazis – as motivated by shared grievances shaped by social circumstances, recruited by face-to-face interaction, and focused on goals that seem practical and reachable, Major factors in the global neo-Nazi upsurge included unstable economic, political, and social conditions, with their many causes–including, in the 1970s, simultaneous inflation and recession caused in great part by dependence on Arab oil; the disruptions of globalization and the collapse of the Soviet empire; waves of nonwhite immigration into Europe (from places formerly ruled or dominated by Europeans) and the United States; the constant threat of war, especially in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf; and the continued sense among white men that they were losing power and prestige in areas ranging from world affairs to their living rooms to their relations with women. In the United States, racial issues, not resolved in the 1960s, took the form of conflict over school desegregation, affirmative action, social welfare provision, and government social spending in general, So Leaders of neo-Nazi groups skillfully exploited the anxieties caused by these and other factors. The worldview of neo-Nazis is shaped by the way leaders frame issues and use narrative stories. While most neo-Nazi frames and narratives are based on myths, demonization, and scapegoating, this does not make them less effective in building a functional identity for individuals, even if they come from dysfunctional families. This process allowed neo-Nazis to adapt to changing historic conditions and expand their targets beyond Jews and black people.

Incidents committed by the ‘’Neo-Nazis’’

1) William A. “Bill” White, the self-proclaimed commander of the neo-Nazi group the American National Socialist Workers Party, he was convicted in December 2009, for three counts of communicating threats in interstate commerce and one count of witness intimidation, Firstly ‘’White’ ’was guilty of threatening a bank employee who he mistakenly believed was assigned to handle a financial dispute involving his Citibank accounts. Secondly he was also found guilty of using intimidation to delay or prevent the testimony of African-American tenants in a discrimination case against their landlord. Thirdly he was convicted for making threats to a university administrator who was responsible for implementing a diversity program.

2) On May 1, 2011 A 10-year-old Californian boy called ‘‘Joseph Hall’ ’brought up amid a neo-Nazi group has been charged with murder after allegedly shooting dead his father, The boy, who has not been named, is alleged to have shot’’ Jeffrey Hall ‘’with a handgun, the Boy who was raised in an environment of hate, racism, and violence is said to have been affected by this environment.

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3) In the wake of 9/11 attacks, some briefings from the security services and Justice Department, found that Right-wing groups have had an interest in anthrax and other biological agents. A member of the Aryan Nation group once boasted about that he had a hidden amount of anthrax from digging up a field where cows had died of the disease in the 1950s.’’ Larry Wayne Harris’’ was arrested 229 after trying to obtain three flasks of bubonic plague (disease circulated from small rodents and their fleas) from a mail-order science company.

The rise of the Neo-Nazi ideology in the American society as we have read has been affected and nurtured by mistakes on the economic and social levels as well. The thing that intrigues is that these same factors were affecting everyone, but inly the Neo Nazis have chosen to react in the way they react. The American government finds itself in face of a society that is affected by messages by historical bad figures such as Hitler who despite his death is affecting ideologies of terrorist groups in the US. And as these groups have taken a legal cover as right wing policies, they are terrorizing the American society. What are the possible tools that the US can undertake to fight back, Putting in mind that the right to express, and buy guns, the right to form political parties are fundamental rights?

______________________________________________

The ideology of a shooter matters not, all that remain in the end is blood. Shootings have occurred even in the heart of the US army something that has shocked the American Community, and lead to a wide search in the society about the roots of this problem, one of the most recent, and very important attacks of domestic attacks was that which occurred in the Fort Hood, of the US Army.

Fort Hood Shootings:

On 5 November 2009 13 people were killed and 30 injured in the worst mass shooting at a military base in Fort hood in Texas in the United States, a US soldier ‘’ Army Major/ Nidal Malik Hasan” that entered the soldier readiness center and killed almost 12/13 Soldiers, one civilian and injured about 30 other people, he was armed with 2 non-military revolvers as there were 400 people at the center, some of them are to be deployed.

‘’Nidal Malik Hasan’’, was born and raised in Virginia as his parents moved to the US from Palestine , After high school ,he joined the US Army, before being transferred to’’ Fort Hood’ ’an important official mentioned that ‘’Nidal’’ had received a poor performance evaluation from the ‘’Walter Reed Army Medical Center ‘’, his training director at the center was describing him as ‘’mostly very quiet",’’ and never spoke ill of the military or his country’’

229 Ed Vulliamy, “Anthrax attacks' 'work of neo-Nazis'”, The Guardian, October 28, 2001.

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The Reactions toward ‘’Fort Hood’’ Shooting:

People who were at the base or who had loved ones there, there was great fear and despair after the attack, many people were terrified , some tried in vain to reach their acquaintances by phone, as so much has happened in’’ Fort Hood’’ since the war started, it was hard to believe that one of their own could do something like this, and some people referred this to saw the shooting as linked to the US military's operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, others perceived this as largest military installation in the free world, others thought that after 9/11, it was only a matter of time before there was another terrorist attack on the American soil .

Another Incident in November,2011 A rogue U.S. soldier ‘’Private First Class Naser Jason Abdo ‘’ planned to detonate bombs at Fort Hood and then shoot the survivors, as well as being indicted on six counts for plotting to blow up a restaurant full of troops near the Texas Army post, also trying to use a weapon of mass destruction, attempted murder of officers or employees of the US, and two counts of possession of a firearm for use in a federal crime of violence, and two counts of possession of a destructive device for use in a federal crime of violence.

The fort hood incidents raised a lot of debate inside the American community about the role of these soldiers in the army, and whether it is advisable or not to let Arabs

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fight in the war on Terrorism that is being held in the Middle East? Does this pose a conflict for the soldiers? How can the US Army stop future incidents? Should there be a ban on Arab soldiers in the army?

_________________________________________

After the attack, America came to see that something new in its society has appeared and now is the time for it to face it. America is facing terrorism but from its own citizens, and what she fears might be true, they are Muslims. Why is it that each time America finds terror, like previously in the shootings of Fort Hood, must it be linked to Islam? How come Americans became Muslims? The United States of America, has always been a place of dreams, and to be more specific, the American dream. For years this dream has mesmerized the world. With the foundations of this country and the life it provides, the American dream has always been the goal of millions. Now a days the American dream is endangered by terrorism. The foundations of this dream are facing a challenge, what shall America do? Should America stand by and watch the people of the world crash on her shores changing the ideologies of this country and its foundation? Should America stop new comers, to save its traditions? Or maybe America as a country that has been always a mixture of traditions let go and see what happens?

The United States of America: A Nation of Nations.

The latest estimates of the number of Muslims in the United States range from six to ten million230. All Muslims who are citizens of America live a minority existence but with the benefits that citizenship brings.

The very first Muslims came unwillingly to America several centuries ago as slaves brought from western Africa, there were many Islamic professors and scholars among the slaves, but they weren’t able to build Qur’an schools and teaching the reading and writing of Arabic. However, they weren’t allowed to practice the faith of Islam and they were forced to convert to Christianity. Despite the stunning achievements of the Muslim Americans but they still aren’t treated as normal citizens.

There are tensions about Islam, In an August 2011poll, only 33 percent of Americans had a generally favorable opinion about Muslims, versus 61 percent who said they had an unfavorable opinion. Also 55 percent of Muslim Americans say it has become 230 Religion and Immigration: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Experiences in the US / edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, John L. Esposito (Alta mira Press, 2003) chapter 9.

-Muqtedar Khan, “U.S. Government and American Muslims Engage to Define Islamophobia”, December 19, 2006.-Laurie Goodstein, “Across Nation, Mosque Projects Meet Opposition”, The New York Times, August 7, 2010.

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more difficult to be a Muslim in the United States and that they had experienced mistreatment or discrimination. The two conflicting points of view, one stating that America was built on diversity and acceptance of different culture ans embracing all cultures to form a new culture, American, and pure for its citizens, stands now face in face to that saying that we should scrutinize those who wish to enter our lands, we should protect our lands and not accept any one, especially if they are Muslims.

The Nation of Islam

The Nation of Islam began by the appearance of The Pakistani Wallace D. Fard (Walli Fard Muhammad) in Detroit on July 4, 1930 whom was believed to be the long awaited "Saviour" of the Black man and woman, He announced and preached that God is one and it’s time for the black to return to the religion of their ancestors, Islam. Elijah Mohamed (Elijah Poole) was from the people who were deeply affected by his lecture; He was overwhelmed by the message and immediately accepted it. Elijah was taught by Fard for Three and half years till he was ready to establish religious center of worship, schools, businesses between only Black people and establish a newspaper, “The Final Call to Islam” in 1934.

Elijah Muhammed Malcolm X

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By 1934, the Michigan State Board of Education disagreed with the Muslim's right to pursue their own educational agenda. Elijah, the Muslim Teachers and Temple Secretary were jailed on the false charge of contributing to the delinquency of minors. His Teacher, W. Fard Muhammad, was also harassed by the police and was forced out of Detroit and moved to Chicago where he continued to face imprisonment and harassment by the police. In 1934 W. Fard Muhammad departed the scene and disappeared leaving Elijah Muhammad with the mission of resurrecting the Black people, Elijah Muhammad was convicted in 1942 of military draft evasion for refusing to being inducted in the U.S. Arm Forces and fighting in World War 2.

* * *

The Nation of Islam emphasizes mentoring, taking a younger person under one's wing to model moral principles, and that’s what happened to Malcolm X who was born as Malcolm Little231, he was a smart student but his teacher told him his dream of becoming a lawyer was "no realistic goal for a nigger," so he lost interest in school and began odd jobs and committed some crimes till he was arrested and judged to serve in prison for 8-10 years; Those years were the period of self-enlightenment that Malcolm's brother Reginald would visit and discuss his recent conversion to the Muslim religion. Intrigued, Malcolm began to study the teachings of NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. By the time he was paroled in 1952, Malcolm was a devoted follower with the new surname "X." (He considered "Little" a slave name and chose the "X" to signify his lost tribal name.)

During the 1950s, Mr. Muhammad promoted Malcolm X to the National Spokesman.His charisma, drive and conviction attracted people increased membership in the NOI from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963.

After the great success, Malcolm rejected Elijah’s absolutism. The tensions increased when he learned that Elijah was secretly having relations with six women within the NOI. Malcolm refused Elijah's request to cover up the affairs and subsequent children. And after a tension between them, In March 1964 Malcolm quit from the NOI. Malcolm decided to found his own religious organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc.

Quitting from NOI and telling about Elijah’s scandal was enough for making great danger on Malcolm’s life, after repeated attempts on assassinating him, three black gunmen rushed him onstage at a speaking engagement on February 21, 1965.

The NOI members have said that they hadn’t participated in this assassination till Farrakhan admitted at a TV program232 in 2000 that they were responsible because

231“MalcolmX Offical Website, About Malcolm X, Biography”, Last updated February 21, 2011, http://www.malcolmx.com/about/bio2.html232 “60 Minutes Website, Farrakhan Admission On Malcolm X” Last Updated February 11, 2009, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml

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they called him a traitor and that he was worthy of death.

In January 1964, Elijah Muhammad expelled his own son Wallace Muhammad, who had also been a close friend to Malcolm; they had both concluded that W.D. Fard could not have been Allah and that Elijah Muhammad had misrepresented Islam. Wallace had also been one of the people who confirm his father's sexual infidelity.

Despite of all these tensions between Elijah and his son, when Elijah Muhammad died in 1975, it was announced that Wallace Deen Muhammad (Wareeth Al-Deen) would be succeeding his father as the new leader of the Nation of Islam. The younger Muhammad had made drastic theological changes and organizational changes, In 1977 splinter groups and sects began dismantling the NOI and his mischaracterization of his father Elijah’s teachings. Louis Farrakhan (Louis Walcott) and Muhammed Silis resigned from Warith Deen's reformed organization and they announced their reclaiming of Elijah Mohammed’s teachings.

The Ideology

The Nation of Islam seems geared to reach the underclass, and its message emphasizes and capitalizes on the racial inequities and disparities between black and white people in America. They urge blacks to set up black-owned businesses, thus working to raise the standard of living in poor neighborhoods. Their fundamental ideology is to avoid reliance on government subsidies or white business partnerships.

The chief leaders of the NOI (Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and Minister Farrakhan) have all made pilgrimages to Mecca, and at the present time NOI members are instructed to fast during the Muslim month of Ramadan and to consult the Hadith. Despite these outward appearances, it can also be argued that the NOI is in fact pseudo-Islamic. NOI also has some polytheistic beliefs which deny the fundamentals of theistic religion. "Islam and the 'Nation of Islam' are two different religions. The only thing common between them is the jargon, the language used by the both."

There is no God but Allah Who appeared

In the Person of Master W.D. Fard Muhammad

Our Savior, Messiah and Great Mahdi.

We forever thank Him for giving to us

His Divine Messenger

The Last and Greatest Messenger of Allah to the world

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In the Person of the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad233

The Nation of Islam symbolizes one of the finest foundations in America that is the power of the people, and the civil society. The nation of Islam grew out of the black American society to be one of the misunderstood societies that are affecting the US Muslim society, and its image.

America Now faces a new dilemma, how can it protect itself when the base upon which it stands is shifting and producing groups like NOI? A group that could form a nucleus for illegal activities that could reach the extent of Terrorism, What should America do?

The Muslim American Community it seems, must come under bigger and much deeper scrutiny for America to understand why do American Muslims turn into terrorist, are they influenced by foreign organizations? It seems that the same circumstances that allowed NOI to prosper into such an organization are still there, and nowadays in the age of terrorism, Terrorist groups are taking advantage of this, and starting to work on young Muslim Americans to strike in the heart of the US. One such group is El Shabab234 235 236:

Al Shabaab, which means “the youth” in Arabic, is an organized, but shifting, Islamist group in Somalia. It has had several incarnations. It is frequently referred to as a terrorist group in the media, and the U.S. State Department designated it a terrorist group in March, 2008. However, it also may be understood as a political party, a militia, and a movement.

Home Base: Somalia

Founded in : 2003 or 2004

Leadership and organization :

Al Shabab was headed by Aden Hashi Ayro until he was killed by a U.S. airstrike in early May, 2008. Al Shabab members are reported to be mostly adolescents and young men in their early twenties. They are for the most part poorly educated and some have criminal backgrounds. When it first emerged, it had a small membership. The group maintained a loose organization and is reportedly inspired by Al Qaida.

233“The Nation of Islam Website” , http://www.thenationofislam.org/234 Amy Zalman, “Al Shabab”, “About website”, http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/Al-Shabab.htm

235 Stephanie Hanson, “Al-Shabaab”, Council On Foreign Relations, August 10, 2011.

236Committee on Homeland Security US House of Representatives, “Investigation report on al Shabaab”, July 27, 2011.

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There are no organic links between the two groups, however, although it is reported that Ayro may have trained in Afghanistan

Notable Attacks:

1. February 2009: A suicide car bomb attack killed 11 African Union soldiers who were part of a peacekeeping force in Mogadishu

2. January 2009: The group captured the national Parliament building in Baidoa, and took control of the city without the use of violent force.

3. June 2007: A suicide bomber blew himself up outside the Somali Prime Minister's house. The PM was not killed; but there were other injuries and substantial property damage.

4. 2007-2008: Assassinations: The group claimed responsibility for a number of assassinations of government officials.

5. 2003-2004: The group was linked to the murder of four foreign aid workers.

Origins: the Islamic Courts Union and Al Shabab:

6. According to a number of accounts, Al Shabab grew out of the youth wing of the Islamic Courts Union

(ICU). The ICU are a group of united Islamic courts that slowly took on increasingly substantial

governance tasks, since the central government was entirely dysfunctional following its 1991

collapse. By 2006, the ICU were in control of much of Southern Somalia.

7. According to this account, the youth wing of the ICU reconstituted itself as a militia after 2006. In

2006, the ICU hold on Somali territory was loosened, and a transitional central government

established. While much of its leadership left for neighboring countries while the youth wing

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Re-established itself as a militia.

8. Dr. Moshe Terdman, in a report for the S. Daniel Abraham Center for International and Regional

Studies at Tel Aviv University, characterizes Al Shabab rather differently as an independent

movement that was "integrated quite tightly with the ICU armed forces, acting as a sort of 'special

forces' for the ICU" (In Somalia at War-Between Radical Islam and Tribal Politics, March 2008). In

Terdman's accounting, the link between the ICU and al Shebab arose from Ayro's appointment as the

head of a militia for one of the courts.

Affiliation to al-Qaeda

When the United States placed al-Shabaab on its list of foreign terrorist organizations in February 2008, it claimed the group has an allegiance with al-Qaeda. Specifically, it said that senior al-Shabaab leaders trained in Afghanistan with al-Qaeda. In September 2008, a senior al-Shabaab leader released a video in which he pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden and called for Muslim youth to come to Somalia. In February 2009, Ayman al-Zawahiri, then al-Qaeda's second-in-command, released a video that began by praising al-Shabaab's seizure of the Somali town of Baidoa. The group will "engage in Jihad against the American-made government in the same way they engaged in Jihad against the Ethiopians and the warlords before them," Zawahiri said.

Ayman Al-Zawahiri

In 2012 Al shabab officially announced its merge with Al qaeda ending years of speculation about a possible link, and opening the door for more threats regarding the fight against terrorism. This announcement created a far tougher situation for the US

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government. How can America protect itself when Al sahabab has been working on recruiting Muslim Americans to work with them? Should the privacy of Americans be held or should it be breached for the safety of all American? Is one American in contact with suspicious people overseas more dangerous than a serial killer? How should America handle the situation regarding rights, freedoms?

El shabab’s threat on the U.S:

The majority staff of the House Committee on Homeland Security conducted an investigation into the threat by Al Shabaab al-Mujahideen in Somalia, Al Qaeda’s major ally in East Africa, and its efforts to radicalize and recruit Muslim-Americans inside the U.S.

The key finding is that there is a looming danger of American Shabaab fighters returning to the U.S. to strike or helping Al Qaeda and its affiliates attack the homeland.

U.S. intelligence underestimated the Pakistani Taliban and Al Qaeda in Yemen’s capability of launching attacks here; we cannot afford to make the same mistake with Shabaab. The majority staff interviewed dozens of current and former counterterror officials, scholars, diplomats and other experts on Shabaab and Muslim-American radicalization to reach these conclusions:

The committee discovered that Al Shabaab has an active recruitment and radicalization network inside the U.S. targeting Muslim-Americans in Somali communities. It also ensnared a few non-Somali Muslim-American converts, such as a top Shabaab commander:

1. At least 40 or more Americans have joined Shabaab; 2. So many Americans have joined that at least 15 of them have been killed fighting

with Shabaab, as well as three Canadians;3. Three Americans who returned to the U.S. were prosecuted, and one awaits

extradition from The Netherlands4. At least 21 or more American Shabaab members overseas remain unaccounted

for and pose a direct threat to the U.S. homelandAccording to the House committee report, Al Shabaab has the intent and capability to conduct attacks or aid core Al Qaeda and Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) in Yemen with striking U.S. interests and the U.S. homeland.

Al Shabaab has not only openly pledged loyalty and support to Al Qaeda and AQAP in Yemen, but has cemented alarming operational ties to both groups, according to the House report.

The American government found that in addition to foreign influence that some organizations play in the Muslim American society, other factors that they were not seeing came to attention for example the increasing segregation of schooling systems, and the rising demands for separate schools for Muslims, Application of Muslim Shariaa Law. These factors that have nurtured years and years of misunderstanding between both sides are the factors up on which Al shabaab has been working to

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further recruit Muslim Americans. It seems that new laws need to be enacted in order to fight back. The state of these factors currently in the US is discussed below.

Educational system (American Muslim Schools) As the population of Muslims in the United States continues to grow, so too does the number of Islamic schools serving Muslim families across the nation.American Muslims see these schools as a way to provide their children with a combination of good, mainstream education and training in the essentials of their faith. But critics fear some of these schools might expose Muslim children to radical Islamist views.

Religious education and Public’s opinions regarding them:

Education has always been very important to the Muslim community in the United States. And like many other families, Muslim parents have educational options. They can send their children to secular, county-administered public schools or private academies while providing religious training at home or on weekends.

Alternately, they can send their children to private religious schools. Yvonne Haddad, an Islamic history professor at Georgetown University, says Islamic schools serve the same role as the many other private, church-oriented schools in the United States.

According to Haddad, soon after Islamist terrorists carried out multiple attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Americans began asking whether Islamic schools in America might be breeding grounds for homegrown terrorists that pose a threat to national security.

Rising public concern:Daniel Pipes, a conservative Mideast historian who runs the Middle East Forum and Campus Watch websites, believes a number of private Islamic schools in America offer their students a curriculum laced with extremist content. Pipes argue that many Islamic schools are spreading extremist ideas and that they work to instill in their students an unhealthy notion that the only thing that matters in their lives is their Islamic identity.

But there are different opinions; Albert Harb the director of the Muslim American Youth Academy in Dearborn, Michigan doesn’t see it that way"We follow the standards of the state of Michigan curriculum. In addition, we have an Islamic component, and we teach Islam as well as Arabic as a foreign language," says Harb. "We want to ensure that we can develop an Islamic character with our youth and give the positive aspects of Islam here in the society of the U.S.A."

Muslim-American efforts to create and support Islamic schools mirror previous

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efforts by Roman Catholic and Jewish communities in America. Both communities faced the same kind of public resistance when they first established their religious schools.  

It seems that Education, a right so fundamental that no one questions it, in the Us has turned out be a source of trouble to the American society, if the freedom to speak and talk your mind in the us is going to give us terrorists shouldn’t we do something about it?

Furthermore the Muslims society if it is even possible was more feared and shunned out of the American society by the Shariaa Muslim law, and the calls for its application something which triggered a hyperactive reaction in the American society causing more fear and hatred towards the Muslim Americans.

Sharia and America

In the eyes of America Sharia’ is term that has become exclusive to the Muslim community. According to the Miriam Webster online dictionary it is the: Islamic law based on the Koran.

The free online dictionary defines it as the code of law derived from the Koran and from the teachings and example of Mohammed; “sharia is only applicable to Muslims”; “under Islamic law there is no separation of church and state”

The Duhaime law resources website, provides a definition which fits the situation more perfectly, where is say that it is Muslim or Islamic law, both civil and criminal justice as well as regulating individual conduct both personal and moral.

Sharia as we see from the above three definitions vary according to the mindset of the west, we have multiple layers for the word, and multiple meanings, just as the word does in the Muslim world. Yet in the eyes of the west the word has been in most of the time linked to Jihadism, a view that is confirmed to some based on facts, as a survey that was conducted by mapping sharia that found that 51% had texts on site rated as severely advocating violence; 30% had texts rated as moderately advocating violence; and 19% had no violent texts at all.

In 84.5% of the mosques237, the imam recommended studying violence-positive texts.  The leadership at Sharia-adherent mosques was more likely to recommend that a worshipper study violence-positive texts than leadership at non-Sharia-adherent mosques.

This survey according to some proves the violent tendencies that the western world is facing, tendencies that Islamic sharia represents, such as women oppression, oppression of thought, and expression. These are the things that the America should take care from.

American Muslims and Sharia:

The situation is different when it comes to the Muslim community in America, which is divided into two. A sect that calls firmly to stand upon the bill of rights and the foundations 237 Mordechai Kedar and David Yerushalmi ‘Shari’a and Violence in American Mosques’ Middle East Quarterly, Summer 2011

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that the founding fathers laid, and those calling for the application of sharia law (who are further divided into two groups, one that calls for its application between themselves only, and another that sees some parts of it should be legalized in the us judicial branch).

In a paper by Shelia museji238 about the American Muslims and sharia law, Shelia calls firmly upon the conviction of secularism of the state, where she asks all Americans to hold on to the separation of church and state, and that Americas’ beauty lies in this fact, expressing her gratitude as an American Muslim to this fact, and at the same time calling those who don’t understand this, don’t understand history as well.

Sharia and Family Law

The other side of the Muslim society sees for instance the problem of polygamy in the USA differently. 70% of a survey conducted by the Muslim link paper239 ( a paper, focused on the Muslim American community) said that the US should legalize polygamy.

Family law in the US bans polygamy, and doesn’t recognize it based on religious foundations, since the American constitution doesn’t recognize any religion. The view right now in America after the change in marriage law is changing. American Muslims want to solve the problems of 42% of the same survey who has acknowledged that they have practiced polygamy regardless of what the law says.

Sharia and Criminal Law

The situation is different when it comes, to criminal law. Sharia describes certain punishments to certain crimes that are mentioned in the Koran, accordingly Muslims must abide by. That is not the case in the United States. The united states does only recognize the secular law that the founding fathers agreed upon, Americans view sharia as a source of violence as per view of criminal part of it, they paint a picture of cut hands, stoned women, and whipped people. American Muslims views on that are not clear but a popular part of them ask for the application of sharia, by all its parts

Popular Reactions:240 241

Worried citizens of the US have gathered together and formed what they call, watch groups that have the aim of watching and collecting data regarding what they call creeping sharia as one blog puts it. This of course has lead to popular reactions in capitol hill, where bills discussing the integration of religious law, in the American judicial system.

The above factors need addressing and fast or America shall find itself in tight spot. The balance between diversity, civil liberties, freedoms, and security is very hard, yet it has to be reached.

238Sheila Musaji, “American Muslims must defend the Constitution of the United States”, The American Muslim, November 20, 2009.239 Wafa Unus Muslim, “Polygamy: Tis The Season?”, The Muslim Link, 27 October 2011.240 “ Citizen Against Sharia Blog, About”, Last Updated October 5, 2008 http://citizensagainstsharia.wordpress.com/about/241“Sharia 4 america, About”, http://www.sharia4america.com/homepage.php

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Suggested laws to monitor the educational facilities, the content of books, the mosques, and Muslim civil societies in the US have been proposed in order to be able to control the reach of EL shabaab in the US. But these laws stand in the face of the liberties and the American bill of rights itself.

The social Response to the immigrating communities in the United States has varied depending on states, and places to which the immigrants choose to settle, take for example china town in New York. This was deemed a sign of acceptance and diversity in the American society, and was hailed by the American government always. But it seems that the Muslim society as we have seen above has managed to form a shell impenetrable by other, and specially by America itself leading to years of misconception, and distrust. When it comes to the US Army the situation should have been different but as we will read down, it is not the case.

The United States of America has one of the oldest organized armies in the world something that has lead to the evolution of the political, social, and religious factors governing the army in its different stages of history. The Us Army today has a clear and governed policy for recruitment and enlisting in it. The integration of Muslims in the US Army, is not as easy as it seems, the general requirements are specific age, citizenship, academic, physical and legal qualifications that you must meet first! To qualify for enlistment into the Army, you need to have the following242:

Age Requirements:You must be between the the ages of 17 and 42 (unless you have prior U.S. military service, or a specialized professional skill, such as a chaplain, lawyer or certain medical specialties) If you are under age 18, you must obtain the consent of your parent or legal guardian.

Citizenship Requirementsyou must be a U.S. citizen or a legal permanent resident alien to enlist in the Army. People considered to be aliens who have been lawfully and permanently admitted to the United States and requested permanent residence may enlist BUT with limitations. Nationals of the United States, such as the American Samoa, people who were born in the 50 United States including the commonwealths, Guam, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the District of Columbia and people born abroad on a military installation, or born abroad of U.S. parents who were citizens at the time are eligible for enlistment.

Education Requirements:You must be either currently in high school or have a high school diploma. If you do not meet this requirement, there are programs that can help.The high school diploma is most desirable.

242 “Military Spot, Army requirements”, Last Updated February 2012, http://www.militaryspot.com/army/army-requirements-to-join/

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Physical Requirements and Medical Requirements:Certain tests will be preformed to verify that you meet the physical requirements of the Army. In addition to making sure you are in generally good health, with no disqualifying conditions, you will also be required to pass a drug screening test.

Height and Weight Requirements:There are weight and height requirements to make sure you are in shape for joining the Army!

ASVAB Requirements:ASVAB is short for “Armed Services Vocational Aptitude battery”. It is a 200 questions multiple choice test designed to evaluate skills in certain areas ,deciding some factors in choosing the jobs in the army. You must also obtain a minimum qualifying score ,The score for the Army typically needs to be a 31 or better although rare exceptions are made.

Background Requirements:A criminal record may disqualify you from military service. If you have a criminal record you need to talk to a recruiter in order to evaluate your particular situation.

These are the requirements to enlist in the US army, but what is on real ground is much more different than what is on paper. It seems that within the UA Army un-said requirements are called for, these requirements are the basis upon which some members of the American society have cried out for the fear of segregation and separation between the society something that further divides and creates a gap between Americans; A possible door for terrorism.

US army policies towards Homosexuals:

What does the Law Say?

"The presence in the Armed Forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability."

The Law and Army Policy in Everyday Language

Don't Ask, Don't Tell

What Does 'Don't Ask" Mean?

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Applicants for enlistment will not be asked nor required to reveal their sexual orientation.

Applicants for enlistment will not be asked if they have engaged in homosexual conduct.

While on active duty, soldiers will not be asked about their sexual orientation or conduct unless there is credible information of homosexual conduct.

What Does "Don't Tell" Mean?

"Don't Tell" is the opposite side of the coin from "Don't Ask."

Soldiers should not disclose or discuss their sexual orientation or conduct.

If a soldier admits to being homosexual, the commander will begin the process to determine if credible information exists which would warrant separation.

U.S army policies towards Muslims:

Since Sept. 11, 2001, as the United States has become mired in two wars on Muslim lands, the service of Muslim-Americans is more necessary and more complicated than ever before.

In the aftermath of the shootings at Fort Hood by Maj. Nidal Malik Hasan of the Army, a psychiatrist, many Muslim soldiers and their commanders say they fear that the relationship between the military and its Muslim service members will only grow more difficult.

Since Sept. 11, the nation’s military has actively recruited Muslim-Americans, eager to have people with linguistic skills and a cultural understanding of the Middle East. Some 3,557 military personnel identify themselves as Muslim among 1.4 million people in the active-duty population, according to official figures. Muslim advocacy groups estimate the number to be far higher, as listing one’s religious preference is voluntary.

Many Muslims are drawn to the military for the same reasons as other recruits. In interviews, they cited patriotism, a search for discipline and their dreams of attending college. Some Muslims said they had also enlisted to win new respect in a country where people of their faith have struggled for acceptance.

APAAM:

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APAAM243: is The Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military ,it’s a non-political and non-religious organization, that was created shortly after 11 September, 2001 the horrific event that touched all the Americans , APAAM is aiming at organizing current and former Arab- Americans in the military, it was established for the cause of  making a difference in Arab American Communities nationwide by building a bridge of understanding with the fellow Americans As There are approximately 3,500 Arab- Americans serving in the Armed Forces.  Based on the fact that there are no other formal veterans(people that serve in the armed forces) organizations representing Arab- Americans in the military, APAAM has the distinction of being the first official veterans organization for Arab- Americans in the Military.

The Objectives of APAAM, is to build a contact list of all the military members, Establish a solid foundations that speaks with one "Arab American Military" voice ,Educate the fellow American and Arab communities of proudness to the ancestral heritage, coupled by the patriotism and burning dedication to the country, by emphasizing the service and sacrifice as military service men and women in the United States Armed Forces, and Finally To ultimately close the gap that lies between bigotry, ignorance and prejudice on one end, and tolerance on the

other.

The Founder and the President of APAAM is ‘’Jamal Baadani’’244 245, Born and raised in Cairo, Egypt to Yemeni parents, then emigrated to the United States at the age of 9, At the age of 17 he joined the United States Marine Corps, Due to his belief in “Duty and

243 “ Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military” About, Last Updated June 14, 2010, http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:aboutus&catid=44

244 “Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, Home http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=149:jamal-baadani-apaam-president-founder&Itemid=174245 “Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, “Jamal S. Baadani, WE WILL NEVER FORGET ““,http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=225:we-will-never-forget

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Patriotism” to country,he felt that as an immigrant to America serving in the U.S. Military by making the transformation as a United States Marine legitimized his place as a citizen of this great country. Coming to America as a child who couldn’t speak English followed by struggles as a teenager to fit in as a normal young man alongside his American peers was always a challenge for him during his early days in America. Service in the United States Marines enabled him to feel that he had overcome the challenge of belonging to America , becoming a strong and proud American man, felt an obligation to give back to his community, and shortly after September attack, he founded the APAAM to stand up for the Arab and Muslim American Communities in response to the backlash and discrimination they experienced as a result of increased tensions in America resulting from 9/11, as he found out that the reasons for this discriminations and tensions were due to the lack of understanding by his fellow Americans as There were over 1,300 cases of backlash and discrimination and eight deaths (homicides) to Arab, Asian, and Muslim Americans directly after 9.11 , moreover in the military he found that their Patriotism and Service to their country was put into question by some of other Americans ,doubt that still continues today as they have fought in every climb and place to protect the freedom of America. Hundreds of Arab and Muslim Americans have deployed and many are still deployed overseas contributing with Operation Enduring Freedom in the Global War on Terrorism, they are committed to eradicating and ending terrorism once and for all.

APAAM against violence, After the sorrow incidents of Fort Hood shooting , and what it had left from victims and their families , and in the aftermath of this terrible tragedy, it is more important than ever not to make the same scapegoating and fatal mistakes that were evident in the aftermath of previous tragedies. The APAAM in Military urges the media, government officials and all of the Americans to recognize that the actions of ‘’Nidal Malik Hasan’’246 are those of an insane gunman, and are in no way representative of the wider Arab American or American Muslim community.

This is besides , The first documented Arab American immigrant247 ‘’Private Nathan Badeen ‘’from Syria died in the revolutionary war on 26 May , 1776, he was with the 18th Continental Army of Massachusetts., He died fighting for a cause of freedom , two months prior to seeing the Declaration of Independence issued to the British. So there were Arab Americans and Muslim Americans who also died in the revolutionary war, in addition to’’ Private Nathan Badeen’’, Over 5,000 Muslim and Arab Americans fought on both sides of the civil war ,the Arab and Muslim Americans were rebels, and on the other side Arab and Muslim Americans with the Union fighting to end slavery, Over 15,000 Arab Americans fought in WWII to help rid the world of a tyrant.

Ideologies and societies in the US are many and diverse as we have seen. From White supremacy to the national traditions of the NOI, and the Muslim community heritage in the US, It seems that extremism is not a thing of certain community or culture. It is something that can be found in any culture or any ideology if nurtured by the souls of evil men. America

246“STATEMENT ON FORT HOOD SHOOTINGS, Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=222:statement-on-fort-hood-shootings247 NIRAJ WARIKOO,” Muslim soldiers: We love America”, Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military, November 15, 2009.

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in its fight against Terrorism, is trying to find out possible environments where extremisms and terrorism can grow and prosper.

How can we fight back? What are the Laws that we should take? With Breach of civil liberties in light, and the safety of the US in mind, what is the right balance?

Terrorism, we see is such a complicated topic that can never be completely, grasped, due to the multi-factorial tree it has grown from. We however try to understand, so that we could prevent, for indeed prevention is the best treatment policy.

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Weapons Of Mass Destruction: Kill The World in a Scientific Way.

An Introduction:

Since the end of the Cold War, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction has become much more prominent in U.S. national security and foreign policy planning. Revelations about Iraqi, North Korean, South African, and Israeli nuclear weapon programs, the possibility of a nuclear arms race in South Asia, and the multidimensional conflicts in the Middle East all point to the immediacy of this problem. Adding a dangerous new twist is the dissolution of theSoviet Union, a superpower armed with nuclear, chemical, radiological and biological weapons whose successor states are wracked by economic crises and political instability.

At least three main factors underlie the emphasis on proliferation of WMD:

1-First, the reduced military threat from the former Soviet Union has increased the relative importance of lesser powers, especially if armed with weapons of mass destruction.2-Second, certain international political and technological trends are increasing the threat to international security from proliferation.

3- Third, new opportunities are opening for enhancing the current international regimes designed to stem proliferation. Since at least as far back as the 1960s, when it sponsored the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the United States has recognized that proliferation is a global problem and combating it requires high levels of international cooperation.

Proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons is of particular concern for at least two reasons:1-The large-scale and indiscriminate nature of their effects—particularly against unprotected civilians—differentiates mass destruction from conventional weapons. Mass destruction weapons make it possible for a single missile or airplane to kill as many people as thousands of planeloads of conventional weaponry.2- These weapons can give small states or sub national groups the ability to inflict damage that is wholly disproportionate to their conventional military capabilities or to the nature of the conflict in which they are used. Unlike most categories of conventional weapons, which will likely be considered legitimate instruments of national self-defense for the foreseeable future, weapons of mass destruction engender widespread revulsion. Some 150 nations have renounced nuclear weapons, formalizing their commitment by joining the Nuclear Non-Proliferation

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Treaty as non-nuclear-weapon states. Moreover, the United States and many other nations have forsworn chemical and biological weapons completely, even in retaliation for in-kind attack, by joining the Biological Weapons Convention (with 125 parties) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (with more than 140 signatories). These three treaties codify strong, if not yet universal, international norms against weapons of mass destruction. Yet despite the international efforts to control them, and cage the usage of WMDs, WMDs continue to be one of the biggest threats facing our world today

__________________________________________

A-Types of WMD:As Mentioned in the introduction, WMDs are considered to be those nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological. The main thing that categorizes the previous weapons is the presence of a natural agent, meaning a naturally found component that if used as a weapon could cause much damage and destruction. Here we are going to discuss each weapon and its types, With mention of their effects, and some incidents where they were used.

1-Nuclear Weapons:Nuclear weapons are the most destructive technology ever developed. From the day fission was discovered in 1938, the problem of controlling this technology has been of central importance to the human race248.

Nuclear weapons can be grouped into different classes based on the type of nuclear reactions that provide their destructive energy. All nuclear weapons so far invented require fission to initiate the explosive release of energy.

The nuclear weapons are based on two types of chemical reactions, these reactions require energy to occur, and they produce energy when they occur.

248 Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 20 February 1999, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html

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The fission reaction: is unstable isotopes of the heavy elements uranium and plutonium are split into smaller atoms, releasing a large amount of energy proportional to the amount of material used.

The Fusion reaction: is two atoms of the lightest element, hydrogen, fuse to create one atom of helium, the next-lightest element, and release much more energy.

A variety of names are used for weapons that release energy through nuclear reactions249:

Atomic bombs (A-bombs). Hydrogen bombs (H-bombs). Fission bombs. Fusion bombs. Nuclear weapons. Thermonuclear weapons.

Nuclear Bomb

The Hydrogen Bomb (H-bomb), The hydrogen or thermonuclear bomb is perhaps a thousand times more powerful than a uranium or plutonium based fission bomb, making it effectively the nuclear weapon's nuclear weapon, The difference between a hydrogen bomb and a regular uranium or plutonium bomb is that a hydrogen bomb uses fusion reaction instead of fission to generate the main explosion. Only the five permanent United Nations Security Council members — the United States, Russia, Britain, France and China, are known to possess hydrogen bombs.

Threats of the nuclear weapons:

Nuclear explosions produce 1) immediate and 2) delayed destructive effects.

1) Immediate effects:

249Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 1 May 1998, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.htm

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These include blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiations that are produced and cause significant destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear detonation, their relative importance varies with the yield of the bomb.

a) Blast effect: Is a volume effect, the blast wave deposits energy in the material it passes through, including air. When the blast wave passes through solid material, the energy left behind cause’s damage.

b) Thermal and radiation effect: In the Hiroshima attack (bomb yield approx. 15 kt) casualties including fatalities were seen from all three causes, Burns including those caused by the ensuing fire storm were the most prevalent serious injury 2/3 of those who died the first day were burned. Blast and burn injuries were both found in 60-70% of all survivors, People close enough to suffer significant radiation illness were well inside the lethal effects radius for blast and flash burns, as a result only 30% of injured survivors showed radiation illness. Many of these people were sheltered from burns and blast and thus escaped their main effects; Even so most victims with radiation illness also had blast injuries or burns as well. Dangerous radiation levels only exist so close to the explosion that surviving the blast is impossible; On the other hand, fatal burns can be inflicted well beyond the range of substantial blast damage.

2) Delayed effects: are radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects that inflict damage over an extended period ranging from hours to centuries.

a) Radioactive Contamination: The chief delayed effect is the creation of huge amounts of radioactive material that can last for long periods of time, the primary source of these products is the debris left from fission reactions. Other sources include chemical reactions of the nuclear debris; these radioactive products are most hazardous when they settle to the ground as "fallout". The rate at which fallout settles depends very strongly on the altitude at which the explosion occurs and to a lesser extent on the size of the explosion.

b) Effects on the atmosphere and climate: Although not as directly deadly as fallout, other environmental effects can be quite harmful.

c) Harm to the Ozone layer: The high temperature of the nuclear fireball, followed by rapid expansion and cooling, causes large amounts of nitrogen oxides to form from the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere are very similar to what happens in combustion engines. These gases will be carried into the atmosphere, where they can reach the ozone layer, A series of large atmospheric explosions could significantly deplete the ozone layer, The high yield tests in the fifties and sixties probably did cause significant depletion, but the ozone measurements made at the time were too limited to pick up the expected changes out of natural variations.

d) Nuclear Winter: This effect is caused by the absorption of sunlight when large amounts of soot (Carbon)are injected into the atmosphere by the widespread burning of cities and petroleum stocks destroyed in a nuclear

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attack, Similar events have been observed naturally when large volcanic eruptions have injected large amounts of dust into the atmosphere, The Tambora eruption of 1815 ‘’the largest volcanic eruption in recent history’’ was followed by "the year without summer" in 1816, the coldest year in the last few centuries, Soot is far more efficient in absorbing light than volcanic dust, and soot particles are small and hydrophobic and thus tend not to settle or wash out as easily250.

________________________________________

2-Biological Weapons:The use of biology in war is not something new; it goes back to the beginnings of mankind. The idea of using something that would cause disease to the other side of the war has roots in ancient texts such as the Iliad of Homer where soldiers used arrows dipped in poison.

The concept has not much changed since the days of homer, it is the tools of administration that as changed beyond the dreams of homer, or in fact anyone else.

250 Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 15 May 1997, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html.

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Definition and terms

Biological warfare or Germ warfare is the use of biological agents or their products against human beings with the intent of killing. The Genius of biological weapons is the capabilities attributed to all living organism which Reproduction. Using living agents that cause deadly disease, reproduce on their own, easily spread between large groups of people, is the biggest advantage to these kind of weapons. Imagine a weapon that is virtually invisible, has no sound, kills thousands of people, does no damage at all to buildings or infrastructure or weapons, and costs practically nothing, due to the fact that biological agents are found in nature freely, and they reproduce on their own.

Humans since the discovery of causative organism of disease, has been marveled with the fact that these invisible creatures to the human eye, could make us sick, very sick in sometimes, and even kill if left untreated. The idea of harvesting these organisms, using specific types, and attacking people with these agents instantly came to mind.

With more research, Man found that these kinds of weapons in which living organisms could be used, don’t just affect humans, they can be used to attack animals, and plant crops as well, thus the idea for BW targeted towards Stock, and plant rose, leading to more research.

Biological agents:

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With Research Man has found that the biological agents which he can use to cause disease are many, according to the Australia Group Biological agents could be divided into five types:

a) Virusesb) Bacteriac) Bacterial Toxinsd) fungie) Genetic elements, and Genetically-modified organisms

The List of known bio-agents251 that could be used to form a deadly attack on humans include 42 type of viruses, 17 type of Bacteria, 19 Bacterial toxins, 4 fungi, and almost an indefinite number of Genetically-modified organisms.

The center for disease control in the USA has divided agents according to their effect on the people if used in a BW into three categories252:

Category A

DefinitionThe U.S. public health system and primary healthcare providers must be prepared to address various biological agents, including pathogens that are rarely seen in the United States. High-priority agents include organisms that pose a risk to national security because they

can be easily disseminated or transmitted from person to person;

Result in high mortality rates and have the potential for major public health impact;

Might cause public panic and social disruption; and

Require special action for public health preparedness.

Agents/Diseases253

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)

Plague (Yersinia pestis)

Smallpox (variola major)

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

251“The Australia Group Website”, “List of Biological Agents for export control”, Last Updated June 2011, http://www.australiagroup.net/en/biological_agents.html#a252“Center for Disease Control Website”,”Bioterroism/Agents”, Last Updated 2011 http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp#catdef253 “Federation of American Scientists, Webstie”, “Biological threat agents information”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/agents.html

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Viral hemorrhagic fevers (filoviruses [e.g., Ebola, Marburg] and arenaviruses [e.g., Lassa, Machupo])

Category B

DefinitionSecond highest priority agents include those that

Are moderately easy to disseminate;

Result in moderate morbidity rates and low mortality rates; and

Require specific enhancements of CDC's diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease surveillance.

Agents/Diseases254

Brucellosis (Brucella species)

Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens

Food safety threats (e.g., Salmonella species, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella)

Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)

Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)

Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)

Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)

Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans)

Staphylococcal enterotoxin B

Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)

Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses [e.g., Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis])

Water safety threats (e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium parvum)

Category C

DefinitionThird highest priority agents include emerging pathogens that could be engineered for mass dissemination in the future because of

Availability;254 “Federation of American Scientists, Webstie”, “Biological threat agents information”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/agents.html

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ease of production and dissemination; and

Potential for high morbidity and mortality rates and major health impact.

Agents

Emerging infectious diseases such as Nipah virus and hantavirus

BW and Technology255

The production of a BW depends mainly on three basic pillars.

1) Acquisition of a biological agent eg; virus, bacteria…etc2) Growing and multiplication, then a process of biological modification3) Preparation of Delivery.

In the beginnings of WWII, a biological weapons program was established in Nazi Germany, where biological testing on humans were conducted, to find the effect of biological agents that could be used in war, thus determining several facts that classifies agents according to their;

a) Pathogenicityb) Incubation Periodc) Virulenced) Transmissibilitye) Treatmentf) Vaccination

At the time, the scope of agents that could be used in BW was limited to those known to research, and since the all agents were already known to other countries because, well, it is a disease that people get sick from and try to cure everywhere in the whole world, the superiority was in achieving an agent that was to be unknown when used on enemy forces thus research began, and with the advances in biotechnology and the discovery of DNA. The door was opened for an infinite pool of possibilities where genetically modified bacteria, or viruses could be used that would be undetectable, and resistant to treatment. However with these advances in the type of weapons, the threats of BW grew the fact that such a weapon is transmitted between humans, poses a risk bigger than that of using it. A way then must be found to detect and fight these weapons if ever used, thus the US started the Biological Weapons treaty256 in 1972 which prohibits the use BW war.

BW in action

255“Federation of American Scientists Website”, “Introduction to Biological Weapons”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/resource/introtobw.html256“ Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction”, Signed at London, Moscow and Washington on 10 April 1972.

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As previously mentioned the use of a much incoherent form of BW was known to man, like catapulting dead bodies of humans infected with plague to infect enemy cities. However the uses of BW as we know them today is luckily prohibited by the international treaty, yet still, they usage of BW by terrorists could not prevented and in a lot of cases Bio-agents were used for cause of terror. This has caused a terrible nightmare for the world, the fact that bio-agents could be very easily grown in humble facilities and used against civilians, open a door that can’t be closed.

Selected cases 257

1- Aum Shinrikyo, April 1990-March 1995: A Japanese Terrorist group that has a cult form, during these years, the use of botulinum toxin, and anthrax in multiple occasions was documented. They became internationally known when they attacked the Japanese Subway with Sarin Gas.

2- Anthrax threats against abortion clinics, February 199: In February 1999 more than 30 anthrax letters were sent to abortion clinics all over the USA

3-Anthrax Threats, November 1998: In November 1998 a number of letters containg anthrax was sent to certain churches and anti-abortion organizations in the USA.

4-2001 anthrax attacks in the United States: One week after the 9/11 attacks several anthrax letters were sent to multiple news corporations and two democratic senators, which resulted in the death of five people and the 17 being infected.

3- Chemical Weapons:As we have seen in the previous weapons, the idea of the weapon is based on using an agent that would cause greatest amount of damage. The three known agents that are being used nowadays in WMDs are nuclear, biological and lastly chemical.

As a part of naturally found materials, chemical agents represent one of the easiest sources for harvesting, however the technology needed, for storing and handling could be a problem in some cases.

Types of chemical agents258, 259:

1. Nerve Agents • GA – Tabun • GB – Sarin

257W. Seth Carus, “Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900” , Center for Counterproliferation Research National Defense University, Washington, D.C, August 1998(February 2001 Revision)

258 Dana A. Shea, “High-Threat Chemical Agents: Characteristics, Effects, and Policy Implications”, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, Updated September 9, 2003259 Federation of American Scientists Website, “Types of Chemical Weapons”, http://www.fas.org/cw/documents/cwagents.pdf

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• GD – Soman • GF – Cyclosarin • VX – Methylphosphonothioic acid

Nerve Agents are characterized by their affection of the nervous system through interference in the relay system of the nerves. They mostly belong to the family of organophosphates. Symptoms include nausea, weakness, possibly convulsions and spasms. At high concentration, loss of muscle control, nervous system irregularities, and Death may occur

2. Blister Agents • HD – Sulfur Mustard (Yperite) • HN – Nitrogen Mustard • L – Lewisite • CX – Phosgene Oximine

Blister agents, known as vesicants affect the skin by causing severe blistering i.e. burns of the skin. Although it is not lethal, the effect of burning is severely painful which renders the person incapable of fighting.

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3. Choking Agents • CG – Phosgene • DP – Diphosgene • Cl – Chlorine • PS – Chloropicrin

These agents are known with their effect on lungs, leading to their damage which could be permanent in some cases. The symptoms include difficulty in breathing, air hunger, and feeling of suffocation.

4. Blood Agents • Hydrogen cyanide• Cyanide salts

These agents are known for their interference with the oxygenation process of the blood, thus leaving the human body in need for oxygen.

______________________________________________________

4-Radiological Weapons

The use of Radiological agents, or nuclear agents in weaponry has been discussed with the Nuclear weapons, however, there remains a fourth type of WMD that is the Radiological.

The main difference between the nuclear and radiological is the explosiveness of the weapon. In a nuclear weapon, there is a use of the radiological agent, through a chemical reaction to produce energy that would produce an explosion. A radiological weapon however uses a Radiological agent just for its radiological ability of dispersing waves; the effects have been discussed earlier?

Radiological agents could be dispersed using regular explosives, and bombs. These type of bombs have been named dirty bombs. A dirty bomb260, is a regular bomb, but with an addition, where a radiological agent, as uranium or plutonium is added to the bomb. So when the bomb explodes, the Radiological agent would be dispersed in the air, and the environment in which the explosion occurred, spreading all the effects of radiation to the people. The damage then wouldn’t just be from the explosion, but also from the radiation.

260Jonathan Medalia, ”Dirty Bombs”: Background in Brief, Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, June 24, 2011

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Here are some of the notable261 events in which Radiological agents were used as weapons for the radiation effects:

• (1993) “The Russian mafia allegedly places gamma ray-emitting pellets in the office of a Moscow businessman, resulting in the man’s death.”

• (1995) “Chechen rebels partially bury a container with a small quantity of cesium-137 in Moscow’s Ismailovsky Park. The Chechen leader then notifies a Russian television crew, which locates the container.”

• (1998) “19 small tubes of cesium are reported missing from a locked safe in a Greensboro, North Carolina hospital. … The incident is deemed as a theft … The cesium has not been recovered.”

• (1998) “the Russian-backed Chechen Security Service announces the discovery and defusing of a container hidden near a railway line that was filled with radioactive materials and attached to an explosive mine. Chechen rebels involvement is suspected.”

• (1999) “unidentified thieves attempt to steal a container housing 200g of radioactive material from a chemical factory in Grozny, Chechnya. One of the thieves dies half an hour after being exposed to the container. The other is hospitalized in critical condition. Each carried the container for only a few minutes.”

• (2003) “evidence uncovered in Herat, Afghanistan, leads British intelligence agents and weapons experts to conclude that Al Qaeda has succeeded in constructing a small dirty bomb, though the device has not been found.”

• (2003) “Thai police arrest a public school teacher in Bangkok after he attempts to sell a container filled with cesium-137 for $240,000.”

• (2004) “British authorities arrest an alleged terrorist cell that was apparently plotting to create dirty bombs from the radioactive sources inside smoke detectors. (It would require millions of smoke detectors to collect enough radioactive material for a potent RDD.)”

• (2005) “Russian authorities report that they found documents in Chechnya on producing RDDs.”

• (2006) “Alexander Litvinenko, a former Russian spy, was poisoned with radioactive polonium-210.”

261 Jonathan Medalia, “Dirty Bombs”: Technical Background, Attack Prevention and Response, Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, June 24, 2011.

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B-International Treaties Regarding WMD:

The 4 Weapons of Mass Destruction have another side other than the solid scientific facts, and their division according to science there are other parts that affect they way WMDs are used today in the world. The international community awoke after the WWII to find himself in an age of Weapons that if used would not just destroy enemies, but destroys the world itself. The need to establish a way of halting this crazy progress of arming, arsenal acquisition has lead to the international treaties regarding WMD.

1-International Treaties regarding WMD Proliferation:With the increasing globalization of the world economy, dual-use items and technologies used to develop weapons of mass destruction cannot be effectively controlled without cooperation among exporting and transit countries. Thus, foreign purchasers denied a critical item by one country may be able to obtain the same item from another country that does not control its exports as stringently, The U.S. government has made it a priority to strengthen and deepen multilateral cooperation on export controls.

The international community has established treaties to eliminate chemical and Biological weapons and prohibit the spread of nuclear weapons. These treaties reflect the international community's will to reduce the threat posed by these weapons.

Three key treaties have been established to stem the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction:(1) The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, signed in 1968, was prompted by widespreadconcerns that there might be dozens of countries with nuclear weapons in a few decades,The treaty obliges the five nuclear-weapon states recognized by the treaty to refrain from the transfer of nuclear weapons, other nuclear explosive devices, or relatedtechnology to any country that does not have nuclear weapons. Countries that do nothave nuclear weapons agree to refrain from acquiring or producing such items in returnfor the peaceful use of nuclear technology. There are 187 countries party to the treaty (2) The Chemical Weapons convention: The Chemical Weapons Convention, signed in 1997, prohibits the production, acquisition, stockpiling, transfer, retention, and use of chemical weapons. Outbreaks in the use of chemical weapons prompted the world community to reach an agreement banning their use, The Convention obligates countries to destroy any chemical weapons and related production facilities they possess by 2007, It also has the administrative structure and procedures to

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inspect declared and undeclared sites on short notice. There are currently143 countries party to the treaty. (3) The Biological Weapons and Toxins Convention: The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention obliges parties not to develop, produce, stockpile, or acquire biological agents or toxins that are not used for peaceful purposes, as well as related weapons and means of delivery The Convention entered into force in 1975 but did not have an enforcement protocol. In September 1986, the parties agreed to share data on permitted biological activities to enhance confidence and promote cooperation, In July 2001, the United States rejected a draft protocol designed to strengthen the inspection and enforcement mechanisms of the treaty, Currently 144Countries are party to the treaty.

Although the treaties' mechanisms for verifying and enforcing treaty compliance vary, these treaties are legally binding and share similar objectives. In addition, a majority of the world's nations adhere to them.262 Also there’s The Proliferation Security Initiative ‘’PSI’’ was formed to increase international cooperation in interdicting shipments of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials. The Initiative was announced by President Bush on May 31, 2003, PSI does not create a new legal framework but aims to use existing national authorities and international law to achieve its goals. Initially, 11 nations signed on to the “Statement of Interdiction Principles” that guides PSI cooperation, As of January 2011, 97 countries have committed formally to the PSI principles, although the extent of participation may vary by country263 .

____________________________________

C-Biosecurity in the US:

As seen above the threats faced by the world due to the rapid growth in weaponry technology and the development of WMD has triggered a faster chain of events that has lead to the development of safety programs directed towards possible attacks by the WMDs, We are going to discuss a small glimpse of these programs in the USA focusing on laws and programs directed towards biological weapons, under the title of Biosecurity.

262Joseph A Christoff, Director, International Affairs and Trade , Testimony Before the Subcommittee on International Security, Proliferation, and Federal Services, Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate, United States General Accounting Office, November 7, 2001 , GAO-02-226T.

263 Mary Beth Nikitin, Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, January 18, 2011

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"Biosecurity264 is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks (including instruments and activities) that analyze and manage risks in the sectors of food safety, animal life and health, and plant life and health, including associated environmental risk. Biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to the sustainability of agriculture, food safety, and the protection of the environment, including biodiversity.

There are many aspects to the process of creating a WMD, specially the Biological ones, and so are the laws governing the process itself. Emerging from concerns about the biosecurity situation in the US different laws emerged, laws that need to be modified, and upgraded because biology and science are always shifting, the current laws in the US right now include but are not limited to the following:

1-Laws for facilities and research:

According to a Congressional Research Service (CRS) report issued March 5, titled “Oversight of High-Containment Biological Laboratories,” approximately 390 entities have been certified to work with select agents, and 15,300 staff members have been approved for lab access.

Biosecurity stakeholders—scientists, engineers and technicians, lab safety and IT staff, law enforcement personnel, legislators and policy makers—are divided by the dual-use nature of biomaterials: their application for benevolent and malevolent purposes. Some worry that biosecurity concerns will constrain researchers and delay development of medicines and vaccines, including those that target select agents. Others argue for a tougher approach, saying that as pathogens proliferate and the number of global labs using select agents grows, so do the risk of accidents and opportunities for bioterrorists; or they cite past incidents—mice infected with bubonic plague go missing, or live anthrax is inadvertently shipped cross-country

All these things have to tie together to have a good program, When we’re talking about security, there are three major categories according to the regulations. The first part is physical security around the facility. Next is the access control, then inventory accountability and control. It’s the combination that’s important.” lab managers have to consider investing in software that integrates security and safety regulations with specific select agents to provide access control. The key is finding someone with good experience using the software.

The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) was established in 2004 in response to the National Research Council’s Fink Report. It consists of scientists and national security experts, who will "advise on and recommend specific

264Food and Agriculture Organization of united Nations Website, Biosecurity, http://www.fao.org/biosecurity/

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strategies for the efficient and effective oversight of federally conducted or supported potential dual-use biological research taking into consideration both the national security concerns and the needs of the research community."

Practically speaking, the NSABB will advise institutional biosafety committees, which are already required at federally funded research institutions that work with recombinant DNA. IBC's will, in turn, review research proposals submitted by scientists within that institution. The NSABB firmly establishes the institutional policy that scientists will be the ones who judge the research of their colleagues and identify potentially sensitive research and the steps needed to address its conduct and dissemination. The NSABB has 24 appointed voting members and held its inaugural meeting on June 30, 2005.

Specifically, the NSABB will:

• Advice on strategies for local and federal biosecurity oversight for all federally funded or supported life sciences research.

• Advise on the development of guidelines for biosecurity oversight of life sciences research and provide ongoing evaluation and modification of these guidelines as needed.

• Advise on strategies to work with journal editors and other stakeholders to ensure the development of guidelines for the publication, public presentation, and public communication of potentially sensitive life sciences research

• Advise on the development of guidelines for mandatory programs for education and training in biosecurity issues for all life scientists and laboratory workers at federally-funded institutions.

• Provide guidance on the development of a code of conduct for life scientists and laboratory workers that can be adopted by federal agencies as well as professional organizations and institutions engaged in the performance of life sciences research domestically and internationally.

2- Laws for handling:

There have been a host of efforts to control the proliferation of biological weapons and to regulate research that could be misused for nefarious purposes. Here we present some of the more influential laws, reports, and organizations on modern biosecurity.

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The use of chemical and biological weapons was prohibited in 1925 by the Geneva Protocol following the use of chemical weapons during World War I. However, it was not ratified by the US Senate until 50 years later and did not prohibit such weapons from being developed. The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC, or more formally The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction) was established in 1972 and enacted in 1975. It prohibited the development, production, stockpiling, and acquisition of biological and toxin weapons, and required the destruction of existing inventories and delivery devices. As of February 2007, 155 state parties have signed the treaty with 16 signatories yet to ratify it and 23 parties remaining outside of the treaty.

While the Convention has unlimited duration, a series of review conferences have been held to establish compliance procedures, which were lacking in the original treaty. These conferences have been unsuccessful in resolving the issue of accountability and enforcement, given persistent questions (notably, by the United States) regarding the ultimate effectiveness of mandatory declarations, visits, investigations, and concerns over intrusion on national security and confidential business information. The issue of accountability and enforcement has gained increasing prominence given evident treaty violations by the Soviet Union during the Cold War and by others since then, such as Iraq. There is also concern that the treaty is not keeping up with the rapid pace of biotechnology advances.

3- The Biological Weapons Convention:

• forbid the development, production, stockpiling, or acquisition of biological agents or toxins that have no justification for peaceful or defensive purposes;

• forbid the development, production, stockpiling, or acquisition of equipment to deliver biological agents or toxins for hostile purposes;

• obligate States Parties to destroy or divert to peaceful purposes their existing stocks of prohibited items;

• forbid the transfer of prohibited items to anyone or otherwise helping in the manufacture or acquisition of biological weapons

• protect the rights of States Parties to exchange equipment, materials, and scientific and technological information for peaceful purposes in order to avoid hampering their economic and technological development;

• commit States Parties to cooperate in solving any problems through consultation and in carrying out any investigation initiated by the UN Security Council;

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• commit State Parties to provide assistance to others that have been attacked using biological weapons.

These laws however as strict as they are fail to put in mind the human factor that is the scientist.

4- Scientific Code of conduct:

Codes of conduct for life scientists have been increasingly advocated as an additional means to reinforce the expected ethical norms and behavior of scientists. The Fink Report discussed the need for such a code to increase awareness of biosecurity issues. While individual professional societies may have such codes, one central to all biologists, including awareness of dual-use research, has yet to be developed and accepted.

Some have called for an international "code of conduct" for the scientific community based on the fundamental principle that all research scientists would pledge to conduct research that would "do no harm." While such codes can never prevent bioterrorism, they can serve as an awareness tool.

While a number of steps taken by both the government and the scientific community have helped, it is clear that individual researchers still shoulder the responsibility for addressing biosecurity issues in the lab.

While focused on the more commonly confronted -dual-use- dilemmas, these case studies do not cover the consequences of not striking a balance between research freedom and national security. We cannot stress enough the importance of being aware of your responsibilities in the lab and the laws that regulate work on select agents in particular. There have been several cases where researchers have found themselves in trouble with law enforcement because they were either unaware of or neglected new security rules. For example, two forgotten vials of anthrax from a 1960 cow necropsy led to a University of Connecticut graduate student being charged with violations of the Patriot Act because he did not possess the anthrax for "bona fide" research. In another case, Dr. Thomas Butler, a researcher at Texas Tech University, was convicted of mislabeling plague samples being shipped from overseas, but had been indicted for a broad range of crimes including illegal transport of a select agent and providing false information to the FBI on the whereabouts of about 30 vials of Yersinia pestis, or plague, bacteria. National security has become an inexorable aspect of biology research and how high the stakes can be for scientists. Experience has shown how easily the balance between research freedom and national security can shift in response to world events.

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Sub-Committee on Near East South and central Asian

affairs (NESA)جنوب و االدنى الشرق شئون لجنة

اسيا ووسط

Chairman: 238

Moemen AbbasVice-Chairlady:

Alaa Mohammed KamalRanking Member:

Nashwa O. GhoneimParty Consltant:

Sahar El-Antozy

اسيا ووسط وجنوب االدنى الشرق شئون لجنة

الشيوخ مجلس فى الخارجية الشئون لجنة من فرعيه لجنه هىبلدان مع األمريكيه العالقات عن المسئولة اللجنه هى و األمريكى

البحر على المطلة افريقيا شمال بلدان وجميع االوسط الشرق . الفرعية اللجنه تشرف و المغرب الى مصر من المتوسط االبيض

. الفرعية اللجنه هذه أسيا ووسط جنوب بلدان مع العالقات أيضا

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المناطق ضمن تدخل التى المسائل جميع عن مسئولة أيضا , و االنتشار وعدم باالرهاب يتعلق فيما القضائيه لواليتها الخاضعة

, المساعدات برامج و مشروعة الغير المخدرات و الجريمه. , األمريكيه الصادرات و التجارى التبادل تعزيز و االمريكية الخارجية

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المحتويات قائمة....... : الى السوريه الثوره االول الموضوع

4……………………..................……اين

موقع عن نبذه4سوريا..........................................................................................

سوريا تاريخ4الحديث..........................................................................................

فى الحكم نظام11سوريا........................................................................................

الشعب..........................................................................................................12

قبل العربية السورية العالقات من أشكال14الثورة........................................................

السورية العالقات 14اللبنانية...................................................................................

السوريه العالقات15العراقيه..................................................................................

السوريه العالقات15االسرائليه................................................................................

السوريه العالقات17االيرانيه..................................................................................

السوريه العالقات18التركيه...................................................................................

السوريه العالقات21االمريكيه................................................................................

مستقبل23الثوره.................................................................................................

....... : الشرق شمس الهند الثانى الموضوع30الصاعد....................................................

عن جغرافية نبذة30الهند......................................................................................

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األستعمار خاصة الهند فى األستعماراألوربي تاريخ30البريطانى......................................

فى الحكم نظام34الهند.........................................................................................

................................................................................................... الهند اقتصاد36

فى الدينيه الطوائف37الهند...................................................................................

العنف و الطبقيه الحروب39الدينى..........................................................................

اقليم على الباكستانى الهندى الصراع تاريخ43كاشمير...................................................

الهنديه العالقات45االمريكيه.................................................................................

الهنديه العالقات48الصينيه....................................................................................

النووى البرنامج50الهندى.....................................................................................

..... : اين؟ الي السورية الثورة االول الموضوعالتى الثورات و التطورات من الكثير األخيره األونه فى العربى العالم منطقة شهدت لقد , , و فيها القوى توازن شكل من غيرت كما المنطقه فى الدول من الكثير مسار غيرت

البطوله دور تلعب و سيطرتها تفرض لكى الدول لبعض األفاق تلك فتحت مسيرة لتقود.......... افضل لغد الدول

نظام على ينقلب ان شعبها قرر الذى التونيسيه الثوره الثورات تلك بدايات من كانت, المهانه و الذل و الديكتاتوريه من خاليه جديده حياه يبدأ لكى بلده فى االستبداد و الظلم

من حولها لمن العدوى انتشار فى الكبير االثر و الصدى الثوره لتلك كانت بالفعل وو, التونسى الشعب مع تضمنا بداية شعبها خرج الذى و العربيه مصر جمهورية منها الدول

بشعب جديده افكار مولد و البائد النظام بسقوط انتهت لكنها و مطالب ببضع مطالبا...... انسانيه و ديموقرطيه اكثر حياه نحو البالد يقود جديد

عن التنازل أبوا و موقفهم على اصروا الذين الديكتاتوريين الحكام من هناك ولكنمعمر العقيد أمثالهم من يزعمون كما للبالد أصلح هو ما و فيها بحقهم متمسكين السلطهفى االسد بشار أخرا ليس و أخيرا و اليمن فى صالح الله عبد على و ليبيا فى القذافى

على........... تأثرها و اشتعلها استمرار بسبب الضوء بعض عليها نقلى سوف الذى و سوريا

242

, كيف و ذلك من الدولى المجتمع و العظمى القوى موقف و المنطقه فى القوى توازنفعلهم؟؟؟ رد سيكون

. سوريا موقع عن نبذة

مهد " عليها يطلق التى البلدان من سوريا تعتبرالقديمة" , الحضارات من عدد أرضها على تعاقبت حيث الحضارة

واألموية الرومانية و والفينقية واألشورية السومرية كالحضارةسوريا......... , مساحة وتبلغ التراث ذات الحضارات من غيرها و

مع , 185,180 الغرب من وجزء شماال الحدود وتشارك مربع كم , الجنوب, ناحية ومن الشرق نحاية العراق دولة وتحدها تركيااألبيض , البحر من كال على تطل الغرب ومن األردن تحدها

, - , وهضبة , المحتلة فلسطين أسرائيل و لبنان ودولة المتوسط. حاليا دوال خالفا من عليها بما 265 الجوالن

. الحديث سوريا تاريخ

عن تزيد لفترة العثمانى الحكم تحت سوريا الحرب 400كانت بأشتعال لذلك عامااألولى ,1914العالمية لسوريا, التغيرات من العديد حدثت و السياسى وضعها تغير

العالى الباب عين عندما البداية وكانتوعسكريا ميدنيا حاكما العثمانى السلطان

," يخمد " لكى ذلك و باشا جمال يسمىفى مركزية والال األدارى باألصالح المطالب

الكثيريين, أعدام على يقدم جعله مما السلطةساحة فى علنا ودمشق بيروت وجهاء من

يوم , فى بيوم, 1915مايو 6المرجة المعروفمن أكثر األعدام قرارات عدد بلغ حيث الشهيد

50," " , على السفاح لقب عليه فأطلق أعداما " لم " باشا جمال بها قام التى القمع أساليب ان

العربى باألستقالل المطالب قمع فى تنجح , ومطالبة العثمانية األمبراطورية عن التام

, " القى " ذلك التام العربى األستقالل نحو المسيرة يقود بأن الحسين بن فيصل األميرفى العربى الدعم على الحصول الى تهدف التى البريطانية األمبراطورية من دعما , وجها الوسط الشرق مستقبل فى وضعها تعزيز و العثمانية األمبراطورية ضد حربها

, فى العربية الثورة قامت لذلك فرنسا مع عام , 1916يونيو 5لوجه أكتوبر فى ,1918ثم , " العثمانيين " خروج بعد وذلك شعبيا بطال بأعتباره دمشق الحسين بن الفيصل دخل

طول, على تقع التى األماكن ماعدا سوريا أنحاء جميع على السيطرة له تم ولقد منها. بيها , الفرنسية القوات لتركز المتوسط البحر 266 سواحل

, اللغة العربية اللغة جعل خالل من وذلك سوريا أعمار فى ومؤيديه فيصل األمير بدأ , قبل من أغلقت التى والجامعات المدارس فتح وأعاد التركية اللغة من بدال الرسمية

, المناطق , شهدت الجديدة للدولة دستور وضع لبدء لجنة بتعين وقام العثمانيين , ضد , إنتفاضتين ذلك أنتج مما السوريون تمرد الفرنسية القوات رحمة تحت الواقعه

265 Central intellegance agency, “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html”, 25/02/2012.266 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/8.htm”, 25/02/2012.

243

عام ويوليو مايو فى الفرنسية . 1919القوات أحبطت التركية الحدود طول على. لها , الفيصل دعم من بالرغم المحاوالت تلك فرنسا

المشرق دول وخاصة العربية للدول المصير تقرير مبدأ بتحقيق فيصل األمير طالبمؤتمر فى األولى العالمية الحرب فى الحلفاء دول لقوات العرب لدعم كنتيجة

عام فرساى فى بسبب, , ,1919السالم اليدين فارغا دمشق الى الفيصل رجع ولكن , المؤتمر فى فيصل األمير جعل مما وعدهما تحقيق وبريطانيا فرنسا من كال رفض

فيه - يضم سورى برلمان أول وهو العام منهم 99السورى و 52عضوا سوريا 38من , - بحدودها وتضم سيادة ذات حرة دولة سوريا أن يعلن وسوريا ولبنان األردن من

( تحت ( متحدة وفلسطين واالردن ولبنان سوريا وهن األربعة األقطار ذات الطبيعية , , دستورا وأقر ملكا الحسين بن فيصل المؤتمر وبايع العربية السورية المملكة أسم

فى يرفضان , 1920مارس 8للبالد وجعلهما وفرنسا بريطانيا من كال حفظية أثار مما. سوريا بأستقالل اإلعتراف

, سابقة ووعود سرية وثائق عن روسيا فى البلشقية الثورة كشفت الوقت ذلك فىالعربى , المشرق تقسيم قومى األولىبشأن وطن بإنشاء لليهود بلفور وعد هو

, الحرب فى الحلفاء لدول ومساعدتهم لمساهمتهم تقديرا فلسطين فى لليهود , األولى الثانية العالمية إتفاقية واألتفاقية "هى بيكو" من سايكس كل بين

يوم الموقعة وأيطاليا وروسيا وفرنسا الى, 1916مايو 16بريطانيا تهدف والتى , وتنص العربى المشرق دول وخاصة الوقت ذلك فى العثمانية الدولة أراضى إقتسام

حيث ,267األتفاقية وفرنسا بريطانيا من كال بين الخصيب الهالل منطقة إقتسام علىالعراق , على بريطانيا وحصول ولبنان سوريا من كال على فرنسا حصول تقرر

فى, - نالحظ وفرنسا بريطانيا بين مشتركة دولية إدارة تحت فلسطين وضع واألردنبعد األتفاقية تلك عقد تم أن الصدد بريطانيا 6هذا من كال وعد من فقط أشهر

بنود – على تأكيد تم قد التام العربى اإلستقالل على بالحصول العرب وفرنساعام بريمو سان إجتماع فى يوم ,1920األتفاقية أصبحت 1920يوليوعام 25وفى

هرب ،ولقد العربية المقاومة سحق بعد وذلك ، الفرنسي اإلنتداب تحت سورياالبريطانيون نصبه أن الى األوسط الشرق إلى يعودوا ولم أوروبا إلى فيصل الملك

عام في العراق على الملك, 1921ملكا شقيق الله عبد باألمير البريطانيون أعترف. األردن شرق منطقة على ملكا فيصلالفرنسى األنتداب تحت سوريا

, تقويض و الشام بالد فى وقوتها وضعها لتعزيز السياسات من بالعديد فرنسا قامت , بأضعافها العربية القومية تكون - أوال:حركة طائفية واليات ثالث إنشاء من بدال

ودولة , الوسط في السنيين للمسلمين ودولة الشمال في العلويين دولة كاألتىدولة , - فرنسا تنشأ لم األتحادية سوريا راية تحت يندمجوا ثم الجنوب في درزية

, , وذلك أبدا يتحقق لم السنية مسلمة الدولة وحلم لبنان جبل منطقة في مسيحية , . يتقليص سوريا بتقسيم قامت فرنسا ان على العربية القومية حركة ألضعاف

عام , فى حيث لبنان لحساب قامت, 1926مساحتها المراونة زعماء مع فرنساالبقاع وداى بإضافة لبنان جبل منطقة فى المسيحية للدولة األصلية الحدود بتوسيعوبيروت طرابلس مدن الغرب من اليها أضافت و الشرق من المسلمة األغلبية ذات

, مناطق خمس الى سوريا بقية بتقسيم قامت ثم لبنان دولة لخلق وصورا وصيدا , ،منطقة " حلب منطقة الدورز جبل منطقة هم الذاتى الحكم يشبه فيما تتمتع

" إبراز على التأثير لها كان مما األسكندرونة لواء ،و دمشق ،منطقة الالذقية , سياسات الى باإلضافة العربية القومية فكرة وتقلص واإلقليمية الدينية اإلختالفات

267 Alnoha, “http://alnoha.com/read/saykspeko.htm”, 26/02/2012.

244

على , ساعدت التى والتعليمية اإلقتصادية السياسات بعض هناك كان التقسيم , , الفرنك جعل وهى الفرنسة بسياسات تعرف ما او العربية القومية فكرة تقليص

, , وتولى سوريا إقتصاد الفرنسيين المصرفيين تولى التجارى التعامل عملة , فى وتطبيقها الرسمية اللغة هى الفرنسية اللغة وجعل الهامة المناصب الفرنسيون

. العربية, الحياة من الفرنسية للحياة أقرب اإلجتماعية الحياة سمات وجعل المدارس268

, والقادة األعيان خصوصا الفرنسيين تجاه الغضب على يقض لم هذا ان على : قمع , مثل أسبابه للغضب وكان فيصل الملك أتباع من دمشق فى المسلميين

سوريا , , تقسيم المدنية الحقوق قمع وأيضا السياسى النشاط الفرنسية الصحف , من سورى دستور صياغة عن فرنسا وعزوف عديدة سياسية وحدات إلى الكبرى

اإلنتداب تحت سوريا وضع عند األمم عصبة أقرته كما لسوريا السيادة يوفر أن شأنهيقوده , الشعب حزب بإنشاء المطاف أخر فى سمحوا الفرنسيون أن على الفرنسى

الخورى لخطوة, , 1925فبراير 9فى فارس كنتيجة وذلك ترضية خطوة بإعتبارها. العراق فى برلمان بإنشاء بريطانيا

" الدورز " ثورة األولى او" الكبرى سوريا عام" ثورة قامت التىوانضم, 1925 الدورز جبل فى إنطلقها بداية كانت

مناطق مختلف من المجاهدين من عدد لوائهم تحتاألطرش باشا سلطان قيادة تحت واألردن سوريا

, أهل رفض الى الثورة أحداث وترجع الثورة عام قائدتقسيم من عنه ومانتج األجنبى الحكم الى الدورز

, فى, الفرنسيين خداع و الفرنسة وسياسات سوريا , بقيام الفرنسيين قيام هو الثورة إشتعال الى ادى ما ولكن العربية الثورة بعد العرب

على القبض بأخذ "فرنسا خنجر" جوار أدهم في وهو باشا" الثائر، سلطان,االطرش" والشرف والعروبة بالتقاليد للمساس الشعب حفيظة أثار مما ،

" القائد " األطرش باشا سلطان بقياده سوريا ومدن مناطق كل من الثورة فتحركت" " حسن " دمشق ومن ، هنانو إبراهيم حلب ومن األردوز، جبل من للثورة العام

مع" , سوريا مناطق مختلف من والمجاهدين االبطال من كبير وعدد ، ، الخراط , بالعنف الثورة تلك الفرنسيون قابل السوري الشعب وطوائف فصائل كافة أشتراك

, السوريين من األالف مقتل الى أدى مما للمدن والقصف والتشريد الجماعى والقتلالتحرركات خالل من وثورته تمرده من وزاد يزعزع لم السورى الشعب أن على

, خسائر الفرنسيين وكبدت فرنسا هزت إنتصارات الثورى الشعب حقق له الكبيرةعلى , و سوريا فى سياستهم بتغير الفرنسيين إقتناع على األثر أكبر له كان مما هائلة

الشعب , ألرادة الرضوخ من بد وال يستسلم لن السورى الشعب بأن مؤكدة معرفةمطالبهم لمعرفة سوريا محافظات مختلف من مفاوضين وتشكيل الكبرى وثورته

, األستعمار لكن مستقلة برلمانية إنتخابات وعمل وطنية سورية حكومة تأسيس منأخرى , مرة سوريا أنحاء الغضب فعم عليه المعروضة المطالب يتفهم لم الفرنسى

فى المستقلة السورية البرلمانية األنتخابات تمت ان .1930sالى , فرنسا ضمنهم من الحلفاء دول وكانت ثانية عالمية حرب شفا على العالم كان

, كانت ثم لها الخلفية المناطق تهدد إضطربات حصول للمنع تنازالت لتقديم مستعدةفى هنانو أبراهيم لوفاة األربعيين الذكرى وهى إال التى , 1935ديسمبرعام 21اللحظة

- سورية , معاهدة بأقرار وطالب األنتداب ضد مظاهرات أكبر إنطالق فى سببا كانت , عمل أوجه تنظيم فيها يتم والعراق مصر مع بريطانيا معادة منوال على فرنسية

, فى معاهدة صيغة الى التوصل وتم تدخالته من وتحد عام 5األنتداب ,1936ديسمبر268 Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/9.htm”, 26/02/2012.

245

, لسوريا نهائيًا والالذقية العرب جبل دولتي ضم بمقتضاها الفرنسى المفوض أعلنبمواجبها , , أصبح ورئاسية برلمانية إنتخابات جرت ثم منها األسكندرونة لواء وإستثنى

" األتاسى" , هاشم انضمامها وعدم تركيا لجهود تقديرا أن على للجمهورية رئيسالواء , منطقة فرنسا أعطت الثانية العالمية الحرب فى المحور دول الى

, حكومات , ثالث واستقالت لذلك السورى الشعب فغضب تركيا الى األسكندرونة , فى ثم لذلك نتيجة " , 1939يوليو 7متتابعة أعالن , " إثر األتاسى الرئيس إستقال

, , تتبع فيه التركى الجيش فأنتشر األسكندرونة لواء من جيوشها سحب فرنساعام , حتى بالدستور العمل تعليق الفرنسى المفوض إعالن عندما , 1941األستقالة

, البالد إستقالل األلمان من المحتلة الفرنسية فيشى حكومة دخلت , " إنتخابات " جرت ثم للجمهورية رئيسا الحسنى الدين تاج وتعيين " عام , " رئيسا القوتلى خاللها من أصبح ورئاسية مع, 1943برلمانية

, الحرب نهاية بعد إال قواتها تسحب لم حيث الفرنسية القوات بقاء , البرلمان ومبنى األحياء قصف إلى عمدت بل الثانية العالمية

يوم مجلس, 1945مايو29بالمدفعية الى القضية رفع الى أدى مماالقوات , , جالء إعالن تم للسوريين بريطانيا دعم ومع األمن

فى 269 .1946أبريل 17الفرنسية

. المستقلة سوريا فى العسكرية اإلنقالبات

, ولكن بينهم فيما منقسميين السوريون كان الفرنسى اإلنتداب فترات خالل , على التنافس فتكشف الجالء كان ثم الفرنسى للحكم كراهيتهم وحدهم

, مع العلويون تنازع حيث سوريا فى والمتنوعة المختلفة الوالءات بين السلطة , العلويون وحاول والسياسية األقتصادية الحياة على الهيمنة أجل من الدمشقيين

ألقليم , بالوالء الدرزايين تعهد كما والوحدة السنيين، المسلميين على السيطرة , وأختلف لسوريا وليس مكان كل فى لألكراد ووالئهم لألكراد والمثل درزايا

جيل وتعارض الحضرية المناطق فى القادة مع الريفية المناطق من القادةبينهم , فيما الساسيون وإختلف الدينيين الزعماء كبار مع والتقدمية العلمانية

, , , و برلمانية او جمهورية ملكية من السياسى والنظام السورية الحكومة نوع علىجزء, , سوريا أن على القادة إتفق حيث الدولية للعالقات بالنسبة وهكذا رئاسية

وأقامة , الغرب إلى األتجاه حيث من بينهم فيما أختلفوا ولكنهم العربية األمة منعالقات , , إلقامة الشمال الى األتجاه أما المتحدة الواليات مع صداقة عالقات , مؤيدى من السن وكبار العلويون إتجاه وأيضا السوفيتى األتحاد مع صداقة

, عكس على هاشم فضل الملك وتأييد العراق مع التجارة إلى فيصل الملك , لتلك وكنتيجة هاشم فضل لتأييد الرافض المثقفف الدمشقى الشباب

العسكرية , األنقالبات بكثرة تميز األستقالل بعد ما مرحلة أصبحت الخالفات. سوريا فى الحكم نظام قلب 270 وسرعة

, " بداية " مع ولكن اإلستقالل بعد منتخب سورى رئيس أول القوتلى شكرى أصبحعام فى ,1948األزمات فيه , فعلية قيادة وجود عدم مع البرلمان إنشقاق توضح

مايو فى أسرائيل دولة إعالن البداية كانت السورية, 1948حيث القوات ومحاربة , عام نهاية نحو و األخرى العربية الجيوش مع جنب الى جنب بعد1948لذلك , لفشل, الساسة وخاصة السوريين على األمل بخيبة شعور خيم الهزيمة

, تركيا من األسكندرونة لواء أستعادة فى وفشلها أسرائيل هزيمة فى حكومتهملليرة دعما إيجاد فى الفشل و فرنسا فى المحجوبة األصول تحرير فى والفشل

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العراق من يمتد جديد أنابيب خط بناء فى الفشل و السورى واألقتصاد السورية, األسعار زيادة فى األثر له كان مما األبيض البحر على السورية السواحل الى " فى - " الجيش أركان رئيس الزعيم حسنى بقيادة العسكرى األنقالب لقى لذلك

والجماهير- 1949مارس 30يوم السياسية المعارضة جانب من والترحيب التهليل , اإلنقالب هذا دعما من أوال وفرنسا بريطانيا من كال وكانتا الحضرية المناطق فى

أنتخب , , ثم والغربية العربية الحكومات دعم نال ذلك بعد ثم الزعيم بقيادةاألحزاب إلغاء بعد وذلك الوحيد المرشح بأعتباره لسوريا رئيسا الزعيم

الواليات, أعطاء حالة فى الناتو منظمة لدعم أستعداد على أنه أعلن السياسي , لمد أمريكية شركة مع إتفاقية على صدق كما لسوريا إقتصاديا دعما المتحدة

. سوريا عبر المتوسط األبيض البحر الى العراق من األنابيب خطوط , بالتدابير تميزت حكمه فترة أن ذلك أشهر خمسة حوالى الزعيم حكم إستمر

الفرات نهر مشروع فى البناء بدء فى تمثلت التى إنجازته من بالرغم القمعية , , بناء مشروع و الالذقية مرفأ مشروع فى والبدء حلب لمدينة المياه لجلب , صياغة محاولة و للنساء، التصويت حق منح مشروع و والمستشفيات الطرق

القوانيين , الجديدة المدنية القوانيين , يخسر , جعله ما لكن العقوبات وقوانين التجارية

, مما العامة الخزينة نضوب هو السياسى الدعمالعسكرى األنقالب يقود الحناوى سامى العميد جعل

يوم فى من, 1949أغسطس14الثانى كال أعتقل ثم " " " رئيس" البرازى محسن و الزعيم حسنى

محاكمة , امام عرضهما بعد وأعدامهما الوزاراءكرئيس, األتاسى هاشم تعيين تم ثم عسكرية

قانون , إعتماد تم ظلها فى التى المؤقتة للحكومة , إنتخابات فى بالتصويت للمرأة وسمح جديد إنتخابى

عام , 1949نوفمبر رئيس األتاسى هاشم بمقتضاها أصبح التى األولى للمرةالى, , الجيش ورجع المدنيين للسياسين السورية الحكومة عادت وبذلك الدولة

. مراقبا ثكانته يوم سوريا فى الثالث اإلنقالب أديب , "1951نوفمبر 28حدث اللواء إنقلب حيث

," " " نتيجة" " وذلك األتاسى هاشم وعلى الحناوى سامى العميد على الشيشكلى - مدنية - قيادة وجود وعدم أجنبية كقوى المعتبريين العراقى السورى للتقارب

التضخم , من اإلقتصادية المشكالت وإستمرار السلطة على الحفاظ على قادرةاللبنايين , , مع سنوات سبع دام جمركى إتفاق وكسر الشغب وأعمال والبطالة

فوزى " وتعيين الحكومة وزراء إعتقال خالل من الثالث باإلنقالب قام لذلك , , شدد" حيث سافرة بديكتاتورية الشيشكلى حكم تميز وزراء رئيس السلو

عام األحزاب جميع ألغى ثم والمحاكم المدنية الخدمة على ثم, 1952قبضتهعام العربى التحرير حركة حزب إنشاء طريق عن السياسى الفراغ ملء حاول

يوليو, , 1953 إستفتاء في ثم للجمهورية رئيسا نفسه شيشكيلي جعل بعدها ثمالنظام 1953 تتبع دولة سوريا يجعل جديد دستور على السوريون وافق ،

. للبالد , كرئيسا الشيشكلي مع الرئاسي 271 الجمهوري

فى الرابع السورى اإلنقالب حكم 1954فبراير 25حدث إستبداد بسببالقبض , إلقاء وتم السوريين الطلبة من البالد ارجاء الغضب عم حيث الشيشكلى

الفوضى , وعمت المظاهرات وخرجت السوريين السياسة كبار من العديد على , عام , سبتمبر حمص مدينة فى السياسيين القادة إجتماع فى البالد فى

271 Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/12.htm”, 26/02/2012.

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الضباط, , 1953 من مجموعة قام ولكن العرفية األحكام الشيشكلى فأعلنضده بإنقالب السوري , مما, بالجيش حكم تسليم تم ثم لبنان الى يفر جعله

بقيادة مدنية لسلطة " , "البالد تم ثم المؤقتة للجمهورية كرئيس األتاسى هاشم" القوتلى " شكرى . إنتخاب اخري مرة للجمهورية ً رئيسا

الصراعات األطاحة 272ظهرت بعد البالد فى المختلفة السياسية العناصر بينبين, الوزراء مجلس نقل بنجاح الرابع األنقالب بعد ما فترة وتميزت بالشيشكلىأخرى , جهة من اليساريين واألشتراكيين جهة من المحافظين بين اإلئتالفات

العربى , البعث حزب خاصة اليسارية العناصر لصالح بتأرجح التوازن بدأ ان علىعام فى السورى الشيوعى والحزب العدوان, 1956األشتراكى بعد خاصة

, , اليسارية العناصر صعود عن ونتج سيناء على األسرائيلى الفرنسى البريطانى , سوريا وقامت األخرى الشيوعية والدول السوفياتى اإلتحاد مع العالقات تدعيم

وصفقات , البعثات لتبادل ثقافية وإتفاقيات للمقايضة إتفاقيات عدة بتوقيع , ولكن , , العرب جيرانها من معزولة ما نوعا سوريا أصبحت المقابل فى أسلحة

حول , مناقشات فجرت الناصر عبد جمال قيادة إلى المصرية الحكومة تحولتعام وسوريا مصر بين صياغة, 1957وعام 1956الوحدة البعث حزب أعلن عندما

عرف , االشتراكي العربي البعث حزب أن من بالرغم مصر مع للوحدة مشروعوستكون , القانوني وجودها نهاية سيعني السياسية الناصرلألحزاب عبد عداء أن

مصر , في نظرائهم حيث الشيوعيين هم سوريا فى تأثر األكثر المجموعة , , في مترددا الناصر عبد كان المصرى للجانب وبالنسبة لإلضطهاد يتعرضونلخطورة , السوري الوفد أقنعه أن بعد وافق أنه إال المضطربة سوريا مع األتحاد

, الجمهورية مسمى تحت ومصر سوريا اتحاد أعلن وبذلك الشيوعي التهديدفبرايرعام من األول فى المتحدة 273 .1958العربية

فى بسرعة ظهرت الخالفات أن المتحدة على من , الجمهورية كان حيث , , " وليس " البلديين بين متكامل االتحاد شكل يكون أن لالتحاد الناصر عبد شروط

من , مهيمين أنفسهم السوريون وجد وأيضا السوريون يرى كما فيدرالى شكلعلى البلدين فى التمثيل ألعتماد كنتيجة البرلمان و الحكومة فى المصريين قبل

عليها تهيمن التي سوريا نفسها وجدت ما وسرعان بلد لكل السكانية النسبة , فى ممثلة المتحدة العربية الجمهورية أصبحت وبذلك كفاءة وأكثر أقوى مصر

, التأميم على القائم األشتراكى األصالح عليه المسيطر الناصر عبد جمال , من كبير عدد على المصريون هيمن كما مصر فى طبق كما الزراعى واألصالح

" لألشراف , " عامر الحكيم عبد تعيين تم وقد سوريا فى الهامة الدارية الوظائف , , خامس عسكرى بإنقالب للقيام دفع سبق ما كل سوريا فى السياسة على

" فى " دمشق فى النحالوى الكريم عبد إنفصالل 1961سبتمبر28بقيادة عنه نتج. ومصر سوريا

, , المتتالية اإلنقالبات من العديد بحدوث تميزت الوحدة مرحلة تلت التى الفترةثم , السياسية والفصائل القوى جميع بين الجدل اشتد عندما كانت البداية

, عامة انتخابات فى الناصر لعبد الموالية والفصائل الشيوعيين بأستثناء شاركوا , , ذلك والمحافظيين المعتدلين بسيطرة تميز الذى الجديد البرلمان ألختيار

, " كرئيس " الدواليبى ومعروف للجمهورية رئيسا القدسى ناظم أنتخب البرلمانالحكومة, نجحت ولكن التأميم مراسيم بإلغاء الحكومة تلك قامت للوزراء

عسكرى , إنقالب حدوث الى أدى مما الكثير وتنفير القليل إرضاء فى الجديدةيوم ومجلس, 1962مارس28سادس الرئيس إستقالة عنه نتج مما

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, الجديد , اإلنقالب هذا قابل للحكومة والتشرعية التنفيذية والوظائف الوزارة , سابع عسكرى إنقالب الى ادى مما بذلك تندد الكبرى المدن جميع فى مظاهرات

وعودة , 5يوم السابق اإلنقالب من السبع الجيش ضباط نفى فيه تم ابريل , " عام" سبتمبر فى أنه على ثانية الرئاسة لمهام تفجيرات , 1962القادسى حدث

عبد أنصار بين للخالفات نتيجة طالبية ومظاهرات إرهابية , رئيسا الظم خالد وعين الناصر عبد يرفضون وممن الناصر

, ضباط من أربعة قام أنه على القدسى قبل من الجدد للوزراءاوائل فى فاشل ثامن بإنقالب المنفى فى كانوا الذى الجيش

تطهير, , 1963عام بعدها وتم أخرى مرة المنفى الى ذهبوا ثميوم, أخر انقالب وقع أن على العام 8الجيش نفس من مارس

مارس من الثامن بثورة البعث 1963يسمى حزب اعضاء بقيادةو نفوذه بسط من البعث حزب تمكن و الشعب و الجيش في

" , , صالح أصبح العام نفس من مارس من التاسع يوم وفى البالد علي سيطرته" " كون و الوزراء رئيس اإلشتراكى العربى البعث حزب مؤسس البيطار الدين

, " عن الالحقة أشهر الستة فى الدولة رئيس عفلق ميشاللجدل , نتيجة مرة من أكثر البيطار وزارة تغييرت السابق التاريخ

يتم التى اإلضطرابات من العديد حدوث و الحكومة تكوين, " الجدد " البعثيين حزب من الحافظ أمين اللواء قبل من سحقها

مايو بين ما الفترة فى هناك 1966وفبراير 1964ثم كانت ، حزب داخل السلطة على التنافس يعكس مما الحكومة من متكررة تغييرات

كما, , والمدن الحضرية المناطق بعض في الشغب أعمال بشدة قمعت و البعث , هذه خالل الناصر لعبد المؤيدة والمظاهرات ، الطالبية المظاهرات قمعت

" من " آخرين إثنين ولكن ، العام المشهد على حافظ أمين هيمنة واصلت الفترةوأمين عفلق ميشل مثل الحزب قيادات على باإلنقالب قاما البعثيين الجنراالت

في ".1966فبراير 23حافظ " " األسد " حافظ و ، جديد صالح ،وهما عام األولى معا حربيين فى إشتركتا قد وسوريا مصر ان بالذكر جدير

1967 , , ثم الجوالن لهضبة أسرائيل إحتالل عنها نتج واألردن مصر مع متحالفةاكتوبر حرب هى الثانية االراضي 1973الحرب من أجزاء منهما كل إستعادت

, مفاوضات , في مصر دخلت حيث الحرب بعد ً معا اختلفا انهما اال المحتلة , على الهجوم جهة تقود جعلها مما سوريا رفضته ما هو و اسرائيل مع رسمية

. العربية الدول مع مصر

. السورية الرئاسة فى األسد عائلة عهد

األسد: حافظ ):.2000-1971 (274أوال

, : , جديد صالح هما األشتراكى البعث حزب فى الجنرالت من إثنان أن أنفا ذكرنا كمانفس فى الحاكم والنظام الحزب قيادات ضد الحزب داخل بإنقالب قام قد األسد وحافظ

حرب, حتى سوريا قيادة فى معا واستمرا هزيمة, 1967الوقت بعد ً معا اختلفا إنهما حيث , االسد حافظ قام أن الي فشيئا شيئا بينهما الخالفات تصاعدت و الحرب في سوريا

فى التصحيحية الحركة اخيريسمى جميع , 1970نوفمبر17بإنقالب من األسد تخلص فيها274 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/18.htm” 26/02/2012

249

, فى الحكومة تعين وتم البعث حزب فى ومعارضيه , 19خصومه وكان الشهر نفس من , من الوزارة مجلس ونصف الدفاع ووزير الوزراء رئيس و الدولة رئيس فيها األسد

, وفى والشيوعيين المستقلين و والناصرين األشتراكيين أعداد بين توازن وبها 23البعثيينان, , , "1970نوفمبر األسد زعم صحافية مقابلة وفى األولى للمرة الحكومة إجتمعت

السلطة على السياسى للصراع نتيجة او النقالب نتيجة ليس الحكومة فى التغيير, ,," حظي, حكمه بداية فى الثورى الحزب حركة فى طبيعى تطور نتيجة ولكنه اواألنقسام

الحديث , النهج على للجيش وتطوره األقتصادية ألصالحاته كنتجة شعبي بتأييد األسدعام الدائم سوريا دستور فى, 1973ووضع عهده فى الجيش إنتصار الى باألضافة هذا

, 1973حرب عام فى تاثرت شعبيته ان إال أسرائيل أحداث , 2751982امام وقعت حيث, , حماة مدينة فى المسلميين األخوان فى ممثلة المعارضة سيطرت حيث حماة مجزرة

, تدخل حيث األسد حافظ الرئيس من بأمر الجيش والقوات فتدخل النظامي الجيشالمعارضة , على للقضاء السري األمن من وحدات إلى باإلضافة ً قاسيا ً تدريبا المدربة

, معها, المتعاطفيين وتأديب المعارضة لضرب الصالحيات كامل للجيش وكان واجتثاثهاواألدانة الشعبية األحتجاجات لتفادى األخبار على تعتيما السلطات وفرضت

, من, تمكن وبذلك القتلى من األالف حساب على ولكن المعارضة على وقضى الخارجيةلمدة , بالسلطة إنفرد وبذلك المعارضة المسلميين األخوان حركة من عاما30التخلص

. وفاته حتى

األسد: ( بشار ):.2000ثانيا اآلن-

العمر من يبلغ و 34كان في 10عاما والده وفاة وقت عام 10أشهرفى مما, 2000يونيولعمر األدنى الحد لخفض أعضاءه بإجماع الدستور يعدل السوري الشعب مجلس جعل

من إلى 40الرئيس ً من 34عاما االشتراكي العربي البعث حزب في كقيادي لتمكينه ً عاما , عربي رئيس أول أصبح وبذلك الرئاسة لمنصب الشعب مجلس على ترشيحه عرض

والده , 276يخلف اخيه توفى حيث مصادفة الحكم تولى أنه بالذكر جدير جمهورية حكم في - - ً رئيسا انتخب الحكم فى والده يخلف أن المفترض من كان الذي االسد باسل االكبر

في غطت 2000يوليو 10للجمهورية وداعمة مؤيدة ومظاهرات واسع شعبي إستفتاء عبر , الفترة تلك وسميت الحريات مجال في عهده بداية في انفراج حدث باكملها سوريا

, اإلنفتاح وحدث الشعب مطالب لكل األسد الرئيس إستجاب حيث دمشق، بربيع الوجيزةاألجنبية للمصارف فروع بفتح سمح حيث عهده، فى البالد في اإلقتصادي الصعيد على

المستوى , على نتائجه له كان مما األجنبية بالعمالت حسابات فتح للمواطنين وُسمح. , , فى أخرى رئاسية لوالية انتخابه إعادة وتم للسوريين 2007المعيشى

السورية . 2011 الثورة

درعا مدينتى فى مارس شهر منتصف فى القمع نظام ضد السورية اإلحتجاجات بدأتقيام بسبب اإلحتجاجات بدأت حيث دمشق جنوب

باعتقال السورية عائلة 15المخابرات من طفل275 Syrian human rights committee “http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d3/53.aspx” 27/02/2012.276 Cnn “http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0006/10/bn.01.html” 27/02/2012.

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أمام , األالف تظاهر ذلك بعد ثم مدرستهم على الحرية عبارات كتابتهم بسبب أبازيد , من السورية األمن قوات قبل من عنف صحابه الذى درعا في الكبير العمري الجامع

وذلك , للدموع مسيلة قنابيل أطالق المتظاهريين على الحى النيران إطالق خالل , , سقط التصرف لهذا كنتيجة دراعا مدينة المدرعات إقتحام ثم المتظاهريين للتفريق

, حماة مدينة الى اإلحتياجات حمى وصلت ثم المصابيين واألالف القتلى مئاتفى , الشهيرة حماة بمذبحة انتهت التى يد 23السورية على العام نفس من يوليو

باألساليب , التظاهرات فض واستمرار حصارها أثر السورية العسكرية القواتالرئيس , ظهر أخر صعيد وعلى النظامى السورى الجيش مستخدمة القمعية

النظام فى اصالحات عن ليعلن أبريل شهر أواخر فى األسد بشار السورى, للمعارضة, المؤيد منها البالد أنحاء جميع فى إنتشرت المظاهرات ان على السياسى

, األسد بشار للرئيس مؤيد ومنها تجاهها الدموى بالتصرف ومندد واإلحتياجاتالمدن فى مستمرة واإلحتياجات المظاهرات تستمر اللحظة تللك حتى مازالت

فى السورية السفارات وأمام دمشق السورية العاصمة الى وصلت حتى السورية , السورى الجيش من ضباط عدد انشقاق تم انه بالذكر جدير العالم دول مختلف

المدن فى تحدث التى القمعية األساليب ضد األحرار بالضباط أنفسهم يسمون, الوطنى , اإلنقاذ مؤتمر أسطنبول فى إنعقد كما السورى الشعب تجاه السورية

. دولية دعما نال الذى

السورى الحكم : نظامحزب - سيطرة تحت هى و الجمهورى النظام تتبع بكونها سوريا فى الحكم طبيعة تتمثل

منذ الحكم فى العسكرى االستبدادى الطابع ذو .1963البعث

فى - السورى الدستور إبرام تم عام 1973مارس 13لقد منذ سوريا أن حيث هى 1963؛ و

. الدستورية الحقوق جميع يخفى الذى الطوارىء بقانة تحكم

الجمهورية - تتكون و فقط الشعب مجلس من سوريا فى التشريعية السلطة تتكون

من , , , ,14السورية , طرطوس , حماه الالذقية حمص دوما و دمشق حلب هم محافظة

. , , , , القنيطرة , و ادلب درعا الحسكة السويداء الزيور دير الرقة

التى , - التقدمية الوطنية الجبهة من تتكون فهى السورية السياسية األحزاب يخص فيما

الحزب ( البعث حزب رأسها على و الحكومية األحزاب لجميع الشاملة المنظمة بمثابة

الحزب) و السورى العربي االشتراكى االتحاد و الوحدوى االشتراكى الحزب و الحاكم

الوحدوى : الحزب و القومى السورى الحزب من كال يضم الذى السورى الشيوعى

أحزاب تكون ما الغالب فى و الحكومة من بها معترف غير أخرى أحزاب و االشتراكى

. بمثابة هى التقدمية الوطنية الجبهة ان شرعية غير كردية أحزاب هنال أخيرا و معارضة

, ذلك مع و للدولة السياسية التوجهات و اإلقتصادية السياسات تقرير فيه يتم حيث منتدى

على البعث حزب سيطرة و هيمنة بسبب مستقلة غير سلطة تمارس الوطنية فالجبهة

الحكم.

251

و - صالحيات يعطى و الدولة فى القيادة مهام البعث حزب يمنح السورى الدستور إن

لتكون . واليته مدة تحددت شعبى لغستفتاء وفقا الرئيس إن للرئيس واسعة 7سلطات

. عن عبار فهو التقدمية الوطنية الجبهة زعيم و البعث لحزب العام األمين ايضا هو و سنوات

من إعالن , 10إئتالف و الوزراء تعيين اختصاصاته فمن للدولة تابعة سياسية أحزاب

. الدستور تعديل و الطوارىء حاالت و الحرب

عام - فى السورى الدستور إشترط له , 1973لقد يحق ال لكن و مسلما الرئيس يكون إن

هى للتشريع الرئيسى فالمصدر ذلك رغم و للدولة رسمى كدين االسالمى الدين اقرار

. القوانين و التشريعات من مزيج هو سوريا فى القضائى النظام االسالمية الشريعة

و , االستئناف محاكم للمحاكم مستويات ثالث وجود مع االسالمية و الفرنسية و العثمانية

القوانين عن مسئولة الدينية المحاكم و العليا الدستورية المحكمة و ابتدائية محاكم

277االسرية .

: الشعب- من , - السكان يتكون السامى للعرق السورى الشعب و% 90ينتمى المسلمين %74من

و سنة و% 16منهم الدروز و الشيعة و العلويين منها أخرى إسالمية %10مجموعات

. السورية اليهودية المجتمعات بعض هناك و مسيحيين

من - العرب يتكون واسع نطاق على المستخدمة اللغة هى العربية اللغة 500,000أن

. اللغة يتحدثون السوريين المثقفين من كثير عراقى الجْى مليون حوالى و فلسطينى

يمثلون , الذين المحظورة الكردية باللغة األكراد يتحدث االنجليزية و من % 9الفرنسية

. سوريا شرق شمال يسكنوا و السكان: األكراد: اوال

يؤلف - أنهم يعتقد ولكن واسع، نطاق على تختلف سورية في األكراد لعدد التقديرات

. 9حوالي عاشوا القبلية الكردية الجماعات بعض أن من الرغم على السكان من المئة في

عامي بين تركيا من العديد ووصل ، أجيال لعدة البلد حاول 1938و 1924في عندما ،

. " هناك" االكراد على له قوة اإلصالح لبرامج كمال مصطفىبشكل , - يعيشون الخاصة لغتهم يتحدثون والذين المستقلين القبائل شعب هم األكراد

وشمال تركيا، شرق ايران، غرب شمال الجبلية المناطق من واسعة منطقة في رئيسي

تاريخهم في العميق والفخر معقدة القبائل بين والعالقات متماسك شعب هم العراق،

البدو. من وغيرهم هم المدينة سكان وبعض المزارعين من هم األكراد معظم وتقاليدهم

277 Us department of state “www.state.gov” 28/02/2012.

252

على لهم وترعى الصيف فصل في الجبال في بعيدا قطعانهم يقودون الذين الرحل

. الشتاء فصل في المنخفضة األراضي-. والعلويين المسيحيين من جدا قليل وعدد السنة المسلمين من األكراد معظم إنأقوى - القبلي فالوالء مؤخرا، وصلوا أو سوريا في العريقة سواء األكراد، لمعظم بالنسبة

. أي من تقليديا يثقون ال انهم الكردية لألمة أو سوريا سواء للدولة الوطني الوالء من

. سوريا في نسبيا الهادئة اإلقامة خففت فقد ، ذلك ومع دمشق في سيما ال حكومة،

). السورية السلطات في ثقتهم عدم التدريجي )1واالستيعاب

: األرمن: ثانيا- . . منهم صغير عدد إن م ق السادس القرن منذ القوقاز فى عاشوا أناس أحفاد هم األرمن

بين ما تركيا من كالجئين جاءت الغالبية لكن و طويلة ألجيال البلد فى استقر و 1925قد1945.

و - السورية السياسية الحياة تشكيل فى ملموس و اضح و تاثير لهم القوميين العرب إن

مما السياسية الحياة فى بشىء يشاركون ال أنفسهم وجدوا الذين األرمن غرار على ذلك

و ., الستينيات فى منهم كبيرة أعداد هاجرت فقد لذا الغربة و يالوحدة يشعرون جعلهم

السبعينيات.: السنة: ثالثا

العرب , - السوريون يمثل حيث السنة المسلمون هم سوريا فى دينية جماعة اكبر إن

غالبا% . 80األصليون الشراكسة و الفلسطينيون و التركمان و األكراد من الباقى و منهم

األحزاب و االجتماعية الجماعات لمعظم ينتمون و البالد فى المهن معظم السنة يمتهن ما

السياسية.من ( - االغلبية حيث السويداء محافظتا هما بهما األغلبية يمثلون ال فقط محافظتان هناك

.( من) ( لكن و الغالبية السنة يمثل الحاشكة فى و العلويين من االغلبية الالذقية و الدروز

العرب . ليس و األكراد: الشيعة: رابعا

و , - تعليما األقل الدينية الجماعات من هم السياسية الحياة فى ضئلة بنسبة يساهمون

العراق . , فى الشيعى لمراكز أنظارهم يوجهوا الدينية األمور فى للتغيير مقاومون أعضائها

إيران . – مع سوريا تحالفت اإليرانية العراقية الحرب ففى ايران و النجف و كربالء خاصة

. فقد ، ذلك ومع السوريين الشيعة وضع من حسن و انعش الذى األمر العراق مواجهة فى

سورية، في الشيعي اإلسالمي الحماس من الحذر عودة السورية الحكومة إعتبرت

ذلك . لتخفيف خطوات وإتخذت

: العلويون: خامسا

253

مزارعين , - كانوا حيث مقهورة و مستغلة سورية اكثرأقلية لقرون العلويون إستمر لقد

الحكم , مقاليد األسد الرئيس تولى بعد لكن و السنية من األراضى مالك لدى مستأجرين

عام فى حاشيته . 1970و ملحوظا تحسنا العلويين ظروف 278تحسنت

قبل- العربية السورية العالقات من أشكالالثورة:

اللبنانية : السورية العالقات – السياسة على المهيمنة السورية الدولة صورة اللبنانية السورية العالقات تأخذ

لبنان . فى يوجد حيث عاما ثالثين لمدة الصغيرة لجارتها احتاللها و اللبنانية الخارجية

) 15,000حوالى لبنان ( جنوب فى المتواجد الله حزب جانب الى السورية القوات من

. شيعة ككونهم إيران و سوريا دعم يتلقى الذى منذ لبنان فى السوري الوجود يرجع بين 1967و اللبنانية األهلية الحرب إندالع عند

( عام ( فى المسيحيين المريونيت و من, 1965المسلمين المزيد فى الطامعين

و . سوريا مساعدة طلبوا و المريونيت الحكم تولى السياسية السلطة و المشاركة

قد , أنه منه ظنا المريونيت لحماية لبنان فى قوات األسد الرئيس أرسل لهم دعمها

لدعمه االسالمية الدول حفيظة األاسد الرئيس أثار الموقف بهذا و عليهم يسيطر

لمدة , الحرب استمرت قد و المسيحيين .15للمريونيت 279عاما

رأسها على و العربية الدول بعض رعاية تحت الطائف إتفاقية بتوقيع الحرب إنتهت

المشاركة , من المزيد المسلمين إعطاء اإلتفاق تتضمن و السعودية العربية المملكة

. السورية – الللبنانية العالقات صورة تحسين و السياسية الحياة فى عام فى لكن حيث , 2005و البلدين بين العالقات على عقباه يحمد ال حادث حدث

, السورى الشعب كراهية من زاد مما الحريرى رفيق اللبنانى الوزراء رئيس إغتيال

لسوريا االتهام أصبع إلشارة ذلك و لبنان من السورية القوات بسحب مطالبته و للبنان

اللبنانيين . لمطالبة الوحيد السبب هو الحريرى اغتيال يكن لم الحادث عن مسئوليتها و

السورية , بدأ الحريرى إغتيال من عام فقبل لبنان من السورية القوات بخروج

بين العالقات تعريف باعادة يطالبون و لبنان فى السورى الوجود من يتذمرون

والية , , مدة يحدد اللبنانى فالدستور اللبنانية الشئون فى سوريا تدخلت فقد البلدين

لمدة " 6الرئيس لثالثة " الحود ايميل الرئيس مدة لتمد سوريا تدخلت لكن و سنوات

العالقات. تجاه سياسته و نظرته إختلفت الحكم الحريرى سعد تولى بعد لكن و سنوات278 Country studies “http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sytoc.html” 28/02/2012.

279 Committee on Foreign relations, “www.cfr.org” 20/02/2012.

254

طابع ذات ثنائية عالقات قيام هو اللبنانية المصلحة من أن أدرك حيث اللبنانية السورية

اللبنانية . ( السيادة حفظ و سوريا مع )2تعاونى

, و ؟؟ اخرى مرة أهلية حرب لقيام إمكانية هناك هل هو نفسه يطرح الذى السؤال إن

تحفظ السورية الحديدية القبضة أن البعض قال فقد ؟؟ ذلك فى السورى الدور هو ما

بعضهم رقاب على تكون سوف فانها القبضة تلك أزالت اذا و معا الحماعات جميع

. أخرى مرة البعض

: العراقية – السورية العالقات

, عبر تسللهم و المتمردين محور البلدين بين العالقات فيها تدور أساسية محاور ثالث هناك

و العراقيين الالجئين محور و للعراق السورية الحدود

قوى حاكم وجود فى سوريا برغبة الخاص المحور اخيرا

بغداد . فى ( حدودها ( عبر ستسللون الذين المتمردين قمع على العمياء العين سياسة تتبع سوريا إن

سوريا إبداء مع ذلك مد و األسلحة معهم مهربين للعراق

غير , يكون يكاد و هامشى فدورها المتمردين القضاءعلى فى بالمساعدة للقيام

البعث . حزب عناصر بعض تساعد أنها ايضا لسوريا الموجهة االتهامات من و ملموس

عناصر فى ممثلين المتمردين من االخر النوع و حدودها عبر التسلل فى العراقى

السنة . عناصر بعض ايضا و العراق لدخول سوريا عبر الخليج من المتسللين القاعدة بين العالقات تسوية فى عقبة يمثلون فهم سوريا فى العراقين الالجئين يخص فيما أما

فى , السكان عدد زاد مما عراقى الجىء المليون فوق سوريا فى فيوجد البلدين

بنحو بحوالى % . 6سوريا لسوريا العراقيين اللجئين عدد مما , 40,000يزداد شهريا

. السورية التحتية البنية على الضغط و السورى االقتصاد على يؤثر , قيام منع و االختيار فى العنف ابقاء على قادر قوى عراقى رجل تريد سوريا اخيرا و

. العراق فى حقيقى سياسى انفتاح اليجاد محاولة أى خنق و منشقة عراقية كردستان , تسوية معوقات على للتغلب طرق إيجاد فى البلدين ستنجح هل اخرا ليس و اخيرا

, ؟؟ بينهما 280العالقة

: - االسرائيليه السوريه العالقات

280 United State institute of peace “www.usip.org” 20/02/2012.

255

: العالقات تأزم من العديد يأخذ اسرائيل و سوريا بين العالقات تأزم

و, الله لحزب االسد بشار بتدعيم بداية المحاور

مع الحوار رفض صراحة يعلن الذى حماس

بين, الحين ذلك فى الصداقه عالقة و اسرائيل

الدول ( قائمة فى االثنين وضع مما ايران و سوريا

.( عام فى لالرهاب إسرائيل 2007الراعيه ضربت

- . السابق جديد صالح هيج هناك سورى نووى مفاعل

- لدرجة للفلسطنييين المشاعر االسد عائلة لحكم

حرب الى الوضع دمشق 1967تصاعد تكن لم التى

. االسد حافظ أن رغم و الجوالن مرتفعات فى خسائر عن اسفرت التى و لها مستعده

من المزيد أخذا بشار ابنه جاء لكن و اسرائيل مع الصراع تجنب و الدرس تعلم

لسورية بالنسبة كارثية ستكون إسرائيل مع اشتباك فتح أن معرفته رغم المخاطر

ونظامه.

: الجوالن 281282هضبه

مع حدودها امتداد على سورية غرب جنوب أقصى في تقع سورية عربية أرض الجوالن

. المحتلة فلسطين بـ مساحته . 1800تقدر على الجنوب إلى الشمال من متطاول شكل وله مربع كم

بين 80-75مسافة يتراوح متوسط بعرض . 20و 18كم، كم . لبنان في الجنوبي البقاع عن وتفصله الجوالن، شمالي في الشيخ جبل كتلة تقع

واألردن عجلون ومرتفعات الجوالن بين الجنوب في العميق اليرموك نهر وادي ويفصل

. وبحيرة الحولة سهل على تطل الجوالن هضبة فإن الغرب، في وأما الغربية الشمالية

ومنطقة الجوالن بين الشرق في الرقاد وادي يقع حين في قاسية، بجروف طبريا

حوران. عبور منطقة الجوالن جعلت كبيرة، أهمية المتوسط الجغرافي الجوالن ولموقع

. ذلك ظهر و العصور مر على دائم صراع مسرح وجعلته والشعوب، والجيوش القوافل

. االقتصادية واألحوال العمران، وأنماط للمنطقة، البشرية األوضاع في كله بين تراوح عامة ارتفاعات على الجوالن معظم .1300و 950يقع البحر سطح فوق م

تضاريس تتبعهما رئيسيتين منطقتين إلى التضريسية االرتفاعات حيث من ويقسم

ثانوية281Israel’s Pessimistic View of the Arab Spring, Daniel Baymn, “http://www.twq.com/11summer/docs/11summer_Byman.pdf” 20/02/2012.282 Syria ministry of Finance “http://www.syrianfinance.org/arabic/main/about-syria/2113.html” 20/02/2012.

256

: -بين ارتفاعاتها وتتراوح الشمالية وتتبعها 900و 600المنطقة البحر، سطح فوق م

على ارتفاعها يزيد التي الشرقية الجنوبية الشيخ جبل وأقدام . 1500نهايات وتتزايد متر

الشيخ، جبل كتلة تبدأ حيث الشمال نحو باالتجاه المنطقة هذه ارتفاعات عن الجوالن جبال سلسلة ارتفاع يزيد حيث الشرق نحو ويصل 1000وباالتجاه متر،

إلى عجم بير تل قمة االرتفاعات 1155ارتفاع تتناقص حين في البحر، سطح فوق ً مترا

. الثانية التضريسية المنطقة حيث الغربي والجنوب الغرب باتجاه : -بين ارتفاعاتها وتتراوح الجنوبية وتتبعها 600و 300المنطقة البحر، سطح فوق م

دون المنخفضة ارتفاع 300األراضي على والواقعة طبريا، بحيرة أو الحولة سهل في م

212. البحر سطح دون م في إسرائيل شنتها التي للحرب الرئيسية األهداف أحد الجوالن منطقة إحتالل كان

1967 . ما منه واحتلت الحرب هذه خالل الجوالن إسرائيل غزت وقد العربية الدول ضد

ومساحتها 1250مساحته السالح منزوعة المنطقة وفيها مربع، .100كم مربع كم

الجنوبية النهايات هي الشيخ جبل من صغيرة أجزاء المحتلة المساحة هذه في ويدخل

" " . ً تجاوزا المحتل الجوالن إطار ضمن األجزاء هذه وتدخل الجبل هذا لسلسلة الغربية

. الجغرافي 283للمفهوم

الجوالن فى االسرائيليه االمن 284:مصالح

" وسادة لتوفير اسراتيجيه لمصلحه باألساس الجوالن هضبة اسرائيل احتلت لقد

, تتيحه" ما بجانب العسكرية عوامل عده على يقوم وكان سوريا بين و بينها الجغرافية

: , ومنها مزايا من : مقارنه متدن وضع فى السوريه الحدود من بالقرب يعيشون الذين االسرائيليين أوال

بسوريا. : تتقلى سوريا كانت حيث السوفيتي االتحاد من العسكري إسرائيل قلق ثانيا

, على أعينهم واضعين دائمه تأهب حاله فى االسرائليليون يجعل مما منها المساعدات

. - الوقت طوال السوفيتيه السوريه العالقات : حرب بعد في 1967ثالثا المستوطنات داخل عميقة الزراعة اقامة إسرائيل بدأت

, , الجوالن جبال إلى بسهوله الحمايه والصواريخ الحربية الطائرات تقدم الجوالن هضبة

منذ الجوالن هضبة على سوريا و اسرائيل بين النار الطالق تبدل اى هناك يكن لم حيث

االحتالل. 1973حرب ظل في هائلة اقتصادية تحوالت الجوالن شهد ذلك على عالوة

االسرائيلي.

283 United states department of state “http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/103703.pdf” 21/02/2012.284 The Israeli-Syrian Conflict, Joyce Lawrence “http://irps.ucsd.edu/assets/012/6361.pdf” 26/20/2012.

257

: - االيرانيه السوريه العالقات فى فرصا العراق مع لسوريا التاريخى التنافس خلق

, التحالف ايران مع السوريه العالقات تحسين," مصلحه " زواج دائما يعتبر الذى االيرانى السورى

المصالح على أعلى قيمة وضعت البلدين كال أن كماوالثقافية اإلقليمية من بدال المشتركة االستراتيجية

. قلق من فيه مما األخيرة السنوات في والدينيةفى الله لحزب بالنسبه دعم و العراق حول مشتركال المنطقه فى جغرافيا التجزره اسرائيل و لبنان

. بسهوله انقالبها يمكن , االستثمارات لتزايد االخيره التقرير عبر اخر لبعد سوريا فى االيرانى النفوذ تزايد لقد و

. . التعاون توسع كما الطاقه او التصنيع مجال فى ذلك كان سواء هناك لها التجاره و , عام فى نجاد احمدى االيرانى الرئيس زياره فى حيث بينهما إلى 2007العسكرى

بقيمه عسكريه مساعدات أعطى لقد .1سوريا دوالر بليونحيث لكن السوريه الثوره قيام بعد إختلف نجاد الوضع أحمدي محمود الرئيس أدان

" حليفتها" حملة ايران من اآلن حتى انتقاد أقوى في سوريا، في والمجزرة القتلواضاف . لقوات "الرئيسية كانت سواء ، سوريا في والمذابح القتل عمليات ندين إننا

" نجاد , احمدي وقال ، اوالمعارضة الناس هو "األمن والذي لسوريا واضحة صيغة لديناتفاهم الى والتوصل معا الجلوس على االطراف ال ... لجميع هذه القتل عمليات ولذلك

مسدود ". طريق الى يؤدي سوف الطويل المدى وعلى ، مشاكل أي حل يمكن

" " وقال السورية القيادة يفسد ال ايران اردوغان طيب رجب التركي الوزراء رئيس حذر) ن "اردوغا أن ( االيرانيون منهم حذرنا ولكن إيران مع توتر هناك كان أقول أن أستطيع "ال

التشجيع " على تحصل األسد .االدارة

وتعتبر ، األخيرة السنوات في أولوية أنقرة مع جيدة عالقات على الحفاظ طهران جعلتالمثير النووي برنامجها بسبب الغرب فرضها التي العقوبات تنفيذ لرفضها حليفا تركيا

.للجدل

رادار إستضافة على موافقتها حول انقرة طهران وإنتقدت األخيرة األشهر في ولكنالصاروخي الدفاع نظام الناتو من كجزء المبكر إلى . لإلنذار يهدف انه طهران وتقول

إلسرائيل اللدود العدو إيران في النظام .حماية

المناهضة اإلحتجاجات على حملتها في سوريا بمساعدة إيران اتهمت قد األوروبي اإلتحادلها " اساس ال بأنها االتهام طهران رفضت ، ".للحكومة

االنتفاضة تجاه الرسمية السياسة ضد للذهاب االولى هي نجاد أحمدي تصريحاتخامنئي علي الله آية بقيادة االسالمية الجمهورية وضعتها التي ان , السورية وادعى

" والصهاينة " المتحدة الواليات قبل من ملفقة وهمية ثورة سوريا في 285.االضطرابات

285 Al arabiya “http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/10/22/173119.html” 28/02/2012.

258

: - التركيه السوريه العالقات: تاريخيه) عالقات ا

محافظات هتايمحافظة - 1 إحدى مدينة. تركياهي مساحتها. أنطاكيةعاصمتها تبلغسكانها 2كم 5,678 عدد السكانية 1,253,726ويبلغ الكثافة معدل يبلغ كما .2كم/220نسمة

. تركيا جنوب في تقع

تعرف هاتاي اسكندرون كانت عام بـلواء أيام 1939حتى سوريا من إقتطع حين اإلنتداب،سوريا على إلى الفرنسي ضمه وتم عام تركيا، نظم صحته في مشكوك استفتاء 1939بعد

. من شاحنات على نقلوا الذين األتراك من اآلالف عشرات االستفتاء في شارك هاتاي في. العربية األغلبية وقاطعته فيه للمشاركة من تركياقامت ]1[تركيا األسماء كافة عربيةبتغيير

من 1921عام. تركيةإلى أقل يشكلون األتراك أن 20كان إال اإلقليم، في السكان المئة فيالحكم إلرضاء اللواء لسلخ القديم والتخطيط لألتراك، المنحازة الفرنسية السياسة

خسائر من بالتقليل رغبة سيفر االتاتوركي، فترة معاهدة خالل مقنعة تتريك سياسة أرسىكان األمم عصبة قرار حسب اإلقليم فصل ومع لإلقليم، العشرينات في الفرنسي االنتداب

اللواء سكان نسمة، 220عدد على 105ألف حينها الباقون وتوزع العرب، من منهم آالفالتركي ( ) (85العرق والكردي ) (25ألًفا واألرمني ) 5ألًفا حوالي اإلقليم يسكن حاليا، آالف

القمعية التركية السياسة بسبب سكانه من العربية للنسبة تعداد أي يوجد ال نسمة، مليونتركيا تمارسه الذي واإلثني واللغوي الثقافي القمع من اإلقليم ويشكو القومية، لألقليات

نحو متابعة وهو المجاالت كل في التركي العرق لصالح العربية األقلية ضد والتمييز عليهم. اإلسكندرون للواء الكامل التتريك

مائيه- 2 286سياسات

نهر عبر السدود من سلسلة لبناء التركى مخطط بأن طويلة فترة منذ سوريا وشكتالزراعة في المياه من وحرمانها ، األناضول شرق جنوب مشروع من كجزء العليا الفرات

. كبير بشكل عليها تعتمد التي

عام مع : '' 1988في العرب يفعل ماذا نقول ال نحن أوزال تورغوت الراحل الرئيس قال.'' مياهنا مع فعله يجب ما حول منهم اقتراح أي نقبل ال نحن لذلك ، النفط

لتقاسم إتفاقيه على للتوقيع دمشق جانب من لضغط تركيا تتعرض نفسه العام في [ [ إلى, '' [ إشارة في لنا الماء كل ، والماء ، العرب لهم هو النفط أوزال الرئيس وقال المياه

العمال حزب باستخدام الماكرة األسد مناورة ضد المياه سالح استخدام يعتزم كان أنهالكردستاني.

بنتها التي السدود سلسلة إن حيث نوعيتها لكن المياه كميات حول السوريين يشكو والعدة استخدمت قد سوريا الى تصل التى المياه أن يعني الفرات نهر منبع على تركيا

التسبب عن فضال ، المحاصيل تأذى بذلك و الملوحة فى زيادة بها فإن وبالتالي مرات، , ليس إنها تركيا وقالت الطمي من وحرمانهم أسرع بشكل تشغيله منذ الضفاف تآكل في

. الكردستاني العمال لحزب دعمها سوريا تنهى حتى يناقش ما لديها

286 Water is behind Turkey Syria Border Tension Adel Darwish “http://www.mideastnews.com/water001.html” 26/02/2012.

259

عام تركيا 1989في ،أوقفت الكردستاني العمال لحزب االسد دعم الرئيس زاد عندما ، الى تحتاج انها بحجة والعراق سوريا الى المياه اتاتورك 30تدفق بحيرة لملء يوما

. دمشق و بغداد بين لندن في عاجلة اجتماعات الى الخطوة هذه ودفعت السد وإختبار . تركيا لمواجهة عاجل تدبير التخاذ

الخبراء من وسوريا تركيا بين الحدود على الحرب تهديدات توقعات هناك كان لذلك . وفي النفط وليس المياه على األوسط الشرق في المقبل الصراع أنه اإلستراتيجيين

سالح 1996عام أنقرة إستخدام و تركيا مواجهة سبل لمناقشة دمشق عراقي وفد زار . سورية بين فتعارض العراق على المطاف نهاية في تؤثر سوف والتي سورية ضد المياه

, في تعقيدا أكثر األمور يجعل مما اخرى ناحيه من العراق إشراك و ناحيه من وتركياالمنطقة.

لالرهاب- 3 تدعيم

حزب إلى سوريا هوتدعيم األساسيه التركيه السوريه العالقات تأزم أسباب من كان) الكردستانى , ) PKKالعمال انفصالي كردية جماعة وهي تركيا بين فى و بينها نزاع هناك

الزمن من طويله لفتره التركى مرارا الجيش سوريا ضد االتهام هذا أحرز وقد ، .287وتكرارا

الحاليه) العالقات ب

التركيه- 1 السوريه العالقات فى التقرب اعادة بداية

سوريا بين العالقات في تطورات هناك كانت ، أضنة إتفاقات على التوقيع أعقاب في . معسكرات إغالق على لإلتفاق المباشرة النتيجة كانت جدا قصيرة زمنية فترة في وتركيا

. إتفق للمنظمة اللوجستي الدعم وإنهاء سوريا في الكردستاني العمال حزب تدريبفي " خاصين ممثلين تعيين ،وسيتم مباشر هاتفي خط إنشاء سيتم أنه على الطرفان

" األمنية اللجنة قبل من منتظمة اجتماعات وعقدت بلد كل في الدبلوماسية البعثاتعام. حتى العالقات مختلف في الدبلوماسية الزيارات في زيادة وهناك ، 2000المشتركة

. يونيو مع البلدين بين العالقات في الثقة لبناء فترة عن نتحدث أن حضور 2000يمكن ، , وقعت كما البلدين بين العالقات ومما األسد حافظ جنازة نجدت احمد التركي الرئيس

. , الثنائيه للعالقات جديده صفحه فتحت و األمني للتعاون اتفاق على الدولتانوأعد -- -- أوال البلدين بين هاتاي الحدود وقضية المياه قضية حل البلدين على كان لكن و

, كما بينهما المياه أزمة و بلد كل وسيادة أراضي وحدة إحترام تضمن التي المبادئ إعالنا. الجانبيين كال على الخارجيه وزراء 288ردد

العسكرى- 2 التعاون

العمال لحزب وسمح ، تركيا ضد الكردستاني العمال حزب سوريا دعمت ، الماضي في . أن سوريا بعد ذلك تغير لقد ولكن تركيا ضد للقتال األكراد السوريين لتجنيد الكردستاني

287 Graham, Edward, Terrorism and Borders, http://www.mideastinfo.com/archive/paper1.htm 12/02/2012.

288 Tür,Özlem, TURKISH-SYRIAN RELATIONS – WHERE ARE WE GOING?, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,http://www.ucm.es/info/unisci/revistas/UNISCI%20DP%2023%20-%20TUR.pdf 16/02/2012.

260

" عام " في البالد خارج الكردستاني العمال حزب قوة زعيم اوجالن الله عبد طرد قررت1998 . عام بعد سورية بغزو تركيا هددت إجراءات 1998،عندما إتخاذ الى سوريا بدأت ،

. تركيا مع العالقات أفضل وإقامة المتبقية الشبكات الكردستاني العمال حزب ضد صارمةجبال في الكردستاني العمال لحزب المتمردين معظم وانتقل ، أوجالن أوامر على بناء

. العراق شمال في قنديل

ال الكردي الكردستاني العمال حزب سبتمبر عرقىإنشاء في سوريا واستهدف. 2003فيالحزب الدوله هذا قبل من مستهدفا في كان االخرى الكردية السياسية كاألحزاب ،

االتحاد. حزب اجتماعات وقمعت أعضائها من مئات على القبض ألقي سوريا . االتحاد حزب مؤيدي بعض وقتل السورية األمن قوات أيدي على الديمقراطي

بالقرب PYDالديمقراطي الرقة مدينة في الكردية السنة رأس احتفاالت تنظيم خاللمارس في حلب العمال. 2010من حزب زعيم أوجالن، الله عبد ، هذا من الرغم وعلى

في " تشارك لن سوريا أن أشار ، سوريا عن إيجابي يزال ال ، حاليا المسجون الكردستاني. " الكردستاني العمال لحزب موالية أنباء وكالة نشرته بيان في ، األكراد إبادة مفهوم

التى ، الكردية القومية حيال قلقي من انطالقا تركيا مع جيدة بعالقات تحتفظ سورية . الكردية الذاتي الحكم منطقة أن خصوصا تخشى سوريا البلدين كال في تهديدا تشكل

. في اإلضطرابات اقتناع نفسها سوريا في األكراد على يؤثر قد العراق في الجديدةعام في القامشلي من سوريا شرق شمال الواقعة إتخاذ 2004المدينة الى دمشق

. مع ، سوريا في عرقية أقلية أكبر هم األكراد األكراد القوميين ضد أشد إجراءاتتشكيل 3مجتمعهم . 16ماليين الفدرالية بشدة تنتقد السورية الحكومة إن السكان من ٪

. وسوريا وايران لتركيا خالفا القوية المركزية العراقية الحكومة وتفضل ، العراق في. العراق شمال كردستان إقليم في قنصلية لديها ليس

حزب ( الحاكم حزب لتركيا الخارجية السياسة بسبب أيضا البلدين بين العالقات نمت وقدوالتنمية والتنمية ). AKPالعدالة العدالة حزب جاء أن منذ السوري التركي التقارب وبدأ

عام في السلطة إلى عام. 2002االسالمي في على 1999سابقا وقعت قد سوريا وكانت ، األمني للتعاون أضنة . معاهدة العدالة حزب ظل في التقارب من سنوات سبع تركيا مع

. على ذلك أسفر ولقد التركية السورية للعالقات كبير تعزيز نحو جلبت قد والتنمية . هذه خلقت وزاري مستوى على المشتركة واإلجتماعات وتركيا سوريا بين مرور تأشيرة

لم البلدين كال في ،األكراد سوريا في لألكراد بالنسبة إيجابية تغييرات الجيدة العالقات . الحدود عبر الزيارات لتأشيرات حاجة هناك 289تعد

تركيا- 3 فى السوريين الالجييين

من أكثر لمناهضة 19000فر للحكومه الوحشيه الحملة بدء منذ تركيا الى سورى . من أكثر اليوم يونيو في سوريا شمال بضرب في 7600االحتجاجات يعيشوا منهم

. حملتها تصعد األسد بشار الرئيس وحكمة التركية الحكومة ترعاها التي المخيماتكأنها يستقر أن يبدو هنا والالجئين ، الدولية اإلدانة من الرغم على سوريا في العنيفة

289 Wilgenburg,Wladimir van, Is Syria Cooperating Militarily with Turkey Against the PKK?, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=36863&tx_ttnews[backPid]=26&cHash=ce489b07b1 18/02/2012.

261

" , ، البيت إلى وسنذهب ، سالمة هناك كان اذا إن االجئيين احد أعرب حيث طويال تبقى ," كان اذا إال العوده يمكنهم ال إنهم اخرون يعرب و للموت؟ نذهب أن يجب لماذا ولكن

. ميت بشار

دام ما اإلنسانية المساعدات تقديم لمواصلة مستعدون إنهم تركيا فى المسؤولون يقول . عن يقل ال ما تركيا قضت قد ذلك إلى حاجة ستة 15هناك وصيانة إنشاء دوالر مليون

بانها التهامات وصف عن يمتنعون الذين المسؤولون ويقول للمدنيين، مخيمات " " ." ديارهم" الى سيعودون الذين الضيوف هي السوريين أن على يصرون وهم الالجئن

. مجراها سوريا في االنتفاضة تاخذ حين اخرى مرة

( منذ ( مستويتها ادنى الى نزلت و بشار السوريه الحكومه و تركيا بين العالقات توترت , : لحكومة, الصريح االنتقاد توجيها مع الالجئيين استيعاب فى تركيا دور بسبب سنوات

) حزب, السورى الوطنى المجلس من كال فى السوريه للمعارضه السماح مع االسد. ( ) تركيا) فى للتنظيم للحكومه مناهضه ميليشيا الحر السورى الجيش و سياسى

السفارة على بالهجوم للحكومة مؤيدة مجموعات قامت التوترعندما هذا إعتل لقد و . عضوية العربية الدول جامعة ،علقت نفسه اليوم ذلك في سوريا في التركية والقنصليات

وتنفيذ متابعة في الحكومة وفشل المدنيين ضد العنف إستمرار الى مشيره ، سوريةيوم على وافقت التي السالم .2خطة نوفمبر

أحد , ال سوريا فى العنف الصراعات عن بعيدا تركيا فى لالجئيين هادئا الجو كان بذلك والعوده احتماليه ولكن ، ديارهم إلى السوريين الالجئيين يعود متى اليقين وجه على يعرف

. الطويل المدى على طموح 290هو

: - االمريكيه السوريه العالقاتاألمريكية- – : السورية العالقات تاريخ عن خلفية

فى : 1944-1835 رسميا العالقات و, 1835بدأت حلب فى لقنصلها أمريكا بإرسالفى . السورى االستقالل بعد العثمانية لالمبراطورية تابعة كانت الوقت ذلك فى سوريا

عام 1941 فى و دمشق فى قنصلية المتحدة الواليات الواليات 1944أسست إعترفت ( لها ( سفير ودسورث جورج عينت و مستقلة كدولة بسوريا المتحدة

يونيو : 1991-1974 فى البلدين بين العالقات )1974عادت االرتباط ( فك اتفاق انجاز بعدالواليات . قبل من لالرهاب الراعية الدول قائمة على سوريا كانت إسرائيل و سوريا بين

عام القائمة بداية منذ و 1979المتحدة لجماعات المستمر دعمها و لرعايتها ذلك و وعام . فى العقوبات من للعديد تعرضت كما و ارهابية الواليات, 1986منظمات سحبت

محاولة على ردا جديدة إدارية عقوبات سوريا على وقعت و دمشق من سفيرها المتحدةعام لسوريا أخرى مرة األمريكى السفير عاد و اسرائيليية طائرة تفجير 1987سوريا

( و ( سوريا من نضال ابو منظمة كطردها اإلرهاب ضد االيجابية سوريا ألفعال فعل كرد . عامى فى أمريكى رهين عن االفراج فى مع 1991-1990المساعدة سوريا تعاونت

نهاية فى الطائف إتفاقية إبرام فى أيضا تعاونتا و الخليج حرب فى المتحدة الواليات . عام فى بلبنان االهلية الرئيس , 1991الحرب حضور على األسد حافظ الرئيس وافق

290 NewYork “http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/15/world/middleeast/refugees-from-syria-settle-in-for-long-wait-in-turkey.html?_r=1 “ 13/02/2012.

262

مع G.W.Bushاألمريكى المفاوضات حضور و االوسط الشرق فى للسالم مؤتمرإسرائيل .

فى : 2008-2003 للعراق األمريكى بالغزو ذلك و أخرى مرة العالقات و 2003توترتفى سوريا على اقتصادية عقوبات فرض أيضا إستتبعه العالقات 2004الذى إزدادت و

فى العالقت 2005سوءا تدهور و توتر يرجع و الحريرى لبنان وزراء رئيس بإغتيالالدائم لتدخلها كذلك و سوريا من حسين لصدام تابعة كانت عناصر طرد سوريا لرفض

سوريا . فى الفلسطينيين للقادة تأييدها و لدعمها ايضا و اللبنانية الشئون فى

أكتوبر وقعت, – 2008فى و السورية العراقية الحدود على عسكرية عملية هناك كانتو األمريكى الثقافى المركز بغلق السورية الحكومة فأمرت و عديدة سورية خسائر

. األمريكى اللغات 291مركز

االرهاب- :

جرائم بارتكاب متهمة هى و ديكتاتورية دولة أنها على لسوريا المتحدة الواليات تنظر. اآلن حتى و إرهابية جماعات تدعم كانت تاريخيا و االنسانية ضد

عام منذ مباشرة ارهابية عمليات فى سوريا تدخل الخبراء, 1986لم بعض يصنفها لذاسلبيا . دعما االرهاب تدعم بانها

االمم أبرمتها التى التحقيقات أن و األمريكية الخارجية لوزارة القطرى للتقرير وفقالوزارة ايضا وفقا و السوريين المسئولين بعض تتضمن الحريرى إغتيال فى المتحدة

مرور , فى تسهل و دبلوماسيا و سياسيا الله حزب تدعم سوريا إن الخارجيةالمتشددين الفلسطينين تدعم كما سوريا خالل من الله لحزب اإليرانية المساعدات

. اللوجستى الدعم لهم تقدم و باألسلحة اإلسالمين

عام الكردستانى 1980 – 1998منذ العمال حزب تدعم هى لدولة PKKو يسعى الذى . تركيا ضد لعملياته ككقاعدة سوريا يستغل و مستقلة كردية

السورية : االنتهاكات بعض سنتناول يلى فيما

1- : العراق فى األجانب وفقا المقاتلين يتحركون و يعتمدون جماعة هميقوموا ما كثيرا و صغيرة أعداد فى سوريا عبر يتسللون و لأليديولوجية

مقرهم . العراق فى الصارخة العنف أعمال بعض إثارة و إنتحارية بعملياتشمال دول بعض و ليبيا و السعودية مثل المتحدة للواليات حليفة دول من

. العنف أعمال معظم أن التقارير تشير تونس و المغرب و كالجزائر افريقياو العراق فى القاعدة مع يتوافقوا أيضا هم و بواستطهم تكون العراق فى

تلك وصلت قد و دخولهم تقطة العراق غرب فى السورية الحدود تعتبربين ما قمتها 292 .2007-2005الحركة

دمشق -2 فى االمريكية السفارة تفجير هناك : 2006محاوالت كانتبإحباطها السورية القوات قامت لكن و دمشق فى السفارة لتفجير محاوالتالسياسة إتهمت و التخقيقات نتائج تقدم لم و فقط ارهابى عمل إنه قالت و

. الحادث عن مسئولة إنه المتحدة الواليات الخارجية

291 United States department of State, “http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm” 16/02/2012. 292 Committee on Foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/syria/state-sponsor-syria/p9368” 19/02/2012.

263

-: االقتصادية العقوباتبسبب ذلك و الغاز تصدير لنقص نظرا العامة الميزانية و السورى اإلقتصاد يعانى

سيقل السوري االقتصاد أن الدولى النقد صندوق توقع و األمريكية العقوبات:2بنيبة للتالى% األمريكية العقوبات تقسيم يمكن و العام هذا

عام -1 اللبنانية السيادة و سوريا محاسبة قانون تمرير من ناتجة 2003عقوباتفى بوش وقع لسوريا األمريكية الصادرات يمنع على 2003ديسمبر 12الذى

برقم النواب مجلس من الصادر عدم 1828القانون حالة فى القانون يبرم وو للبنان احتاللها إنهاء و الدولية اإلرهابية الجماعات دعم عن سوريا توقف

تسهيل و دعم عن الكف و الشامل الدمار أسلحة تطوير عن التوقففى التنفيذ حيز دخل و العراق فى اإلرهابية حيث 2004مايو 11العمليات و

. المزدوج االستخدام ذات المواد و الذخائر حظر 293تم

المواطنين -2 تمنع فهى و الرئيس من التنفيذى القرار شكل تأخذ عقوباتذلك و االمريكى المالى للنظام الوصول السورية المؤسسات و السوريين

و القاعدة مع بالتعاون الشامل الدمار أسلحة إنتشار فى لمساهماتهماألمريكية . األصول تجميد ذلك أمثلة ومن العراق فى العنف مثيرى و طالبان

, " رجل " مخلوف رامى يعد و بشار الرئيس عم ابن مخلوف رامى المملوكةتل " " . سوريا فى المساهمين احد و قوى سورى أعمال

األمريكى -3 الوطنى القانون من ناتجة البنك Patriot Actعقوبات تخص هى وفىعام السورى القائمة , 2006التجارى الحسابات بقطع بوش الرئيس امر

. األموال غسل من المخاوف بسبب السورى التجارى البنك مع

الحالية :- العالقات

عام إيجاد , 2009منذ و سوريا مع العالقات اصالح المتحدة الواليات تحاول وفى السالم دعم و اإلقليمية التوترات من اإلقالل و المشتركة للمصالح مساحات

فى . مسئولين من لقاعات حول المجهودات تلك تدور األوسط الشرق ( السفير ( عودة و السورى الرئيس مع الرئيس التنفيذية السلطة و الكونجرس

." فورد " روبرت دمشق فى األمريكىو ايران مع سوريا تحالف هى البلدان عليها تتفق ال أن يمكن التى القضايا فمن

مساعدة على الحصول فى واشنطن ترغب كما و الله حزب و لحماس دعمهارفع مقابل العراق إستقرار و النووى برنامجها فى إيران على للتأثير سوريا

. لسوريا الجوالن العادة إسرائيل على الضغط و العقوباتأن , يؤمن المتحدة الواليات موقف كان السورية الثورة من األولى األسابيع فى

فى األحوال سوء مع لكن و شعبه لمطالب بفاعلية سيستجيب األسد بشارالمتحدة , الواليات موقف تغير و تبدل الحريات و الحقوق إنتهاك زيادة و سوريا

بقوة ساند و ايضا شجع كما السلطة عن بالتنحى األسد الرئيس ليطالب وو السوريين ضد األسد بشار شنها التى الحملة تدين األمن مجلس من توصية

أكتوبر و سبتمبر فى سوريا ضد االقتصادية العقوبات من .2011تزيد

293 Alfred B. Prados, Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues “http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/IB92075.pdf” 01/02/2012.

264

بين تتراوح كانت البلدين بين العالقات أن السابقة السطور فى المالحظ منو الوتيرة تلك العالقة أخذ فى الوؤثرة العوامل استنتاج يمكن و الهبوط و الصعود

من ( ) األوسط الشرق المنطقة فى الوضع ايضا و اسرائيل مع العالقة هى. تكتالت ة 294تحالفات

: الثوره مستقبلالسوريه للثوره المتوقعه السينريوهات

قيام- ) 1 ان إال سوريا فى الحكومة ضد التظاهرات بدء من عام حوالى مرور من بالرغم. واستراتيجية اخالقية تغيرات من جدا متوقعة مدنية حرب

المعارضة- وكذلك العربية الحكومات وبعض الغرب دول من الكثير فى المتوقع ومنعليهُ مسيطر انهار عليهُ اطلق ما االسداو بشار حكومة سقوط امكانية السورية

الى- يؤدى وما الوقت نفس فى النواحى كل من الضغط ازدياد ، تلك النظر لوجهة طبقاالبالد وخارج داخل ومؤيديها الحكومة انهيار

االعتبار فى االخذ يجب االنهيار 3ولكن ذلك تعطل ان يمكنها مشاكل

. أوال:- على سوريا أن روسيا وترى والنخبة الجيش على بالسيطرة تتمتع االسد مازالتضد المتحدة االمم فى بالتصويت الصين إليها وإنضمت عنها غنى ال استراتيجية خطأ

. االسد حكومة

التدعيم فى مهمة مهمة قنا من ذلك فى لما االسد لمنطقة إيران تدعيو اخرى ناحية منإسرائيل < > ضد مقاوتها ضمن الله حزب لجماعة طهران العمرانى

بالنسة: ثانيا- واالستراتيجية االخالقية الحدود تتجاوز لالنهيار المصاحب العنف إنالعلويين. بين تفرق التى الطائفية والصراعات السورى الشعب عند ناهيك للغرب

. لبنان فى التوترات يضاعف ،مما االقليات من وغيرهم

االستقرار: ثالثا- لعدم اخر عنصر االجئين حركات نتائج تضيف سوف ذلك جانب إلى. اإلنسانية لالزمة

اخرى ناحية ومن ، االسد وحكومة ، الله حزب ، إيران بين الخطر مثلث هناك االن لذلكالى سحبه ما فى االسد وعنف االمن مجلس فى والروسى الصينى التصويت نلوم

. خطر من 295المنطقة

وصول) 2 منع ومع سوريا في العنف تصاعد بسبب باالستياء أوباما إدارة شعور مع واألمن مجلس فى والصين روسيا قبل من السورية الحكومة ضد صرامة اكثر إجراءات

" من " االسد بشار السوري الرئيس لدفع الجهود مضاعفة على التصويت بتعطيلالسلطة.

294 BBC, "http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8519328.stm” 20/02/2012.295 New York times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/07/opinion/in-syria-we-need-to-bargain-with-the-devil.html?ref=syria” 09/02/2012.

265

, قريبه اهليه حرب قيام توقع االمن مجلس عن بعيدا سوريا فى الخبراء جعل الذى االمرمجلس قرار من يوم قبل والصين روسيا قبل من الفيتو لتجاوز أوباما إدارة سعت لذلك

, هيالرى دعت و سوريا في سياسية تسوية إلى للتوصل العربية الجامعة خطة دعم األمنعلى اللوم وضعت التى و األمن مجلس فى يحدث ما على النقض حق إلى كلينتون

ترفض " التي الدول هذه قائلة بلغاريا فى لها تصريح فى مباشر بشكل الصين و روسيافي الوحشي النظام حماية عن الكاملة المسؤولية تتحمل العربية الجامعة خطة دعم

لديهم" " األمن مجلس أن إلى العمل هذا كل بعد المؤسف من أنه واضافت دمشق)3 ".(2-13تصويت

عليه، " متفق قرار على نحصل لم اذا أن يقول تابلر جيه أندرو السورى الخبير ذكر كما ". االمم من قرار دون من الباردة الحرب خالل كان ما مثل كبير حد إلى الوضع سيكون

على الرهان قبل من بالوكالة حربا تبدأ وعالمية اقليمية قوى قد تابلر، حذر المتحدة، . ال األمن مجلس كان لو حتى لكن الوضع تفاقم وبالتالي سوريا، داخل المختلفة الفصائل

. به سيلتزم األسد نظام أن يضمن ما هناك ليس يقول تابلر قرارا، 296يصدر

لمنع جهودها زيادة إلى وعدت باالدارة اخرين ومسؤولين كلينتون السيدة مع حتى ولكنالمتظاهرين، على الخناق وتضييق إضافية أسلحة على الحصول من السورية الحكومة

. فعلى ذلك من أبعد إلى تضطر قد المتحدة الواليات إن سوريا فى الخبراء بعض وإقترح. السورية المعارضة تسليح على ضمنية موافقة تعطى إن تقدير أقل

. المسرح هذا تعيين أيضا يمكن ولكن أهلية حرب إلى تؤدي أن الخطوة هذه شأن ومنفي وحلفاؤها المتحدة الواليات مثل مضطربة، منطقة في المحتملة بالوكالة لحرب

من المدعومه وحكومتة األسد ضد السورية المعارضة في أخرى مرة والخليج أوروبا. وروسيا إيران

عسكريا دخوال توقع المسؤولون يرفض ليبيا فى حدث ما عكس على و : حيث, المتحدة اخر الواليات أن على اآلن حتى مصرة أوباما إدارة في المسؤولون كان

." " . ليبيا آخر نتوقع ال انظروا، سوريا في عسكريا تتدخل لن

" مجموعة " فى افريقيا شمال و األوسط الشرق برنامج مدير مالى روبرت ذكر لقد و : لتشمل المعارضه دائرة تتوسع سوف الشكل بهذا االسد استمر اذا أن الدوليه األزمات

وتركيا . وقطر السعودية العربية 297المملكة

ايضا) 3 المتوقع الحكومة من بين سوريا في المتصاعد القتال السيطرة نطاق عنفي و االسلحه من المزيد على الناس لحصول نتجه المتصاعد والعنف المتمردين وقواتحد إلى يشبه الوضع يكون سوف ثم عليه، متفق قرار على نحصل لم إذا المقبلة، األيام

. الباردة الحرب خالل عليه كانت كبير

296 Committee on foreign relations, “http://www.cfr.org/syria/security-council-showdown-syria/p27245” 24/02/2012.297 NewYork times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/06/world/middleeast/obama-administration-continues-push-for-change-in-syria.html?_r=1&ref=syria” 16/02/2012.

266

: الذين الجيش عن المنشقين هذه وبعض مجموعتين من األول المقام في تأتي أنها . لديك ثم الماضي الصيف منذ موجودة كانت والتي السورية، الحرة للجيش انضموا

المحليين السكان من ولكن حرة السوري الجيش أنفسهم على يطلقون ممن غيرهمحماية على يساعدون الذين المدني الدفاع وحدات جوهرها في وهي المسلحة هم الذين

. وانه للنظام الموالية القوات من أخرى عسكرية وجهود القناصة نيران من المتظاهرينالمناطق في سيما ال أنشطتها، نطاق في نما الذي المدني األخيرة المجموعة أن من

. اللبنانية السورية الحدود و لبنان من بالقرب الحدودية

. على قادرا كنت المجال هذا في ألن وذلك الحكومة سيطرة خارج هي المناطق هذهعلى قادرة الحرة السوري الجيش كان ألنه وأيضا لبنان، من الحدود عبر أسلحة تهريب

. األخرى الثقيلة والمدرعات الدبابات لتدمير األسلحة لتأمين األسلحة مستودعات مداهمة . . أجزاء من كثير في بسرعة يتدهور الوضع سيطرتها تأكيد على قادر غير النظام كان لقد

في ترسل أن عليها كان الذي النظام المسلحة كامل تمرد عمليا هناك وليس البالد، . قادر غير النظام أن يعني ال وهذا معها للتعامل الكاملة القوة في العسكرية المؤسسة . هي والعصيان اآلن منهم كل استعادت لم لكنها المناطق، تلك من بعض استعادة على

. للنظام بالنسبة سارا خبرا ليس وهذا وحلب، دمشق ضواحي في

" " لمجلس قرار أي تدعم لن موسكو أن الفروف سيرغي الروسي الخارجية وزير وأعلن . الخارجية وزيرة األثناء، هذه في سوريا في القيادة تغيير إلى يهدف الدولي االمن

" على " اإلجراءات بعض لحث األمن مجلس محادثات تحضر كلينتون هيالري االميركية . من مواجهة أن يبدو والبريطاني الفرنسي الخارجية وزراء مع جنب إلى جنبا سورية،

. , بالفعل بدأت تكن لم اذا الباردة الحرب القديم الطراز

حد إلى يشبه الوضع يكون سوف ثم عليه، متفق قرار على نحصل لم إذا الواقع في فإنه . فإنه السجن، في المتحدة لألمم لديك يكون عندما الباردة الحرب خالل عليه كانت كبيرأو المنطقة في القوى مختلف لديك حيث الوكيل الكفاح الى نصل ان جدا السهل من . من يكون أن ويمكن البالد داخل الفصائل بعض على يراهن العالمي الصعيد على حتى

. . قرار لدينا كان لو حتى ذلك تجنب الصعب من ولكن نسير أننا حيث

على أساسا ينص المغرب قبل من صياغته تمت الذي تعميمه يجري الذي القرار مشروعخالله في أشهر عدة مدى على سوريا في سلمي تحول لتحقيق العربية الجامعة خطة

. نظام بأن ضمان هناك ليس ولكن منصبه عن سيتنحى االسد بشار السوري الرئيس . كذلك، يكن لم األرجح على انها معه ستذهب المجلس، قبل من صدرت لو حتى األسد،

. الوضع نفس في يزال ال وكنا

في حقهم يستخدموا لم ألنهم جانبهم من كبير خطأ أنه على ليبيا ابقاء إلى مشيرا الروساالطلسي شمال حلف قوات إلى أدى الذي قرار إصدار من األمن مجلس لمنع النقض

. الروس على التصويت عن امتنعت القذافي معمر اإلطاحة على المتمردين مساعدةالواليات. أن يعتقدون ألنهم سوريا، في يسمحوا لن أنهم قالوا قد الروس ألن والصينيين

. تجعل التي األسباب من الكثير هناك القرار في الثغرات خالل من شاحنة قاد المتحدة . لديهم والروس الرئاسية انتخابات لديهم الحالي الوقت في العكس يكون قد روسيا . الواليات كانت اذا ما نرى ان الممكن ومن سوريا مع سنوات مدى على وثيقة عالقات

. المقبلة االيام في سوريا على االتفاق من نوع إلى التوصل على قادرة وروسيا المتحدة

267

. الراهن الوقت في جدا واعدة تبدو ال إنها

هذه بشأن اتفاق الى التوصل يمكن ال وروسيا المتحدة الواليات كانت إذا أنه يبدو. " السؤال " تحت يأتي سوف أوباما إدارة من ضبط إعادة سياسة وكلها المسألة،

. يرغب التي االمور بعض لتحديد محاولة من تتمكن قد النطاق واسعة آثار من له لما . ويدركون السورية، الحالة في ننظر ان ايضا الروس قد لتصويتهم المتاجرة في الروس

. تحقيق إلى وصلنا قد والعرب األتراك الذي الخاسر، الحصان على يراهنون 298أنهم

امتلكت اذا ان الخبراء بعض قول حسب على او سوريا فى االن الدائره البارده الحرباالسلحه لتطوير ايضا العربيه الدول تسعى ان المتوقع من النوويه االسلحه سعة ايران

الحصول, , فى إسرائيل رغبة عن بعيدا ذلك و فالمنطقه اسرائيل وجود مع خاصة النوويه. إيران بسبب النوويه 299األسلحه

على إسرائيل بذلك يشجع و سوريا صد كحائط يعتبر األمن مجلس أن إعتبروا من هناك و , , ما و النوويه لالسلحه إيران حياز حول للمجادله إسرائيل إستمرار مع إيران مهاجمة

. اإلسرائيلى الهجوم فرص من يزيد االمن مجلس يفعله

, اإليرانيه األزمه أمثلتها من إقليميه مشاكل لقيام رساله الدبلوماسيه الفوضى تلك ترسل. الدبلوماسيين الخبراء قال كما النوويه

أن إلسرائيل يمكن األسد، حكومة مع و المنطقة، في الصداقه جانب روسيا واتخاذالقوى حالة في ذاته السيناريو يتكرر أن المحتمل من أن مفادها نتيجة إلى يتوصل. ( إيران ( مع التفاوض أخرى مرة للمحاولة وكان روسيا ذلك في بما العالمية

على" إسرائيلية ضربة إحتمال من يزيد سورية مع التصرف على األمن مجلس عجزفي" متخصصة اآلن المتحدة األمم في سابق مسؤول وهو دويل، مايكل يقول كما ، إيران " . كانت وإذا العنف، يولد العنف نيويورك في كولومبيا جامعة في واألمنية الخارجية شؤون

تشهد قد إسرائيل أن اآلن المرجح من كل يبدو والتي أهلية، حرب الى سوريا المصارف." للتصرف إضافي كحافز أو كغطاء متزايد استقرار عدم

". " " وظيفي " غير هو األمن مجلس كان إذا ويضيف، ، تماما صحيح هذا واضاف

( من ( الفيتو النقض أصداء حيث واحدة منطقة سوى ليست إيران على إسرائيل حسابات . ظهرت شعر يكون أن المرجح من سوريا بشأن األمن مجلس لقرار والصين روسيا قبل

" للقاء " دمشق إلى الفروف سيرجي الروسي الخارجية وزير بارسال األثر تدرك روسيا." األسد " بشار الرئيس

" العنف " ينهي أن يريد األسد الرئيس ان الروسية االعالم لوسائل الفروف السيد وقالانتخابات وإجراء جديد دستور وضع ذلك في بما لإلصالح خطة قريبا وستقدم بالده في

السكان. ضد الحكومية القوات تشنها التي هجمات عن تقارير واصلت لكنها حرة. زيارته اختتم الفروف حتى لتحميل المحاصرة، حمص مدينة في سيما وال 300المدنيين،

298 Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/syria/security-council-showdown-syria/p27245 “ 20/02/2012.299 Independent “http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-new-cold-war-has-already-started--in-syria-7440620.html” 14/02/2012.

268

: تدعم لماذا سؤال اثارة يجب متوقعه سينريوهات من سبق ما على بناءاهناك؟؟ مصلحتها ما و سوريا الروس، روسيا المسؤولين كبار من اثنين ذهب فلقد

االستخبارات ومدير فرادكوف، وميخائيل الفروف سيرجي الروسي الخارجية وزير. دمشق إلى الخارجية،

. من بدال روسيا في المنفى له ونقدم السلطة من األسد بشار لدفع ليس مهمتهم وكانتجديد، دستور على إستفتاء في وتقدم المعارضة، مع الحوار عن الحديث كان ذلك،

. " جنبا " والوقوف جانبها، من روسيا، مهمة اإلستقرار لها استئناف العربية الدول وجامعةالسوري، للنظام رسمية إدانة ومنع الدولي، األمن مجلس في الصين شركة مع جنب إلى

. ضدها عقوبات أي أو عسكري، خارجي تدخل أي

. الحرب تفشل أن للمصالحة محاولة من بد ال اللعبة، في جدا متأخر وقت في المقبلة . وتركيا وأوروبا أمريكا أعطت قريبا تنتهي لن وأنها الواقع، في بدأت قد سوريا في األهلية

. اعترض األسد بالفعل الخليج ودول

" لدمشق " حان قد وفرادكوف الفروف فرصة لديه كانت وإذا الروسية الوساطة قد ولكنمن تمرين في المجيء في واستمروا الماضي، الخريف في حتى أو الماضي، الصيف

. وتمده التقليدي السوري الحليف باعتبارها روسيا لدور نظرا المكوكية الدبلوماسية . أنقرة من سالم كصانع موسكو نجاحا أكثر كان وربما بالسالح،

سوريا في روسيا موقف األحيان من كثير في سوريا ويفسر أهمية حيث منيربط. والذي األوسط، للشرق االستراتيجية قلب في سوريا وضع تم أنه صحيح لموسكو

. عقود أربعة نعود األسد لعائلة موسكو بين

. وطرطوس حليفا، ليست سوريا فيه مبالغا يكون أن ينبغي ذلك، ومع هذا، من شيء الفي األسلحة للتجارة اإلجمالية والقيمة بحرية، قاعدة من بدال البحرية اإلمداد مرفق هو

نحو بلغت الماضي العقد خالل سوريا مع دمشق 1.5روسيا يجعل الذي األمر دوالر، مليار. عميل أكبر سابع موسكو في

على العربية، الدول من وعدد الغرب مع خالفها ومصادر سوريا، من موسكو موقف لفهم. أوسع نظرة يأخذ أن المرء

حظر تصويت منطقة ليبيا على األمن مجلس في روسيا إمتنعت الماضي، العام في . للمدنيين حماية بأنه يوصف كان ما قريبا القرار لتمرير السماح وبالتالي الطيران،

الحكومة ضد الخارج في الناتو حلف حرب إلى تحولت بنغازي في مجزرة من األبرياءجنبا الديكتاتور وقتل القذافي بنظام اإلطاحة في المطاف نهاية في أدت والتي الليبية،

. اإلجراءات ذهبت التي المدنيين من االرجح وعدد أنصاره من العديد مع جنب إلىالحكومات يزعج أن يبدو ال المتحدة االمم قرار لشروط طريقة وراء للناتو العسكرية

الغربية.

. مجرد من أكثر هو ذلك، مع هذا، الثورات يمقت بل علنا، المحافظ هو الروسية الحكومة

300The Christian science moniter “http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Foreign-Policy/2012/0207/Why-UN-gridlock-on-Syria-could-encourage-Israel-to-attack-Iran” 13/02/2012.

269

- - . في يبحث فرادكوف مكتب أو الكرملين عندما عقائدية ذاتية مصالح لخدمة موقف. األسلمة إلى مباشرة يؤدي مما الديمقراطي التحول ويرون العربية، الصحوة

هو التاريخي الغرب قياسا أو 1848إذا أوروبا لهم 1989في ألن ،1917. روسيا في . أن إلى يشيرون وهم خصوصا ومصر تونس في األخيرة اإلنتخابات نتائج ويستشهدون

النظام أسلحة من الكثير مع الفوضى، من حالة تعيش ليبيا القذافي بعد ما مرحلة . سوريا في اإلنتفاضة أن يمكن نظرهم، وجهة من تافه أيدي إلى طريقها تجد السابق

الدول على للتأثير وإمكانات الطائفي العنف حيث من سوءا أكثر عواقب لها يكون. خاصة وإسرائيل لبنان للعراق، المجاورة

حروب في للتدخل محاوالت ولكن الكرملين، رأي في الكفاية، فيه بما سيئة هي الثورات. سوءا األمور أن إال يمكن ال المدني األخرى الدول

كان اذا فقط عسكريا ستتدخل أخرى غربية وقوى المتحدة الواليات إن يقدرون الروس . حالة هو ذلك، ومع سوريا، ليبيا في الحال هو كما أنفسهم، خسائر صفر الحفاظ يمكن

. على لغلبة كافيا يكون لن االستخبارات وتزويدها الحرة سوريا جيش وتسليح صعوبة أكثر . في يلوح والتركية العربية المشاركة مع الحرب نطاق توسيع واحتمال االسد قوات

األفق.

. يشتبهون الروس خطورة أكثر درامي عمل أول كانت إذا إال معنى الحرب لهذه يمكنالوحيد حليفها من طهران لسرقة ليس دمشق، على الغرب للضغط الحقيقي السبب بأن

. السورية المسألة في قطر، سيما ال الخليج، دول من النشاط هذا وراء المنطقة فياللدود المنافس السعودية، العربية المملكة في إقليمي نفوذ تصاعد ان موسكو وترى

. " " . األكثر هي ما دورا أيضا وتلعب طموحات الجديدة العثمانية تركيا المنطقة في ايرانالواليات في سحب إيران، تضرب قد إسرائيل أن هو ذلك، ومع تقريبا، الروس من قلقا

. العام هذا ما وقت في ايران مع كبيرة حرب إثارة وبالتالي المتحدة،

. اآلخرين سياسات مناقشة عندما اثنين أو نقطة لديها الروسية السياسات صانعي قد. بلدهم في وننظر لنعود ولكن، إليها، يحتاجون التي

. ومعنويا سياسيا سواء حد على المدمرة، األهلية الحرب يمر بلد إلى االسلحة تسليمعلى أن الواضح ومن مضللة، الغربية السياسات لو حتى وأوروبا، أميركا من كل مواجهة

. غير فقط ليس اسكت أن قطر تقول روسيا في نطاقا أوسع مصالح مع نقيض طرفي . علنا ويتشاجرون حكيم غير ولكن البد دبلوماسية، السعودية العربية والمملكة تركيا مع

. تجنبها من

خسر أن بعد أنه، البعض يقول وقد هذا، وغيره 4إلى الليبي التسلح في دوالر ملياراتالمحتملة، السورية التجارة في مساو مبلغ خسارة احتمال تواجه والتي العقود من

. في إذا، المؤسف من وسيكون متشدد موقف اتخاذ سوى آخر خيار لديها ليس وموسكو. السائد الجدل هذا المطاف، 301نهاية

301 New York times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/opinion/why-russia-supports-assad.html” 27/02/2012.

270

.... أخيرا " و القول " يمكن أنه الثالثاء يوم كلينتون هيالري االمريكية الخارجية وزيرة قالتحرب مجرم االسد بشار السوري الرئيس .أن

مبررات " تقدم قد االعضاء أحد سؤال على ردا الشيوخ بمجلس للجنة جلسة في وقالتالفئة لهذه ينتسب أنه الى ."تشير

الزعماء " القناع المتاحة الخيارات من يحد االوصاف تلك مثل استخدام أن أضافت لكنهاالسلطة عن ."بالتنحي

في السلطة من للخروج طريقه في االسد أن تعتقد كانت اذا عما ايضا كلينتون وسئلت . االمر " اخر احدد كيف هو اعرفه ال ما لكن ذلك اعتقد فقالت االمر ."اخر

" بحضور " تونس في عقد الذي سوريا اصدقاء مؤتمر الماضي االسبوع كلينتون وحضرتاالنتفاضة على حملته في المدنيين قتل وقف الى االسد ودعا وعربية غربية دول

لحكمه .المناهضة

االحتجاجات قمع ادى حيث سوريا في القتل وقف عن عجزه اثبت الخارجي العالم لكنمسلح تمرد إلى االمر بادئ في سلمية كانت .التي

بشأن التحقيق يجري قد سوريين مسؤولين بأسماء قائمة المتحدة باالمم لجنة وتضعالسلمية لالحتجاجات الوحشي القمع إطار في اإلنسانية ضد جرائم 302.ارتكابهم

الصاعد الشرق شمس ......... الهند : الثانى الموضوعسواء العالم دول مختلف فى االوقات هذه فى صاعده الجديده القوى من الكثير هناك

, الواليات عن خاصه هنا نتحدث و الكبرى القوى يجعل مما سياسيا ام اقتصادا كان , تلك مع العالقات فى النظر تعيد يجعلها القوى ميزان فى التغير ذلك و االمريكيه المتحده

المجتمع توازن على خطرا تشكل كانت اذا ما لردعها المناسبه االجراءات إتخاذ و الدولبين, السائره العالقه كانت ولكن الهند إقتصاديا الصاعده الدول تلك من كانت و الدولى

تنظر االمريكيه المتحده الواليات جعل مما جيدا شكال إتخذت و تعاونيه عالقه الدولتيناخرى على للضغط او اسيا ووسط جنوب لمنطقه التوازن كعاده كوسيله إليها

الهند عن جغرافية نبذة

302 Reuters “http://ara.reuters.com/article/topNews/idARACAE81R0KV20120228” 24/02/2012.

271

, التضاريس , من متنوعة مجموعة على يحتوى حيث الجعرافى بتنوعه يتميز الهند موقعكان األنقسام وقبل الجغرافية المساحة حيث من بلد أكبر سابع كونها ذلك فى ساعد

مساحتها , تبلغ حيث ضخامتها مدى يوضح مما الهندية القارة شبه عليها 3,287,263يطلق) , نبيال دولة من كال الشمال من الهند يحد حاليا مربع (Nepalكم بوتان), و), Bhutanودولة

) الصين دولة مع حدودية نقاط يعتبروا الهيمااليا جبال الغرب), Chinaبأضافة من الهند ويحد) باكستان (Pakistanدولة بنغالديش) دولة الشرق الشرقية) ( Bangladeshومن باكستان

دولة) - – الغرب من الهند ويحد واحد لواء تحت الهند مع متحدتين كانتا سبق فيما سابقا(Burmaبورما( البنغال) النكا), (Bay of Bengalوخليج سرى جزيرة الجنوب ومن

Srilanka) , العرب) بحر الى باألضافة الهندى الغربى) Arabian Seaوالمحيط الجنوب ,303فى" " أرض " بالفارسية تعنى التى هندوستان من مشتق الهند اسم ان بالذكر جدير

الهندوس" .

الهند فى األستعماراألوربي تاريخ . البريطانى األستعمار خاصة

الطبيعية الثروات وتنوع الجغرافى التنوع جلب كما , األوروبى األستعمار أيضا جلب كما الهند ألهل الثراء

, فى حيث طوال سنين بعد فيما الهند منه عانت التى" (1498304عام داغاما , " فاسكو البرتغالى الرحالة Vجاء

asco da Gama ( الدين ولنشر التوابل عن بحثا الهند إلى, الهند , على البرتغالية السيطرة معه وجلب المسيحى

جوا ( جيب من أتخذت للسيادة ) Gaoالتى كمركزاأربع عن تزيد لمدة أستمرت والتجارية السياسية

عام, فى ثم تأسيس 1600قرون الى األوروبية الدول بين األقتصادى التنافس ادىالشرقية للهند المتحدة الشركة و أنجلترا فى الشرقية الهند شركة مثل التجارية الشركات

عام تأسيست التى هولندا لتجارة , 1602فى البرتغاليين أحتكار كسر منهما الهدف وكان , تجارة تأسيس من سواء حد على الشركتان تمكنتا ذلك ظل فى الهند فى التوابل

بيهم , الهنود الحكام ترحيب ذلك فى ساعدهم الهندى الساحل طوال على المستودعاتعام حدث ما مثل البرتغاليين من للتخلص " 1619كفرصة لهم " جهانجير سمح عندما

, تعامال أكثر األنجليزية الشركة وكالء أصبح ان على غوجارات والية أراضى فى بالتجارةخاصة و األوربين بقية عن ميزة لهم أعطى مما الهنود ومع الهندية واللغات للعادات وألفا

عام فى حاولوا الذين مصلحة 1664الفرنسيون تأسيس األوروبيين لمنافسيهم كمحاكة , عام , فى ثم بالفشل منيت محاولتهم أن على الهند فى فرنسية أعطى,1717تجارية

سيار ( فاروق المغولى ب ) Farrukh Siyarاألمبراطور تقدر منحة قرب 38البريطانيين قريةحكم) - Calcuttaكلكتا ( تحت تقع الهندية القارة شبه كانت حيث الغرب وفى الجنوب فى

الدولية - التجارة أستمرار فى أهميتهم بمدى وأعتراف كتقدير الوقت لك فى المغول , والنحاس والفضة الذهب معهم البريطانيون جلب حيث البنغالى األقتصاد على وتأثيرها

, وايضا , المغولى األيرادات نظام سير سهولة على ساعد مما المعامالت تكاليف لدفعتمكن , المنحة لتلك وكنتيجة المحليين والتجار الحرفيين على تعود التى الفوائد زيادة

, تمكن وقد والجنائية المدنية بقوانيهم بهم الخاصة المناطق إدارة من البريطانيون , ( زيادة ( إلى ذلك ويرجع فرنسا و هولندا وهما الهند فى منافسيهم هزيمة من البريطانيون

303Central intelligence agency “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html” 15/02/2012.304 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/15.htm” 15/11/2011.

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, وزيادة الهند فى والهولندية الفرنسية بالجاليات مقارنة الهند فى البريطانيين أعدادتلك , , المصانع حولها تتنشر كبومباى هامة مناطق فى أنتشارهم وأيضا السكانية كثافتهم

وأيضا , الرئاسيات أو البريطانية األدارية للمناطق مراكز بعد فيما اصبحت المناطق - , بيها يقصد التى والرمزى الفعلى التفوق إلى باألضافة نجد و البريطانى السياسى التفوق

معهم الهنود تعاون إلى أدت التى األجتماعية والممارسات الثقافية البريطانية القيمسبيوز, ( بأسم تعرف قوات استخدمت البريطانية الشركة أن أيضا ونالحظ ) ,sepoysخاصة

تجارتها , , لحماية وذلك كجنود الهنود أمرتها تحت يعمل مدربة بريطانية قوات وهىتفوق , أن على األقليمية سلطتهم تثبيت الى المحليين الحكام سعى ذلك على ساعدهم

الهند , فى األخرى األوربية الجاليات من مواجهات بدون يكن لم الهند فى البريطانيونلوضع, الشركتيين كلتا لرغبة كنتيجة بينهما مفتوحة مواجهه قامت حيث كالفرنسيين

, عام من أستمر طويل صراع بعد ولكن كحاكم الخاص عام 1744مرشحهم ثم, 1763الىبدعم , و السلطة فى العليا اليد على البريطانيون وحصل باريس فى السالم توقيع تم

, معركة كانت ثم الهند فى المغول خالفة على الصراع فى األخرين مواجهه فى الفرنسيينالساخطيين 1757عام Plasseyبالسى الهنود بمساعدة المغول البريطانيون فيها هزم التى

, بوكسار معركة فى ذلك تكرر كما المغول حكم لذلك , 1765عام Baksarعلى كنتيجة ( وبيها ( البنغال على األدارة حقوق للشركة عالم شاه المغولى األمبراطور أعطى

البنغال , على سيادة ذات قوة الشركة من جعلت المنحة تلك الوجود, 305وأوريسا تغلل ثممشروعات أقامة و التبشرية والبعثات األراضى ضم و الغزو خالل من الهند فى البريطانى

التعليم وسياسات الحديدية والسكك التلغراف مثل والموصالت لإلتصال حيوية , استغالل وأخيرا الداخلى األنقسام زيادة إلى باألساس تهدف كانت التى والممارسة

تعدد , نالحظ الصدد ذلك وفى الهندية القارة شبه فى المغول حكم ضد الهندى التمردالتوسعية الخارجية التهديدات من ممتالكاتهم وحماية واألمن التجارة من دوافعهم

السلطة انتقلت و الداخلى األستقرار فى الرغبة وأخيرا الوطنية صناعتهم على والحفاظعام بريطانية سلطة الى تجارية شركة حكم و سلطة مجرد شبه 1858من وأعتبرت

. الشمس عنها تغيب ال التى البريطانية األمبراطورية ممتلكات من الهند جزيرة

األستقالية الحركات , تجاه البريطانى الهندى اإلستياء تصاعد حيث الهنود الجنود ثورة فى البداية كانت

سببين هما التمردية الحركة تلك أثار ما ولكن واإلجتماعية اإلقتصادية السياسياتالعقيدة : تالخف حيوانات دهون من لخراطيش البريطانية القوات إستخدام أساسيين

, الجيش فى المسلميين الجنود ميل الثانى والسبب السواء على والهندوسية األسالميةفى- , الهنود الجنود تمرد إلى أدى مما األسالميين المغول حكم إلى الهندى البريطانى

فيها , ‘ 1857عام قتل ومعارك مناوشات بعد قمعها فى نجحوا البريطانيون ولكنفى الجنود المتمردون استسلم حتى الجانبين من فر 1858مايو 21الكثيرون من ومنهم

, ‘ , األستقالية الحركات من سلسلة فى البداية هى تلك التمرد حركة إن يذكر و نبيال الىالسياسي الوعي نمو الفترة تلك شهدت الهندي الجندي ثورة تلت التي العقود فى حيثفى, يفكروا بدأوا الذين واإلقليمية الوطنية المستويات على الهندية القيادة وبروز

, " تهيمن " بدأت حيث والطائفة واللغة الدين فى األختالف رغم أمة بأعتبارهم أنفسهمأمام الفرص وقلة البريطاني االستعمار أنشأها التي األقتصادية الشكوى خطابتهم على

الهند فى البريطانيون مقابل فى .306الهنود

305 Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/india/16.htm” 17/11/2011 306 History of india “http://www.indohistory.com/sepoy_mutiny.html” 27/02/2012

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عام في العامية الصحافة قانون إقرار مثل أحداث الحد 1878أدت تخفيض عن فضال ، عام في المدنية الخدمة المتحانات للسن من 1876األدنى المعارضة من موجة في

التي الصغيرة السياسية األحزاب من عدد تشكيل فتم المتوسطة الطبقة من الهنود , تصاعد البريطانيون يتفادى ولكى ومسيرات إحتجاجات لتنظيم الشوارع في خرجت

قرر الهنود، الجنود ثورة فى حصل كما األحداثحيث المحليين للسكان متنفسا لتوفير البريطاني

, القائد قام لذلك السياسية مشاكلهم مناقشة يمكنهمالبرمان موافقة على الحصول بعد هيوم البريطانى

العمل وبدأ الهنود المحليين القادة بأستشارة البريطانىفى , تشكلت التى هندى سياسى تنظيم أنشاء أجل من

"1885عام الوطنى " الهندى المؤتمر حزب بأسم وتعرفنفس من ديسمبر فى بومباى فى مؤتمر عقد تم حيث

بانيرجى , ترأسها التى المؤتمر من األولى الجلسة وتعتبر وأنتخب W.C.Bonnerjeeالعام, , , البريطانية للحكومة كمؤيد الحزب تصرف بدء ذى بادئ للمنظمة رئيس أول أيضا

, والقضاء : الهنود جميع تعاون على للحصول السعى هى مبكر وقت فى أهدافها وكانت, , وطنية وحدة لتشكيل ومحاولة والطائفة والعرق العقيدة فى التحيز مفاهيم على

, المناصب حصة من المزيد وإعطاء البالد فى األجتماعية المشاكل حل على والعمل ,,,, المؤتمر حزب غير الوقت مرور مع ولكن اإلدارية الشؤون فى المحليين للمواطنين

البريطانية للحكومة المعارضة أحزاب أكبر من وأصبح موقفه .307الوطنى عام البداية الذى 1917كانت الحزب فى والهندوس المسلمين بين الخالف بعد وخاصة

تقسيم حادثة هو القومية اتجه نتج الذى واألهم األسالمى الرابطة حزب تأسيس عنه نتجعام سياسة , 1905البنغال تتبع جعلها مما األولى العالمية الحرب بريطانيا دخلت حيث

" واستجابة" ، خاللها الهند لدعم تقديرا و الحرب انتهاء بعد و الهنود مع والجزرة العصا . في متجددة قومية "- –1917لمطالب الهند " لشؤون الدولة وزير مونتاجو إدوين أدلى ،

ذات ستكون الهند في البريطانية السياسة إن البرلمان في تاريخي بإعالن يعتبر بماكل في الهنود من متزايدا ارتباطا

والتطوير االدارة فروع من فرعثم الحكامة لمؤسسات التدريجي

عام الحق وقت أدخلت 1919فىالذى ، لإلدارة المزدوج الوضع مبدأ

المسؤولين المشرعين ينتخبمع السلطة ويتاقسم الهنديحدثت , كما المعيين البريطانيينعلى الحقيقية التغييرات بعض

الزراعة مثل الوزارات مستوى ، والصحة ، المحلي والحكم

األكثر , الوزارات أن حين في ، الهنود الى تسليمها تم حيث العامة واألشغال ، والتعليم. , البريطانيين للمسؤولين كانت والنظام والقانون والضرائب التمويل، مثل حساسية

او روليت قوانين تسمى القوانين من بمجوعة اإلصالحات تلك قوضت ,Rowlattلكن , الناشيطين , وإعتقال الصحافة أسكات على ينص حيث العرفية األحكام مع تتشابه التى

جريمة , فى بهم المشتبه األفراد من أى أعتقال و محاكمة دون من السياسيين , , بعد فيما عرف ذلك قضائى إذن بدون التفتيش حق ايضا قضائى أمر دون التحريض

" وقف , " اى السلمى باألعتصام كرمشاند غاندى المهاتما نادى لذلك السوداء بالقوانيين307 History of india “http://www.indohistory.com/first_meeting_of_indian_national_congress.html” 27/02/2012

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فى , الشعبى األستياء تزايد أن على الوطنى الصعيد على مدينة 1919أبريل 13العمل فى , قربية مسافة على النار بأطالق يأمر البريطانى الجيش جعل البنجاب بوالية امريتسار

فى - أجتمعوا قد كانوا ورجال ونساء أطفال من العزل من حشد فى عشوائى بشكلباغ ( القوانيين ) Jallianwala Baghجاالنوال على احتجاجهم وتقديم السلمى لألحتفال

الهندية الحكومة قبل من اإلضطهاد ضد سلميا احتجاجهم لتقديم وأيضا السوداءالحكام , من الالإنسانية األعمال أكثر من واحدة باغ جاالنوال مذبحة وتعتبر البريطانية

المذبحة تلك فى مات حيث الهند في النساء 379البريطانيين من أغلبهم المواطنيين منوأصابة .1500308واألطفال األقل على

: الهند إستقالل و غاندى

عام (1924فى غاندى المهاتما الوطنى) Mahatma Gandhiتولى المؤتمر حزب قيادةأجل, من الكفاح حركة أصبحت التى ذلك قبل الالعنف لفلسفة البداية وكانت الهندى

على, الهند حصول ألجل انه غاندى يرى حيث األستقاللحيث , السلمى اإلعتصام سياسة أتباع من البد إستقاللها

النضال و ناحية من األستعمار مواجهة على العام عمله ركزبشكل , إهتم كما أخرى ناحية من األجتماعى الظلم ضد

قرر , وقد والمنبوذين والعمال الفالحيين بمشكالت خاصبعد وخاصة روليت قوانين ضد الهند فى بجولة يقوم أن

عام فى جوالنوالباغ نفس , 1920مذبحة فى السلمى اإلعتصام إلى للدعوة وذلكالهندية , الواليات وإتحدت جماهيرية حركة الوطنى الهندى المؤتمر حزب أصبح العام

عام , أعتقاله إلى البريطانية القوات دفع مما غاندى راية ذلك, 1924حتى, 1922تحتالطعام عن إمتنع قد غاندى المهاتما أطلقت 21ألن لذلك البريطانية السجون فى يوما

, المجالس فى المنبوذين تمثيل على معه إتفقت بعدما سراحه البريطانية القواتالناس وعقول قلوب إلى وصل كما الهندية السياسة في شعبيته إرتفعت وبذلك

الطوائف جميع من له الدعم وكسب ، العاديينينفصالن . ال والحرية األجتماعى التقدم بأن يؤمن وكان جميعها الشعبية والفئات

عام للهند, ,3091925فى رسمية كلغة الهندية اللغة الوطنى الهندى المؤتمر حزب إعتمدفى دستورية إصالحات تقترح التى سيمون لجنة عن اإلعالن تم العام نفس فى ثمعام , فى البريطانية البضائع ومقاطعة سيمون لجنة مقاطعة قرار ولكن ,1928الهند

تم , وقد الهند دستور صياغة ألجل األحزاب لجميع مؤتمر عقد إلى السماح إلى ادىفى , األسالمية الشريحة ماعدا المختلفة الهندية والشرائح األحزاب جميع من قبوله

وفيه 1929عام الهند فى البريطانى الحاكم وأيرون غاندى بين المحادثات بدأتعام , فى ثم للهند كاملة بأستقاللية غاندى العصيان 1930يطالب إلى الدعوة تم

عام , فى ثم نفس 1930المدنى وفى المدنى للعصيان غاندى مسيرة إلى الدعوة تمغير , هيئة اللجنة ان الحزب أعلن لذلك فعل كرد المؤتمر حزب قادة إعتقال تم العام

308 Amritsar massacre “http://www.amritsar.com/Jallian%20Wala%20Bagh.shtml” 27/02/2012.309 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/20.htm” 10/12/2012.

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, , فى ثم باإلستقالل الهند بحق وطالب المستديرة المائدة مؤتمر وعارض مشروعةحيث , 1931عام الملح إستخراج تحظر كانت التى البريطانية القوانيين غاندى تحدى

, السلطات اوقع مما هناك من الملح إلستخراج البحر إلى بها توجه شعبية مسيرة قادبأسم , تعرف معاهدة الى الطرفان توصل بعدما ذلك أنهى ولكنه مازق فى البريطانية

, إلى – الحزب دعوة تم و الحزب قادة سراح أطالق تم ثم أيروي غاندى معاهدةحزب , عن نيابة للتفاوض مخول غاندى أعتبار تم الهند مستقبل لمناقشة مدوالت

.المؤتمر

عام فى القوات 1932على جانب من العنف سياسة وإستمرار غاندى أعتقال تمالمنبوذة , , األجتماعية للطبقات مقاعد يضمن الذى بونا إتفاق تم حتى البريطانية

لمدة الطعام عن إمتنع قد غاندى أن بالذكر عام 21جدير بعام, 1933يوما بعدها ثمسياسة , لجعل الهندى الدستور تعديل بعد وذلك المؤتمر حزب من غاندى إنسحب

منها , يعانى كان التى اإلقتصادية للمشكالت تفرغ و األساسية العقائد من الالعنف , عام السياسية الحياة الى عاد وولكنه الهندى مجددا 1941الريف بالعصيان نادى حيث

تنال أن دون المحور دول لجيوش محاربة دولة الهند إن بريطانيا إعالن على إحتجاجامع, المصالحة البريطانية السلطات حاولت المحدق اليابانى الخطر وازاء أستقاللها

األزمة , أحتواء و الوضع تهدئة أمل على كريس بعثة فأرسلت الهندية األستقالل حركةعام , فى و ضد   1943السياسية شاملة حرب فى الهند دخول فكرة لغاندى فخطر

الشهيرة , بجملته البريطانيين فخاطب ذلك بعد أستقاللها نيل أمل على المحور دول " فشنت" البريطانية السلطات يعجب لم الخطاب هذا لكن ، أسياد وأنتم الهند اتركوا

حيث ضحاياه من نفسه غاندي كان العنيف القمع من ألوانا ومارست إعتقاالت حملةعام في إال عنه يفرج ولم السجن قضبان خلف معتقال , 1944ظل بانتهاء ثم نهرو ومعه

عام 1944عام من 1945وبداية المخاوف وتزايدت االستقالل من الهند اقتربت , األمر والهندوس المسلمين بين دولتين إلى تقسيمها إلى الهادفة االنفصالية الدعوات

المتعصبيين بعض يد على بعد فيما إغتياله الى وادى بشدة غاندى رفضه الذىفى عام 30الهندوس .1948يناير

يوم فى النهاية بداية نتجت , 1946أغسطس 16كانت طائفية شغب أعمال حدث حيث , الهند تقسيم األفضل من انه وبدأ القارة شبه شمال فى مروعة طائفية مذابح عنها

, يوم وفى محتملة أهلية حرب عن العام, 1947يونيو 3كبديل البريطانى الحاكم أعلنمونتيانن " لويس الهند قرار" Louis Monttaenعلى عن

الهند دولتى إلى الهندية البريطانية اإلمبراطورية لتقسيمللموافقة, البريطانى البرلمان على عرضه وسيتم وباكستانفى , للهند األستقالل منح على البرلمان وافق ثم عليه

الهند " 1947أغسطس14 تحيا صيحات من" JAI HINDمع . الهند أنحاء جميع

: الهند- فى الحكم نظامال القرن بدء 20في تم الوطني الصعيد على االستقالل  ، أجل من والذي الكفاح

الوطني  أطلقه الهند .  مؤتمر الهندي الزعيم قاد السياسية المنظمات من المهاتما وغيرهللقيام  غاندي وطنية حمالت في الناس من المدني  الماليين عنيف  بالعصيان وفي .الغير

الوقت 1947أغسطس 15 في ولكنها البريطاني، الحكم من إستقاللها على الهند حصلت ، تم اطلق  تقسيم نفسه منفصلة والية لتكوين المسلمة األغلبية مناطق

276

وأصبح 1950يناير 26وفي  .باكستان عليها جمهورية الهند أصبحت حيز  الدستور  ، الجديدمن  التنفيذ. تحديات االستقالل منذ الهند الديني  واجهت و واإلرهاب ، والطبقية، التعصب

والية في وخصوصا المحلية االنقسمات وكشمير  متمردي الهند و جامو لم. شمال الهندبحل اإلقليمي  تقم عام  النزاع في تصاعد والذي الصين، وبين حرب 1962بينها إلىوالهند  بين حروب الصين إلي أدى الذي األمر وباكستان، الهند. 1999و 1971 ،1965 ،1947 ،

المؤسسين األعضاء أحد المتحدة  هي )  لألمم و( ، البريطانية االنحياز كالهند عدم في. حركةالهند 1974عام أجرت نووية  ، األرض،  تجربة تجارب  تحت عام  وخمس وجعل 1998في ،

الهند من نووية  ذلك كبيرة  حدثت .دولة اقتصادية عام  إصالحات من حولت 1991ابتداءإلى العالم  الهند في نموا االقتصادات أسرع من الصعيد واحدة على نفوذها من زائدا ،

310العالمي.

االستقالل التمرد وحركات واإلرهاب الديني العنف من الهند تحديات واجهت اإلستقالل، منذ

،1990s منذ. الهند شرق وشمال وكشمير جامو والية في وخاصة اإلقليمية، االنفصالية لم التي اإلقليمية والنزاعات الهند. الهندية المدن من العديد اإلرهابية الهجمات أثرت الصينية الحرب في تصاعدت ،1962 عام في والتي، الشعبية، الصين جمهورية مع تحل

.1999 و 1965 ،1971 ،1947 في حروب إلى أدى مما باكستان، ومع الهندية،

،1974 في األولى النووية تجربتها أجرت أن وبعد نووية، بأسلحة مسلحة دولة هي الهند السياسات الهند تليها ،1980s إلى 1950s من 1998 عام في أخرى تجارب خمس تلتها

النطاق، واسعة تنظيم طريق عن االقتصاد باالصفاد مكبال كان. مستوحاة االشتراكية .البطيء االقتصادي والنمو الفساد تفشي إلى يؤدي مما العامة، والملكية والحمائية

أسرع من واحدة إلى الهند حولت كبيرة اقتصادية وإصالحات ،1991 من ابتداء. عالمي نفوذ لها وزيادة العالم، في نموا االقتصادات

الدستورالهند  إن دخل دستور والذي شموال، العالم في المستقلة الدساتير وأكثر أطول من هو ،

في التنفيذ ذات  مقدمة .1950يناير 26حيز دولة باعتبارها الهند تعرف ،سيادة الدستورالهند  .ديموقراطيةو علمانيةو اشتراكية جمهورية وإنها مجلسين تمتلك

بنظام  برلمانيين تشريعيين الحكومة.  وستمنستر يعملوا شكل يوصف كان البرلماني " اضعف، " وواليات قوي مركز وجود مع االتحادي شبة بال بصورة  [25]عادة نما ولكن

عام اواخر منذ فيدراليا واالقتصادية 1990متزايدة السياسية للتغيرات كنتيجة.311واالجتماعية

310 John Farndon. (1997). Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited.311 Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly19 (3): 411–434.

277

الدولة رئيسالهند الدولة  هو رئيس قبل  رئيس من مباشرة غير بطريقة المجمع ينتخب

. االنتخابي سنوات خمس الوزراء لمدة الحكومة  هو رئيس معظم رئيس ويمارس ، . التنفيذية الجمهورية  الصالحيات رئيس قبل من القانون ] ويعين بحكم الوزراء رئيس

من سياسي  أو حزب يدعم . تخالف النواب مجلس في المقاعد غالبية وتتألف يضمو الرئيس، نائب الرئيس، من التنفيذية الوزراء السلطة يعمل  المجلس( مجلس الذي

. ( مجلس من أي في عضوا يكون أن يجب وزير منصب يحمل وزير أي ء له تنفيذية كلجنةالسلطة. إلى التنفيذية السلطة تخضع الهندي، البرلماني النظام في أو البرلمان

المجلس نواب أمام مباشرا مسئوال يكون حيث ومجلسه الوزراء رئيس مع التشريعية312البرلماني.

التشريعية السلطةمجلسيين هي الهند في التشريعية الشيوخ  برلمانيين السلطة مجلس من ويتكونوا

ويسمي  Rajya Sabha ويسمي النواب ). Lok Sabha ومجلس الشعب( مجلس مجلسRajya Sabha من وتتكون دائمة هيئة سنوات 245هو ست لمدة يعلمون عضو

و  متعاقبة. الوالية من مباشرة غير بطريقة معظمهم اإلقليمين ينتخب طبقا المشرعيين . انتخاب مباشرة يتم الوالية في السكان عدد من 543لنسبة بمجلس 545عضوا عضوا

Lok Sabha يمثلوا لكي الشعبي التصويت طريق االنتخابية  عن لمدة  الدوائر المستقلةسنوات المجتمع  .خمس من األخران العضوان انتخاب هندي  ويتم قبل  األنجلو من

. كاف نحو علي ممثال يكن لم المجتمع ان الرئيس رأي لو 313الرئيس،

القضائية السلطةمن يتكون متكاملة، قضائية مستويات ثالث لديها المحكمة الهند

الهند  ويرأسها الدستورية في الدستورية المحكمة وعشرون رئيس وواحد محكمة ،. عليا االبتدائية المحاكم من كبير اختصاص  وعدد الدستورية أصلي وللمحكمة

األساسية المتعلقة  بالقضايا علي بالحقوق االستئناف والمركز، الواليات بين النزاعات ، . العليا قضائيا  وهي المحاكم قوانين  ،مستقلة وتعارض قوانين لتصدر القوة وتملك ،

. الدستور مع تتعارض التي والوالية هو  النقابة للدستور كمفسر المطلق الدور أن كما. العليا المحكمة مهام 314أهم

االحزاب. العالم في السكان عدد حيث من األكبر الديمقراطية الدولة هي لمعظم  الهند وبالنسبة

يقودها كان االتحادية والحكومة االستقالل، بعد ما الهندي  فترة الوطني تم .المؤتمرالوطني المؤتمر فيهم بما الوطنية األحزاب من العديد قبل من السياسة علي السيطرة

حزب )و Bharatiya Janata الهندي، الماركسي ( االشتراكي الهند إقليمية حزب واحزاب

312 - Election of President. The Constitution Of India. 313 The parliament of india “www.parliamentofindia.gov.in.” 2011-11-28.314  Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court".Constitutional Government in India (2nd ed.). S. Chand.

278

عام. منذ عام 1950مختلفة الوطني 1990إلى والمؤتمر قصيرتين، فترتين عدا فيما ، . بين السلطة خارج الهندي الوطني المؤتمر وكان البرلمان في بأغلبية تمتع الهندي

فاز 1980و 1977عامي عندما جاناتا  ، العام  حزب الرأي سخط بسبب االنتخابات فيالطوارئ  بشأن انذاك  حالة الوزراء رئيس أعلنها غاندي " التي عام. " انديرا ،1989فيائتالف الوطنية  قام دال " بقيادة الجبهة ائتالف  "جاناتا مع اليسارية  تحالفا بالفوز الجبهة

. فقط عامين لمدة السلطة في البقاء من تمكن ولكن االنتخابات انتخابات  في أن وحيثالهندي 1991 الوطني المؤتمر شكل أغلبية، سياسي حزب ألي تقدم حكومة لمالوزراء أقلية رئيس راو " برئاسة سنوات  "ناراسيمها الخمس مدة استكمال من وتمكنت

. بها 315الخاصة

االنتخاباتمن عدة 1998الي 1996السنوات مع االتحادية الحكومة في اضطراب فترة كانت

. في قصيرة لفترة الحكومة شكل جاناتا بهاراتيا حزب األجل وقصيرة تأثير ذات تحالفاتتليها 1996عام المتحدة  ، والمؤتمر  الجبهة جاناتا بهاراتيا حزب من كل استبعدت التي

عام وفي الهندي، جاناتا 1998الوطني بهاراتيا حزب وطني  شكل تحالفمدة  ديموقراطي لتكمل تشريعية غير حكومة أول وأصبح االخري االحزاب من العديد مع

. كاملة سنوات عام   في الخمس الهندية االنتخابات الوطني 2004في المؤتمر فاز ، عليها أطلق ائتالفية حكومة وشكيل النواب مجلس مقاعد من عدد بأكبر التحالف الهندي

المتحد المعارضة التقدمى وأعضاء اليسارية النزعة ذات االحزاب مختلف من وبدعم ، . في السلطة إلى المتحد التقدمى التحالف مجددا جاء جاناتا بهاراتيا االنتخابات لحزب

عام جرت التي لالحزاب 2009 العامة السياسي التمثيل كبير نحو علي انخفض بينما ، . االئتالف مع اليسارية النزعة سينغ " أصبح ذات وزراء  أول "مانموهان جواهر" منذ رئيس

نهرو . 1962 في" الل كاملة سنوات الخمس مدة من االنتهاء بعد انتخابه يعاد 316الذي

الهند: اقتصاد- تقييد تم. باالشتراكية متأثرة سياسات ،1980 حتى 1950 منذ كامل لجيل الهند اتبعت

بطءو  الفساد إنتشار إلي العامة والملكية  الحماية سياسية أدت ، شامل بنظام االقتصاد تغيرت. السوق على قائم نظام إلى البلد انتقلت 1991 عام ومنذ. االقتصادي النمو

التشديد إلي وأدي ، المدفوعات ميزان في حادة أزمة حدوث بعد 1991 عام في السياسة القتصاد مكمل كجزء الحين ذلك منذ األجنبي واالستثمار األجنبية التجارة استخدام علي العقدين طوال% 5.8 قدره نمو معدل الي  القومي الناتج متوسط ببلوغ و. الهند

قوة أكبر ثاني تملك. العالم في نموا األسرع بين من االقتصاد أصبح الماضيين، الناتج من ٪ 28 الزراعي القطاع يمثل اإلنتاج، حيث من.فرد مليون 516.3 بعدد بشرية

وتشمل. التوالي على ٪ 18 و ٪ 54 يشكل والصناعي الخدمي والقطاع اإلجمالي، المحلي والشاي والجوت والقطن، الزيتية، والبذور والقمح األرز الرئيسية الزراعية المنتجات

والماعز واألغنام  البري المائي الجاموسو والماشية والبطاطس، السكر، وقصب والصناعات الكيماويات، المنسوجات،: الرئيسية الصناعات تشمل. واألسماك والدواجن

315 Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications. pp. 118, 143.  316 Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition. (PDF) London School of Economics and Political Science.

279

وصلت. والبرمجيات اآلالت البترول التعدين، األسمنت، النقل، ومعدات الصلب، الغذائية، ،2006 عام في المحلي الناتج إجمالي من ٪ 24 نسبيا معتدلة حصة إلى الهند تجارة

حصة وصلت. 1985 عام في ٪ 6 ب مقارنة وتشمل. ٪ 1 إلى العالمية التجارة من الهند

البترول، منتجات علي الرئيسية الصادرات والمجوهرات، الكريمة االحجار المنسوجات، الكيماويات الهندسية، السلع البرمجيات،

الواردات وتشمل. الجلدية والمصنوعات واألحجار واآلالت الخام النفط الرئيسية إجمالي أن. والكيماويات واألسمدة الكريمة

دوالر تريليون 1.237 للهند القومي الناتج عشرة الثانية الدولة يجعلها مما ،أمريكي

قوة  أكبر رابع أو  العالم في اقتصاد كأكبر .الصرف أسعار ضبط خالل من شرائية

دخل حيث من الهند لترتيب وبالنسبة فتعد أمريكي دوالر 1،068 يبلغ انه حيث الفرد

الهند في  اإلقتصادي النمو متوسط بلغ ،2000 سنة أواخر في. العالم في 128 المرتبة في من بالرغم و سنوات عشر خالل في الدخل متوسط سيضاعف مما السنة في% 7.5

أكبر على تحتوي تزال ال أنها إال األخيرة، العقود مدى على للهند المهم االقتصادي النمو %46 (الثالثة سن دون األطفال بين التغذية سوء معدل وإرتفاع العالم، في للفقراء كثافة

خط تحت يعيشون الذين السكان نسبة  العالم في آخر بلد أي من أكثر) 2007 عام في(اليوم في دوالر 1.25 من ؛ الدولي للبنك طبقا الفقر وبعملة الشرائية، القوة تعادل

عام في الريفية المناطق في روبية 14.3 و الحضرية المناطق في اليوم في 21.6. الروبية الهند أن ورغم  2005 عام في ٪ 42 إلى 1981 عام في ٪ 60 من انخفض) 2005

و. الوزن في نقص من يعانون األطفال نصف فإن األخيرة، العقود في المجاعات تجنبت تتم. أفريقيا صحراء جنوب معدل ضعف وقرابة العالم، في المعدالت أعلى من واحدا هو

توقع.العالمي لالقتصاد هامة الهند تصبح أن الممكن من حيث كثب عن اإلصالحات مراقبة من الفرد نصيب سيضاعف ،2020 حتي 2007 بين الفترة في " ان ساكس جولدمان تقرير

الواليات اقتصاد سيفوق الهند اقتصاد وأن ،"مرات اربع القومي الناتج أجمالي ان حيث عقود، لعدة الدخل منخفضة دولة الهند ستظل ولكن ،2034 عام بحلول المتحدة

. االقتصادي النمو السريعة النامية الدول في أقرانة من غيره من بكثير أقل الفرد نصيب ومساهما العالمي، لالقتصاد محركا تصبح أن يمكن النمو، هذا تحقيق يمكن كان إذا ولكن

العقدين مدى على بإطراد نما الهندي االقتصاد أن ورغم . "االنفاق نمو توليد في أساسيا والمجموعات االجتماعية، الفئات مختلف بين المقارنة عند متفاوتا النمو كان ؛ الماضيين

أن الدولي البنك اقترح. والحضرية الريفية والمناطق الجغرافية، والمناطق االقتصادية، والريفية، الزراعية والتنمية التحتية والبنية العام القطاع إصالح هي األولويات أهم من

المناعة نقص وفيروس المتخلفة، الواليات في واإلصالحات العمل، لوائح وإلغاء 317.اإليدز / البشرية

: الهند فى الدينية الطوائف

317Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success “http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf” 11/12/2011.

280

, الممارسات و المعتقدات فهم من البد لها المكونة البشرية والطبيعة الهند فهم ألجل , تتسم حيث الهنود لمعظم واالجتماعية الشخصية الحياة على كبير تأثير لها التى الدينية

يصل التى الدينية الطوائف لتعدد كنتيجة الدينية المعتقدات من كبير عدد بوجود الهندالى االقل على لها , 8عددها الهندية الديانات أن الى باألضافة هذا كبرى دينية طوائف

منها الواحد عمر يصل عميقة تاريخية , 4500318جذور آثراء الى ادى مما األقل على ً عاما , , تاليها الهند فى توجد التى الديانات أقدم تعتبر التى الهندوسية مثل الهندى الدينى التراث

الزرداسثتية , مثل خارجية جذور لها التى الديانات هناك وأيضا الجنيوية و الهندية البوذية , خالل من األسالم مثل اإلتصال خالل من للديانات أنتشار وهناك األيرانية الجذور ذات

الحركات , خالل من المسيحية الديانة و األقصى الشرق بالد فى األسالمية الفتوحاتالبحر, منطقة بين التجارية األتصاالت خالل من اليهودية الديانة هناك وأخير التبشيرية

تتطور , : الهندية األديان إن الصدد هذا فى ونالحظ للهند الغربى والساحل المتوسط البيضيعتبر , وبذلك الماضى بلمحة األحتفاظ مع العصرية الحياة لمقتضيات وفقا بأستمرار

. العصرية والحياة الهندى التاريخ جوانب أهم من الدينى الجانب

الهندوس: .Hindusأوال

معتنقيها عدد حيث من وأكبرها الهند ديانات أقدم هي دين الهندوسية هو وبالتالىالى ،األغلبية الهند فى الهندوس نسبة تصل البالغ %80.5حيث الهندى الشعب مجموع منو , 319نسمة 1,189,172,906عدده الهندية الواليات جميع فى الهندوس ينتشر وبالتالى

كبير أثر الهندية للهندوسية الحياة مظاهر كل جميع , في على الهندوس يسيطر حيثأو , فرق عدة هناك الهندوسية وداخل األستقالل منذ واألقتصادية السياسية الحياة نواحى

, : يعبدون ومن شيفا اإللهة يعبدون من جماعة مثل خالص عبادة شكل منها لكل جماعات , ......... , ونالحظ , وهكذا راما االلهة يعبدون ومن شاكتى االلهة يعبدون ومن فيشنا االلهة

قيام الصدد هذا فى قديم أيضا نظام وهو الطبقات، فكرة على للهندوس االجتماعية الحياة " طبقة " وهي البيضاء الطبقة إلى المجتمع يقسم عليه وبناء فارنا يسمى الهند في " " " الحكام" وهم الكاشتري الحمراء والطبقة والعلماء، القساوسة وتضم البرهميين " والتجار، " والمزارعون الفالحون وهم الفيزية الصفراء الطبقة واإلداريون، والجنود

" المهرة " العمال وهم السودرا السوداء الطبقة وهي بعد ما في رابعة طبقة وأضيفتمن أدنى خامسة طبقة ظهرت كما والخدم، السالل وصانعي والنساجين كالخزافين

" بالخدمات" يقومون من وهم " الدنيا السودريين ويتجنبون " بقسوة البرهميون ويعاملهم " عام " قانونيا الطبقة هذه إلغاء ورغم ، الشودرا أو بالمنبوذين هؤالء ويعرف لمسهم، حتى

بالمنبوذين 1950 أنفسهم تسمية يحبذون فإنهم عليهم الله أطفال اسم .320وإطالق

المسلمون: .Muslimثانبا

نحو , الهند فى المسلمين نسبة يبلغ حيث الهند فى أقلية أكبر دين هو اإلسالم يعد13.4 , , اى% المسلمين تعداد وأكبر وسنة شيعة بين ما وينقسمون الهند سكان مجموع من

براديش% 52حوالى أوتار كوالية الشمال واليات فى يعيشون المسلميين UttarمنPradesh , وكشمير جامو والية وأيضا الهند مسلمى بربع يقرب ما بها يوجد & Jammuالتى

Kashmir دويب الكشاد ,Lakshadweepوجزيرة و سكانها ثلثى نحو المسلمون يمثل التىبيهار والية الغربية Biharأيضا البنغال والية . West Bengalو

318 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/38.htm” 29/11/2011.319 Central intelligence agency “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html” 06/12/2011.320 Al jazeera “http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/26E5C34E-6367-4A9A-AC21-9F2DE080672C.htm” 20/11/2011.

281

المسيحيون: .Christianثالثا

الى نسبتهم تصل حيث المسلميين بعد أقلية أكبر ثانى الهند فى المسيحيون يمثل2.3, , الغربية% التجارية البعثات مع المسيحية الديانة إنتشرت ولقد السكان مجموع من

عام فى الهند دخلت المسيحية أن على األنجليز دخول (52وبعد المسيحيون) 1ميالديا ويتبع, و والبروتستانتية الكاثوليكية الرومانية الكنيسة منها متعددة لكنائس وفقا

تاميل Keralaكيراال والية في يتركزالمسيحيون والية فى Goaوجياو Tamil Naduنادوا ويشكل, كما والية , وهم الشمال في صغيرة واليات ثالث في أغلبية المسيحيون الجنوب

ميزورام , Nagalandناجالند ،و Mizoramووالية.Meghalayaميغااليا والية

السيخ : .Sikhرابعا

الهند فى السيخ نسبة , 1.9تبلغ حوالى% السكان مجموع من79 , إلى% يقرب وما المستقلة البنجاب والية فى يتركزوا منهموحوالى , 3 الوالية خارج يعيش سيخ سيخ 4مليون ماليين

ذات , عالمية ديانة السيخية يجعل مما الهند خارج يعيشونوأيضا , والطموح األقتصادى بالنجاح مدفوعة هندية أصوالالكبير لتأثيرهم كنتيجة الهند داخل كبيرة أقلية قوة يعتبروا

ل يقرب لما العامة والشؤون المسلحة القوات السابقة 400فى السيخية, 321العام الديانية وتعاليم أتباع على خاصة, , معلمين 10تقوم بوالية السيخ طالب الهند إستقالل وبعد روحيين

عام , الهندية الحكومة فأقامت شبه 1966بهم بشكل السيخ يحكمها التى البنجاب والية , " " وزراء , رئيس بالذكر جدير هناك أمرتسار للسيخ المقدسة المدينة لوجود وذلك جزئي

. " السيخ " من سينغ مانموهان الحالى الهند

. أخرى: دينية طوائف خامسا

حوالى كلهم معتنقيها عدد نسبة يصل الهند فى أخرى ديانات مجموع% 1.9هناك منيهود منهم الهند فى نسبتهم .Jewsالسكان , 0005يبلغ فى% يعيش معظهم السكان من

ميزورام ماهراسترا Mizoramوالية الزرادستتية Maharashtraووالية Zoroastrianismوحوالى الهند فى معتنقيها نسبة ماهاراسترا% 79يعيش% 0.01البالغ والية فى منهم

321Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/58.htm” 28/12/2011.

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Maharashtra غوجارات والية فى الباقى معظم الجينون Gujaratو إلى البالغ Jainباألضافةمن أقل فى% 1نسبتهم لعملهم كنتيجة الهند فى األغنياء من معظهم ان على السكان من

, األجتماعية الناحية من العليا الطبقة من يعتبرون وبالتالى المالية والمداوالت التجارة , البوذيون, هناك وأخير الهندى التراث فى بيها يستهان ال مساهمات ولهم واألقتصادية

Buddhist عن تقل سكانية الهيمااليا% 1بنسبة بجبال معظمهم يعيش السكان مجموع من , القديمة الهندية الديانات من تعتبر والبوذية صغيرة بأعداد الشرقية الهندية الحدود على

, معا والبوذية الهندوسية من مختلطة تعاليمها بأنها الهندية البوذية وتمييز الهندوسية بعد. أنحسارها الى أدى مما

. الدينى والعنف الطبقية الحروب , " ان " اال عميقة تاريخية جذور لها وباكستان الهند البلدين بين الخالفات أن من بالرغم

, سياسات حيث الخالفات حدة من زادات األستقالل بعد ما المركزية الحكومة سياسات - الجدل - حام الغالب فى مجانسته بعدم يتسم الذى الهند مجتمع فى المركزية الحكومة

تستجيب ال المركزية الحكومة سياسات بأن المعارضة قبل من عنها يقال لما حول , وقد بنجاب ووالية وكشمير جامبو والية فى والعنف الصراع اوجد مما المحلية لإلحتياجات

. الصراع , حدة من زاد مما عكسية بنتيجة اتى تدخلها ان إال التدخل المؤتمر قيادة حاولت

. الهندية بنجاب والية فى المواجهةعام المواجهات بداية " – 1973كانت " الممثل, العليا دال اكالى حزب أصدر عندما

– , بالسياسة الدين وإرتباط سياسى صوت السيخ إعطاء على يقوم الذى للسيخ الرئيسى " إلى " رجع مما بيها خاص دستور مع للسيخ الذاتى الحكم منطقة أنشاء الى يدعو لقرار

" " لوعد نتيجة وذلك خالستان تسمى بهم خاصة دولة أنشاء فى السيخ حلم األذهانعام بذلك المركزية "1970الحكومة الى , " شانديغار مدينة نقل الى أيضا الحزب ودعا

, المياه الحتياجات مالءمة أكثر بتخصيص طالب وايضا الجدية الدولة عاصمة لتكون البنجاب-" " أمريتسار , مدينة كأعتبار األخرى المطالب من والعديد الرى فى تستخدم التى واألنهار

" , - صابر بأرتداء للسيخ والسماح مقدسة مدينة المقدس الذهبى المعبد تحوى التى , جميع " يجعل أدارة قانون ووضع للطيران الهندية الخطوط على بهم الخاص األحتفالية

" جير االلهة .Gurdwaresعابدى واحدة" إدارة تحت

" من " الوطنى الهندى المؤتمر و أكالى حزب أعضاء بين الساخنة المنافسة احتدمت , األفضل من أنه الهندى الوطنى المؤتمر وجد حيث البنجاب مجتمع على السيطرة أجل " الداخلية " للشئون وزيرا سينج جانزال تعيين خالل من وذلك السيخية األصولية تشجيع

) من الفترة فى (1980-1982للدولة الفترة) فى بنجاب والية وزراء رئيس كان -1977بعدمابهندرلنوا) , "1972 السيخى المتشدد مع أتصال قنوات فتح أمل " Bhindranwaleوأيضا على

, " تبين " ولكن بالفعل المنقسم دال أكالى حزب داخل النقسام زيادة إلى ذلك يؤدى أنعام , ربيع بحلول حيث سيئة خطوة كان ذلك أن بعد واتباعه , 1984فيما بهندرلنوا استولى

تاكت " اكال " Akal Takhtعلى " السيخية" العقيدة فى الذهبى الله عرش ب يعرف ما اوللمتشددين لألسلحة ومستودع مقر الى بتحويله قام وقد الذهبى المعبد تواجه التى

, وزراء, رئيسة جعل مما البنجاب فى الهندوس ضد والقتل العنف بأعمال والقيام السيخ , " وبعد " اليها الجيش وارسال البنجاب منطقة فى الطوارئ حالة تعلن غاندى أندير الهند " بالمعبد , " األضرار بعض ولحقت تاكت اكال مقر دمر دامية متصلة أيام ثالثة استمر حصار

, " أستياء, " البنجاب فى الجيش أعمال وأثارت أتباعه من والمئات بهندرلنوا وقُتل الذهبى " " , يد على غاندى أندير أغتيالت لذلك وكنتيجة الهند أنحاء جميع فى السيخ بين المدى واسع

283

فى السيخ السيخ, 1984أكتوبر 31حراسها ضد والقتل والنهب الشغب أعمال اطلق مماأكثرمن , الشغب أعمال فى السيخ القتلى محصلة وكانت الهند أنحاء جميع 2700فى

سيخ.

عام - 1985فى أندير لوالدته خلفا الوزارة رئاسة تولى بعدما غاندى راجيف حاول" أكالى- حزب عضو مع أتفاق على التوقيع خالل من بنجاب ألزمة حد وضع وحاول غاندى

لنغول" " سنيج هاركند المعتدل الوفاق ", Harchand Singh Longowalدال ذلك أذعن " " لوضع البنجاب والية حكومة لرئاسة أنتخابات الى ودعا دال أكالى حزب أعضاء لمطالب

, عام منذ مفعال كان والذى الوالية حكومة على المركزية الحكومة لسيطرة و 1983حد , الشعبى التأييد خالل ظهرمن وذلك الهند فى النطاق واسع بتأيد األتفاق هذا قوبل

, " ذلك " من الرغم على المعتدليين دال أكالى حزب أعضاء من المشكلة الجديدة للحكومة , " - " بالتزاماته غاندى راجيف وفاء لعدم ذلك بالفشل لنغول غاندى بين الوفاق منى كله

, شعبية تقلصت لذلك وكنتيجة عليه منصوص هو كما البنجاب الى شاندريغار مدينة كنقل " " باراناال " سينغ سوجريت بقيادة دال أكالى حزب وزادت" Surijt Singh Barnalaحكومة

, , عام وفى المتشددين لمحاربة جهودها فعالية وقلت الحزب داخل تم 3221987األنقسامات , قبل من العنف إنتشار الصدد هذا فى نالحظ الرئيس بحكم البنجابية السفارة استبدال

من الفترة فى السيخ وسيلة , 1990sالى 1980sالمتشددين والعنف والسطو القتل واصبحمن , , سنوات خمس ومرت قمعا أكثر الشرطة أجراءات أصبحت وكما البنجاب فى للحياة

العنف , تقلص حتى عشوائى بشكل البنجاب فى المقيمين على القبض كان الرئيس حكمعامى .1994,1993فى األطراف , بين التوتر حدة يقل لم وإن

. باكستان وأنفصالل والمسلميين الهندوس بين التوتر , أراضى على بريطانيا وحكم سيطرة تنوعت الهند فى البريطانى التاج حكم تحت

, : بشرط المحليين زعمائها لحكم تُركت ومناطق مباشر حكم مناطق من وباكستان الهند , عائلة الى كشمير منطقة كتأجير ثالث نوع وهناك البريطانى للتاج وتبعيتهم والئهم

( لمدة ( األدق بالمعنى أيجار عقد اتفاقية بموجب هندوسية عام 100أقطاعية فى ينتهى عام1946 , من العديد اولد مما األسالمى الدين الى ينتمون األقليم غالبية ان من الرغم على

الهند , فى الغربى التعليمى النظام فى المسلميين تجاهل ذلك الى باألضافة المشكالتالهندوس بين ثقافية فجوة الى آدى مما والكتابة والقراءة الحساب مبادئ وتعليهم

فى الهامة والوظائف المواقع من العديد على الهندوس سيطرة بالتالى و والمسلميينديوبند, لحركة المسلميين والمصلحيين العلماء قيادة الى أدى مما الخاصة Debonedالدولة

, عام خان أحمد السيد فقام واألستقالل للتحرر كخطوة المسلميين وعلم وعى 1863بزيادةالتاريخ , فى الحديثة األراء نشر منهما الغرض بمجلة مرفقة أدبية علمية جمعية بأنشاء

- ألهل الرسمية اللغة األردية اللغة الى األنجليزية الكتب اهم وترجمة واألقتصاد والعلوم , معهد- واسس بها باألتحاق الهند طوائف لجميع ُسمح مدرستين آنشا وأيضا الشمال

الحديثةعام العلوم لدرسة عال ",1875تعليمى األسالمية " عليكرة جامعة بأسم األن يُعرف. أقبال محمد الشاعر لباكستان الروحى األب تالميذها من

322Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/117.htm” 08/11/2011.

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رفض : أبرزها كان أمور عدة خالل من الهندى الوطنى المؤتمر حزب فى للسيطرةالهندية - الغربة الشمالية المناطق فى رسمية لغة األدرية اللغة أبقاء الهندوسية القيادات

أحمد – السيد بذلك دفع مما األدرية الغة يتكلموا المنطقة تلك سكان غالبية أن مالحظة مععام ليؤسس الوطنى الهندى بالمؤتمر عالقته قطع الى التعليمى 1906خان المؤتمر

, للمسلميين, خاصة دولة بقيام المنادى األسالمية الرابطة حزب عنه انبثق والذى األسالمىعام بعدما 1920وفى له رئيسا ليكون اإلسالمية الرابطة حزب إلى نجاح على محمد انضم

تضمن , بتشرعيات يطالب مرحلة وليبدأ الهندى الوطنى المؤتمر بحزب نهائيا عالقته قطع , أواخر فى األحداث من العديد وقعت ثم ولغتهم دينهم حماية و 1920sللمسلميين

1930s , بهم خاصة منفصلة دولة إنشاء فى يفكروا المسلميين .323جعلت

عام غييرات , 1929فى ألقتراح مؤتمر فى اإلجتماع إلى األحزاب جميع نهرو موتيالل دعا , المندوبيين غالبية المؤتمر ذلك فى األستقالل إلى تؤدى شأنها من األنتخابى النظام فى

, , طرح منهم العكس على المنفصلة اإلنتخابية الدوائر لنظام بنهاية طالبوا األحزاب منالضمانات إنشاء خالل من المسلميين مصالح لحماية نقطة عشرة خمس جناح على محمد

المنفصلة , النتخابية الدوائر نظام إبقاء خالل من وذلك للهندوس التشرعية السيطرة لمنع , الهندوس بين تعاون اى جعل مما المقترحات لجميع التام بالرفض قوبلت والذى

. الحدوث نادر اإلستقالل حركة فى والمسلميين

عام محمد , "1930فى والفليسوف الشاعر طالبأباد" الله منطقة فى بأنشاء Allahabadأقبال

أسالمية , دولة يشمل هندى كونفدرالى نظام , ولذلك وراد غير موحدة حكومة وجود الن وذلك

وحدة أساس على أمة انشاء الى المسلميين دعاوأخيرا والهوية والدين والتاريخ واللغة العرق

, عام وفى األقتصادية على 1933المصالح أطلق - أسم – أبدا او األن كتابه فى اإلسالمية الدولة

بضمها طالب والتى الدولة منها المكونة لألوطان األولى الحروف عن عبارة وهو باكستان. , , , , , : بلوستان و تركستان أفعانستان ايران السند بالد بنجاب وهن اليها

عام , 1937فى المؤتمر , حزب فاز وفيها المحلية التشرعية المجالس انتخابات أجريتقانونى , موقف فإتخذ مقاطعة عشر أحدى أصل من مقاطعة سبعة بأغلبية الهندى الوطنى

, حتى المقاطعات وزارات فى األسالمية الرابطة حزب مع أتئالفية حكومة أنشاء بعد صارم, , قام ذلك من الرغم على براديش أوتار كوالية مسلمة كبرى أقلية ذات مقاطعات فىمناطق فى حتى الهندى الوطنى حزب مع إتئالفية حكومة بأنشاء االسالمية الرابطة حزب

. البنجاب كمنطقة كبرى مسلمة أغلبية ذات

الهور , 1940مارس 23فى بمدينة السنوى السالمية الرابطة حزب أجتماع فىLahore " وفيه , " باكستان قرار او الهور قرار بأسم يعرف قرار جناح على محمد أصدر

, األغلبية ذات المناطق تجميع بدون مقبولة غير لالستقالل خطة اى و األتحاد فكرة يرفض , هذا القى وقد سيادة ذات مستقلة دولة لتشكيل الهند وغرب وشرق شمال فى المسلمة

, ذات المناطق مسلمى من أكثر ودعما تأييدا و الهند مسلمى من ودعما تأييدا القرار. المسلمة واألقلية الهندوسية األغلبية

323Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/12.htm” 18/11/2011.

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, دولة إنشاء الى ودعا التقسيم مقترحات جميع الوطنى الهندى المؤتمر حزب رفض , بين النقسام الى أدى مما برلمانية رقابة تحت قوية مركزية حكومة ذات موحدة هندية

خالل , من اإلختالف هذا نالحظ و الهندى الوطنى المؤتمر وحزب األسالمية الرابطة حزب , وزراء إستقال حيث البريطانى الحكم تجاه الثانية العالمية الحرب خالل المواقف تباين

السياسيين مع تشاورمسبق عدم على إحتجاجا المقاطعات وزارات من المؤتمر حزب , معظم دخل لذلك كنتيجة والحرب المواجهات فى الهندى الجيش إدخال قبل الهنود

, , أتبع , المقابل فى البريطانيين على السياسى نفوذه الحزب وفقد السجن الحزب قياداتحيث , السياسية قوتهم لتعزيز الوقت وكسب التعاون مسار األسالمية الرابطة حزب

, لذلك وكنتيجة البنجابيين المسلميين أعضاءه و الهندى الجيش وبسالة والء بريطانيا قدرتالهندى , : , المؤتمر حزب و البريطانيين الهند مستقبل على مؤثرات ثالث هناك أصبح كله

األسالمية, الرابطة حزب و .324الوطنى

عام من غسطس شهر الهند , " 1942فى أترك حركة غاندى Quit IndiaأطلقMovement , , واعتقلت " الحركة تلك جناح على محمد أدان البريطانى الوجود ضد

, , الشعب أعمال فزدادت المؤتمر حزب حظر وتم األفراد من االالف الحكومةعام, وفى كما 1944الطائفية جناح ومحمد غاندى بين والمحادثات المفاوضات فشلت

بين والمحادثات المفاوضات فشلتيوليو , فى ثم البريطانى والنائب غاندى

عام بريطانيا , 1945من سياسة والقوة تراجع على المؤكدة الجديدة

األبقاء ضرورة مع الهند فى البريطانيةلحماية الهندية الدفاع وسائل على

, إنتشرت لكن البريطانية األمبراطوريةوصل حتى الهند فى العامة اإلضطرابات

مدينة فى البحرية قوات تمرد إلىالقيادة , Bombayبومباى استنتجت

البديل هو األستقالل بأن البريطانيةبريطانيا تحافظ لكى واألفضل الوحيد

, إنتخابات إلى الدعوة تم لذلك الهند فى سيطرتها حزب , 1946على من كال هيمن وفيها , خطة قبل الطرفيين كال ان بدأ البداية فى اإلسالمية الرابطة وحزب الهندى المؤتمر - - شعورا خلق القادة سلوك أن إال كثيرة تحفظات من بالرغم الوزراء مجلس تشكيل

, , كان اى بريطانية بأتفاقيات مقيدا يكون لن المؤتمر حزب أن نهرو كإعالن الثقة بإنعداملكتابة فرصة التأسسية الجمعية فى الغلبية وظيفة يجعل سوف المؤتمر حزب أن واضحا

إلى, نجاح بمحمد دفع مما المؤقتة الحكومة تشكيل جدلية إلى باألضافة هذا الدستورالنائب , من بالرفض اإلقتراح هذا قوبل ذلك فى الحزبيين بين بالمساواة المطالبة

,, فى , البريطانى النائب شرع ثم المؤقتة الحكومة مقاطعة إلى نجاح دعا مما البريطانى , الى يدعو جناح محمد جعل مما األسالمية الرابطة حزب بدون مؤقتة حكومة تشكيل

. المباشر العمل او المظاهرات

,1946أغسطس 16فى والهندوس , المسلميين بين طائفية شغب أعمال اندلعت , للمسلميين مذبحة وقعت ثم مسبوقة غير بيهاربطريقة ووالية البنغال والية فى وخصوصا

, وأمتدت , الطائفى الشغب أعمال أنتقلت التهدئة محوالت من وبالرغم كالكوتا مدينة فى , عام حتى وأستمرت أخرى أماكن ُسمح , ,1947الى الطائفى العنف لوقف مسعى وفى

324 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/13.htm” 18/12/2011.

286

, , الوزراء بين الخالفات بداية ومع المؤقتة الحكومة بدخول األسالمية الرابطة لحزب , , النائب تغيير تم األهلية الحرب شبح طوفان مع بالشلل المؤقتة الحكومة اصبيت

عام فبراير فى , 1947البريطانى قبل , كما واألستقالل بالتقسيم البريطانية الحكومة وقبلت- , تضم أصغر باكستان بدولة جناح على محمد وقبل لالستقالل ثمنا بالتقسيم المؤتمر حزب

, - وفى بها يطالب كان مما والبنغال إستقالل , 1947يونيو 3بنجاب قانون مشروع تقديم تميوم , عليه وافق الذى البريطانى العموم مجلس الى الهند ,1947يوليو 14وتقسيم

, خطة وكانت الهندية القارة شبه فى مستقلة سيادة ذاتا منطقتيين إنشاء تم وبموجبه : - بنجاب- واليتى كاالتى الهندى الوطنى المؤتمر حزب مقاطعة مالحظة مع التقسيم , التشريعية الهيئة موافقة شرط التشريعى المجلس موافقة بعد باكستان لدولة والبنغال

, منطقة فى اإلستفتاء وعقد باكستان إلى ألنضمامهما وبلوستان السند منطقتى فى - أكثر , من صعوبة أكثر حدودية واليات ثالث مثلت ثم باكستان إلى لالنضمام سيلهيت

الهندوسية - 50 األغلبية ذات أباد حيدر هم بيهم استفتاء عقد تم بسهولة تقسيمها تم مدينة , الهندوسية الغلبية ذات جوناغاد ومدينة الهندية السيادة إلى انضمتت التى المسلم والحكم

التى , وكشمير جامو والية بقيت ثم الهندية السيادة الى أيضا إنضمت المسلم واألمير , على متوترة البلدين بين العالقات وجعلت وباكستان الهند بين رئيسية حروب ثالث سببت

فى , 1947أغسطس 14ان بمنع لم ذلك ولكن األستقالل والهند باكستان من كال حققت. مسلميين بيها يعيش مازال التى الهند فى الطائفى العنف نشوب

: كاشمير- اقليم على الباكستانى الهندى الصراع تاريخ . ان - الهندية الخارجية السياسات من تأخذ الباكستانية الهندية العالقات مازالت و كانت

لموازين بالنسبة لحل التوصل فى النجاح عدم و الدولتين بين بين االيديولوجى االختالف. السنين مر على تتفاقم االزمة حعل الذى هو آسيا جنوب فى القوى

( منذ ( كاشمير اقليم مشكلة تعد البلدين 1974و بين العالقات فى المشكالت أصعب منو , للهند كاشمير اقليم عن باكستان تنازل على الباكستانيون القادة يوافق لو عندما

على , كاشمير فى المقيمين حق على باكستان مندوبى أعلن ثم الهند على الحرب اعلنوا ( خالل ( من األمن مجلس و نهرو به وعد لما وفقا إستفتاء خالل من مصيرهم تقرير

عام فى 1949و 1948توصيات النار وقف تم األمن مجلس لتوصيات وفقا و 1949-1-1وقد . 18فى و المتحدة األمم رقابة تحت البلدين بين كراتشى معاهدة توقيع تم يوليو

حوالى و سرنجار العطاء الحدود تعيين عملية و 139,000أقضت للهند 83,807كيلومترعام . منذ باكستان سيطرة تحت عام 1949كيلومتر حتى الرقابة 2005و قوات تزال ال

باكستان . و الهند بين كاشمير إقليم فى النار اطالق وقف على العسكرية

عام الشيخ , 1952فى بقيادة جامو و كشمير فى االسالمية التأسيسية الجمعية انتخبتبمثابة , التصويت هذا الهند اعتبرت و للهند االنضمام لصالح صوتت التى عبدالله محمد

. المناقشات نهرو رفض إستفتاء أى إجراء على اعترضت و للهند االنضمام فى الرغبةعام حتى البلدين بين المتحدة 1963الثنائية المملكة و المتحدة الواليات ضغط تحت لكن

لكن و عالقة ذات اخرى مواضيع و كشمير على باكستان مع مفاوضات اجراء على وافق. المفاوضات تلك فشلت

صيف ازداد 1965فى و النار قف و منطقة خط باكستان من المسلحين المتسللون عبرأن . الهىند زعمت العام نفس من أغسطس بداية مع الباكستانية الهندية المناوشات عدد

. كشمير اقليم على الهند سيطرة منطقة فى متسللين ترسل باكستان287

غرب جنوب فى للسيطرة الدولى الخط باكستان هاجمت عندما يتمثل الثانى الصراع إنمقاطعة على همومها خالل من بالثأر الهند قامت ذلك على ردا و جامو و كشمير

( يناير( فى اوزباكستان فى تاشكنط فى و المتحاربة 1966بونجاب القوى قامتبالمفاوضات . القائمة المشكالت حل و الراهن الوضع استعادة على بالموافقة

ديسمبر فى باكستان و الهند بين الثالث الصراع او الثالثة الحرب حول, 1971تتمثلكان و كشمير باقليم صلة ذات كانت أيضا لكنها و باكستان شرق فى الواقعة بنحالديش

( ) , وسيط دون سيمال اتفاق على الدولتان وقعتا قد و مؤكدا الهندى العسكرى اإلنتصارالغرب . فى عليها استحوذت التى األراضى كل الهند اعادة على نص الذى

حكم تحت جامو و كشمير فى رخاء هناك كان الثمينيات أوائل و السبعينيات أواخر فىعندما , اخرى مرة العالقات توترت ذلك بعد عبدالله فاروق ابنه بعده من و مجمد الشيخ

اتهم و فاروق حكومة لرقض ذلك أدى و نيودلهى و سرنجار حكومة بين صراع نشب. سيمال اتفاق انتهاك و كشمير قضية تدويل بمحاولة باكستان الهنود الدبلوماسيين

, قشات و كشمير فى استقرارا أقل و سوءا الوضع إزداد الثمنينيات أواخر و أواسط فىاالنضمام و الهند عن باالستقالل المطالبين الكشميرين مواجهة فى فاروق حكومة

( انتخابات ( فى غاندى راجيف مؤتمر مع حلف فى إنضمت و .1987لباكستان

عام و, 1999فى البلدين وزراء رؤساء اجتماع خالل من ذلك و البلدين بين الحوار إستئنفالهند . , اتهمت الهندى البرلمان مقر على االرهابى الهجوم بعد معاهدات ثالثة توقيع

ديسمبر فى أخرى مرة التوترات لتعود ذلك فى التسبب فى .2001باكستان

ابريل ) ,2003فى ) ( سرنجار , ( فى أخرى مرة العالقات ليحيى فاجباى الوزراء رئيس عادعام ) 2004فى المركب ( الحوار معادلة على البلدان على , 6+2وافق تدل االثنان

, أحرى نقاط ست و جامو و كشمير فى األمن و بالسلم الخاصة المحاورات و المناقشاتعام . حتى ثنائية نقاط حول ادارية و تكتيكية بنقاشات خطوات, 2006خاصة البلدان إتخذتاالثنائية . العالقات تقوية و المركب الحوار معادلة تنفسذ نحو

فى الباكستانية اإلنتخابات خارجية, 2008بعد وزير مع مع الهندى الخارجية وزير اجتمعزيادة و النار اطالق وقف على الحفاظ على التأكيد و المعادلة لتطوير باكستان

, السفارة على الهجوم و مومباى تفجيرات لكن و البلدين بين فيما الشعبية االتصاالتعام كابول فى , 2008الهندية على ذلك بعد الهند صممت اخرى مرة التوترات أعادت

فى حدودها خالل من امتسلل االرهاب بمحاربة باكستان قيام 325. 2010ضرورة

– األمريكية العالقات على كشمير أقليم على الصراع أثر - : الهندية

عالمية بل صاعدة آسيوية قوة لكزنها الوصول و التطور من الهند يمنع لم الصراع أن رغم لعب ضرورة البعض يرى لذا, خافتة للنزاع لحل الجانبين وصول احتماالت لكن, ايضا

لكال توفير خالل من انهائه فى المساعدة و الصراع هذا فى دورا المتحدة الواليات الشراكة و القارة شبه فى السالم هى المحتملة فالمكافئات , إلتفاق الوصول الطرفين

.نيودلهى و واشنطن بين االستراتيجية

325 Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/terrorism/kashmir-dispute-affects-security-south-asia/p19805-“ 21/12/2011.

288

,المتحدة الواليات أمن على تهديدا كشمير إقليم على الباكستانى الهندى الصراع يمثل قد االرهابية للملشيات التصدى من باكستان يمنع ايضا و متقاربتين نوويتين بدولتين يأتى النه

مما , أفغانستان فى الهند نشاط حول باكستان شكوك يثير كذلك و ارضها على الموجودة جنوب فى االرهاب محاربة و أفغانستان فى استقرار تحقيق فى أمريكا رغبة على يؤثر .آسيا

الدبلوماسية و الثنائية المحادثات فى المتحدة الواليات تدخل عدم لتفضيل البعض يتجه عسكر (مومباى تفجيرات عن المسئولين لمحاربة تلتفت أن يجب لكن و , البلدين بين

.عليهم القبض و عسكرية خطوات اجراء و التحقيقات من المزيد فعليها) , طيبة

و لباكستان المستقبلية االحتماالت تحسين هو المتحدة الواليات دور أن اآلخر البعض يرى خالل من الباكستانية – األمريكية تاريخ فى العقبات مواجهة و مقاومة خالل من ذلك

وصول من للمزيد السماح و االرهاب لمحاربة الشفافية على العالقة بناء و الشراكة.الباكستانى للسوق االمريكية البضائع

: االمريكيه - الهنديه العالقات , اتسمت – و تاريخها مر على التطورات من العديد االمريكيه الهنديه العالقت شهدت

....... , المختلفه السياسات و المختلفه باالحداث متأثره الهبوط و الصعود من بالكثير

1: العالقات- تاريخ

، الخارج إلى تطلعا أكثر للهند االقتصادية السياسات وظهور الباردة الحرب نهاية مع كانت ، 1990s منتصف في. للهند بالنسبة متزايدة أهمية ذات المتحدة الواليات أصبحت .واالستثمار للتكنولوجيا رئيسيا ومصدرا للهند األكبر التجاري الشريك المتحدة الواليات

، المتحدة الواليات في العالي التعليم مضى وقت أي من أكثر الهنود الطالب سعى الهنود األميركيين وجود كان ، ذلك على وعالوة. والهندسة العلوم مجاالت في وبخاصة يرى كما. العالقة تلك في عامال المتحدة الواليات في مقيم مليون 1 من أكثر والهنود

من الرغم على ، قوية ديمقراطية جذور لها كدوله الهند الخارجية السياسة صانعي بعض التي العالقة من رغم على. نسبيا حديثه ديموقرطيه تعتبر المتحده بالواليات مقارنتها

اوائل فى للتقرب مجاالت ظهر لكن ،و المتكافئة غير1947 عام منذ موجودة العالقه كانت1990’s .سلبية أجندة "لديها المتحدة الواليات أن الهنود المراقبين بعض رأى ، ذلك ومع" .االقتصادية االصالحات ووتيرة ، النووي والبرنامج ، اإلنسان بحقوق يتعلق فيما للهند

مثبط تأثير لها االنحياز عدم لمبادئ طويلة فترة منذ الهند التزام كان ، ذلك على وعالوة بعد بينهما التحالف ان ،اعتقدوا ذلك ومع. المتحدة الواليات مع المتطورة عالقاتها على.محتمل ذلك

الواليات سياسات على مزدوج تأثير لها اإلنحياز عدم سياسة كانت 1971 عام حتى والسياسي االقتصادي االستقرار واشنطن إعتبرت ، جهة من. آسيا جنوب في المتحدة ، للشيوعية االستسالم من السوفياتي للنفوذ المهم االقليمي الدور لمنع الزم الهندي

1962 عام حرب خالل الهند ودعم اقتصادية مساعدات قدمت المتحدة الواليات وبالتالي جعلت الهند تتبعها التى االنحياز عدم سياسة كانت ، أخرى ناحية من. الصين مع

األمنية المصالح كدعم اضهرتها والتي ، باكستان مع تتحالف 1954 عام المتحدة الواليات يصحب ما مع ، 1959 عام في الحلف وباكستان المتحدة الواليات جددت وقد. الغربية

إلى الموردة األسلحة يستخدم لن أنه لنهرو أيزنهاور دوايت الرئيس ضمانات من ذلك اوالهند باكستان دعم المتحدة الواليات حكومة رفضت. عدوانية حرب أي في باكستان

.البلدين لكال العسكرية التحويالت علقت ، 1965 الحرب فى

289

السوفيتي واالتحاد المتحدة والواليات السوفياتي االتحاد بين النزعات 1971 عام في بشكل تتراجع المتحدة والواليات الهند بين العالقات جعلت, وباكستان والهند ، والصين

وقعت حين فى, بكين مع جديدة عالقة بدأت واشنطن أن حين في ، السنة تلك في. كبير جنوب في الصيني والنفوذ المتحدة الواليات لمواجهة موسكو مع نيودلهي صداقة معاهدة

سياسيه تغيير فى غاندي انديرا فشل و, باكستان شرق االزماتفى و تدهورتالعالقات. آسيا.باكستان اتجاه وقتها نكسون الرئيس

و s’1970 السعينيات اوائل فى عامتا سئ بشكل العالقات سارت المتحده الواليات بين

التنميه, لبرنامج الهند غلق و االقتصاديه المساعدات خفض الى ذلك ادى و الهنداالمريكى.

: العالقات تطور - 2

المتحدة للواليات رئيسا كارتر جيمي أصبح عندما 1977 عام في العالقات تحسن بدأ نهاية إلى التوقعات هذه وجاءت. الهند في ديساي بهاراتيا حزب يقودها التي والحكومة

وإنشاء ، كارتر مبدأ صدور و أفغانستان السوفياتي االتحاد غزا عندما عامين بعد مفاجئة وأسطول ،) الوسطى القيادة المتحدة الواليات بعد فيما وتسمى (السريع لالنتشار قوة

وترتيبات ، غارسيا دييغو جزيرة في بحرية لقاعدة المزمع والتوسع ، الهندي المحيط مدى على اقتصادية مساعدات و الجيش في أمريكي دوالر مليار 3.2 مع باكستان لتزويد الخليج وبلدان المتحدة الواليات في المباشر التدخل يبدو كما فقط سنوات خمس

ورأتها ، المنطقة في االستقرار عدم اإلجراءات هذه غذت. الهندي والمحيط الفارسي.لها امنى كتهديد الهند

سلسلة خالل أنشئ الذي ، ريغان رونالد ورئيس غاندي أنديرا بين شخصية عالقة تمكنت .الثنائية العالقات تحسين في للبدء تدريجيا البلدين ، 1980s أوائل في االجتماعات من

في وبخاصة ، التعاون مجاالت توسيع وقرر الهند تجاه سياستها ريغان إدارة تقييم إعادة .المنطقة في السوفياتي النفوذ لمواجهة كوسيلة ، والعلمية االقتصادية المجاالت ضوء في آسيا جنوب في رئيسية اقليمية قوة باعتبارها نيودلهي حالة أيضا تعتبر واشنطن

مبيعات المتحدة الواليات منع من تتمكن لم الهند أن غاندي أدرك ، جانبها من. مواتاة أكثر مجاالت يفتح أن يمكن المتحدة الواليات مع الحوار تحسن أن إال ، باكستان إلى األسلحة

نجاحا غاندي انديرا وأعقب. الهندية المصالح تستفيد أن يمكن الذي التفاعل من أخرى رفيعة التبادالت من سلسلة خالل من المتحدة للواليات دولة لزيارة 1982 عام كبيرا

الخارجية ووزير الرئيس نائب بوش جورج بها قام التي الزيارات ذلك في بما ، المستوى خالفهما حل الجانبين بين 1982 عام في ، ذلك إلى باإلضافة. الهند الى شولتز جورج 1984 عام في. تارابور في النووية الطاقة لمحطة الغيار وقطع الوقود امدادات بشأن.الهند إلى التكنولوجيا نقل عمليات لتوسيع المتحدة الواليات قررت

1985 عام الزيارات هذه مع وواشنطن نيودلهي بين العالقات في االحترار اإلتجاه استمر ، ذلك على وعالوة. واشنطن إلى وزير غاندي راجيف الوزراء رئيس قبل من 1987 وعام

دعمت ، نمت آسيا جنوب في لالستقرار كقوة الهند للدور المتحدة الواليات وتقدير .1988 عام في المالديف جزر في و 1987 في النكا سري في لنيودلهي تتحرك واشنطن

الدفاع وزير المتحدة الواليات بين المتبادلة والزيارات ، والمتأخرة 1980s منتصف في التكنولوجيا مجال في التعاون تزايد ولكن متواضع برنامج يرمز الهندي الدفاع وزير

في لالستثمار المتحدة الواليات وصلت 1989 عام في. أخرى دفاعية ومسائل العسكرية.أمريكي دوالر مليار 1 الهند

بشأن متباينة آراء المتحدة والواليات الهندية الحكومات بين الواضحه الخالفات كانت األوسط والشرق ، وكمبوديا ، أفغانستان ذلك في بما ، الدولية القضايا من واسعة طائفة

باكستان تجاه المتحدة الواليات سياسة حول خطيرة خالفات ظل كما. الوسطى وأميركا

290

المساعدات تقديم فى للهند المتكرر المتحده الواليات إنتقاد و. النووي االنتشار ومسألة .الوقت ذلك فى الباكستانى السرى النووى البرنامج من خوفا, لباكستان التكنولوجيه

شجعت و, النووى االنتشار معاهدة على الهند توقيع على المتحده الواليات حصرت لذلك. لديها السلميه البرامج تطوير على

الهند بين العالقات في نوعية نقلة االقتصادية اإلصالحات ساعدت 1990s اوائل في الدولي النقد صندوق ائتمان تسريع في فعال بدور واشنطن وقامت. المتحدة والواليات

مع للتعامل 1991 عام يناير في نيودلهي عليها الحصول تم التي أمريكي دوالر مليار 1.8 و الثنائيه االقتصاديه االتفاقيات من ذلك وغير. حادة المدفوعات الخارجية الديون أزمة

.الغذائيه المعونات

اعاده الى اساسى عامل له 1989 عام في أفغانستان من السوفياتي االنسحاب وكان دارت مخاوف بسبب, دلهى نيو من التقرب و, باكستان مع عالقاتها لتققيم واشنطن

عسكرية مساعدات المتحدة الواليات وعلقت النووية لألسلحة باكستان برنامج حول أكثر نهجا تأخذ واشنطن وبدأت, الهند اراح مما ذلك و. 1990 فى البلد لهذا واقتصادية

حل على الطرفين كال حثت. الوقت ذلكك منذ كشمير مشكلة مع التعامل في توازنا بدأت ، ذلك الى باالضافه. سيمال اتفاق ألحكام وفقا السلمية بالطرق بينهما النزاع

والبنجابية الكشميريين لالنفصاليين دعمها لوقف باكستان على تضغط المتحدة الواليات اإلرهابيين إلى المساعدة تقديم لمنع سابقا بذلتها التي الجهود إلى باإلضافة. السيخ1993 مارس بومباي في االرهابية التفجيرات أعقاب في المتحدة الواليات في السيخ

.باكستان من بتحريض معظمها كان الذى و

األمنية الشؤون في الثنائي مؤتمر عقد, العسكري التعاون ارتفاع التعاون صور شملت.العسكرية والتكنولوجيا األسلحة إمدادات لمناقشة ، اإلقليمية

والتعاون العالقات بتحسين ملتزمة المتحدة والواليات الهند ظهرت 1993 عام في

عدم معاهدة على للتوقيع الهند رفض بسبب بينهما الخالفات من الرغم على الثنائي وروسيا المتحدة الواليات مع المناقشات في المشاركة وعدم النووية األسلحة انتشار

وجهت ، ذلك ومع. النووي السالح من خالية آسيا جنوب إلنشاء وباكستان والصين لفة أو تجميد أجل من آباد وإسالم نيودلهي بين العالقات لضبط جهودها واشنطن و اقليميا لفتره بينهما متوتره العالقات ظلت ، ذلك ومع. النووية االسلحة برامج ظهورهم

.عالميا من". المسارين سياسة "لتتبع المتحدة الواليات الهنود السياسيين المحللين بعض نتقدإ

، الهند الى الدولية القروض وسهلت االقتصادية نيودلهي إصالح واشنطن دعمت ، ناحية تحقيق في الهند قوة إلى االنضمام خطة هوادة بال واصل فإنه ، أخرى ناحية من ، ولكن

حقوق قضايا واستخدم ، للدول النووية األسلحة انتشار منع المتحدة األمم أهداف بظهور خوفهم عن معبريين. واشنطن) اجندة (اهاف تحقيق على الهند الجبار اإلنسان ، الديمقراطية لقيم الخاصة معاييرها فرض تحاول عظمى كقوه المتحده الواليات

المتحدة الواليات رؤية أن الهند وتخشى. الحرة واألسواق ، اإلنسان حقوق واإلنسان الثالث العالم دول بمصالح يضر أن شأنه من فقط ليس ، جديد عالمي نظام إلقامة

متعدد نظام في رائدة قوة لتصبح الهند محرك األضرار أيضا ولكن ، وسياسيا اقتصاديا.األقطاب

,عقديين خالل مستويتها أدنى الى وصلت العالقات مستوى ان الطرفيين اتفاق بعد و هذه وعلى. للهند الرئيسي التجاري الشريك أصبحت المتحدة الواليات أن من الرغم على

من جولة إلجراء 1994 مايو في المتحدة الواليات" راو "الوزراء رئيس زار ، الخلفية مع, البلدين بين االقتصاديه الثنائيه العالقات لزيادة كلينتون الرئيس مع هادئ المحادثات

، الدفاع مجال في التعاون وتعزيز ، الرفيعة التكنولوجيا نقل بشأن التفاهم تحديث.التجارية الشراكة مبادرة وإنشاء

291

البلدين بين استقرارا اكثر بعالقات المتبادله الزيارات بشرت 1995 عام أوائل في ، والتأمين ، الصحية والرعاية ، االتصاالت مجال في واستثمارات امنيه تصورات بشأن

326.السيارات وقطاعات ، والتمويل

3: الحاليه- العالقات

باكستان : في

الدولة انهيار ذلك في بما ، باكستان فى الطوارئ حول متعددة سرية التبادالت عقد. النووية ترسانتها على السيطرة فقدان الباكستاني الجيش وشبح الباكستانية

في لباكستان العسكرية المساعدات كل شرط كبير بشكل المتحدة الواليات على يجبالجماعات ضد الباكستاني الجيش جانب من ملموسة تدابير مستمرة اإلرهاب مكافحة

. أفغانستان في ذلك في بما ، المتحدة والواليات الهند تستهدف التي

لحماية باكستان الى التقنية المساعدة تقديم في تستمر أن المتحدة الواليات على يجب. ثالثة أطراف إلى التكنولوجيا هذه نقل ومنع ، النووية ترسانتها

، المعلقة القضايا جميع حول باكستان مع الثنائية المفاوضات مواصلة الهند على يجب . الهدوء باكستان مع ثنائية محادثات لبدء محاولة للهند وينبغي كشمير مسألة ذلك في بما

. , افغانستان مع الثالثية المناقشات وكذلك أفغانستان على

أفغانستان : في

حكومة مع عالقاتها تكثيف في اإلستمرار ، المتحدة الواليات من بدعم ، الهند على ينبغي. واالمنية والدبلوماسية االقتصادية المجاالت في أفغانستان

لقوات واسع نطاق على التدريب كان إذا ما تحديد والهند المتحدة الواليات على يجب. مفيدا وسيكون ، الهند في أو أفغانستان في سواء الهندية االمن

وآسيا : الصين على

بإعتبارها السلمية الهند لصعود القوي دعمها عن تعرب المتحدة الواليات على يجب. آسيا في واالستقرار األمن عناصر من حاسما عنصرا

االهتمام ذات المسائل بشأن الصين تعاون كسب والهند المتحدة الواليات على يجب . حكومي ائتالف لتشكيل أو ، الصين مع مواجهة فى لكالهما رغبة ال واإلقليمي العالمي

. الصين الحتواء

عام منذ والمتحامل للقلق مثير الصينية اإلجراءات الواليات 2007ونظرا على ينبغي ، والصين المشاورات لتكثيف تقييماتها على االخر منهما كل بانتظام وجيزة والهند المتحدة

. آسيا في األمن على

األوسط : الشرق في

التحوالت لدعم األوجه متعددة المبادرة على التعاون والهند المتحدة الواليات على يجب

326 Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/134.htm” 28/02/2012

292

. العربية المصلحة مع األوسط الشرق في الديمقراطية

. وأفغانستان العراق في االستقرار بشأن ايران مع المناقشات تكثيف الهند على يجب

والهند : المتحدة الواليات على ينبغي ، االقتصادي التعاون حول

الشؤون ووزير األميركية الخارجية وزيرة برئاسة المشترك االستراتيجي الحوار تعزيز. والتجارة االقتصاد لتشمل الهندية الخارجية

في سياسيا ممكنا تكون ال قد ولكن ، الحرة التجارة اتفاقية حول المناقشات تبدأ. القريب المدى في المفاوضات الختتام المتحدة الواليات

للتعاون : وينبغي ، والطاقة والتكنولوجيا المناخ تغير بشأن

. للتعاون اإلبداعية المجاالت وتحديد الخالفات ردم على االجتماعات تركزتالشمسية الطاقة الفضائية لتطوير تعاوني برنامج بشأن مشتركة جدوى دراسة اجراء

. الزمن من عقدين غضون في تجاريا مجدية قدرة إيفاد هدف مع

المتحدة : الواليات على يجب ، الدفاع مجال في التعاون على

الفضاء وعمليات الفضاء مثل مجاالت في الهندي للجيش الخبرة وتقديم تدريبوالقطاع المدني القطاع ولكن ، ضعيفة حاليا الهند لدى الدفاع ان حيث اإللكتروني

. قوة نقاط لديه الخاص

. ينبغي األصلية الهندية الدفاع صناعة تعزيز على تساعد أن المتحدة الواليات على يجبألغراض المتحدة للواليات لحليف كمعادل الهند مع التعامل المتحدة الواليات على

، المزدوج االستخدام ذات والسلع للدفاع التصدير وضوابط الدفاع تكنولوجيا عن الكشف. الفعلي التحالف عالقة إلى تسعى ال الهند من الرغم 327على

: الصينيه - الهنديه العالقاتمن منذ ؛ 2000أكثر والدين ، واللغة ، المتميزة الثقافية الهوية التبت شعب حافظت سنة

عام في أنه حين على 1949في الشعبية الصين لجمهورية المسلحة القوات أخذت ، عام مارس وبحلول التبتية، المناطق من الشرقية التبت 1951المناطق عاصمة احتلت

" ؛" التبتية الحكومة مباني على حصارا وفرض السا

في على 1951بينما ينص اتفاق التبت حكومة وقعت ، العسكري االحتالل تهديد تحت ، النظام واستمرار المحلية الذاتية والحكومة الما للداالي المؤسسة هذه على الحفاظ

؛ الصين بجمهورية الشعب داخل التبت لسكان الذاتي والحكم ، السياسي

يوم أن حين ، 10في الصيني 1959مارس الحكم ضد السا في حتى التبت شعب ارتفع ،

327 Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/india/top-us-indian-strategists-agree-shared-national-interests/p25873” 28/02/2012

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السلطات إن تقول شائعات وعلى الذاتي الحكم لتقويض الصينية اإلجراءات على ردا ، غياتسو تنزين إعتقال تعتزم زعيم 14الصينية والزمنية الروحية ، الما الداالي قداسة

؛ التبت شعب

يوم أن حين ، 17في مقر 1959مارس على هجوما الصينى الشعبى التحرير جيش بدأ ، ؛ الما الداالي إقامت

المنفى في اكثر يفعل ان يمكن أنه الما الداالي أعلن ، الهند إلى وصوله لدى حين فيتسيطر التي األراضي فى يفعل أن يمكن كان مما للتبتيين المصير وتقرير الحقوق لبطل

؛ الشعبية الصين لجمهورية المسلحة القوات داخل عليها

على وشهادة ، الهند وشعب حكومة قبل من الما الداالي استقبال في كان حين فيالالعنف للفلسفات المتبادل واالعجاب والتبت الهند بين وثيق والدينية الثقافية الروابط

؛ الما والداالي غاندي المهاتما تبناها التي

حيوية مجتمعات إلقامة والمصاعب المحن التبتيين تغلبت ، الما الداالي قيادة تحت بينماعلى الحفاظ أجل من أخرى وأماكن وأوروبا المتحدة والواليات ، الهند في المنفى في

؛ والدين واللغة التبتية الثقافية الهوية

األمر ، المنفى المجتمع في الديمقراطية غرس الى الما الداالي مجموعة أن حين فيالتنفيذية الفروع مع ديمقراطيا المنتخبة المركزية التبت إدارة إلى أدى الذي

؛ القضائية السلطة عن فضال ، والتشريعية

يوم أن حين الفصل 10في إلى أدت التي الظروف التبتيين احتفال عام كل في مارسسياسات مواجهة في هويتهم على للحفاظ التبتيين وكفاح التبت من الما الداالي بين

؛ الشعبية الصين لجمهورية االستيعاب

قمع يدين وواضحة قوية رسائل الكونغرس المتحدة الواليات أرسلت وقد السنين مرتعلى المفروضة القيود ذلك في بما ، التبت لسكان اإلنسان لحقوق الصينية الحكومة

، نييما شويكييي جدهون واختفاء ، السياسيين السجناء واحتجاز ، الدين ممارسة حرية؛ الما والبانتشن

أكتوبر في أنه حين الكونغرس 2007في ميدالية الما والداالي ، غياتسو تنزين تلقى ، لقضية العنيفة غير وقرار العالم أنحاء جميع في السالم لتعزيز حياته لجهود تقديرا الذهبية

؛ التبت

األحزاب إدارات عبر يتمشى بما ، المتحدة الواليات حكومة من الهدف هو أنه حين فيالشعبية الصين جمهورية حكومة بين الموضوعي الحوار لتعزيز ، المختلفة السياسية

؛ التبت لشعب الحقيقي الذاتي الحكم على الحصول أجل من ممثليه أو الما والداالي

وممثلين الما للداالي الخاصين المبعوثين بين الحوار من جوالت ثماني أخفقت حين في؛ وجوهرية ملموسة نتائج أية لتحقيق الشعبية الصين جمهورية حكومة عن

من المتحدة الواليات إدارة أن حين ينص 2008في اإلنسان لحقوق الدولة قطري تقرير

294

[ تدهورت `[ الصين في التيبت مناطق في اإلنسان حقوق سجل الحكومة الصينية على . بما ، اإلنسان لحقوق خطيرة انتهاكات إرتكاب في السلطات واصلت السنة خالل بشدة

. الجبرية واإلقامة ، القضاء نطاق خارج واالحتجاز التعسفية والتعذيب اإلعتقال ذلك فيبشكل والتنقل ، الجمعيات وتكوين ، الدين وزيادة ، التعبير لحريات الرسمي القمع

. على الحفاظ واصلت الربيع في التبت هضبة أنحاء في احتجاجات اندالع بعد ملحوظ؛ " للقلق ينبغي التي واللغوية والثقافية الدينية الفريدة التبت فى والتنمية التراث

نوفمبر في الما الداالي مبعوثو قدم حين المسؤولين 2008في من طلب على بناء ، العريضة الخطوط وضع التبت لشعب الحقيقي الذاتي الحكم مذكرة على ، الصينيين

. الشعبية الصين جمهورية دستور مع متسقة تكون أن إلى يهدف الذاتي للحكم 328لخطة

الهندى- : النووى البرنامجسلمى نووى برنامج انشاء نحو االسهامات من العديد الرسمى المستوى على للهند إن

عام فى أنه هو ذلك على الدليل لألمم, 1948و العامة للجمعية توصية الهند قدمت , عام فى النووية الطاقة على فعلية سيطرة وجود ضرورة على فيها تشدد المتحدة

1949 " رئاسة , " تولى المتحدة األمم فى للهند الدائم العضو هو و رو بينجال السيدعام , فى و النووية األسلحة انتشار منع و لتقييد اقتراح بتقديم الخاصة الفرعية اللجنة

1978. النووية األسلحة باستخدام تهديد أو استخدام لحظر دولية اتفاقية الهند اقترحت

, يعتمد كان الذى النووية للبحوث بهابها مركز فى النووى مشروعها الهند بدأت لقدمشروعها فى الهند المتحدة الواليات ساعدت قد و الثوريوم وفرة على باألساس

حتى , السلمى بالطابع يتمتع الهندى النووى المشروع ظل المدنى و السلمى النووىاالستقرار على عديدة تطورات تطرأ بدأت السنينيات بداية مع لكن و الخمسينيات نهاية

و النووي األسلحة نحو االتجاه و النووى الهند برنامج على تأثيره له كان مما المنطقة فىباكستان فى الممثلة القومى أمنها على التهديدات من بمجموعة محاطة الهند ألن ذلك

و – ودية األمريكية الباكستانية العالقات كانت عندما تفاقما األزمة زادت و الصين ومشكلة. بعده من و كشمير إقليم على الباكستانى الهندى الصراع يخص فيما تعاونية

فقرب , , للصين بالنسبة كذلك و الهندية السياسية السلطة قلق أثار فهذا بنجالديشفالصراع , األهوال و األخطار من الكثير لها يسبب الشيوعى بكين حزب من الهند

عام فى البلدين بين العسكرية 1962الحدودى القوات استعداد و جاهزية عدم أثبت , أجرت الصراع على سنتين مرور بعد البلدين بين العالقات فى التوتر من زاد و الهنديةامكانية مدى عن يتسائلون الهنود المسئولين جعل مما و النووية لألسلحة تجربة الصين

. نووية سياسات نهج و تنفيذ

المشروع , أيدت االنحياز عدم فدول شكوك و تأييد بين مختلط الدولى اافعل الرد كانتشجيع و ايضا بتأييد فرنسا بعثت و الهند له وصلت الذى التكنولوجى التقدم و الهندىساعدت و بل متحمسة غير كانت المتحدة الواليات لكن و الهندية الذرية الطاقة للجنة

الهندى . النووى المشروع دعم عدم و اعاقة على

فى ( ) السلطة غاندى انديرا بتولى النووية األساحة مشروع عام , 1980استئنف فى وبعمل , 1983 " قامت الموجهة" للصواريخ متكامل عام, برنامج فى ,1989و

328Committee on foreign relations http://www.cfr.org/human-rights/house-resolution-tibet-hr-226/p18759 29/02/2012.

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. فى المدى متوسطة و قريبة الصواريخ بتجربة أول 2009يوليو 27قامت الهند اطلقت و. النووية بالطاقة تعمل غواصة

النووى البرنامج تعارض ال كانت األمريكية المتحدة الواليات أن الجلى و الواضح من انهالواليات , رفعت عندما الحصر سبيل على فمنها كثيرة ذلك على األدلة و الهندى

الواليات مساعدة فى جهودهم نظير باكستان و الهند على المقررة بات العقو المتحدةسبتمبر فى االرهاب على حربها فى فى , 2001المتحدة وقعت , 2008أكتوبر 2ايضا

التى الهند عن العقوبات المتحدة الواليات فيه ترفع المتحدة الواليات مع اتفاقا الهندعلى المساعدة توفير خالل من ذلك و الهند مع النووية التجارة وقف على تنص كانت

و الهند فى المدنية النووية في والهند المتحدة الواليات بين التعاون نطاق توسيعالطاق المتحدة للواليات الشديد التحيز فان كذلك. الصناعية األقمار وتكنولوجيا الطاقة مجال بين و باكستان و الهند بين النووى التنافس الشعال شديدة بسهولة يؤدى قد الهند لصالح من يحد ال المتحدة الواليات و الهند بين النووى اإلتفاق أن ,اخيرا و. ايضا الصين و الهند.النووية األسلحة عدد من ال و الهند تنتجها التى االنشطارية المواد انتاج

أى الى.. تثار قد تساؤالت عدة هناك ان اال الذكر سالفة الدوافع و األدلة هذه كل رغم يحدث قد الذى ما و الهند؟ مع السياسة تلك اتباع فى المتحدة الواليات ستستمر مدى330 329؟)التهاون سياسة (السياسة تلك عن تعدل يجعلها لكى

329 India’s Nuclear Program, Volha Charnysh, “http://nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/india/charnysh_india_analysis.pdf”28/02/2012330Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/india/us-india-nuclear-deal/p9663” 29/02/2012

296